Department of Botany Islamia College Peshawar 2016 Floristic Diversity and Evaluation of Plant Resources of Tall Dardyal, Tehsil Kabal, District Swat, Pakistan

FLORISTIC DIVERSITY AND EVALUATION OF PLANT RESOURCES OF TALL DARDYAL, TEHSIL KABAL, DISTRICT SWAT, PAKISTAN

WISAL MUHAMMAD KHAN Ph.D (Scholar)

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY ISLAMIA COLLEGE PESHAWAR 2016 FLORISTIC DIVERSITY AND EVALUATION OF PLANT RESOURCES OF TALL DARDYAL, TEHSIL KABAL, DISTRICT SWAT, PAKISTAN

Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN BOTANY

WISAL MUHAMMAD KHAN

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY ISLAMIA COLLEGE PESHAWAR 2016

DEDICATION

I Dedicate this Achievement to

Loving and Respectable Parents,

With the Wish and Hopes that

Their Prayers Will Always Enable

me to Achieve the Peaks of

Success.

4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

All commendations and praises for ALLAH (J.S.H), Who equipped the mankind with wisdom and made him able to disclose the secrets of universe. All the reverence and esteems for The Holy Prophet Hazrat Muhammad (SAW), who directed the humanity to the true path of life. Words are lacking to offer cordial thanks to the professional, technical and brotherly support of my intellectual supervisor Prof. Dr. Syed Zahir Shah, whose endless affection, valid counseling, personal interest and supervision inspite of his numerous engagements and responsibilities made me to complete this manuscript. I am happy to offer special gratitude to my Co-supervisor Dr. Muhammad Saleem Khan, Associate Professor, Department of Botany, Isialmia College Peshawar, for his guidance, support and encouragement. I feel pleasure to offer special thanks to Dr. Siraj-ud-din, Chairman, Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, for his sincere help, proof reading, positive crticicism, guidance and encouragement. I appreciate the sincere help extended by Dr. Naveed Akhtar, Assistant Professor, Department of Botany, Isialmia College Peshawar, in vegetation analysis. I am extremely grateful to Prof. Mehbob-ur-Rehman, Associate Professor, at Afzal Khan Lala Govt. Degree College, Matta, Swat, for his valuable help in plants identification. I am also thankful to the staff of Central Resource Laboratories (CRL), University of Peshawar, for elemental analysis of plant samples and Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar, for soil analysis and Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (PCSIR), Peshawar, for proximate analysis. I wish to express heartiest thanks to all of my respectable teachers, friends and students for their good wishes and moral support. I also offer special thanks to all staff members, Department of Botany, Islamia College Peshawar, for their help and good wishes. I find no words to express my gratitude and profound admiration to my affectionate parents, brothers and sisters for their prayers, spiritual and intellectual inspiration and encouraging attitude that led me to my destination. Heartiest thanks to my wife for her tolerating behaviour, encouragement and moral support till the achievement of my goal. Last but not the least, I pay special thanks to Mr. Syed Sajid (alias Doctor), for composing this manuscript in rush hours and painstakingly.

Wisal Muhammad Khan

i CONTENTS

Acknowledgements ...... i

Contents ...... ii

List of Tables ...... vii

List of Figures ...... xii

Abstract ...... xvi

CHAPTER-1 ...... 1

INTRODUCTION...... 1

1.1 Location of study area ...... 1

1.2 Population ...... 1

1.3 Climate ...... 2

1.4 Land Cover...... 2

1.5 Ethnicity and Tribes ...... 6

1.6 Education, health and profession ...... 6

1.7 Hydrology and farming system ...... 6

1.8 Crops, Vegetables and fruits ...... 6

1.9 Livestock and fodder...... 7

1.10 Dwelling and dress ...... 7

1.11 Customs and traditions ...... 7

1.12 Flora ...... 7

1.13 Fauna ...... 8

1.14 Floristic diversity ...... 8

1.15 Vegetation Structure ...... 13

1.16 Ethnobotany and Ethnomedicines...... 18

1.17 Phytochemical evaluation ...... 24

1.18 Herbage palatability and animal preference ...... 29

1.19 Aims and Objectives ...... 34

ii CHAPTER-2 ...... 35

MATERIALS AND METHODS ...... 35

2.1 Floristic diversity ...... 35

2.2 Biological Spectra ...... 35

2.2.1 Therophytes (Th): ...... 35

2.2.2 Cryptophytes (Cr) or Geophytes (G): ...... 35

2.2.3 Hemicryptophytes (H): ...... 35

2.2.4 Chamaephytes (Ch):...... 35

2.2.5 Phanerophytes (Ph): ...... 36

2.3 Leaf size spectra ...... 36

2.4 Plant phenological stages ...... 36

2.5 Phytosociology / Vegetation analysis ...... 37

2.6 Edaphology ...... 37

2.6.1 Soil Texture ...... 37

2.6.2 Soil pH ...... 38

2.6.3 Electrical Conductivity (EC)...... 38

2.6.4 Organic matter ...... 38

2.6.5 Lime contents ...... 38

2.6.6 AB-DTPA extractable phosphorus ...... 38

2.6.7 Total nitrogen ...... 38

2.6.8 Calcium and Magnesium ...... 39

2.6.9 Extractable Potassium ...... 39

2.6.10 Micronutrient status in soil samples ...... 39

2.7 Herbage palatability and animal preference ...... 39

2.8 Evaluation of chemical constituents of some selected plants ...... 40

2.8.1 Herbs: ...... 40

2.8.2 Shrubs: ...... 41

iii 2.8.3 Trees:...... 41

2.9 Phytochemical screening ...... 41

2.9.1 Test for alkaloids...... 41

2.9.2 Test for tannins ...... 42

2.9.3 Test for anthraquinones...... 42

2.9.4 Test for glycosides ...... 42

2.9.5 Test for reducing sugars ...... 42

2.9.6 Test for saponins ...... 42

2.9.7 Test for flavonoids ...... 43

2.9.8 Test for steroids...... 43

2.9.9 Test for terpenoids ...... 43

2.9.10 Test for betacyanins and anthocyanin ...... 43

2.9.11 Test for amino acids and proteins ...... 43

2.9.12 Test for cardiac glycosides ...... 43

2.10 Analysis of elemental nutrition ...... 44

2.11 Proximate analysis ...... 44

2.12 Ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal data collection ...... 44

2.13 Data analysis ...... 45

CHAPTER-3 ...... 46

RESULTS ...... 46

3.1 Floristic diversity and its ecological attributes ...... 46

3.1.1 Floristic diversity ...... 46

3.1.2 Biological spectrum ...... 46

3.1.3 Leaf size spectrum ...... 47

3.1.4 Leaf type ...... 47

3.1.5 Leaf persistence ...... 47

iv 3.1.6 Spiny nature ...... 47

3.1.7 Light tolerance ...... 48

3.1.8 Habitat forms ...... 48

3.1.9 Cultivation status ...... 48

3.2 Ethnobotanical Relevance ...... 76

3.3 Ethnomedicinal relevance ...... 97

3.3.1 Diversity of medicinal plants ...... 97

3.3.2 Uses of herbal medicines ...... 97

3.3.3 Plant parts used as herbal therapy ...... 98

3.3.4 Route of application and preparation of herbal medicines ... 98

3.4 Vegetation analysis ...... 108

3.5 Herbs Communities ...... 108

3.6 Shrubs Communities ...... 124

3.7 Trees communities ...... 137

3.8 Species ordination ...... 149

3.9 Soil analysis ...... 153

3.10 Mineral Nutrition ...... 157

3.10.1 Macronutrients ...... 157

3.10.2 Micronutrients ...... 165

3.11 Proximate Analysis ...... 192

3.11.1 Moisture (%) ...... 192

3.11.2 Ash (%) ...... 193

3.11.3 Crude fats (%) ...... 194

3.11.4 Crude fibres (%) ...... 195

3.11.5 Soluble Proteins (%) ...... 195

3.12 Qualitative analysis of secondary metabolites ...... 203

3.12.1 Alkaloids ...... 203

v 3.12.2 Anthocyanins and Betacyanins ...... 204

3.12.3 Anthraquinones ...... 205

3.12.4 Cardiac glycosides ...... 206

3.12.5 Flavonoids ...... 207

3.12.6 Glycosides ...... 208

3.12.7 Amino acids and Proteins ...... 210

3.12.8 Reducing sugars ...... 211

3.12.9 Saponins ...... 213

3.12.10 Steroids ...... 214

3.12.11 Tannins ...... 215

3.12.12 Terpenoids...... 216

3.13 Differential herbage palatability and seasonal availability ...... 236

CHAPTER-4 ...... 251

DISCUSSION ...... 251

4.1 Floristic Diversity and its Ecological attributes ...... 251

4.2 Ethnobotanical relevance ...... 253

4.3 Ethnomedicines and its relative importance ...... 255

4.4 Vegetation analysis ...... 257

4.5 Mineral nutrition ...... 259

4.6 Proximate analysis ...... 264

4.7 Secondary metabolites ...... 266

4.8 Palatability and seasonal availability ...... 268

CONCLUSIONS ...... 270

SUGGESTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 273

References ...... 275

vi LIST OF TABLES

Table-1.1: Meteorological data of Tall Dardyal during 2013-2015 ...... 3

Table-2.1: Six classes of the used Daubenmire’s Cover Scale ...... 37

Table-2.2: Demographic information of informants ...... 45

Table-3.1: Floristic Diversity and Ecological Attributes of Plants of Tall Dardyal, Tehsil Kabal, District Swat, Pakistan...... 49

Table-3.2: Summary of ecological attributes of plants of Tall Dardyal, Tehsil Kabal, District Swat, Pakistan...... 73

Table-3.3: List of Ethnobotanical uses of plants of Tall Dardyal, Tehsil Kabal, District Swat, Pakistan...... 77

Table-3.4: Summary of economic use classes of plants of Tall Dardyal, Tehsil Kabal, District Swat, Pakistan...... 96

Table-3.5: Indigenous uses of medicinal plants from Tall Dardyal, Tehsil Kabal, District Swat, Pakistan...... 99

Table-3.6: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Kandav...... 109

Table-3.7: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Doop...... 111

Table-3.8: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Choor banda...... 113

Table-3.9: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Kamyarai...... 115

Table-3.10: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub locality Mian Bela...... 117

Table-3.11: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Choor panorai...... 119

Table-3.12: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Archalai...... 121

vii Table-3.13: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Manai...... 123

Table-3.14: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Kandav...... 125

Table-3.15: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Doop...... 127

Table-3.16: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Choor banda...... 128

Table-3.17: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Kamyarai...... 130

Table-3.18: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Mian Bela...... 131

Table-3.19: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Choor panorai...... 133

Table-3.20: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Archalai...... 134

Table-3.21: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Manai...... 136

Table-3.22: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Kandav...... 137

Table-3.23: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Doop...... 139

Table-3.24: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Choor banda...... 140

Table-3.25: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Kamyarai...... 142

Table-3.26: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub locality Mian Bela...... 143

Table-3.27: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Choor panorai...... 145

viii Table-3.28: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Archalai...... 146

Table-3.29: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Manai...... 148

Table-3.30: Soil analysis of selected stands for vegetation analysis of Tall Dardyal, Tehsil Kabal, District Swat, Pakistan...... 156

Table-3.31: Na (mg/l) concentration at three phenological stages in some ethnomedicinal and palatable plant species of Tall Dardyal, District Swat, Pakistan...... 158

Table-3.32: Mg (mg/l) concentration at three phenological stages in some ethnomedicinal and palatable plant species of Tall Dardyal Hills, District Swat, Pakistan...... 161

Table-3.33: Ca (mg/l) concentration at three phenological stages in some ethnomedicinal and palatable plant species of Tall Dardyal, District Swat, Pakistan...... 163

Table-3.34: Cr (mg/l) concentration at three phenological stages in some ethnomedicinal and palatable plant species of Tall Dardyal, District Swat, Pakistan...... 166

Table-3.35: Mn (mg/l) concentration at three phenological stages in some ethnomedicinal and palatable plant species of Tall Dardyal, District Swat, Pakistan...... 168

Table-3.36: Fe (mg/l) concentration at three phenological stages in some ethnomedicinal and palatable plant species of Tall Dardyal, District Swat, Pakistan...... 171

Table-3.37: Co (mg/l) concentration at three phenological stages in some ethnomedicinal and palatable plant species of Tall Dardyal, District Swat, Pakistan...... 173

Table-3.38: Ni (mg/l) concentration at three phenological stages in some ethnomedicinal and palatable plant species of Tall Dardyal, District Swat, Pakistan...... 176

Table-3.39: Cu (mg/l) concentration at three phenological stages in some ethnomedicinal and palatable plant species of Tall Dardyal, District Swat, Pakistan...... 179

ix Table-3.40: Zn (mg/l) concentration at three phenological stages in some ethnomedicinal and palatable plant species of Tall Dardyal, District Swat, Pakistan...... 181

Table-3.41: Ag (mg/l) concentration at three phenological stages in some ethnomedicinal and palatable plant species of Tall Dardyal, District Swat, Pakistan...... 184

Table-3.42: Cd (mg/l) concentration at three phenological stages in some ethnomedicinal and palatable plant species of Tall Dardyal, District Swat, Pakistan...... 187

Table-3.43: Pb(mg/l) concentration at three phenological stages in some ethnomedicinal and palatable plant species of Tall Dardyal, District Swat, Pakistan...... 189

Table-3.44: Degree of palatability of some selected plant species used for mineral analysis at three phenological stages...... 191

Table-3.45: Proximate composition (%) of the selected ethnomedicinal and palatable forage plants of Tall Dardyal, Tehsil Kabal, District Swat...... 198

Table-3.46: Phytochemical screening of ethanol (crude extract), n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Apluda mutica L. ... 218

Table-3.47: Phytochemical screening of ethanol (crude extract), n- hexane,chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Salvia canariensis L...... 219

Table-3.48: Phytochemical screening of ethanol (crude extract), n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana (Decne.) Rehder ...... 220

Table-3.49: Phytochemical screening of ethanol (crude extract), n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Wikstroemia canescens Wall. ex Meisn...... 221

Table-3.50: Phytochemical screening of ethanol (crude extract), n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Sarcococca saligna (D.Don) Muell. Arg...... 222

Table-3.51: Phytochemical screening of ethanol (crude extract), n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Spiraea canescens D.Don ...... 223

x Table-3.52: Phytochemical screening of ethanol (crude extract), n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Pennisetum orientale Rich...... 224

Table-3.53: Phytochemical screening of ethanol (crude extract), n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Thymus linearis Benth...... 225

Table-3.54: Phytochemical screening of ethanol (crude extract), n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Daphne mucronata Royle...... 226

Table-3.55: Phytochemical screening of ethanol (crude extract), n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Elaeagnus umbellata Thumb...... 227

Table-3.56: Phytochemical screening of ethanol (crude extract), n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Leptopus cordifolius Decne...... 228

Table-3.57: Phytochemical screening of ethanol(crude extract), n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Dysphania botrys L...... 229

Table-3.58: Phytochemical screening of ethanol (crude extract), n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Isodon rugosus (Wall.ex Benth.) Codd ...... 230

Table-3.59: Phytochemical screening of ethanol (crude extract), n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kitam ...... 231

Table-3.60: Phytochemical screening of ethanol (crude extract), n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Origanum vulgare L...... 232

Table-3.61: Palatability, seasonal availability and animal preference of flora of Tall Dardyal, District Swat, Pakistan...... 238

Table-3.62: Seasonal availability (%) and degree of palatability of some important plant species...... 246

xi LIST OF FIGURES

Figure-1.1: Land Cover Map of Tall Dardyal, Tehsil Kabal, District Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan...... 4

Figure-1.2: Elevatoin Map of Tall Dardyal, Tehsil Kabal, District Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan...... 5

Figure-1.3: Panoramic views of different sites of the study area...... 9

Figure-3.1: Percent life form of Tall Dardyal flora...... 75

Figure-3.2: Percent leaf spectra of Tall Dardyal flora...... 75

Figure-3.3: Percent economic uses of plants of Tall Dardyal...... 97

Figure-3.4: Percent growth form of reported medicinal flora from Tall Dardyal...... 106

Figure-3.5: Plant parts proportion of reported medicinal flora used for herbal preparations...... 106

Figure-3.6: Preparations of herbal plants practiced in Tall Dardyal...... 107

Figure-3.7: Therapeutic uses of medicinal plants in Tall Dardyal...... 107

Figure-3.8: PCA Ordination of herbaceous plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Kandav, Tall Dardyal...... 110

Figure-3.9: PCA Ordination of herbaceous plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Doop, Tall Dardyal...... 112

Figure-3.10: PCA Ordination of herbaceous plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Choor banda, Tall Dardyal. ... 114

Figure-3.11: PCA Ordination of herbaceous plant species recorded in three communities from sub-locality Kamyarai, Tall Dardyal...... 116

Figure-3.12: PCA Ordination of herbaceous plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Mian Bela, Tall Dardyal...... 118

Figure-3.13: PCA Ordination of herbaceous plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Choor Panorai, Tall Dardyal. . 120

xii Figure-3.14: PCA Ordination of herbaceous plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Archalai, Tall Dardyal...... 122

Figure-3.15: PCA Ordination of herbaceous plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Manai, Tall Dardyal...... 124

Figure-3.16: PCA Ordination of Shrubby plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Kandav, Tall Dardyal...... 126

Figure-3.17: PCA Ordination of Shrubby plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Doop, Tall Dardyal...... 127

Figure-3.18: PCA Ordination of Shrubby plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Choor Banda, Tall Dardyal. ... 129

Figure-3.19: PCA Ordination of Shrubby plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Kamyarai, Tall Dardyal...... 130

Figure-3.20: PCA Ordination of Shrubby plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Mian Bela, Tall Dardyal...... 132

Figure-3.21: PCA Ordination of Shrubby plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Choor Panorai, Tall Dardyal. . 133

Figure-3.22: PCA Ordination of Shrubby plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Archalai, Tall Dardyal...... 135

Figure-3.23: PCA Ordination of Shrubby plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Manai, Tall Dardyal...... 136

Figure-3.24: PCA Ordination of Tree plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Kandav, Tall Dardyal...... 138

Figure-3.25: PCA Ordination of tree plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Doop, Tall Dardyal...... 139

Figure-3.26: PCA Ordination of tree plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Choor Banda, Tall Dardyal. ... 141

Figure-3.27: PCA Ordination of tree plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Kamyarai, Tall Dardyal...... 142

Figure-3.28: PCA Ordination of tree plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Mian Bela, Tall Dardyal...... 144

xiii Figure-3.29: PCA Ordination of tree plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Choor Panorai, Tall Dardyal. . 145

Figure-3.30: PCA Ordination of tree plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Archalai, Tall Dardyal...... 147

Figure-3.31: PCA Ordination of tree plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Manai, Tall Dardyal...... 148

Figure-3.32: Graphical representation of Na concentration at three phenological stages of the selected plants...... 159

Figure-3.33: Graphical representation of Mg concentration at three phenological stages of the selected plants...... 162

Figure-3.34: Graphical representation of Ca concentration at three phenological stages of the selected plants...... 164

Figure-3.35: Graphical representation of Cr concentration at three phenological stages of the selected plants...... 167

Figure-3.36: Graphical representation of Mn concentration at three phenological stages of the selected plants...... 169

Figure-3.37: Graphical representation of Fe concentration at three phenological stages of the selected plants...... 172

Figure-3.38: Graphical representation of Co concentration at three phenological stages of the selected plants...... 174

Figure-3.39: Graphical representation of Ni concentration at three phenological stages of the selected plants...... 177

Figure-3.40: Graphical representation of Cu concentration at three phenological stages of the selected plants...... 180

Figure-3.41: Graphical representation of Zn concentration at three phenological stages of the selected plants...... 182

Figure-3.42: Graphical representation of Ag concentration at three phenological stages of the selected plants...... 185

Figure-3.43: Graphical representation of Cd concentration at three phenological stages of the selected plants ...... 188

xiv Figure-3.44: Graphical representation of Pb concentration at three phenological stages of the selected plants...... 190

Figure-3.45: Moisture (%) of the selected ethnomedicinal and forage plants of Tall Dardyal...... 200

Figure-3.46: Ash (%) of the selected ethnomedicinal and forage plants of Tall Dardyal...... 200

Figure-3.47: Crude fat (%) of the selected ethnomedicinal and forage plants of Tall Dardyal...... 201

Figure-3.48: Crude fibers (%) of the selected ethnomedicinal and forage plants of Tall Dardyal...... 201

Figure-3.49: Soluble proteins (%) of the selected ethnomedicinal and forage plants of Tall Dardyal...... 202

Figure-3.50: Carbohydrates (%) of the selected ethnomedicinal and forage plants of Tall Dardyal...... 202

Figure-3.51: Pictures of the selected plant species for chemical analysis. ... 233

Figure-3.52: Pictures of the selected plant species for chemical analysis. ... 234

Figure-3.53: Pictures of the selected plant species for chemical analysis. ... 235

Figure-3.54: Seasonal availability and differential palatability of plant species of Tall Dardyal ...... 247

Figure-3.55: Plant species preferred by animals in Tall Dardyal ...... 247

Figure-3.56: Preferred plant parts by animals in Tall Dardyal ...... 248

Figure-3.57: View of grazing and browsing animals in the study area...... 249

Figure-3.58: View of grazing and browsing animals in the study area...... 250

xv ABSTRACT

This dissertation encompasses a multifaceted study comprised of floristic diversity, ethnobotany, vegetation profile, assessment of some selected ethnomedicinal and palatable forage plants for elemental nutrition, proximate composition and secondary metabolites, palatability, seasonal availability and animal preference of forage/fodder plants of Tall Dardyal. The study was conducted during 2013-2015. Sum 324 plant species belonging to 251 genera and 93 families were recorded from the area. Out of these, 78 families were dicots, 08 monocots, 02 gymnosperms and 05 pteridophytes. Monocot genera were 32 and dicot genera, 206. Gymnosperms and pteridophytes have 04 and 09 genera respectively. Asteraceae, Poaceae, Rosaceae, Lamiaceae and Papillionaceae were the dominant families of the area. The flora included 297 wild species (91.66%) while 27 cultivated species (8.33%). Deciduous species were 298(91.97%) and evergreen 26(8.02%), 311 non-spiny (95.98%) and 13(4.01%) were spiny species. Heliophytes and sciophytes were 248(76.54%) and 76(23.45%) respectively. Of the total 324 species, 217 species (66.97%) were of dry habitat, 92 species (28.39%) of moist habitat and 15 species (4.62%) were aquatic. Therophytes were the dominant life form followed by hemicryptophytes with regard to biological spectrum. The predominant leaf size spectra were microphylls followed by nanophylls, mesophylls and leptophylls. As regards the leaf types, 245 species (75.61%) had simple leaves, whereas 76 species (23.45%) had compound leaves. Aphyllous were represented by only 03 species (0.92%). Forty nine plant communities were established, among these 17 herbs communities, 16 shrubs and trees communities each in the selected sub-localities (stands). Plant communities were established on the basis of percent frequency value using TWINSPAN analysis with β-diversity dissimilarity index under JUICE 7.0. These communities were comprised of 108 plant species. Among these, 75 were herbs, 18 shrubs and 15 trees. Species ordination of each sub-locality for herbs, shrubs and trees were performed by Principle Component Analysis (PCA) using CANOCO Version 4.5. Ethnobotanical study revealed that 224 plant species were used by the local inhabitants for various livelihood. Among these 125(56.30%) species were used as fodder/forage; 78(35.13%) species for fuel purpose; 75(33.78%) species as

xvi medicinal plants; 17(33.78%) as vegetables; 12(5.40%) species as timber wood and 11(4.95%) species for thatching purpose. Eight (3.60%) species were planted as fence around cultivated fields for protection against the grazing animals. Six (2.70%) species were used for making furniture and 05(2.25%) species each as brooms making and ornamental. Four plant species each (1.80%) was used as cereals and fruits. The ratio of poisonous plant species was 04(1.80%). Three plant species (1.35%) were swarmed by honey bees which contributed to honey production. Dish washing and herbal tea plant species (2 species, each, 0.90%) were also found. Origanum vulgare was used by the indigenes as a detergent for washing dairy dishes. Fiber yielding, condiment/spice and milk curding plant species (01 species, each, 0.45%) were used by the local inhabitants. Ethnomedicinal relevance showed that 71 medicinal plant secies belonging to 48 families were used to treat about 40 human disorders. Family Rosaceae (08 species) was predominantly followed by Lamiaceae (06 species), Asteraceae (04 species), Amaranthaceae and Pinaceae with three species each. Ajuga integrifolia, Thymus linearis, Artemisia vulgaris, Berberis lycium, Dysphania botrys and Sarcococca saligna were frequently used in the local health care system to treat various ailments. Common diseases treated with these medicinal plant species were arthritis, kidney stone, typhoid fever, stomach problems, hepatitis, jaundice and diabetes. Herbal therapies revealed that majority of medicinal plants were wild herbs followed by wild shrubs and wild trees. Plant parts used as herbal remedies comprised of leaves followed by whole plant, fruits, bark, seed, root, young shoot, rhizome, fresh flower, fruit pulp, husk and resin. Oral mode of administration was the principle method followed by topical treatment. Decoction was the most common herbal preparation followed by powder, infusion, juice, paste, chewing, warming, oil and milk mix. Macro and micro-nutrients were found in herb species at all the three phenological stages in descending order of Mg > Ca > Fe > Mn > Zn > Pb > Ni > Co > Cu > Cd = Na > Cr whereas Ag was absent in Dysphania botrys. These elements, in shrubs, were found in the order of Ca > Mg > Fe > Mn > Pb > Ni > Cu > Co > Zn > Na > Cd > Cr > Ag. Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana and Elaeagnus umbellata were investigated for mineral nutrients. They were present in the order of Ca > Fe > Mg > Mn > Pb > Zn > Ni and Co, Cu, Na, Cd, Cr and Ag showed variation in quantity. Proximate

xvii analysis (moisture, ash, crude fats, crude fibers, soluble proteins and carbohydrates) at three phenological stages of the selected plants showed variation, decreased and increased tendency towards maturity stage. The secondary metabolites were predominantly found in ethanolic crude extract followed by ethyl-acetate and chloroform fractions and rarely observed in n- hexane fraction. The palatable plant species were 122, among them, 78 species were herbs, 14 species were shrubs and 30 species were trees. The seasonal availability of palatable forage plants revealed that 95 were available in April, 111 in May, 97 in June, 91 in July, 88 in August, 68 in September, 47 in October, 27 in November and 07 species in December. Goats and sheep preferred 44 species, among them 04 species were herbs, 13 were shrubs and 27 species were trees. There were 43 herb species commonly used as fodder by cow, buffalo and donkey. Out of these, 09 species were exclusively preferred by cow, buffalo. Soil textural class was mostly loamy and clay loam with pH from 5.0 to 6.9. Organic matter contents were 1.06 to 1.59% and lime was in the range of 8.2 to 10.1%. Macro and micronutrients i.e. Nitrogen was present in the range of 0.07 to 0.25%, Ca 0.01 to 0.1%, Mg 0.005 to 0.05%, Phosphorus 1.02 to 6.08 mg kg-1, Potassium 82 to 130 mg kg-1, Copper 0.3 to 0.9 mg kg-1, Iron 2.2 to 4.5 mg kg-1, Zinc 0.7 to 1.7 mg kg-1 and Manganese 0.4 to 1.3 mg kg-1. The study provides a baseline for the vegetation of the area, which can further be used in a variety of ways for scientific exploration and wellbeing of the associated communities of the area.

xviii CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Location of study area

The research area, Tall Dardyal, is located in Tehsil Kabal, District Swat. It is one of the northern Districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and is called the Switzerland of Pakistan because of its natural beauty. Mingora is the headquarter of District Swat. The District Swat, a predominantly rural area, is divided into two sub divisions i.e. Upper Swat and Lower Swat. Tehsil Kabal, located in the north of Mingora (Lower Swat), lies between 34° 47' 27.142" N latitude and 72° 17' 1.007" E longitude at an elevation of 923 m above sea level. It is divided into 12 union councils: Bara Bandai, Koza Bandai, Hazara (Ali Gram), Koz Abakhel, Bar Abakhel, Tutano Bandai, Qalagai, Kala Kali, Deolai, Shah Derai, Kanju and Tall. The research area is located at 30 km distance from Mingora and 20 km from main Tehsil Kabal, lies 34° 56' 9.867" N latitude and 72° 12' 25.741" E longitude at an average elevation from 1200 to 2800 m asl. Tall Dardyal, presenting somewhat W-shaped look, is a defacto hilly area surrounded by hills series of varied aspects and elevations from east, west and north whereas the southern part is an open area facing river Swat.

1.2 Population

According to the District Census Report (DCR, 2008), population density of Tehsil Kabal was 327,717, out of which each union council population was: Bara Bandai (32308), Koza Bandai (25266), Hazara (27708), Koz abakhel (27518), Bar abakhel (28119), Tutano Bandai (18415), Qalagai (19031), Kala Kali (33910), Deolai (24963), Shah Derai (19564), Kanju (35336) and Tall (35463). The research area is the most populated one among these union councils.

1 1.3 Climate

Climatically, the research area falls in the sub-tropical and moist temperate zone with four distinct seasons. Winter season is long and harsh. Snowfall frequently happens in December and January at high altitude sites of the study area i.e. Doop, Goda, Manai, Saland, Dardyal, Mian Bela top. Summer is short and mild. Heavy rainfall is also one of the distinguishing features of the area. Maximum rainfall occurs during the months of February and March, 113.88mm and 185.2mm respectively while minimum rainfall occurs during November and December, 1.8mm and 0.5 mm respectively. Hail and thunderstorm are very frequent in July and August which severely damage the herbaceous vegetation and aerial parts of woody plants. Relative humidity is also an environmental factor which influences the distribution of vegetation. The amount of relative humidity is highest in March, August and September which is 69.50%, 68.75% and 69.40% respectively.The maximum average temperature is 27.89 C◦ and 27.70 C◦ in June and July respectively and minimum average temperature in December 8.64 C◦ and 8.50 C◦ in January (Table 1.1).

1.4 Land Cover

The study area is spread over a total area of 4520.0896 hectare, out of which agriculture land is 3056.9927 hectare (67.6321%), 25.8015 hectare (0.5708%) is barren land, forests cover is 1343.0264 hectare (29.7124%), range land is 56.6932 hectare (1.2542%), 11.8794 hectare (0.2628%) are settlements, 25.6964 hectare (0.5685%) are shrubs and bushes.

Source: GIS/RS Lab. Forestry Planning and Management circle, KPK, Forest Department Peshawar.

2 Table-1.1: Meteorological data of Tall Dardyal during 2013-2015

Temperature Relative Humidity Wind Speed Barometric Pressure Rainfall Sunshine (KW m-2) (◦C) (%) (meters second-1) (mbar) (mm) 2013-2015 Max Min Average Max Min Average Max Min Average Max Min Average Max Min Average Total January 19.57 -0.92 8.50 99.20 15.31 52.54 0.72 0.00 0.03 4.49 0.30 1.38 926.00 768.20 916.65 13.8 February 19.83 1.49 8.99 98.10 21.29 63.09 12.78 0.00 0.15 12.78 0.33 1.63 920.00 12.78 911.91 113.88 March 24.80 3.26 12.25 98.20 21.36 69.50 0.81 0.00 0.14 4.87 0.25 1.52 921.00 618.20 914.07 185.2 April 32.34 8.27 17.96 98.60 18.00 61.20 0.92 0.00 0.21 3.86 0.36 1.55 917.00 906.00 912.21 61.4 May 34.92 10.67 21.62 97.00 15.52 58.12 0.95 0.00 0.24 84.30 0.42 1.61 915.00 45.58 907.54 91.6 June 37.99 15.40 27.89 88.30 12.20 42.99 0.93 0.00 0.29 80.90 0.41 1.91 913.00 896.00 902.37 7.9 July 37.12 19.72 27.70 97.60 28.35 65.59 0.99 0.00 0.27 20.12 0.22 1.69 907.00 897.00 902.22 68.5 August 34.68 16.24 26.00 97.70 33.75 68.75 0.92 0.00 0.25 4.70 0.28 1.42 910.00 897.00 904.42 57.5 September 32.84 16.76 24.18 97.60 35.53 69.40 0.95 0.00 0.22 4.23 0.25 1.30 915.00 901.00 907.94 54.3 October 30.43 9.43 18.31 97.80 25.22 67.75 0.71 0.00 0.17 11.30 0.30 1.37 919.00 908.00 914.47 77.4 November 22.73 2.29 12.44 94.90 17.82 57.59 0.63 0.00 0.13 3.12 0.29 1.21 921.00 909.00 915.30 1.8 December 21.37 -1.03 8.64 81.20 13.46 48.55 0.51 0.00 0.11 3.29 0.54 1.20 921.00 153.30 915.07 0.5

Source: Soil Fertility Section, Mingora, Swat (Automated weather Station, CR-1000 data logger).

Figure-1.1: Land Cover Map of Tall Dardyal, Tehsil Kabal, District Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.

Figure-1.2: Elevatoin Map of Tall Dardyal, Tehsil Kabal, District Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.

5 1.5 Ethnicity and Tribes

The area has predominantly rural population. The inhabitants belong to various tribes i.e. Yousafzai Pathans, Mians, Gujars, Mulans, and Parachas. The Gujars, speak their own dialects of gujri, are inhabits of the mountainous areas. In harsh winter majority of them migrate to southern plains as shepherds and tenants in farms till the weather permits them to return their own dwelling. In summer, herdsmen with sheep flock start moving to the mountains in search of pasture lands.

1.6 Education, health and profession

According to the survey of local NGO overall literacy rate of the research area is 60%; male (40%) while female literacy rate is 20%. Mostly the indigenous people depend on farming and livestock (30%), labour (30%) and young men go abroad (20%) especially for earning and other purposes. Some locals are related to the business of fuel and timber wood (10%). Government and private servants are less in number (5% each). Some peoples have others small profession e.g. grazers, barbers and carpenters.

1.7 Hydrology and farming system

The study area is mountainous in its nature and the farming is characterized by almost rainfed agriculture on mild to steep hill slopes. The low lying sites are irrigated by spring water and seasonal streams. These areas are more fertile supporting different types of vegetables, crops, and fruit orchards. The soil is transported as well as residual and is of mountain type (Hussain and Ilahi, 1991).

1.8 Crops, Vegetables and fruits

Wheat, maize and rice are the main crops grown. Among vegetables potato, tomato, onion and okra are grown. The income source of some people

6 is horticulture; different types of fruits trees are grown in the area e.g. persimmon, peach, apple, apricot, plum, pear and walnut.

1.9 Livestock and fodder

Live stock is the main focus of local people. Sheeps, goats, cows and buffalo are reared by the local community. Donkey, horses and mules are also tamed by the people for different purposes. Grasses are used as fodder, these are cut down at the end of monsoon, generally stored in houses or make silage and used as animal feed during harsh winter season. Reduction in livestock in Pakistan may be mainly attributed to the insufficient production of animal feed (Amanullah et al., 2005).

1.10 Dwelling and dress

Majority of the people live in stone and mud made houses. The landlords and resourced people live in brick made building and their number is increasing gradually. Shalwar, qamiz and cap is the common male wears among the villagers. Shalwar, qamiz and dopatta are the female wears. Dopatta is the most common veil among women in the area.

1.11 Customs and traditions

Religion (Islam) has great impact on local culture. Majority of the people are Sunni Muslims and follower of the Hanfia School of thoughts. Pashto is common local language. Hospitality is unique among the locals. Marriage celebrations, birth and death occasions are similar to the customs prevailing in other parts of the country.

1.12 Flora

Tall Dardyal Hills are floristically very rich. The most common tree vegetation in the area are Pinus roxburghii, P. wallichiana, Abies pindrow, Quercus incana, Q. floribunda, Olea ferruginea, Ailanthus altissima, Populus

7 ciliata, Celtis australis and C. caucasica. The dominant shrubs are Berberis lycium, Indigofera heterantha, Isodon rugosus, Spiraea canescens, Wikstroemia canescens, Daphne mucronata, Leptopus cordifolius and Sarcococca saligna, while the common grasses are Apluda mutica, Pennisetum orientale, Festuca gigantea, Aristida mutabilis, Poa bulbosa, P. pratensis and Alloteropsis cimicina.

1.13 Fauna

The common wild animals and cattles in the study area are cats, mice, snakes, owl, wild pigeon, dove, crow, nightingale, wild rabbits, cow, buffalo, goats, sheeps, horse, donkey and mule etc.

1.14 Floristic diversity

Biodiversity refers to genetic diversity, species diversity, ecosystem diversity, ecological processes diversity (Kilic and Arsalan, 2010). In view of biodiversity loss, Pakistan is under awful ecological stress due to exploitation of natural resources to the point of diminishing return, unintended population expansion and urbanization, over grazing, habitat loss and alteration, deforestation, invasive alien species introduction, soil erosion, pollution, climatic changes, salinity and water logging (Ali, 2000; Eberhardt et al., 2006; Schickhoff, 2006; Alam and Ali, 2009). In Pakistan, the genetic and species diversity is declining with an alarming rate due to rapid loss (4-6%) in natural resources (Afzal et al., 2001; Ibrar, 2003). Land erosion and degradation affects ecological attributes and floristic diversity (Bocuk et al., 2009; Ahmad et al., 2010). Floristic diversity has great impact on healthy ecosystem diversity and socioeconomic development of all human beings (Shabbir and Jabeen, 2012). The significant evaluation of a locality increases the competence of species diversity. This is primarily owing to the legitimacy that ecologists have projected a large number of indices for measuring diversity (Khan et al., 2013).

Figure-1.3: Panoramic views of different sites of the study area.

9 For global sustainability and biodiversity, plants are universally recognized as essential elements of the universe in terms of food, shelter, fuel, fiber, medicine and forage value and also play pivotal role in terms of possession and preservation of biological, ethnic traditional knowledge and cultural heritage (Morgan, 1981; Hameed et al., 2011). Plant diversity makes a base for healthy ecosystems by providing the conditions essential for life and livelihoods of mankind (Wilson, 1992).

Biologically diverse globally important regions are termed as hot spot territories. Technical parameter is used to analyse species diversity and check the symbiotic relationship among various life forms (Haq et al., 2010). All fertile regions on planet earth consist of 34 hot spots which are occupied by one half of the total plants species, of which 2.3% vegetation is still protected (Motiekaityte, 2006). Global model suggests that approximately 25% loss of vascular plants species will occur in the next few years due to changes in climate, land use, habitat decline and anthropogenic disturbances (Magurran 2006; Vuuren et al., 2006).

Of all vascular plants which occupy the earth, total species diversity range from 310,000 to 420,000, among these, a total of 1572 genera and 5521 species are found in Pakistan, majority of them growing in mountainous regions of the country e.g. Himalaya, Karakorum and Hindukush. More than 15% are threatened species and many of them are endemic (Sheikh et al., 2002; Ali and Qaiser, 2010; Shabbir and Jabeen, 2012). Of the global 34 biodiversity hotspots, Hindukush-Himalayan region is considered one of the 10 mega parts and centre (Sharma and Chettri, 2005). Namgail et al. (2012) has reported that every third plant species is confined to the mountainous regions.

All over the world approximately 35,000 to 70,000 species of medicinal plants are used in basic health care needs (Ali and Qaiser, 2009). Since the ancient times of biogeography, one of the striking blueprints in ecology is the unsteady distribution in diversity and it has gained a big attention of scientific interest (Humboldt, 1808). The synthetic reflection of all

10 types of ecological dimensions includes plant diversity distribution pattern and biodiversity pattern with environmental gradients as the fundamental topic of biodiversity research (Kratochwil, 1999; Ghulam, 2012). Biodiversity wealth is the interaspecific and interspecific richness and eveness in ecological complexes (Polyakov et al., 2008). Plant community is a mosaic of analytical characteristics, species is one of the major characteristic (Odum, 1959). Species richness is easily interpretable indicator of biodiversity (Peet, 1974).

Malik et al. (2014) studied species diversity, richness and distribution outline in mixed broad leaved forest along an uproar gradient in Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary, India. Thirty four tree species were reported with maximum (20) and minimum (11) species richness from low and high disturbed area respectively. This indicates a significant negative relation between species diversity and richness indices and anthropogenic disturbance.

Phytodiversity is panotopical in vegetation units and plant communities; make the base for biodiversity which serves human in terms of genetic resources, climate, ecosystem services, erosion regulation, nutrient cycle and primary productivity (Peet, 1975; Pignatti, 1997, 1998; Sax and Gaines 2003; Potts et al., 2004).

Pakistan is bestowed with rich and wealthy floral diversity that is being utilized by the community for multiple purposes. The floristic diversity of different climatic regions of Pakistan has been reported by different workers: Sher and Khan (2007) reported 222 plant species (88 families) from Chagharzai Valley comprising Dicots families (78), Monocots (7), Pteridophytes (3) and Gymnosperms (1). The area is floristically rich; the predominant species are those of Asteraceae (21), Papilionaceae (12) and Lamiaceae (10). Nazir et al. (2014) documented the floristic list of 40 species of Sarsawa Hills, Azad Kashmir distributed among 24 families, Dicots (18), Monocots (4) and Pteridophytes (1) and Gymnosperms (1). Leading family in the study area was Poaceae (12 spp.) followed by Euphorbiaceae with 3 species. Khan et al. (2014) revealed that Poonch Valley flora is unique in its nature due to its location on foothills of Himalayan range consisting of

11 Bryophytes (5), Pteridophytes (13), Gymnosperms (4), Dicots species (357) and monocots (56) species. Shaheen et al. (2014) surveyed Thal desert, Punjab and reported 248 plant species belonging to 166 genera and 38 families. Poaceae was the dominant family with highest number of 52 species. Themeda triandra is the first reported specie from Pakistan from the study area.

Ilyas et al. (2013) recorded the floristic checklist of Kabal Valley, Swat comprising of 593 vascular plants (130 families and 408 genera). Nazir et al. (2012) compiled a total of 40 species belonging to 21 families from Sarsawa Hills, District Kotli, Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Haq et al. (2010) evaluated 402 vascular plants (110 families) of herbs, shrubs, trees, climbers, shrubs and epiphytes from Nandiar Valley, Western Himalayan region. Shah et al. (2014) studied the vegetation of Farash Hills, Katlang, District Mardan and reported fifteen plant communities and 42 plant species which belong to 29 families. The dominant family in the study area was Poaceae (6 spp.,) followed by Asteraceae with 4 species and Euphorbiaceae and Verbenaceae with 3 species each and 2 species each of Zygophyllaceae, Caryophyllaceae and Asclepiadaceae. The rest of the families are represented by one species each. Following Raunkier’s life forms (1934), the dominant life forms were therophytes, megaphanerophytes, nanophanerophytes and chamaephytes with microphyllous leaf spectra as dominant parameter of the study area.

Badshah et al. (2013) conducted study in different seasons on floristic diversity and ecological attributes of Tank District and reported 205 plant species belonging to 56 families. The leading families in the study area were Poaceae, Papilionaceae, Asteraceae, Chenopodiaceae and Brassicaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Boraginaceae and Polygonaceae. The dominant life forms were therophytes followed by hemicryptophytes. The most prevalent leaf spectra were nanophylls, leptophylls, mesophylls and microphylls. Aphyllous species recorded were Cuscuta reflexa, Periploca aphylla, P. calophylla, Equisetum arvense and Capparis decidua. In the panorama of floristic diversity, ethnobotany, ethnomedicines, vegetation and phytochemical analysis, the research area, Tall and Dardyal Hills, Kabal, District Swat are unexplored so far.

12 1.15 Vegetation Structure

Vegetation and environment relationship study is the main concern of vegetation ecology (Noss, 1990; Atta, 2012). Vegetation science is the scientific study of vegetation with all aspects of population, biomes and plant communities. It also explains vegetation dynamics and pattern, the factors affecting vegetation in temporal and spatial level. Phytosociology deals with structure, composition, distribution, abundance and evolution of plant communities, intraspecific and interspecific interaction. In a geographical unit, plant communities consist of uniform patch of plant species which can be easily distinguished from adjacent different vegetation type. Each plant community is influenced by various factors e.g. edaphic, topographic, climatic and anthropogenic factors.

To find out effective and functional plant species from natural communities, phytosociological approach is considered an appropriate and effective method for natural vegetation analysis (Katsuno, 1977). The ecological and environmental surveys are fundamental for description of a plant community (Iqbal et al., 2008). Floristic composition contemplation of vegetation has key role in conservation strategy and ecological sustainability of natural resource management (Ejtehadi et al., 2005; Tastad et al., 2010). Biological conservation needs efforts in term of inventory, classification of vegetation and resource management. The rapid shifting and wide ecological amplitude of species may be mainly attributed to the current global environmental changes. This is predicted that in next few decades some plant communities may disappear and new communities may appear (Jennings et al., 2009). Plant diversity and distribution of vegetation on earth surface has influenced significantly by different environmental factors (Zhou and Wang, 1999; Muhammad, 2012). Variation in environmental factors such as light, temperature, humidity and rainfall etc vary with elevation gradient which influence species diversity pattern (Whittaker et al., 2001; Tang et al., 2004; Qian et al., 2011). Anthropogenic factors and environmental variables determine and regulate floristic composition and community structure

13 (Dolezol and Srutek, 2002). Formation, structure and composition of plant communities are reflection of climate, altitude, aspect and disturbances (Kharkwal et al., 2005; Malik, 2014).

Extensive phytosociological exploration has been carried out by various previous researchers in different parts of Pakistan (Champion et al., 1965; Rafi, 1965; Beg, 1975; Ahmed and Qadir, 1976; Ahmed, 1976, 1986, 1988a; Amin and Ashfaque, 1982; Beg and Khan, 1984; Hussain and Shah, 1989; Hussain and Illahi, 1991). Khan et al. (2012) studied the vegetation of moist temperate forest of Thandiani, Abbottabad and recorded fifteen plant communities with 90 plant species. Ahmed et al. (2010) described communities of Cedrus deodara forests of Himalayan range and established 07 pure forest deodar communities. Khan et al. (2010) investigated the physico-chemical, structural and phytosociological attributes with distribution of understorey vegetation of Quercus baloot forest in four vallies of Chitral. Khan et al. (2010) conducted multivariate analysis of Monotheca buxifolia dominated forests, of Dir lower using point centered method, 5×5 m quadrat for understorey vegetation and concentrated on regeneration potential and structure of Monotheca buxifolia. The relation between vegetation and environmental factors was also investigated in the study. Siddiqui et al. (2009) conducted phytosociological investigation of Pinus roxburghii (Chir pine) in lesser Himalayan and Hindukush range. Ahmed et al. (2009) worked on description and structure of Olea ferruginea forests of District, Lower Dir and recognized 10 plant communities based on floristic composition and importance value. Most of these communities were similar in floristic composition but different in quantitative values. They also studied the relationship of elevation with density, basal area and density with basal area. Wahab et al. (2008) reported the dynamics and phytosociology of some Afghan Pine forests, adjacent to Pakistan border. Hussain and Shah (1989) did phytosociological study on Docut Hills-I, Swat, which is fastly disappearing sub-tropical vegetation. Ahmed et al. (2006) carried out extensive work on phytosociology of various climatic regions of Himalayan forests. Perveen et al. (2008) recorded 79 plants species, belonging to 66 genera and 32 families

14 from Dureji, Khirthar range (South Balochistan) with their ecological attributes. The flora was classified on the basis of growth form according to Raunkiaerian classification system (Raunkiaer, 1934). The most dominant growth forms in the study area were chamaephytes (46%) followed by therophytes (25%), phanerophytes (22%), hemicryptophytes (5.26%) and climbers (1.3%). Qin et al. (2012) reported 88 species of vascular flora belonging to 76 genera and 44 families from CAT DUA Island (Northeastern), Vietnam. The leading families were Euphorbiaceae, Papilionaceae, Moraceae, Rutaceae and Rubiaceae. The flora was mostly tropical consisting of beach vegetation, broad leaved evergreen and scrub forests.

Malik et al. (2007) studied the vegetation of Pir Chinasi Hills and recognized 13 plant communities, comprised of 77 plant species. Vigorous growth vegetation of the area is due to protective measures from biotic intrusion i.e. grazing and cutting. Khan et al. (2013) conducted phytosociological study of Tehsil Takht-e-Nasrati, Karak using quadrate method in three seasons (summer, winter and spring). He studied species diversity, richness and evenness of the study area. Abbas et al. (2009) established eight plant communities with 98 plant species using line intercept method in grey Goral, Pakistan and Azad Kashmir. His study area was spread over some 5000 km2 area and having homogenous phytohabitat conditions. Ahmed (2012) studied the vegetation of Ayubia National Park in spring season in order to investigate the relation between the species and environmental variables. For this purpose, sixty quadrates were taken along both sides of walking tack. Rahim et al. (2011) described the vegetation survey and classification of saline area of agro-farm plantations, Ferozewala, Sheikhopura (Punjab) according to Zurich-Montpellier school of thought based on 300 releve method and established twelve associations. They also studied the relationship between plant communities with their physico- chemical attributes. Sher and Khan (2007) surveyed the flora and its ecological characteristics of Chagharzai Valley, Buner. The sequence of dominance of life forms and leaf spectra were therophytes, nanophanerophytes, microphyll and mesophyll. Nazir et al. (2012) studied the

15 vegetation of Sarsawa Hills, District Kotli, Azad Jammu and Kashmir in summer season and established 10 plant communities using quadrat method. He also recorded various soil parameters of the study area.

Shah et al. (2013) analysed the alpine vegetation of Mastuj Valley and reported 7 plant communities and their physico-chemical attributes. These communities were randomly selected on the basis of physiognomy and altitudinal slope. Awan et al. (2002) recognized 10 plant communities with impact of physico-chemical attributes on the vegetation of District Swat. They concluded that vegetation variation could be attributed to availability of water, exposure to sunlight and differences in other microclimatic conditions. Siddiqui et al. (2011) conducted quantitative phytosociological investigation of conifer forests of moist temperate Himalayan and Hindukush southern mountain regions of Pakistan, using point centered quadrate method and recorded five conifer species viz. Pinus wallichiana, Abies pindrow, Cedrus deodara, Taxus fauna and Picea smithiana. Conifers associated angiospermic species i.e. Quercus incana, Q. ilex, Populus alba, Albizia chinensis, Populus pamirica, Pyrus pashia and Juglans regia were found in low frequency. Common understory vegetation comprised of Pteris cretica, Rosa brunoni, Berberis lycium, Acer caesium, Rubus biflorus, Hedera nepalensis, Thymus serpyllum, Rubus ellipticus, Adiantum venustum, Echinophs niveus and Rosa webbiana. Meng et al. (2012) recorded a sum of 112 plant species in 53, 10 × 20 m sized quadrats in the Guancen Mountains, China. Two-Way Indicator Species Analysis (TWINSPAN) and Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) were used. They identified 08 clusters/ conifer woodland communities. They established their association with environmental variables (aspect, elevation, slope and litter thickness). Sharma et al. (2014) studied qualitative and quantitative parameters of vegetation in Sangla Valley of Himalaya (Northwest). They evaluated vegetation structure and its trend alongside the altitudinal gradient and delineated 15 communities based on importance value index and relative density for trees, shrubs and herbs communities. Within the communities, 320 plant species belonging to 199 genera and 75 families were recorded. Angiosperms were dominant (302 spp.,) followed by gymnosperms

16 (13 spp.,) and pteridophytes (5 spp.,) which were found in different life forms viz.29, 43, 248 species of trees, shrubs and herbs respectively.

Tian et al. (2013) studied the vegetation characteristics of Usun Mountains (North Slope), Xinjiang, China along the vertical distribution pattern using TWINSPAN classification and DCCA sorting analysis. The dominant families found were Rosaceae, Brassicaceae, Leguminosae, Asteraceae, Poaceae and Lamiaceae. In addition, they also projected that environmental variables control and influence the community formation and distribution pattern.

Saglam (2013) presented phytosociological attributes of steppe, shrub and forest vegetation of Kizildag, Isparta province, Turkey. Five new plant associations of steppe, macchie and forest vegetation were determined using Wisconsin multidimensional technique. The dominant life forms according to Raunkiaer’s life form recorded were hemicrytophytes (51.4%) followed by therophytes (25.7%), geophytes (8%), chamaephytes (7.4%) and phanerophytes (7.1%).

Iqbal et al. (2008) studied the vegetation of Karachi around urban areas and established the plant community structure on the basis of composition of species and edaphic characteristics. They studied disturbed native plant communities of halophytes and xerophytes types. Thirty-nine plant species were recorded from the study area with dominant species of Avicennia, Gynandropis, Salvadora, Ipomea, Halopyrum, Limonium, Abutilon and Calotropis. Moreover, the soil analysis showed alkalinity nature with sandy loam, loamy silt, sandy and silty texture. Ilyas et al. (2012) assessed the vegetation structure and floristic composition of Qalagai Hills, District Swat and recorded 209 vascular plants species representing 167 genera distributed among 75 families. Based on highest IVI physiognomy, topographic and edaphic factors, eight plant communities were recognized in the studied area. Further, they added that the area is under ruthless anthropogenic pressure e.g. over-grazing, deforestation, and cutting of vegetation for terrace cultivation purpose.

17 1.16 Ethnobotany and Ethnomedicines

Ethnobotany investigates multifacet association between plant and human ethnicity (Choudhary et al., 2008). It plays vital role in perceptive dynamic interaction between natural diversity and communal and cultural systems (Hussain et al., 2008; Mahmood et al., 2011c). In general, ethnobotany is the logical investigations of plants since used in native culture for foodstuff, medicines, rituals, construction, dwelling-hold tools, melodic instruments, shelter, fuel, pesticides, wears and other purposes (Kelbassa et al., 2004; Kumbi, 2007; Ugulu, 2011; Sargin et al., 2013a).

Since the human history, plants are used by man. In earlier ages, plants were only used for food, shelter and medicines. The record of ethnobotany is as ancient as human culture but with the course of time, human dependency on plants increased, they explored plants potential for multiple purposes. The human history narration would be imperfect and partial without the plants (Qureshi et al., 2009). Ethnobotany projects an important tool to study and draw attention of indigenous culture about the natural plant resources and their supervision and management. The exploration of cultural values of plants have vital role in farming, modern medicines and pharmaceutical industry (Cox, 2000). Wild plants always have gained attention due to their potential value for human wellbeing (Ali et al., 2003; Ali, 2003). Since time immemorial, a variety of medicinal plants have been in human use (Lama et al., 2001; Partel et al., 2005).

Natural plant resources play a vital and effective role in traditional herbal therapy as well as in the economic elevation of local community (Everest and Ozturk, 2005, Joshi and Joshi, 2006). Self-treatment practice using traditional herbal medicines is common in various cultures across the globe (Heinrich, 2000, 2005, Williamson, 2003). Medicinal plants used in traditional herbal medicines and pharmaceutical system have played pivotal role in highlighting human needs and necessities. Medicinal flora has great impacts on pharmaceuticals due to intense demand of herbal medicines and the extinction of natural flora (Zaidi and Crow 2005, Thirumalai et al., 2010).

18 According to Govaerts (2001), approximately 422,000 flowering plants have been reported across the globe. Of these, 50,000 to 70,000 medicinal plants are being practiced in traditional and modern health care system (Schippmann et al., 2006). The lack of medical facilities and low income resources in rural communities encourage the utilization of indigenous wild plants for livelihood (Murray et al., 2001). In rural areas of the developing countries, plants besides being integral component of their historical and cultural heritage have also been used as herbal therapy for the treatment of different human illnesses (Sofowora, 1982; Jamal et al., 2012; Iyamah and Idu, 2015). Approximately 80% of the world’s population focuses on medicinal flora for curing various ailments (Malik et al., 2005; Chah et al., 2006; Shinwari and Qaiser, 2011). Due to lack of medical facilities and low income resources rural area people mostly depend on natural resources for their livelihood.

In Pakistan, about 80% is rural population which depends on ostensibly accessible traditional medicines for basic health care needs (Kayani et al., 2014). Today indigenous medicinal flora play pivotal role in the discovery of new drugs due to ethnomedicinal knowledge (Fabricant and Farnsworth, 2001). In Pakistan about 5700 important medicinal plant species have been reported from different climatic conditions. About 456 medicinal plant species are used to synthesize estimated 350 formulated drugs for the treatment of various ailments (Ahmad and Hussain, 2008). Due to modernization and urbanization the ethanomedicinal practices are only confined to the remote areas (Ibrar et al., 2007). Due to limited access and non availability of modern health facilities, tribal communities commonly use plant based medicines for treatment of different illnesses (Khan et al., 2015).

The areas where plants are still used for herbal therapy may be the source of rich ethnobotanical knowledge (Diallo et al., 1999). This precious treasure of knowledge needs to be utilized and preserved for sustainable development of future generation. The traditional knowledge of indigenous people about medicinal plants can accurately be used for the identification of natural plant resources for commercial purposes. Native medicines play

19 imperative role in the house healthcare system. Most of the local population prefers to use the conventional herbal preparation against various ailments.

Various researchers have carried out work on ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal treasure of various regions of the world including Pakistan. Malla et al. (2015) documented 132 ethnomedicinal plant species from Parbat, Western Nepal belonging to 99 genera and 67 families. They were used for treatment of twelve different ailments and disorders viz. gastro-intestinal, parasitic, hepatobiliary and lymphatic system disorders. Megersa et al. (2013) reported 126 medicinal plants from Wayu Tuka, West Ethiopia belonging to 108 genera and 56 families. Fabaceae (15 medicinal plants) was the leading family followed by Solanaceae (8 Spp.,).

Medicinal plants used in the study area for human ailments were seventy eight and livestock treatment (23 spp.); 25 species were common. Leaves were the most frequently used part followed by roots. The common methods of traditional herbal medicines preparation were crushing and preparation of powder. Mahmood et al. (2013) documented 71 medicinal plants of 38 families from Gujranwala District, Pakistan. Leaves were used in indigenous medicines as the most favoured part followed by seed, whole plant, flowers, fruits, root and bark. Wild herbs were the main medicines source followed by wild shrubs etc. Oral and topical was the main administration method. Guler et al. (2015) reported 104 plants from Bozuyuk, Turkey belonging to 47 families; of these 59 wild species were commonly belong to Lamiaceae, Apiaceae, Fabaceae, Asteraceae and Polygonaceae. Mentha longifolia was used for diuretic and use value of Linum usitatissimum was high which was considered the most important plant in the study area. Sadeghi et al. (2014) documented 64 medicinal taxa within 30 families from Saravan area, Baluchistan, Iran. Lamiaceae was dominating family over other families. In herbal remedies leaves (31%) were used more frequently. The highest use value was attributed to Rhazya stricta and Datura stramonium, followed by Otostegia persica and Teucrium polium. The most common diseases in the study area were flu, fever and blood disorders. The study revealed the comparative importance of medicinal plants and sharing plant based therapies

20 knowledge between ethnic communities is still rich in the study area. Saqib et al. (2014) reported 87 indigenous medicinal plants distributed among 55 families and 79 genera from Kotli Sattian, Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Herbs (43%) trees (28%), shrubs (21%) and climbers (8%) were present among the recorded plants. Predominant herbal preparation was that of whole plant (34%), followed by leaf, fruit, bark, seed, root, rhizome, stem, flower, gum, pod, tuber and milky latex. The maximum and minimum use values were recorded for Justicia adhatoda and Cuscuta reflexa respectively.

Mahmood et al. (2012) reported 61 medicinal plants distributed among 40 families from Leepa Valley AJK, Pakistan. The Valley was rich in its native medicinal plants and the associated traditional knowledge. Wild herbs (64%) were the main source of herbal medicines followed by trees and wild shrubs etc. Leaves were the most frequently used plant parts followed by root, seed, shoot, fruit, flower, bark, whole plant and berry. Oral and topical were the administered route of herbal medicines in the study area. Ishtiaq et al. (2015) reported 58 medicinal plants belonging to 33 families from Sudhanoti AJK, Pakistan. Predominant family was Rosaceae. Among the shrubs Berberis lycium was the dominant species, used to treat jaundice. Local community was highly dependent on indigenous medicines and reported the pre-eminent therapeutic outcome of specific disorders. In the study area, the more associated to the indigenous healthcare method were females and old aged people. Ullah et al. (2013) collected 50 wild plants used in ethnomedicines from Wana, Waziristan (South) agency, Pakistan. These medicinal plants were used by the ethnic culture for various remedies viz. stomach disorders, cold/cough, hepatitis, diuretic, sedative, tonic, asthma, cardiac problem and jaundice etc. Leaves were most frequently used plant part followed by fruit, root, seed, whole plant, flower, rhizome, bark, stem, bulb, and pod. The reported highest use value from the research area was that of Xanthium strumarium.

Mahmood et al. (2011a) investigated that local elders of Bhimber District, AJK, Pakistan use conventional ethnomedicines and reported 38 plants of 22 different families with ethnomedicinal utilizations. They collected

21 the information from 13 Hakims and 78 indigenous people about ethnomedicinal uses of local plants. Mahmood et al. (2011b) conducted research on traditional ethanomedicinal knowledge of District Hattian Bala, AJK by interviewing local healers and people and recorded 24 plants of 16 families used for various therapeutic purposes in the study area. Mahmood et al. (2012) conducted ethnobotanical survey of local medicinal plants of District Dudial, Mirpur AJK, Pakistan and investigated the traditional indigenous medicinal information of 35 plants of 30 different families. For this purpose they obtained the informations from local herbalists (11) and local informers (68). Mahmood et al. (2012) carried out research work on Kotli District, AJK, Pakistan and revealed the native medicinal knowledge of key medicinal plants. He reported 25 familiar plants of 14 families. The data about the important medicinal and botanical uses of plants were obtained from local inhabitants (137) and herbal specialists (17). Herbs (56%) were used most frequently followed by shrubs (28%) and trees (16%). Different plant parts were used for making local herbal medicines viz. leaves were dominant followed by root, whole plant, seed, bark, fruit, flower and tuber. Khan et al. (2013) investigated the traditional ethno-ecological information of Naran Valley and reported 101 plant species of 52 families. Of these, 97 plants were used for major therapeutic ailments viz. digestive, respiratory, blood circulatory, reproductive and skin. Whole plant was frequently used followed by rhizome, fruits and roots. Soukand et al. (2015) reported the rich botanical diversity from seven Eastern European countries that comprised of 116 plants of 37 families. They were used to prepare fermented foods. Sargin (2015) conducted research on ethnopharmaceutical informations of medicinal plants used by the ethnic people of Bozyazi, Turkey and reported 159 plants of 55 families. The dominant families documented for therapeutic ailments were Lamiaceae (23 spp.), Asteraceae and Orchidaceae 11 species, Rosaceae (8spp.), Fabaceae (7spp.) and 07 species of Geraniaceae. They investigated that most of the ethnic people depend on Sideristic erythrantha for traditional indigenous treatment of respiratory diseases. Iyamah and Idu (2015) carried out an ethnomedicinal survey and reported 156 medicinal plants within 60 families from south Nigeria. Some of the medicinal flora were reported to be

22 used for treatment of malaria. The most abundant family was Fabaceae (14 spp.,). Melia azedarach was commonly used species to cure malaria. The frequently used plant parts were leaves and decoction was the main administration method. The present generation is mostly dependent on modern allopathic drugs therefore there is tremendous threat to the traditional indigenous knowledge associated with the use of medicinal plants. Amjad (2015) documented 86 native plants species of 81 genera distributed among 47 families of Bana Valley, Kotli with their folk and medicinal uses. Most of the species were medicinal plants (74 spp.). Leaves of 56 species were the most frequent and common used part in the study area. Ahmed et al. (2014a) reported 125 medicinal plants of 106 genera belonging to 43 different families from Layyah District Punjab, Pakistan. Sixteen medicinal plants were belonging to family Poaceae. Herbs life form was dominant. Leaves were the frequently used plant part. Allium sativum was the most commonly used plant of the study area. Ahmed et al. (2014b) investigated 70 medicinal plants of 60 genera distributed among 27 families from Cholistan Desert, Punjab, Pakistan. The dominant family was Poaceae with 13 medicinal plants. In herbal medicines preparation leaves were predominantly used plant part followed by stem, fruit, flowers, seed, bark and pod. The highest use value was reported for Haloxylon recurvum in the study area.

Mahmood et al. (2011c) documented the ethnobotanical importance of the most frequently used plants of Neelum Valley, AJK, Pakistan and reported their indigenous information. Local community used these plants for different purposes viz. medicinal, food, forage, fuel /fire wood, construction, timber and making agricultural tools. The ethnic people also used indigenous plants for various ailments: stomach, cold, cough, diarrhoea, rheumatism, asthma, piles, gastric, hepatitis and others. Mahmood et al. (2011d) conducted research work on medicinal plants and their indigenous uses of Mirpur AJK, Pakistan and reported 29 plants species belonging to 20 different families that were being used by the local community particularly old and aged people. The information about the indigenous uses of plants was gathered through interviews from Hakims (7) and local old people (58). Bibi et al. (2015)

23 reported 24 endemic plants of 19 genera and 14 families from Northern Balochistan, Pakistan. The local inhabitants treated different categories of diseases by using these plants e.g. gastrointestinal disorders etc. Different administration methods were used e.g. injection, paste and others. The highest use value (UV) was recorded for Allium baluchistanicum (0.73) followed by Berberis baluchistanica (0.56) and least UV for Tetracme stocksii (0.13). Balochistan is rich in endemic and other medicinal flora and it still needs more efforts for further exploration. Khan et al. (2015) investigated Edible Wild Fruits (EWFs) from Swat Valley of 47 species belonging to 32 genera and 23 families, which were used in traditional medicines. Rosaceae was the leading family followed by Moraceae and Rhamnaceae. Most of the growth form was tree type. Vitis vinifera has the highest UV index followed by Malus pumila and Vitis parvifolia. Use of EWFs in traditional indigenous treatment of various ailments is a common practice in the study area.

1.17 Phytochemical evaluation

Phytochemicals are natural compounds occurring in plant parts which provide nutrients, fibres and immunity to plants and humans. Phytochemical analysis has enormously contributed to the rapid and accurate methods of screening of medicinal plants for essential chemicals constituents. Since times immemorial, medicinal plants have played key role in the preparation of herbal drugs. The concealed curative value of medicinal plants lies in their bioactive phytochemical compounds that reflect on human physiological functions (Akinmoladun et al., 2007).

Phytochemicals can be categorized into two main groups on the basis of function in plants i.e. primary and secondary metabolites. Primary metabolites include sugars, proteins (amino acids), lipids, chlorophyll etc required for plant growth while secondary metabolites include alkaloids, flavonoids, essential oils, terpenoids, tannins, phenolic compounds, saponins, cardiac glycosides etc. They play defensive role against grazing and herbivorey (Hill, 1952; Stamp, 2003; Edeoga et al., 2005).

24 Secondary metabolites make the base of flavouring agents, medicines and recreational drugs. In addition, the great concern in macro and micro element composition of plants is due to their vital position as part of essential enzymes required for fundamental biochemical processes. Mineral nutrients have also role in maintaining the human health and also utilized as conventional herbal drinks and medicines (Hussain et al., 2006). The quantitative assessment of mineral elements amount is vital for determining the value and utilization of medicinal plants to treat various health infirmities and also to identify their pharmacological feat (Tadzabia et al., 2013). Different plant products used in phytomedicines are derived from leaves, roots, rhizome, bark, flowers, fruits, seeds (Criagg and David, 2001). The understanding of chemical nature of plants is desirable for the synthesis of multiple chemical compounds (Mojab et al., 2003; Parekh and Chanda, 2007; 2008).

Phytochemical constituents such as carbohydrates, terpenoids, tannins, phenolic compounds, alkaloids, flavonoids and steroids reflect diverse pharmacological activities of plants (Shah et al., 2011; Abbas et al., 2012a, 2012b; Zaman et al., 2012;). These phytochemical constituents are the product of primary and secondary metabolism of plants and other living organisms. Secondary metabolites are widely used in human therapy, veterinary, agriculture and other allied scientific research and they are taxonomically and chemically varied group of compounds (Vasu et al., 2009; Mansoor et al., 2011).

In recent years several researchers all over the world has conducted a lot of resesearch work on the value and significance of phytochemicals and elemental nutrients screening and characterization of herbal medicines (Ajasa et al., 2004; Sheded et al., 2006; Basgel and Erdemoglu, 2006; Koe and Sari, 2009; Sharma et al., 2009).

These studies mainly accomplished that essential metals have also the capability of toxic effects if taken in high concentrations. While on the other hand non-essential metals are also toxic for human health even in low

25 concentration (Theron et al., 2012). In Pakistan, plant based therapy is a common practice in general and particularly in tribal community (Ashraf et al., 2010; Hayat et al., 2008; Hayat et al., 2009). Therapeutic plants are valued source of folk medicines and novel chemical constituents which have played vital role in the discovery of modern medicines (Shirin et al., 2010; Devi et al., 2008; Haider et al., 2004; Chan, 2003). The curative importance of medicinal plants lie in their organic chemical constituents like vitamins, essential oils, glycosides, phenolic compounds, alkaloids, terpenoids and tannins etc. Now it is an established fact that over dosage of medicinal plants leads to accumulation of unlike elements which lead to various health problems. In this perspective, elemental contents are very essential and need screening for quality control measures of medicinal plants (Liang et al., 2004; Arceusz et al., 2010). Ishtiaq et al. (2013) screened Nigella sativa ethanolic and methanolic extracts for qualitative determination of secondary metabolites and evaluated steroids, flavonoids, saponins, coumarins, cardiac glycosides, tannins and diterpenes. These results provided an insight to differentiate compounds with bioactive potential. Hussain et al. (2010) performed quantitative determination of saponins, alkaloids, flavonoids and heavy metals (Fe, Cd, Cu, and Zn) in Xanthium strumarium and Solanum xanthocarpum. The study of these medicinal plants provided a base line for herbal and allopathic medicines used to treat different health ailments. Jabeen et al. (2010) conducted research work on ten potential therapeutic valued plants used in ethnic herbal remedy system viz. Alternanthera pungens, Ricinus communis, Justicia adhatoda, Cannabis sativa, Achyranthes aspera, Hordeum vulgare, Withania somnifera, Brassica campestris, Convolvulus arvensis and Parthenium hysterophorus. They analysed them and found high concentration of macro (Na, K, Na, Mg and Ca) and trace (Fe, Cu, Zn, Co, Cr, Ni, Pb, Cd and Mn) elements. Hussain and Khan (2010) investigated heavy metals (Fe, Zn, Cu, Pb, Cr, Ni, Cd and Mn) in root, stem and leaves of Eclipta alba. Habitat soil was also screened. These heavy metals were reported from the cited plant except Cd, which was only present in its habitat soil. Iron was found in high concentration followed by Mn and Zn. It was concluded that E. alba has the potential of heavy metals remediation from soil and may play a

26 role in controlling environmental pollution. Oluwatosin and Ekanem (2010) assessed the Triticum aestivum (ethyl acetate extract) and Allium sativum (methanolic extract) for quantitative determination of secondary metabolites and found glycosides, alkaloids and saponins as 19.513%, 4.017% and 7.992% respectively for wheat extract and glycosides, alkaloids and saponins as 21.088%, 3.570% and 0.696% respectively for garlic extract. Edeoga et al. (2005) conducted qualitative assessment of ten medicinal plants viz. Cleome nutidosperma, Physalis angulata, Scopania dulcis, Spigelia anthelmia, Emilia coccinea, Richardia bransitensis, Stachytarpheta cayennensis, Sida acuta and Tridax procumbens for alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids, tannins, terpenoids, steroids, glycoside and phlobatanins. Flavonoids, alkaloids and tannins were present in all plants except tannins and flavonoids which were absent in S. acuta and S. cayennensis respectively. The study was carried out with the aim to evaluate the chemical constituents of these plants were used by the ethnic people of Nigeria in their ethnomedicines preparation. Ullah et al. (2013) analysed six medicinal plants i.e. Alhagi maurorum, Withania coagulans, Datura alba, Berberis lyceum, Chenopodium album and Tecomella undulata for their nutritional and medicinal potential. These plants were analysed for Macro (Na, K, Mg and Ca) and micro (Cu, Zn, Fe, Cd, Ni, Cr and Pb) nutrients. These plants were suggested to the local community for their propagation as they were found them valuable for food and medicine needs. Hussain et al. (2011) evaluated the mineral contents and nutritional significance of four selected medicinal plants viz. Aerva javanica, Calotropis procera, Datura alba and Nepeta suavis, which were used in indigenous medicines in Pakistan (Northwest). The assessed essential elements (Na, Mg, Fe, Cu, Pb, Mn, Cd and Cr) in the studied medicinal plants were found in variable range. Saxena et al. (2014) analysed Uraria picta extract ( leaves, stem, roots in various solvents) for qualitative assessment of secondary metabolites (alkaloids, terpenoids, saponins, cardiac glycosides, flavonoids, steroids, phenols and saponins) and were also qualitatively for macro (K, Na, Mg, Ca and P) and quantitatively determined in roots (K- 0.46%, Na-0.02%, Mg- 0.13% Ca-0.82%, and P-0.05%), stem (K-0.73%, Na- 0.04%, Mg -0.11% , Ca -1.41%, Mg -0.11% and P- 0.07%) in leaves (K-0.67%, Na-0.04%, Mg-

27 0.21% ,Ca-1.81%, and P- 0.04%) of the plant. The investigated phytochemicals were found to possess bioactive values which proved helpful in combating diseases and nutrient elements to maintain good health.

Hameed and Hussain (2015) analysed mineral nutrients of different parts (leaves, roots, stem, flower and fruits) of Datura innoxia, Solanum americanum, Solanum surattense and Withania coagulans both for macro ( Na, K, Ca and Mg) and micro ( Zn, Cu, Cr, Mn and Fe) nutrients. Macronutrients were found in higher quantities in all parts as compared to micronutrients. These medicinal plants can be recommended to pharmaceutical and nutraceutical industries in virtue of their medicinal and nutritional values. Rauf et al. (2014) carried out phytochemical analysis of Euphorbia milli and revealed the presence of different types of secondary metabolites viz. phytosterol, cardiac glycosides, anthocyanins, flavonoids, terpenoids, proteins and tannins. These findings offer supportive evidence for Euphorbia milli use in both traditional and modern medicines. Danlami et al. (2012) analysed Securinega virosa (leaf extract) for mineral elements and found them in different quantities viz. Na (20.31mg), K (3.67mg), Mg (25.48mg), Ca (2.90 mg), P (5.72mg), Fe (2.02mg), Pb (0.01mg), Ni (0.23mg). Cu (4.39mg), Mn (1.50mg), Zn (0.85mg) and Cr (0.01mg). Phytochemical screening showed the presence of alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids, tannins, carbohydrates cardenolide, balsams and phenols. It was recommended that S. virosa leaves provide vital source of mineral nutrients and valuable disease remedy for human.

Kawo et al. (2009) analysed Moringa oleifera seed powder for its phytochemical and elemental composition. Secondary metabolites reported were tannins (322mg), alkaloids (8.24mg) and saponins (2.98mg) per 100g each. The mineral nutrients showed variable quantities viz. Na (86.2 ± 4.9 ppm), K (732 ± 164 ppm), P (0.619 mg/kg), Ca (602 ± 122 ppm), Al (144 ± 4 ppm), Mn (17.5 ± 0.4 ppm), Br (0.62 ± 0.09 ppm), La (0.73± 0.13 ppm), Rb (37.5 ± 6.7 ppm), Sc (0.17 ± 0.03 ppm) and Sm (0.14 ± 0.01 ppm) while Zn, Fe, Th, Mg, Cr, and As were all out of detection limits. The study

28 recommended M. oleifera seeds for human and other mammals mainly because of its nutritional and pharmacological values.

1.18 Herbage palatability and animal preference

Palatability and preference are synonymously used terms. Palatability describes the selective response of animals stimulated by plant attributes and conditions. Pleasing to the taste; hence pleasing to the mind are palatable as defined by Webster. Species preference is the stimulative response relationship between the plant and animal. The palatability stimulates the animal to go for the plant as a part of its food. In other words the response of the animal to the motivation is to graze the plant. Plant attributes are one of the palatability factors. Preference is most likely associated to the presence of spines, awns, hairiness, succulence, stickiness, position of leaves, colour of leaves, texture, sugar content, alkaloids, tannins and lignin contents. Little is known about the relationship of preference and odour, since odour-producing glands included in external plant features and release internally during mastication of plant tissues. The stimulation-reaction association in food selection and taking is controlled by an intricate series of events e.g. the animal physiological status, adaptation to the available herbage, physical environment and herbage nutritive value. Heady (1964) divided the factors influencing selection into five groups: i. Palatability ( include plant chemical composition, morphology and growth stage) ii. Associated species iii. Animal type (include short grazer (horse), low stratum grazer (sheep), multi stratum grazer (goat) and high stratum grazer (cattle) iv. Animal physiological status v. Topography, soil and climatic condition

29 The relationship between palatability and chemical constituents of plants and other parameters have been investigated by many researchers. The attention of researchers has been attained by the potential of shrubs and tree as substitute fodder wealth in ruminant nutrition. Any method implemented to screen prospective browse species should take into account both the browsing animals preference and laboratory investigations to authenticate the nutritional value of browse plants (Okoli et al., 2003; Mtengeti and Mhelela, 2006). Fadiyimu et al. (2011) studied WAD sheeps to determine the Moringa oleifera and seven other browse plants (Leucaena leucocephala, Ficus thonningii, F. exasperata, Gliricidia sepium, Cassia siamea, Spondia mombin and Aspilia africana) acceptability in Nigeria. Generally proximate analysis of browse plants varied. Highest Crude proteins were recorded for L. leucocephala followed by M. oleifera, S. mombin and A. africana. Lowest tannin contents were recorded for A. africana followed by M. oleifera which also found with least phytate. The first rank in relative preference by sheep was M. oleifera followed by A. africana, G. sepium and L. leucocephala. The least preferred by ruminants was C. siamea. A significant negative correlation was found between preference and dry matter and phytic acid. Towhidi and Zhandi (2007) studied the chemical constiuents of Alhagi camelorum, Salsola arbuscula, Hammada salicornica, Haloxylon ammodendron, Halostachys spp, Seidlitzia rosmarinus, Suaeda fruiticosa, Tamarix tetragyna, and T. stricta and their degree of digestibility and palatability by camels in Iranian desert, Semnan province. No correlation was found between digestibility of dry organic matter and chemical constituents and there was no dependable relationship between palatability and these variables. Zaidi et al. (2010) analysed the nutritional value of six fodder and medicinal plants of Quetta Valley, Balochistan viz. Conyza canadensis, Ferrula oopoda, Lepidium perfoliatum, Nepeta bracteata, Vincetoxicum stocksii and Zygophyllum fabago.The foliage investigation showed presence of considerable concentration of minerals (Na, K, Ca, P, S, Fe, Al, Sr, Zn, Mn). N. bracteata and L. perfoliatum showed palatability due to preference by small ruminants. Z. fabago and V. stocksii showed no palatability and also revealed presence of significant level of potassium, sodium and calcium. Nielson (2010) studied the

30 effect of various factors related to Populus tremuloides (Quaking Aspen) browsing preferences by ungulates in moderately and intensively browsed sites as well as seasonal variation in defence compounds and digestibility indicators in Fishlake National Forest, Utah (USA). Leaf samples were analysed for proteins, sugars, fibres, moisture, tannins and phenolic glycosides (defence compounds). Statistically C: N ratio was high and fibres and moisture were lower in intensive browsing sites. Ahmed et al. (2008) investigated the indigenous forage plants in Soone Valley Khushab (Punjab) and analysed their mineral nutrients in relation to grazing and browsing animal food. The most dominant forage grasses were Cyperus rotundus, Cynodon dactylon and Pennisetum cenchroides. Other herbaceous, shrub and tree species were Achyranthes aspera, Adhatoda vesica, Dodonaea viscosa, Buxus papilosa, Capparis aphylla, Olea ferruginea, Ziziphus numularia, Z. mauritiana, Gymnosporea royleana, Tamarix aphylla, Salvadora oleoides and Nerium indicum. More than 50% forage legumes of the study area were Acacia modesta, A. farnesiana, Medicago polymorpha, Vicia sativa, Melilotus indica and Dalbergia sissoo. Throughout the world physiognomy and function of ecosystems are shaped by large ungulate herbivory. The structure and composition of plant community can profoundly be influenced by grazing and browsing (Cote et al., 2004; Bakker et al., 2006; Stewart et al., 2009; Cipriotti and Aguiar, 2012). Large herbivores vary in behaviour, diet preferences as well as in seasonal variability and they have contrasting impact on plant community dynamics and composition (Christianson and Creel, 2007; Veblen and Young, 2010; Odadi et al., 2013). Cattles are globally domesticated grazers which efficiently digest mostly grasses and few forbs. Heavy grazing by cattles can reduce or eliminate grasses (perennial) thereby shifting plants dominated by woody plants (Moe et al., 2014) or less palatable herbaceous plants (Van, 2000). Seasonal variation temporarily change the feeding behaviour of herbivores, in that case woody plants are browsed by animals mostly in winter when herbaceous flora are unavailable (Cook, 2002; Mysterud, 2000; Beck and Peek, 2005). Large ungulate herbivores prefer most palatable forage plants thereby decreasing resistance of plant community to undesirable plants invasion and other disturbances, bare or biologically

31 damaged soil crusts through hoof action (Chambers et al., 2007; Vavra et al., 2007; Reisner et al., 2013; Kalisz et al., 2014).

Latitudinal variation has a common position in the intensity of herbivory. Plant fitness can selectively and negatively be affected by herbivory in term of reducing plant survival, growth and reproduction harvest, thus influence plant population attributes (Lehndal and Agren, 2015). Lloyd et al. (2010) assessed palatability of 44 native grasses in New Zeland belonging to the genera Echinochloa and Festuca to sheep and red deer. The study was aimed to know the tendency of these two ungulates to the leaf functional trait of plant palatability. Significant differences were found between the two ungulates in the selection/avoidance of grasses in reaction to the leaf functional traits variation. Yamauchi and Yamamura (2004) reviewed that in nutrient poor environment, primary productivity and reproduction of plants have been positively promoted by herbivory and these plant responses are known as “grazing optimization”. One likely mechanism of this inconsistent phenomenon is the nutrient recycling promoted by herbivory. Plants and herbivores are able to develop positive interactions. Growth factors present in animal saliva are most likely, the key factors essential for plant compensatory reaction to herbivory.

Liu et al. (2012) studied compensatory responses of sheep saliva to herbivory by adding Leymus chinensis grass. Sheep saliva significantly increased number of buds, tillers and biomass but no effect was shown on plant height. In addition, saliva effects were observed on herbivory intensities. Saliva was found to increase fructans hydrolyzation and an increase in level of fructose and glucose. Grasslands are grass dominated vegetation land with no or little tree cover (Suttie et al., 2005). Grasslands are important land setting with capacity to provide wild animals and livestock fodder. In grasslands, grasses form the main bulk of fodder and produce large quantity of biomass in short life span and in this way play important role in food, fodder and world economy.

32 Gorade and Datar (2014) recorded 143 palatable grass species with awned (64) and awnless (79) from India and studied their habitats, phenology and their palatability based utility potentials. This documentation provides a base line for understanding and improved management of grasslands. Dejaco and Batzli (2013) studied the relative palatability of plants (shoots, seeds) in grassland of Illinois, USA with four small mammals i.e. Prairie voles, Meadow voles, White-footed mice and Eastern cottontails. The Voles showed greater palatability to Trifolium pratense, Medicago sativa (shoots) and Taraxacum officinale; the least palatable was Poa pratensis. Meadow voles depend more on grass species than Prairie voles. Forbs palatability was observed in white-footed mice than perennial plants, whereas woody and forbs plant palatability was recorded in cottontails. Greater seeds palatability was shown by white-footed mice than voles. These results revealed the possible impact of small animals on non-native grasslands development. The influence of large grazing animal preference on plant diversity has been studied in a variety of terrestrial ecosystems (El-Keblawy et al., 2009).

Through treading, excreta and defoliation grazing ungulates can leave unwell effects on an ecosystem (Warda and Rogalski 2004; Duncan 2005; Wasilewski 2006). Plant community is affected by defoliation caused by herbivory. Periodic defoliation is essential for controlling of plant successional process (Rook et al., 2004). Keeping in view animals forage preference, Bartoszuk et al. (2001) evaluated that taller grasses and reproductive plant parts were preferred by cattles whereas shorter swards and vegetative part were selected by horses and sheeps respectively. Horses were found to be more prone to eat fibrous grasses as compared to cattles. Gulshan and Dasti (2012) studied different animals (goats, sheeps cows and buffaloes) grazing preference in Cholistan and Thal deserts, Pakistan. Khan and Hussain (2012) investigated 161 plant species for palatability of five animals (goat, sheep, camel, cow and donkey) in Takht-e-Nasrati, Karak, Pakistan. Among these, non-palatable species (29), highly palatable (32), mostly palatable (43), less palatable (34) and rarely palatable (23) were recorded from the study area. As

33 regards the herbage preference by grazing animals, goat palatability was high followed by camel, cow, sheep and donkey.

1.19 Aims and Objectives

The available literature on floristic diversity, vegetation analysis, ethnobotany, phytochemical and physico-chemical analysis, palatability and seasonal availability of plants showed that no such data and research work has been done on plants of Tall Dardyal, Tehsil Kabal, District Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Therefore, the current research project was designed with the following aims and objectives:

1. To document floristic diversity and prepare floristic list.

2. To evaluate the vegetation structure, its attributes and establish plant communities.

3. To explore the ethnobotanically important plants of the area.

4. To assess some selected ethnomedicinal and palatable forage plants for their mineral and nutritional status at three phenological stages.

5. To find out the palatability, seasonal availability and animal’s preference of forage plants.

6. To investigate some physico-chemical parameters of soil of selected stands.

34 CHAPTER-2

MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Floristic diversity

The floristic study of Tall Dardyal Hills was carried out in spring, summer and winter seasons during 2013-2015. Plant specimens were collected thoroughly from the study area. The plant specimens were properly dried, mounted on herbarium sheets and identified using Flora of Pakistan-Tropicos (http://www.tropicos.org/Project/Pakistan) and The Plant List: A working list of all plant species (http://www.theplantlist.org). All identified plant species were submitted to the herbarium, Department of Botany, Islamia College Peshawar.

2.2 Biological Spectra

Plants were classified into various life form /growth form classes following Raunkiaer (1934) and Hussain (1989) as follows:

2.2.1 Therophytes (Th):

Seed bearing annual plants; complete their life cycle in one year.

2.2.2 Cryptophytes (Cr) or Geophytes (G):

Perenating buds grow below soil surface; include those plants having rhizome, bulb, tuber and corm.

2.2.3 Hemicryptophytes (H):

Herbaceous perennials, the aerial portion of which die leaving perenating buds at or just below the ground surface at the end of growing season e.g. grass and rosette, biennial plants and seasonal broad leaved herbs.

2.2.4 Chamaephytes (Ch):

Perenating buds located close to the ground surface (below the height of 25 cm) e.g. herbaceous, trailing, low stem succulents, cushion and low woody plants.

35 2.2.5 Phanerophytes (Ph):

Perenating buds on aerial shoots borne at least 25cm height above the ground surface e.g. shrubby and tree plants

Based on the highest position of perenating buds, Phanerophytes are further divided into sub-groups as follows: a) Megaphanerophytes (MP): 30 meters (100 ft +) tall plants. b) Mesophanerophytes (Ms): 7.5 to 30 meters (25-100 ft) tall plants. c) Microphanerophytes (Mc): 2 to 7.5 meters (6-25 ft) tall plants. d) Nanophanerophytes (NP): 0.25 to 2 meters (0.8-6 ft) tall plants.

2.3 Leaf size spectra

Plants were classified on the basis of Runkiaer (1934) leaf size classes as follows: a) Leptophyll (L): Up to 25 square mm leaf area. b) Nanophyll (N): From 25 to 225 square mm leaf area. c) Microphyll (Mic): From 225 to 2025 square mm leaf area. d) Mesophyll (Mes): From 2025 to 18225 square mm leaf area. e) Macrophyll (Mac): From 18225 to 164025 square mm Leaf area. f) Megaphyll (Meg): Leaf area larger than Macrophyll.

2.4 Plant phenological stages

Plants were classified into three phenological stages as follows: a) Pre-reproductive stage b) Reproductive stage c) Post-reproductive stage

36 2.5 Phytosociology / Vegetation analysis

Phytosociological studies were conducted in eight selected stands. These stands were selected on the basis of physiognomic and altitudinal gradients. Vegetation was analyzed by using 10 × 10 m quadrat for trees, 4 × 4 m quadrat for shrubs and 1 × 1 m quadrat for herbs in each site. The communities were established using JUICE 7.0 (Tichy, 2002). Daubenmire’s cover scale was used for trees which consist of the following six classes:

Table-2.1: Six classes of the used Daubenmire’s Cover Scale

Classes Coverage range Mid Points (%)

1. Upto 5% of the ground cover 2.5

2. 5% to 25% of the ground cover 15.0

3. 25% to 50% of the ground cover 37.5

4. 50% to 75% of the ground cover 62.5

5. 75% to 95% of the ground cover 85.0

6. 95% to 100% of the ground cover 97.5

2.6 Edaphology

Soil samples were collected from eight different selected sites (6 inches depth) and were analyzed for macro and micro nutrients and other physico-chemical parameters.

2.6.1 Soil Texture

20 g of air died soil samples were taken in dispersion cup and passed through a mesh. Distilled water was added to it. 10 ml of Na2Co3 solution (1N) was added to the samples. The dispersion cup containing the soil samples were then stirrered for 5 to 10 minutes. The samples after stirrering were transferred to a 1 litre cylinder. Hydrometer reading was noted for 40 seconds. Second reading was noted after two hours. The soil texture was determined using the textural triangle (Koehler et al., 1984).

37 2.6.2 Soil pH

10 g of soil samples was soaked in 50 ml of distilled water. The suspension was then placed on mechanical shaker for 30 minutes. The pH meter was adjusted at room temperature. pH was recorded using 105-ion analyzer pH meter (Mc Clean, 1982).

2.6.3 Electrical Conductivity (EC)

Soil electrical conductivity was determined by electrical conductivity meter using the method of Black, 1965.

2.6.4 Organic matter

01 g soil sample was taken in a conical flask and then added 10 ml of 1

N K2Cr2O7 and 20 ml of concentrated H2So4. The suspension was titrated against FeSo4 (0.5N) using ortho-phenolphthalein as indicator (Nelson and Sommer, 1982).

2.6.5 Lime contents

Lime contents in soil samples were determined using acid neutralization method (Richard, 1954).

2.6.6 AB-DTPA extractable phosphorus

Ammonium bicarbonate diethylene triamine penta acetic acid (AB- DTPA) extractable Phosphorus was determined using the method of Soltanpour and Schwab (1977).

2.6.7 Total nitrogen

Total Nitrogen was determined in soil samples using Kjeldahl method (Bremner and Mulvaney, 1982).

38 2.6.8 Calcium and Magnesium

Calcium and Magnesium concentration (ppm) was determined by using Titrimetric method (Ramesh and Andu, 1996). 20g samples were taken in 100 ml baker then added to it 25ml distilled water. 2 ml of ammonium chloride-ammonia buffer and 30 mg trichrome black-T indicator were added to the mixture. It was titrated with EDTA solution (0.01M) till the changing of colour from red to blue. For calcium measurement, 20g soil samples were mixed with 25 ml distilled water in 100 ml beaker. 2 ml of NaOH and 30 mg murexide were added to the mixture. The mixture was titrated with EDTA solution (0.01M) till the colour change from red to violet-blue.

2.6.9 Extractable Potassium

10g soil samples were mixed with 20ml solution of AB-DTPA in a conical flask and were shaked for 30 minutes. The mixture was filtrated through Whatman No.42 filter paper. Potassium was determined in the filtrate using Flame Photometer “Sherwood” model, which was calibrated with standards Photometer 410 (Soltanpour and Schwab, 1977).

Total ppm = Reading X volume/ weight of soil sample

2.6.10 Micronutrient status in soil samples

AB-DTPA extractable Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn were determined using the method of Havlin and Sultanpour (1981). 15 g of soil samples were taken in 250 ml of conical flask. 30 ml of AB-DTPA extracting solution was added. The mixture was shaked on reciprocal shaker for 15-20 minutes. The solution was filtered through “Whatman No. 42”. The filtrate was analysed for Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn by atomic absorption spectrophotometer.

2.7 Herbage palatability and animal preference

The intensity of herbage palatability was investigated through grazing preference of ungulates in the field. Moreover the indigenous herders were also interviewed regarding the grazing preferences of plants to authenticate the

39 data. Plant species were categorized into two main groups viz. palatable and non-palatable species. Palatable plant species were further sub-divided into five groups on the basis of ungulate preference, part used and seasonal availibility following Hussain and Durrani (2009a). a) Non Palatable (NP): Not grazed by ungulates. b) Highly Palatable (HP): Include plants that are highly favoured by ungulates. c) Mostly Palatable (MP): Include plants with middling preference by ungulates. d) Less Palatable (LP): Include plants with less likeness by ungulates. e) Rarely Palatable (RP): Include plants species occasionally grazed by ungulates, subject to the condition when group b, c and d plants species are not available.

2.8 Evaluation of chemical constituents of some selected plants

Fifteen plant species of different growth habits were evaluated for their chemical constituents. They were collected at three phenological stages. These plants were selected on the basis of palatability and ungulates preference and some have indigenous medicinal value as well. Plant materials were shade dried at room temperature for 20 days. Then crushed to fine powder on grinding machine and preserved in plastic bags for chemical evaluation. These are as follows:

2.8.1 Herbs:

1. Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kitam

2. Dysphania botrys L.

40 3. Origanum vulgare L.

4. Salvia canariensis L.

5. Thymus linearis Benth.

6. Apluda mutica L.

7. Pennisetum orientale Rich.

2.8.2 Shrubs:

1. Sarcococca saligna (D.Don) Muell. Arg.

2. Leptopus cordifolius Decne.

3. Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.) Codd

4. Spiraea canescens D.Don

5. Daphne mucronata Royle.

6. Wikstroemia canescens Wall. ex Meisn.

2.8.3 Trees:

1. Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana (Decne.) Rehder

2. Elaeagnus umbellata Thumb.

2.9 Phytochemical screening

The chemical screening of 15 selected plant species collected at three phenological stages for secondary metabolites was carried out on crude ethanolic extract and n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl acetate fractions following the procedures (Uddin et al., 2011; 2012) with some modification. The crude extracts obtained were analysed for different secondary metabolites as follows:

2.9.1 Test for alkaloids

0.2 g of each crude extract was warmed after adding 2ml of H2SO4 (2%) for two minutes. The mixture was filtered. Few drops of Dragendrof’s

41 reagents were added to the filtrate. The appearance of orange red precipitate indicated the presence of alkaloids.

2.9.2 Test for tannins

0.2 g of each extract was taken in a test tube. Distilled water was added to it. Warmed the mixture on water bath and filtered it. Few drops of Ferric chloride (FeCl3) were added to the filtrate. Dark green colour solution indicated the presence of tannins.

2.9.3 Test for anthraquinones

0.5 g of each extract was taken in a test tube. Add few drops of 10% HCl to it. The reaction mixture was filtered and cooled it at room temperature.

Equal volume of Chloroform (CHCL3) was mixed with each filtrate. The filtrate was heated after adding few drops of 10% NH3. The presence of anthraquinones was confirmed by obtaining rose-pink coloration.

2.9.4 Test for glycosides

0.6g of each extract was added few drops of concentrated solution of HCl, NaOH. It was followed by few drops of Fehling’s solution. The reaction mixture was heated. Formation of red ppt indicated the presence of glycosides.

2.9.5 Test for reducing sugars

Distilled water was added to 0.5g of each extract. It was shaken and filtered. Mixed few drops of Fehling’s solution with the filtrate and boiled the reaction mixture for few minutes. Formation of an orange red ppt indicated the presence of reducing sugars.

2.9.6 Test for saponins

5.0 ml distilled water was added to 0.2g of each extract, vigorously shaked it. The appearance of creamy small bubbles indicated the presence of saponins.

42 2.9.7 Test for flavonoids

10% NaOH was mixed with 0.2g of each extract and then added few drops of concentrated HCl. The presence of flavonoids was confirmed by changing the yellow colour solution into colourless solution.

2.9.8 Test for steroids

0.5g of each extract was mixed with 2.0 ml of acetic anhydride and

H2SO4 each. The appearance of violet blue or green colour indicated the presence of steroids.

2.9.9 Test for terpenoids

Chloroform was added to 0.2 g of each extract. 3.0 ml of concentrated

H2SO4 was carefully mixed to make a layer. At the interface a reddish brown coloration was observed which showed terpenoids positive results.

2.9.10 Test for betacyanins and anthocyanin

1.0 ml of NaOH (2N) was added to 2.0 g of each extract and heated for 5 minutes at 100°C. Bluish green colour appearance indicated anthocyanin positive results.

2.9.11 Test for amino acids and proteins

Few drops of 0.2% Ninhydrin was added to 2.0 g of each extract and heated on spirit lamp for 5 minutes. The blue colour appearance indicated positive results for amino acids and proteins.

2.9.12 Test for cardiac glycosides

1.0 ml of glacial acetic acid was mixed with 2.0 g of each extract. The mixture was added 5.0% FeCl3 and few drops of concentrated H2SO4. The presence of cardiac glycosides was confirmed by the appearance of greenish blue colour.

43 2.10 Analysis of elemental nutrition

Digestion of 15 selected plant species collected at three phenological stages was carried out for macro and micro nutrients analysis following the protocol (Awofolu, 2005).

5.0 g of plant material was taken in 100ml beaker. 5 ml of concentrated

Nitric acid (HNO3) and 2ml of Perchloric acid (HClO4) were added to it. The reaction mixture was heated on hot plate till the complete digestion of plant material. The digest then allowed cooling. It was filtered using Whatman filter paper in 50ml volumetric flask. The concentrated filtrate was diluted with distilled water up to 50ml mark of volumetric flask. The prepared sample was used for elemental analysis by atomic absorption spectrophotometer.

2.11 Proximate analysis

The proximate analyses (moisture, ash, fats, fiber, soluble proteins and carbohydrates) of fifteen selected ethnomedicinal and forage plant species at three phenological stages were determined in percentage using the AOAC method (AOAC, 1999). The ash and moisture were determined by weight difference method while Soxhlet method was used for determination of crude fat contents. Acid-base digestion method was used for crude fibers. Soluble proteins were determined by Bradford protein assay (Bradford, 1976) and carbohydrates by difference method [100 - (moisture + ash + fats + fibre + Proteins)].

2.12 Ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal data collection

A comprehensive ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal data was documented from different sites of the research area. To get first hand information about the indigenous uses of plants, a total of 122 local key informants were interviewed including 75 males, 27 females, 09 local herbalists (male), and 11 Shepherds. The local residents still rely on plant resources for a variety of needs such as food, fodder, house construction, fencing, agriculture tools making and health care etc. Open ended interviews

44 were arranged in Dera/hujra (social gathering place of males) which helped in spotlighting the various important issues and dimensions of the local people regarding natural plant resources. They were asked about the vernacular names, occurrence, parts used and mode of administration of plants. Most of the male interviewees were farmers. Females were interviewed while collecting plants for their daily use. They were mostly old housewives. Shepherds were interviewed while they were grazing their goats and sheeps on Hills. The informants were interviewed in their local language, Pashto. They were photographed along with the collected plant species for providing due help in the identification of plants. Conformation of indigenous medicinal uses of plants was verified from local healers.

Table-2.2: Demographic information of informants

Age (years) Total Informants % age 22-50 51-89 interviews Male 31 44 75 61.47

Female 10 17 27 22.13

Shepherd 7 4 11 9.01

Herbalists 4 5 9 7.37

Total 122

2.13 Data analysis

Quantitative ethnobotanical tool was used to analyse the collected data Use value (UVs):

Use value index of a particular species was described by Phillips and Gentry (1993) as following formula: U UV  i s  N Where Ui is the total number of use reports for specific species and N is the total number of informants for specific medicinal plant.

45 CHAPTER-3

RESULTS

3.1 Floristic diversity and its ecological attributes

3.1.1 Floristic diversity

The research area was floristically rich, comprised of 324 species belonging to 93 families. It included 78 dicots, 08 monocots, 02 gymnosperms and 05 pteridophytes families. There were 32 monocot genera and 206 dicot genera. Gymnosperms and pteridophytes have 04 and 09 genera respectively. Results indicated the families Asteraceae (34 spp., 10.49%), Poaceae (24 spp., 7.40%), Rosaceae (23 spp., 7.09%), Lamiaceae (21 spp., 6.17%) and Papillionaceae (16 spp., 4.93%) were the dominant families of the research area. These were followed by Brassicaceae (12 spp., 3.70%), Polygonaceae (09 spp., 2.77%), Caryophyllaceae, and Scrophulariaceae having 07 species each (2.16% share), Amaranthaceae, Cyperaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Ranunculaceae 6 spp., each having 1.85% share, Boraginaceae, Malvaceae and Solanaceae 05 spp., each having 1.54% share, Apiaceae, Aspleniaceae, Fagaceae, Geraniaceae, Moraceae, Pinaceae and Pteridaceae 04 spp., each having 1.23% share, Alliaceae, Oleaceae, Rubiaceae, Salicaceae, Urticaceae 03 spp., each with 0.02% share. Twenty two families have 02 (0.61%) species and rest of the families were represented by a single species each having 0.30% share (Table 3.1).

3.1.2 Biological spectrum

Results revealed that therophytes were the dominant life form represented by 102 species having 31.48% share. The second dominant were hemicryptophytes with 89 species having 27.46% share. Geophytes are represented by 44 species having 13.58% share and microphanerophytes 38 spp., 11.72% share. There were 19 species of mesophanerophytes having 5.86% share and 17 species of nanophanerophytes having 5.24% share,

46 macrophanerophytes have 12 species 3.70% share and chamaephytes have 03 species 0.92% share (Table 3.1).

3.1.3 Leaf size spectrum

Leaf size spectra revealed that microphylls were the dominant leaf size class with 130 (40.12%) species followed by nanophylls (112 spp., 34.56%), mesophylls (42 spp., 12.96%) and leptophylls (35 spp., 10.80%). There were 03 species (0.92%) of aphyllous and 02 species (0.61%) of macrophylls (Table 3.1).

3.1.4 Leaf type

With regards to leaf type, 245 species (75.61%) have simple leaves, whereas 76 species (23.45%) were with compound leaves. Plants which do not produce leaves (Aphyllous) were represented by only 03 species (0.92%) (Table 3.1).

3.1.5 Leaf persistence

There were 298 deciduous species (91.97%) and 26 evergreen plant species (8.02%). Some of the evergreen species were Abies pindrow, Buxus wallichiana, Daphne mucronata, Debregeasia saeneb, Ficus sarmentosa, Olea ferruginea, Picea smithiana, Pinus spp., Quercus spp., Sarcococca saligna and Taxus wallichiana (Table 3.1).

3.1.6 Spiny nature

There were 311 non-spiny plants species (95.98%) and 13 species were spiny (4.01%). Most common of these were Berberis lycium, Caesalpinia decapetala, Circium falconeri, Ilex dipyrena, Maytinus wallichiana, Onopordum acanthium, Rosa spp., Rubus spp., and Zanthoxylum armatum were spiny plants (Table 3.1).

47 3.1.7 Light tolerance

Heliophytes and sciophytes were 248 (76.54%) and 76 (23.45%) respectively. Asplenium spp., Athyrium drepanopterum, Dryopteris blanfordii, Equisetum spp., Adiantum capillus-veneris, Onychium japonicum, Pellaea nitidula, Pteris cretica, Acorus calamus, Carex spp., Cyperus spp., Hedera nepalensis, Spiraea canescens, Sarcococca saligna, Wikstroemia canescens, Leptopus cordifolius and Salvia canariensis are some of the recorded sciophytes (Table 3.1). More number of heliophytes may be attributed to the more open location in the research area.

3.1.8 Habitat forms

There were 217 species were found in dry habitat (66.97%), 92 species in moist habitat (28.39%) and 15 species in aquatic habitat (4.62%). These investigations are in line with the climatic conditions of the research area (Table 3.1).

3.1.9 Cultivation status

The flora included 297 wild species (91.66%) and 27 cultivated species (8.33%). Among the cultivated species Triticum aestivum, Zea mays, Oryza sativa, Brassica rapa, Cucurbita pepo, Abelmoscus esculentus, Allium cepa, Prunus persica, Pyrus communis, Ailanthus altissima are more common in the area (Table 3.1).

48 Table-3.1: Floristic Diversity and Ecological Attributes of Plants of Tall Dardyal, Tehsil Kabal, District Swat, Pakistan.

Ecological Characteristics S.No. Plant species A B C D E F G H I J A. Pteridophyta 1. Family Aspleniaceae 1. Asplenium adiantum-nigrum L. G Np Com Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Jun-Aug Doop 2. A. dalhousiae Hooker. G Np Com Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Jun-Aug Doop 3. A. yunnanense Franch. G Lp Com Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Jun-Aug Doop 4. A. trichomanes L. G Lp Com Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Jun-Aug Doop 2. Athyriaceae 5. Athyrium drepanopterum (Kunze) A. Braun ex G Np Com Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Jun-Aug Doop Milde 3. Family Dryopteridaceae 6. Dryopteris blanfordii (C.Hope) C. Chr. G Np Com Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Jun-Aug Doop 4. Family Equisetaceae 7. Equisetum arvense L. G Ap Ap Eg NS Scio Wld Mst Sep-Oct Dardyal 8. Hippochaete debilis (Roxb. ex Vaucher) Ching G Ap Ap Eg NS Scio Wld Mst Sep-Oct Dardyal 5. Family Pteridaceae 9. Adiantum capillus-veneris L. G Np Com Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Jun-Aug Dardyal Continue…

49 10. Onychium japonicum (D. Don) Christ G Lp Com Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Jun-Aug Doop 11. Pellaea nitidula (Hook.) Baker G Lp Com Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Jun-Aug Doop 12. Pteris cretica L. G Mic Com Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Jun-Aug Doop B. Gymnospermae 6. Family Pinaceae 13. Abies pindrow (Royle ex D.Don) Royle MP Lp Sim Eg NS Helio Wld Mst May-Jun Doop 14. Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss. MP Lp Sim Eg NS Helio Wld Mst May-Jun Archalai 15. Pinus roxburghii Sarg. MP Lp Sim Eg NS Helio Wld Dry Apr-May Choor 16. P. wallichiana A.B.Jacks. MP Lp Sim Eg NS Helio Wld Msc Apr-May Choor 7. Family Taxaceae 17. Taxus wallichiana Zucc. MsP Lp Sim Eg NS Helio Wld Mst May-Jun Archalai C. Monocotyledonae 8. Family Acoraceae 18. Acorus calamus L. G Np Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Aq Sep-Oct Dardyal 9. Family Alliaceae 19. Allium cepa L. G Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Clt Mst Jun-July Tall 20. A.griffithianum Boiss. G Np Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Msc Mar-Apr Choor 21. A.sativum L. G Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Clt Msc Jun-July Tall Continue…

50 10. Family Araceae 22. Arisaema flavum (Forsk.) Schott G Mes Com Decid NS Helio Wld Mst Jun-Aug Doop 23. Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott G Mac Sim Decid NS Helio Clt Mst Jun-Aug Dardyal 11. Family Cyperaceae 24. Carex acutiformis Ehrh. G Np Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Aril-May Doop 25. C. filicina Nees G Np Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Jun-Aug Choor 26. Cyperus alopecuroides Rottb. G Np Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Jun-Aug Choor 27. C. imbricatus Retz. G Lp Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Aq May-Aug Choor 28. C. rotundus L. G Lp Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Aq May-Aug Choor 29. Eleocharis palustris (L.) Roem. & Schult. G Lp Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Aq Jun-Aug Doop 12. Family Juncaceae 30. Juncus articulatus L. G Lp Sim Eg NS Helio Wld Aq Jun-Aug Choor 31. J. inflexus L. G Lp Sim Eg NS Helio Wld Aq Jun-July Choor 13. Family Liliaceae 32. Tulipa clusiana DC. G Np Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Apr Choor 14. Family Orchidaceae 33. Eulophia epidendraea (J.Koenig ex Retz.) G Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry Apr Dardyal C.E.C.Fisch. Continue…

51 15. Family Poaceae 34. Alloteropsis cimicina (L.) Stapf H Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Jun-July Kamyarai 35. Arthraxon prionodes (Steud.) Dandy H Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May-Jun Tall 36. Apluda mutica L. H Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr-May Choor 37. Aristida contorta F. Muell. H Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May- Jun Choor 38. A. mutabilis Trin. & Rupr. H Np Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst July-Sep Panorai 39. Arundo donax L. G Mic Sim Eg NS Helio Wld Msc Jun-July Dardyal 40. Avena sativa L. Th Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr Choor 41. Brachypodium sylvaticum (Huds.) P.Beauv. H Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Jun-July Choor 42. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. H Lp Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr-Aug Dardyal 43. Dactylis glomerata L. H Np Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Jun-July Panorai 44. Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf H Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Jun-July Dardyal 45. Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P.Beauv. H Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Jun-July Choor 46. Festuca gigantea (L.) Vill. H Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Jun-July Choor 47. Helictotrichon junghuhnii (Buse) Henrard H Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Jun-July Choor 48. Miscanthus nepalensis (Trin.) Hack. H Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Jun-July Panorai 49. Oryza sativa L. Th Np Sim Decid NS Helio Clt Aq July-Aug Tall 50. Pennisetum orientale Rich. H Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Jun-Aug Dardyal Continue…

52 51. Piptatherum gracile Mez. H Np Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst July-Aug Panorai 52. Poa bulbosa L. H Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Jun-July Tall 53. P. pratensis L. H Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Jun-July Tall 54. Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. & Schult. H Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Jun-July Kamyarai 55. Sorghum halepense L. G Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Jun- July Dardyal 56. Triticum aestivum L. Th Np Sim Decid NS Helio Clt Msc Apr-May Choor 57. Zea mays L. Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Clt Msc July-Aug Choor D. Dicotyledonae 16. Family Acanthaceae 58. Dicliptera bupleuroides Nees H Mic Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Msc Jun-Aug Samai 59. Strobilanthes glutinosus Nees. NP Mic Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Jun-Sep Choor 17. Family Aceraceae 60. Acer pentapomicum Stewart ex Brandis McP Mes Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr- May Choor 18. Family Amaranthaceae 61. Achyranthes aspera L. Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May-Jun Tall 62. Amaranthus caudatus L. Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May-Jun Dardyal 63. A.viridis L. Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May-Jun Dardyal 64. Chenopodium album L. Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr-May Dardyal

Continued…

53 65. Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry May-Jun Dardyal Clemants 66. D. botrys (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants Th Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry Apr-May Kamyarai 19. Family Anacardiaceae 67. Pistacia chinensis (Stewart ex Brandis) Rech. f. MP Mic Com Decid NS Helio Wld Dry May Mian bela 68. Rhus chinensis Mill. McP Mic Com Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May Choor 20. Family Apiaceae 69. Aegopodium burttii Nasir Th Np Com Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Jun-Aug Choor 70. Bupleurum falcatum L. G Np Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst July-Aug Choor 71. Heracleum canescens Lindl. H Np Com Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Apr Choor 72. Seseli libanotis (L.) W.D.J.Koch H Np Com Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May- July Choor 21. Family Apocynaceae 73. Vinca major L. H Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Jun- Aug Dardyal 22. Family Aquifoliaceae 74. Ilex dipyrena Wall. MsP Mes Sim Eg S Helio Wld Msc May- Jun Doop 23. Family Araliaceae 75. Hedera nepalensis K.Koch MsP Mic Sim Eg NS Scio Wld Mst July-Aug Choor 24. Family Asparagaceae 76. Asparagus capitatus Browicz H Lp Com Decid NS Helio Wld Dry May- Jun Dardyal Continued…

54 25. Family Asteraceae 77. Anaphalis adnata Wall. ex DC. Th Mic Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst July-Aug Mian bela 78. A. margaritacea (L.) Benth. Th Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Mst July-Aug Doop 79. A. triplinervis (Sims) Sims ex C.B.Clarke G Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Mst July-Nov Doop 80. A. virgata Thomson H Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Aug-Nov Doop 81. Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kitam. H Lp Com Decid NS Helio Wld Dry Jun-Aug Kamyarai 82. A.vulgaris L. H Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry May-Sep Kamyarai 83. Bidens cernua L. Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc July-Aug Choor 84. B. pilosa L. Th Mic Com Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May-Aug Manai 85. Blumea membranacea DC. H Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry July-Aug Doop 86. Carpesium abrotanoides L. H Mic Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst July-Aug Dardyal 87. C. cernuum L. Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Jun-Aug Choor 88. Cichorium intybus L. H Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Mst Apr-May Choor 89. Cirsium falconeri (Hook.f.) Petr. Th Mes Sim Decid S Helio Wld Dry Jun-Aug Dardyal 90. Erigeron bonariensis L. Th Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry May- Aug Dardyal 91. Crepis foetida L. Th Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry Aug-Oct Choor 92. Galinsoga parviflora Cav. Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry Jun-July Choor 93. Lactuca dissecta D.Don Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May-Jun Dardyal 94. L. serriola L. Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May-Jun Choor Continued…

55 95. L. scandens C.C.Chang Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Jun-Aug Dardyal 96. Onopordum acanthium L. H Mes Sim Decid S Helio Wld Dry May-Aug Dardyal 97. Parthenium hysterophorus L. Th Mic Com Decid NS Helio Wld Dry Jun-Aug Dardyal 98. Phagnalon niveum Edgew. H Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry Aug-Nov Doop 99. Picris hieracioides Sibth. & Sm. Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr-May Choor 100. Blumea viscosa (Mill.) V.M.Badillo H Np Com Decid NS Helio Wld Dry July-Aug Choor 101. Himalaiella heteromalla (D.Don) Raab-Straube Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry Apr-may Choor 102. Scorzonera virgata DC. Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry Apr-May Choor 103. Senecio chrysanthemoides DC. Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc July-Sep Archalai 104. S. nudicaulis Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Mar-Apr Dardyal 105. Solidago virgaurea L. H Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Mst Aug-Oct Choor 106. Sonchus asper (L.) Hill Th Mic Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst May-Sep Choor 107. Tagetes minuta L. Th Lp Com Decid NS Helio Wld Dry Sep-Nov Kamyarai 108. Taraxacum campylodes G.E.Haglund Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May-Sep Choor 109 Xanthium strumarium L. Th Mes Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry May-Aug Tall 110. Youngia japonica (L.) DC. Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry Apr Choor 26. Family Balsaminaceae 111. Impatiens bicolor Royle Th Mic Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Jun-Aug Dardyal 112. I. brachycentra Kar. & Kir. Th Mic Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Jun-Aug Dardyal Continued…

56 27. Family Berberidaceae 113. Berberis lycium Royle McP Np Sim Decid S Helio Wld Dry Apr-May Choor 28. Family Betulaceae 114. Alnus nitida (Spach) Endl. MsP Mes Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr-May Samai 29. Family Boraginaceae 115. Buglossoides arvensis (L.) I.M.Johnst. Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry Jun-July Choor 116. Heliotropium bacciferum Forssk. Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Mst July-Aug Doop 117. Lithospermum officinale L. Th Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Mst Mar-Apr Choor 118. Nonea edgeworthii A. DC. Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Mst Apr Choor 119. Pseudomertensia parviflorum (Decne.) Riedl H Np Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Apr-May Doop 30. Family Brassicaceae 120. Alliaria petiolata (M.Bieb.) Cavara & Grande Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Mst Apr-May Doop 121. Crucihimalaya himalaica (Edgew.) Al-Shehbaz, Th Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr Choor O'Kane & R.A.Price 122. Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. Th Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr Choor 123. Brassica rapa L. Th Mes Sim Decid NS Helio Clt Msc Apr-May Doop 124. Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik. Th Np Com Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Mar-Apr Choor 125. Cardamine hirsuta L. Th Np Com Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr Doop 126. Eruca vesicaria (L.) Cav. Th Lp Com Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr Choor Continued…

57 127. Lepidium apetalum Willd. Th Lp Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr-May Dardyal 128. Nasturtium officinale R.Br. G Np Com Eg NS Scio Wld Aq Apr Choor 129. Rorippa islandica (Oeder) Borbas H Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Aq July-Aug Dardyal 130. Thlaspi arvense L. Th Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Mar-Apr Choor 131. Turritis glabra L. H Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry Apr Dardyal 31. Family Buxaceae 132. Buxus wallichiana Baill. McP Np Sim Eg NS Helio Wld Msc July-Aug Manai 133. Sarcococca saligna Mull.Arg. NP Mic Sim Eg NS Scio Wld Mst July-Sep Panorai 32. Family Campanulaceae 134. Campanula pallida Wall. Th Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr Choor 33. Family Cannabaceae 135. Cannabis sativa L. Th Np Com Decid NS Helio Wld Dry May-Aug Dardyal 34. Family Caprifoliaceae 136. Valeriana jatamansi Jones G Mes Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst April Doop 137. Viburnum cotinifolium D. Don McP Mes Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Apr Choor 138. V. grandiflorum Wall.ex DC. McP Mes Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Oct-Nov Doop 35. Family Caryophyllaceae 139. Arenaria serpyllifolia (Rchb.) Nyman Th Lp Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr Choor 140. Cerastium fontanum Baumg. Th Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr Choor Continued…

58 141. Sagina apetala Ard. Th Lp Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr Choor 142. Vaccaria hispanica (Mill.) Rauschert Th Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr Choor 143. Silene conoidea L. Th Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr Choor 144. S.vulgaris (Moench) Garcke Th Np Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Apr Choor 145. Stellaria media (L.) Vill. Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Mst Apr Choor 36. Family Celasteraceae 146. Euonymus hamiltonianus Wall. McP Mes Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc July-Aug Doop 147. Gymnosporia wallichiana M.A.Lawson McP Mic Sim Decid S Helio Wld Msc May-Jun Choor 37. Family Commelinaceae 148. Commelina benghalensis L. H Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Mst July-Aug Choor 38. Family Convolvulaceae 149. Ipomoea nil (L.) Roth Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May-Aug Dardyal 150. I. purpurea (L.) Roth Th Mes Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May-Aug Dardyal 39. Family Cornaceae 151. Cornus macrophylla Wall. MsP Mes Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May Choor 40. Family Cucurbitaceae 152. Cucurbita pepo L. Th Mes Sim Decid NS Helio Clt Msc Jun-Aug Dardyal 153. Solena heterophylla Lour. G Mes Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May-Jun Dardyal Continued…

59 41. Family Cuscutaceae 154. Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Th (P) Ap Ap Eg NS Helio Wld Msc Jun-Aug Dardyal 42. Family Ebenaceae 155. Diospyros lotus L. McP Mes Sim Decid NS Helio Clt Msc Jun Dardyal 156. D. kaki L.f. McP Mes Sim Decid NS Helio Clt Msc Jun Dardyal 43. Family Elaeagnaceae 157. Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb. McP Mic Sim Decid S Helio Wld Msc Apr-May Archalai 44. Family Euphorbiaceae 158. Euphorbia helioscopia L. Th Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May-Jun Choor 159. E. hirta L. Th Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Jun-Aug Dardyal 160. E. indica Lam. Th Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Jun-July Dardyal 161. E. peplus L. Th Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May-Jun Manai 162. E. prostrata Aiton Th Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May-Jun Choor 163. E.wallichii Hook.f. Th Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Mst May-Jun Choor 45. Family Fagaceae 164. Quercus baloot Griff. McP Mic Sim Eg NS Helio Wld Dry Apr-May Kamyarai 165. Q. floribunda Lindl. ex A.Camus MsP Mes Sim Eg NS Helio Wld Dry Apr-May Mian bela 166. Q. incana Bartram MsP Mes Sim Eg NS Helio Wld Dry Apr-May Choor Continued…

60 167. Q. semecarpifolia Sm. MsP Mes Sim Eg NS Helio Wld Mst Apr-May Manai 46. Family Fumariaceae 168. Fumaria indica (Hausskn.) Pugsley Th Lp Com Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr Dardyal 47. Family Gentianaceae 169. Swertia cordata (Wall. ex G. Don) C.B. Clarke Th Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Aug-Sep Choor 170. S. paniculata Wall. Th Lp Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Aug-Sep Choor 48. Family Geraniaceae 171. Erodium cicutarium (L.) L'Her. Th Lp Com Decid NS Helio Wld Dry Apr-May Choor 172. Geranium mascatense Boiss. Th Mic Com Ecid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr Choor 173. G. rotundifolium L. Th Mic Com Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr Choor 174. G. wallichianum D.Don ex Sweet Th Mic Com Decid NS Scio Wld Mst July-Aug Doop 49. Family Guttiferae 175. Hypericum perforatum L. H Np Com Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Jun-Aug Dardyal 50. Family Haemodoraceae 176. Ophiopogon intermedius D.Don H Lp Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst May-Jun Choor 51. Family Hamamelidaceae 177. Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana (Decne.) Rehder McP Mes Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Mar-Apr Panorai 52. Family Hydrangeaceae 178. Deutzia staminea R.Br.exWall. NP Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc April Panorai Continued…

61 53. Family Juglandaceae 179. Juglans regia L. Mp Mes Com Decid NS Helio Clt Msc Apr Choor 54. Family Lamiaceae 180. Ajuga integrifolia Buch.-Ham. H Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry July-Aug Kamyarai 181. A. parviflora Benth. H Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry July-Aug Kamyarai 182. Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze H Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Mst July-Aug Choor 183. Clinopodium umbrosum (M.Bieb.) Kuntze H Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr-Jun Choor

184. Elsholtzia fruticosa (D. Don) Rehder H Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Aq July-Sep Doop 185. Lamium amplexicaule L. Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry Apr Choor 186. Leonurus cardiaca L. H Mic Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst June-Aug Archalai 187. Mentha longifolia (L.) L. G Np Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Jun-July Choor 188. M. spicata L. G Mic Sim Decid NS Scio Clt Mst Jun-July Choor 189. Micromeria biflora (Buch-Ham.ex D.Don) Benth. H Lp Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Dry July-Aug Choor 190. Nepeta laevigata (D.Don) Hand.-Mazz. H Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry Sep-Nov Choor 191. Origanum vulgare L. G Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry Jun-Aug Choor 192. Prunella vulgaris L. G Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr Panorai 193. Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.) Codd NP Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry July-Aug Choor 194. Salvia canariensis L. H Mic Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Apr Choor 195. S. nubicola Wall.ex Sweet H Mic Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst July-Aug Archalai Continued…

62 196. Scutellaria chamaedrifolia Hedge & A.J.Paton H Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr Choor 197. Stachys melissifolia Benth. H Mic Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Jun-July Choor 198. Teucrium royleanum Wall.ex Benth. H Mic Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Aug-Oct Choor 199. Thymus linearis Benth. Ch Lp Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry May-Sep Choor 200. Vitex negundo L. NP Mic Com Decid NS Helio Wld Dry May-Sep Dardyal 55. Family Malvaceae 201. Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench NP Mes Sim Decid NS Helio Clt Msc June-Aug Dardyal 202. Corchorus capsularis L. NP Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Clt Aq Jun-July Dardyal 203. Hibiscus syriacus L. McP Mes Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May-July Mian bela 204. Lavatera cashemiriana Cambess. Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Aug-Sep Choor 205. Malva neglecta Wallr. H Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry May-Aug Doop 56. Family Meliaceae 206. Melia azedarach L. MsP Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry Apri-May Tall 207. Toona sinensis (A. Juss.) M. Roem. MsP Mes Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May Mian bela 57. Family Moraceae 208. Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L'Her. ex Vent. MsP Mes Sim Decid NS Helio Clt Dry Apr Kamyarai 209. Ficus carica L. McP Mes Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry Jun-July Dardyal 210. F. sarmentosa Buch.-Ham. ex Sm. McP Mic Sim Eg NS Helio Wld Msc May-Jun Doop 211. Morus nigra L. McP Mes Sim Decid NS Helio Clt Msc Jun-July Dardyal Continued…

63 58. Family Myrsinaceae 212. Myrsine africana L. NP Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May-Jun Kamyarai 59. Family Myrtaceae 213. Eucalyptus camaldulensis L. MP Mic Sim Eg NS Helio Wld Dry April-May Samai 60. Family Nyctaginaceae 214. Mirabilis jalapa L. H Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Jun-Aug Dardyal 61. Family Oleaceae 215. Fraxinus excelsior L. NP Np Com Decid NS Helio Wld Dry May-Jun Kamyarai 216. Jasminum humile L. NP Np Com Decid NS Scio Wld Mst May-July Choor 217. Olea ferruginea Wall. ex Aitch. MP Np Sim Eg NS Helio Wld Dry Apr-May Dardyal 62. Family Onagraceae 218. Oenothera speciosa Nutt. H Np Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Apr-Aug Choor 219. Epilobium hirsutum L. H Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Aq July-Nov Doop 63. Family Orobanchaceae 220. Orobanche alba Stephan ex Willd. G Lp Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr Choor 64. Family Oxalidaceae 221. Oxalis corniculata L. Ch Np Com Decid NS Helio Wld Mst May-July Dardyal 65. Family Paeoniaceae 222. Paeonia emodi Royle G Mic Com Decid NS Scio Wld Mst May-Jun Doop Continued…

64 66. Family Papillionaceae 223. Astragalus grahamianus Benth. Th Mic Com Decid NS Helio Wld Dry Apr Kamyarai 224. Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth) Alston. MsP Np Com Decid S Helio Wld Dry Apr Samai 225. Desmodium elegans DC. MsP Mes Com Decid NS Helio Wld Msc July-Aug Doop 226. Indigofera heterantha Brandis NP Np Com Decid NS Helio Wld Dry Apr-May Kamyarai 227. Lathyrus aphaca L. Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr Panorai 228. L. sphaericus Retz. Th Lp Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry Apr Doop 229. Lens culinaris Medik. Th Lp Com Decid NS Helio Wld Dry Apr Choor 230. Lespedeza juncea (L.f.) Pers. H Np Com Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Jun-Aug Doop 231. Lotus corniculatus L. H Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr-Aug Choor 232. Medicago lupulina L. Th Np Com Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr-May Choor 233. M. monantha (C.A.Mey.) Trautv. Th Np Com Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr Choor 234. Oxytropis callophylla Vassilcz. H Np Com Decid NS Helio Wld Dry Apr-May Choor 235. Phaseolus vulgaris L. Th Mes Com Decid NS Helio Clt Msc May-Jun Samai 236. Robinia pseudoacacia L. MsP Mic Com Decid S Helio Wld Dry Apr Tall 237. Trifolium repens L. H Mic Com Decid NS Helio Wld Mst Apr-May Dardyal 238. Vicia monantha Retz. Th Np Com Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr Panora8 67. Family Passifloraceae 239. Passiflora caerulea L. H Mic Com Decid NS Helio Clt Msc May-Aug Dardyal Continued…

65 68. Phyllanthaceae 240. Leptopus cordifolius Decne. NP Mic Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst July-Aug Choor 69. Family Plantaginaceae 241. Plantago lanceolata L. H Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Mst May -Aug Choor 242. P. major L. H Mes Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Mst May -Aug Choor 70. Family Platanaceae 243. Platanus orientalis L. MP Mac Sim Decid NS Helio Clt Dry May -June Dardyal 71. Family Plumbaginaceae 244. Limonium cabulicum (Boiss.)Kuntze H Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry June-Aug Kamyarai 72. Family Polemoniaceae 245. Polemonium caeruleum L. H Lp Com Decid NS Scio Wld Mst May -June Doop 73. Family Polygonaceae 246. Fallopia dumetorum (L.) Holub Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry Aug -Sep Choor 247. Polygonum aviculare L. Th Np Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Msc May-Jun Dardyal 248. P. paronychioides C.A.Mey. H Lp Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc June -Aug Archalai 249. P. posumbu Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don H Mic Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst June-Aug Dardyal 250. Rumex dentatus L. H Mes Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst May -Aug Doop 251. R. hastatus D.Don H Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Aug-Oct Choor 252. Persicaria amplexicaulis (D.Don) Ronse Decr. H Mic Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst June -Aug Doop Continued…

66 253. P. hydropiper (L.) Delarbre H Mic Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Aq June-Sep Dardyal 254. P. maculosa Gray H Mic Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Aq June-Sep Dardyal 74. Family Polygalaceae 255. Polygala abyssinica R.Br. ex Fresen. H Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May- July Choor 256. P. sibirica L. H Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc June -Aug Choor 75. Family Primulaceae 257. Anagallis arvensis L. Th Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc April Choor 258. Androsace rotundifolia Hardw. H Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May -Aug Choor 76. Family Pyrolaceae 259. Pyrola rotundifolia L. Ch Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May Choor 77. Family Ranunculaceae 260. Aquilegia pubiflora Wall. ex Royle H Mic Com Decid NS Scio Wld Mst May -June Archalai 261. Clematis grata Wall. McP Mic Com Decid NS Scio Wld Mst May -June Archalai 262. C. graveolens Lindl. McP Np Com Decid NS Scio Wld Mst May -June Archalai 263. Delphinium uncinatum Hook.f. & Thomson H Mic Com Decid NS Helio Wld Mst Apr-May Doop 264. Ranunculus arvensis L. Th Lp Com Decid NS Helio Wld Msc April Choor 265. R. laetus Wall. ex Hook. f. & J.W. Thomson H Mic Com Decid NS Helio Wld Mst May -June Choor 78. Family Rhamnaceae 266. Sageretia thea (Osbeck) M.C. Johnst. NP Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry May-Jun Kamyarai Continued…

67 267. Ziziphus jujuba Mill. MsP Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Clt Dry Apr-May Dardyal 79. Family Rosaceae 268. Agrimonia eupatoria L. H Mic Com Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May-June Archalai 269. Cotoneaster microphyllus Wall.ex Lindl. NP Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry May-June Choor 270. C. nummularius Fisch. & C.A.Mey. McP Mes Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry May-June Choor 271. Crataegus songarica Koch McP Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr-May Manai 272. Cydonia oblonga Mill. McP Mes Sim Decid NS Helio Clt Msc Apr-May Dardyal 273. Duchesnea indica (Jacks.) Focke H Np Com Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Apr-May Choor 274. Fragaria vesca L. G Mic Com Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Apr-May Choor 275. Potentilla anserina L. H Mic Com Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr Choor 276. P.reptans L. Th Np Com Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr Choor 277. Prunus cerasoides Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don MP Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr-May Archalai 278. P. cornuta (Wall. ex Royle) Steud. MsP Mes Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr Archalai 279. P. domestica L. McP Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Clt Msc May Dardyal 280. P. persica (L.) Batsch McP Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Clt Msc Apr Dardyal 281. Pyrus communis L. McP Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Clt Msc Apr Dardyal 282. P. pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don McP Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Apr Choor 283. P. pseudopashia T.T.Yu McP Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May Mian bela 284. Rosa canina L. McP Mic Com Decid S Helio Wld Msc Apr Dardyal Continued…

68 285. R. moschata Herm. McP Mic Com Decid S Helio Wld Msc Apr-May Dardyal 286. Rubus fruticosus L. McP Mic Com Decid S Helio Wld Dry Apr Samai 287. R. sanctus Schreb. McP Mic Com Decid S Helio Wld Dry Apr-May Kamyarai 288. Sanguisorba minor Scop. H Np Com Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May-Jun Choor 289. Sorbaria tomentosa (Lindl.) Rhder McP Mic Com Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May Archalai 290. Spiraea canescens D.Don McP Mic Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Apr Choor 80. Family Rubiaceae 291. Galium aparine L. Th Lp Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Jun-Sep Doop 292. G. elegans Wall. ex Roxb. Th Np Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst Jun-Sep Doop 293. Rubia manjith Roxb. ex Fleming Th Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc Jun-Sep Dardyal 81. Family Rutaceae 294. Zanthoxylum armatum DC. McP Np Com Decid S Helio Wld Dry May Kamyarai 82. Family Salicaceae 295. Populus ciliata Wall. ex Royle MP Mes Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May-June Manai 296. Salix flabellaris Andersson MsP Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May-June Doop 297. S. tetrasperma Roxb. McP Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May-June Doop 83. Family Sapindaceae 298. Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Cambess.) Hook. MP Mes Com Decid NS Scio Wld Mst May Mian bela 299. Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. McP Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry Apr-March Kamyarai Continued…

69 84. Family Saxifragaceae 300. Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. H Mes Sim Eg NS Scio Wld Mst May-July Mian Bela 85. Family Scrophulariaceae 301. Scrophularia nodosa L. Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry June-July Dardyal 302. S. scabiosifolia Benth. Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry Jun-July Panorai 303. S. umbrosa Dumort. H Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc July -Aug Panorai 304. Verbascum thapsus L. H Mes Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry July-Aug Kamyarai 305. Veronica beccabunga L. H Np Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Aq July-Aug Choor 306. V. laxa Benth. Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc June-July Archalai 307. V. polita Fr. Th Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Mst March-Apr Choor 86. Family Simaroubaceae 308. Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle MsP Mic Com Decid NS Helio Clt Dry May Kamyarai 87. Family Smilacaceae 309. Smilax elegans Wall. ex Kunth NP Mes Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Mst Apr-May Choor 88. Family Solanaceae 310. Datura stramonium L. Th Mes Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry July -Aug Dardyal 311. Physalis divaricata D.Don. Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc June-July Mian-Bela 312. Solanum americanum Mill. Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry May-July Dardyal 313. S. pseudocapsicum L. Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Clt Msc June-July Mian-Bela Continued…

70 314. S. tuberosum L. G Mic Com Decid NS Helio Clt Msc May-Jun Dardyal 89. Family Thymelaeaceae 315. Daphne mucronata Royle NP Np Sim Eg NS Helio Wld Dry Apr-May Kamyarai 316. Wikstroemia canescens Wall. ex Meisn. NP Mic Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst July-Aug Choor 90. Family Ulmaceae 317. Celtis australis L. McP Np Com Decid NS Helio Wld Dry May-June Dardyal 318. C. caucasica Willd. MsP Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry May-June Dardyal 91. Family Urticaceae 319. Debregeasia saeneb (Forssk.) Hepper & Wood McP Mic Sim Eg NS Helio Wld Dry Apr-May Dardyal 320. Pilea umbrosa Blume H Mic Sim Decid NS Scio Wld Mst June-Aug Mian bela 321. Urtica dioica L. H Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May -Aug Manai 92. Family Verbenaceae 322. Verbena officinalis L. H Np Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Dry May-Aug Dardyal 93. Family Violaceae 323. Viola canescens Wall. Th Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May-July Doop 324. V.betonicifolia Sm. G Mic Sim Decid NS Helio Wld Msc May-Aug Choor

71 Key:

A. Life form: Therophyte (Th), Geophyte (G), Hemicryptophyte (H), Chamaephyte (Ch), Macrophanerophyte (MP), Mesophanerophyte (MsP), Microphanerophyte (McP), Nanophanerophyte (NP).

B. Leaf size: Aphyllous (Ap), Leptophyll (Lp), Nanophyll (Np), Microphyll (Mic), Mesophyll (Mes), Macrophyll (Mac), Megaphyll (Meg).

C. Leaf type: Simple (Sim), Compound (Com).

D. Leaf persistence: Deciduous (Decid), Evergreen (Eg).

E. Spiny nature: Spiny (S), Non-Spiny (NS).

F. Light tolerance: Heliopyhte (Helio), Sciophyte (Scio).

G. Cultivated (Clt), Wild (Wld).

H. Habitat form: Aquatic (Aq), Moist (Mst), Mesic (Msc), Dry (D).

72 Table-3.2: Summary of ecological attributes of plants of Tall Dardyal, Tehsil Kabal, District Swat, Pakistan.

S.No. Parameters Number Percentage (%)

1. Floristic diversity

i. Families 93 -

ii. Genera 251 -

iii. Total species 324 -

2. Habitat forms i. Dry 217 66.975

ii. Moist 92 28.395

iii. Aquatic 15 4.629

Total 324 99.99

3. Cultivated /wild i. Wild 297 91.666

ii. Cultivated 27 8.333

Total 324 99.99

4. Life form classes i. Therophytes 102 31.481

ii. Hemicryptophytes 89 27.469

iii. Geophytes 44 13.580

iv. Microphanerophytes 38 11.728

v. Mesophanerophytes 19 5.864

vi. Nanophanerophytes 17 5.246

vii. Macrophanerophytes 12 3.703

viii. Chamaephytes 03 0.925

Total 324 99.99

73 5. Leaf size classes i. Microphylls 130 40.123 ii. Nanophylls 112 34.567 iii. Mesophylls 42 12.962 iv. Leptophylls 35 10.802 v. Aphyllous 03 0.925 vi. Macrophylls 02 0.617

Total 324 99.99

6. Leaf type i. Simple 245 75.617 ii. Compound 76 23.456

Iii Aphyllous 03 0.925

Total 324 99.99

7. Leaf persistence i. Deciduous 298 91.975 ii. Evergreen 26 8.024

Total 324 99.99

8. Spiny nature i. Spiny 13 4.012 ii. Non-spiny 311 95.987

Total 324 99.99

9. Light tolerance i. Heliophytes 248 76.543 ii. Sciophytes 76 23.456

Total 324 99.99

102 89 `

44 38

19 17 12

Geophytes

Therophytes

Chamaephytes

Hemicryptophytes

Macrophanerophyte

Mesophanerophytes Microphanerophytes Nanophanerophytes

Figure-3.1: Percent life form of Tall Dardyal flora.

Leaf size spectra (%)

130

112

42 35

3 2 Microphylls Nanophylls Mesophylls Leptophylls Aphyllous Macrophylls Figure-3.2: Percent leaf spectra of Tall Dardyal flora.

75 3.2 Ethnobotanical Relevance

Out of 324 plant species recorded from the research area, 224 plants were used by the local inhabitants for various livelihoods (Table 3.3). These plant species were belonging to 75 families. Out of them, 183 were Dicot species, 32 Monocots, 05 Gymnosperms and 04 Pteridophytes. 125 (56.30%) species were used as fodder/forage; 78 (35.13%) species for fuel purpose; 75 (33.78%) species as medicinal plants; 17 (33.78%) as vegetables; 12 (5.40%) species as timber wood and 11 (4.95%) species for thatching purpose. Eight (3.60%) species were planted as fence around cultivated fields for protection against the grazing herbivores. Six (2.70%) species were used for making furniture and 05 (2.25%) species each for brooms making and as ornamental. Wild plant species which grows on roadsides add beauty to the area. Four plant species (1.80%) were cultivated as cereals and 04 species were used fruits. Poisonous plant species found were 04 (1.80%) e.g. Datura stramonium Euphorbia helioscopia, Persicaria maculosa and Urtica dioica. P. maculosa is crushed in fresh form and is then thrown in water body for checking fish. Due to its poisonous nature, fish come to the surface of water. Three plant species (1.35%) were swarmed by honey bees which contribute to honey production. Dish washing and herbal tea plant species (2 spp., each, 0.90%) were also found. Origanum vulgare was used by the indigenes as a detergent for washing dairy dishes. Fibre yielding, condiment/spice and milk curding plant species (01 spp., each, 0.45%) were also used by the local inhabitants of the area.

76 Table-3.3: List of Ethnobotanical uses of plants of Tall Dardyal, Tehsil Kabal, District Swat, Pakistan.

Vernacular Economic use classes S.No. Plant species name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 A. Pteridophytes 1. Family Dryopteridaceae 1. Dryopteris blanfordii (C.Hope) Babozay - + - - - + ------+ ------C. Chr. 2. Family Equisetaceae 2. Hippochaete debilis (Roxb.ex Bandakay ------+ ------Vaucher) Ching 3. Family Pteridaceae 3. Adiantum capillus-veneris L. Sumbal ------+ ------4. Onychium japonicum (D.Don) Unknown - + - - - + ------+ ------Christ B. Gymnospermae 4. Family Pinaceae 5. Abies pindrow (Royle ex D.Don) Kachal - - - - - + + ------+ ------Royle 6. Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss. Kandal - - - - - + + ------+ ------7. Pinus roxburghii Sarg. Nakhtar - - - - + + + - - + - - - + ------Continued…

77 8. P. wallichiana A.B.Jacks. Peoch/Sruf - - - - + + + - - + - - - + ------5. Family Taxaceae 9. Taxus wallichiana Zucc. Banrya - - - - - + ------+ ------C. Monocotyledonae 6. Family Acoraceae 10. Acorus calamus L. Sakhawaja ------+ ------7. Family Alliaceae 11. Allium cepa L. Peyaz ------+ ------12. A. griffithianum Boiss. Payazakay - - - - + ------13. A. sativum L. Oga ------+ ------8. Family Cyperaceae 14. Cyperus alopecuroides Rottb. Dela - - - - + ------15. C. imbricatus Retz. Dela - - - - + ------16. C. rotundus L. Dela - - - - + ------9. Family Liliaceae 17. Tulipa clusiana DC. Gantol - - - - + ------10. Family Poaceae 18. Alloteropsis cimicina (L.) Stapf Wakha - - - - + ------Arthraxon prionodes (Steud.) 19. Wakha - - - - + ------Dandy Continued…

78 20. Apluda mutica L. Wakha - - - - + ------21. Aristida contorta F.Muell. Wakha - - - - + ------22. A. mutabilis Trin.&Rupr. Wakha - - - - - + ------23. Arundo donax L. Nul - - - - - + ------+ ------24. Avena sativa L. Jamdar - - - - + ------25. Brachypodium sylvaticum Wakha - - - - + ------(Huds.) P.Beauv. 26. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Kabal - - - - + ------27. Dactylis glomerata L. Wakha - - - - + ------28. Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Wakha - - - - + ------Stapf 29. Echinochloa crus-galli Wakha - - - - + ------(L.) P.Beauv. 30. Festuca gigantea (L.) Vill. Wakha - - - - + ------31. Helictotrichon junghuhnii (Buse) Wakha - - - - + ------Henrard 32. Miscanthus nepalensis (Trin.) Wakha - - - - + ------Hack. 33. Oryza sativa L. Werajy - - - - + ------+ - - - 34. Pennisetum orientale Rich. Pesho lamy - - - - + ------Continued…

79 35. Piptatherum gracile Mez Wakha - - - - + ------36. Poa bulbosa L. Wakha - - - - + ------37. P. pratensis L. Wakha - - - - + ------38. Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. & Wakha - - - - + ------Schult. 39. Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. Dadam - - - - + ------40. Triticum aestivum L. Ganum - - - - + - - - - + ------+ - - - 41. Zea mays L. Jawar - - - - + ------+ - - - D. Dicotyledonae 11. Family Amaranthaceae 42. Amaranthus caudatus L. Chalwaye - - - - + ------+ - - - - 43. A. viridis L. Chalwaye - - - - + ------+ - - - - 44. Chenopodium album L. Sarmay ------+ - - - - - + - - - - 45. Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Tor skhaboty ------+ ------Mosyakin & Clemants 46. D. botrys (L.) Mosyakin & Skha khawa ------+ ------Clemants 12. Family Anacardiaceae 47. Pistacia chinensis (Stewart ex Shanai ------+ ------Brandis) Rech.f Continued…

80 48. Rhus chinensis Mill. Tetray - - - - + - - - - + ------13. Family Apocynaceae 49. Vinca major L. Unknown - - + ------+ ------14. Family Aquifoliaceae 50. Ilex dipyrena Wall. Tambara - - - - - + ------15. Family Araliaceae 51. Hedera nepalensis K.Koch Zela - - - - - + - - - + ------16. Family Asparagaceae 52. Asparagus capitatus Browicz Tendorai ------+ - - - - - + - - - - 17. Family Asteraceae 53. Anaphalis triplinervis (Sims) Unknown - - - - - + ------Sims ex C.B.Clarke 54. Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Jokay ------+ ------Kitam. 55. A.vulgaris L. Tarkha ------+ ------56. Cichorium intybus L. Han - - - - + - - - - + ------57. Erigeron bonariensis L. Speen golay - - - - - + - - - + ------58. Lactuca dissecta D.Don Unknown - - - - + ------59. L. serriola L. Unknown - - - - + ------Continued…

81 60. Parthenium hysterophorus L. Unknown - - - - - + ------61. Blumea viscosa (Mill.) Unknown - - - - - + ------V.M.Badillo 62. Senecio nudicaulis Buch. -Ham. Unknown - - - - + ------ex D.Don 63. Sonchus asper (L.) Hill Shoda pai - - - - + ------64. Tagetes minuta L. Dambar golay - - - - - + ------65. Taraxacum campylodes Unknown - - - - + ------G.E.Haglund 66. Xanthium strumarium L. Geshay - - - - - + ------18. Family Balsaminaceae 67. Impatiens bicolor Royle Atrang ------+ ------19. Family Berberidaceae 68. Berberis lycium Royle Kwaray - - + - + + - - - + ------20. Family Betulaceae 69. Alnus nitida (Spach) Endl. Geray - - - - - + ------+ ------21. Family Brassicaceae 70. Alliaria petiolata (M.Bieb.) Unknown - - - - + ------Cavara & Grande 71. Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. Unknown - - - - + ------Continued…

82 72. Brassica rapa L. Sharsham - - - - + ------73. Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Unknown - - - - + ------Medik. 74. Cardamine hirsuta L. Unknown - - - - + ------75. Eruca vesicaria (L.) Cav. Jamama - - - - + ------+ - - - - 76. Lepidium apetalum Willd. Unknown - - - - + ------77. Nasturtium officinale R.Br. Talmera ------+ - - - - - + - - - - 78. Rorippa islandica (Oeder) Unknown - - - - + ------Borbas. 79. Thlaspi arvense L. Unknown - - - - + ------80. Turritis glabra L. Unknown - - - - + ------22. Family Buxaceae 81. Buxus wallichiana Baill. Shamshad - - - - - + ------82. Sarcococca saligna Mull.Arg. Bekanr - - - - - + - - - + ------23. Family Cannabanaceae 83. Cannabis sativa L. Bang - - - - - + - - - + ------24. Family Caprifoliaceae 84. Valeriana jatamansi Jones Banafsha ------+ ------85. Viburnum cotinifolium D. Don. Shanglu - - - - + + ------Continued…

83 86. V. grandiflorum Wall.ex DC. Gaz mewa - - - - - + - - - + ------25. Family Caryophyllaceae 87. Cerastium fontanum Baumg. Unknown - - - - + ------88. Sagina apetala Ard. Unknown - - - - + ------89. Vaccaria hispanica (Mill.) Unknown - - - - + ------Rauschert 90. Silene conoidea L. Unknown - - - - + ------91. Stellaria media (L.) Vill. Unknown - - - - + ------26. Family Celasteraceae 92. Euonymus hamiltonianus Wall. Unknown - - - - - + ------93. Gymnosporia wallichiana Unknown - - - - + + ------M.A.Lawson 27. Family Convolvulaceae 94. Ipomoea nil (L.) Roth Zela - - - - + ------95. I. purpurea (L.) Roth Zela - - - - + ------28. Family Cornaceae 96. Cornus macrophylla Wall. Khadang - - - - + + - - - + - - + ------29. Family Cucurbitaceae 97. Cucurbita pepo L. Kado ------+ - - - - - + - - - - Continued…

84 98. Solena heterophylla Lour. Gangora ------+ ------30. Family Cuscutaceae 99. Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Macha zeela ------+ ------31. Family Ebenaceae 100. Diospyrus lotus L. Toor amlook - - - - - + - - - + ------+ - - 101. D. kaki L. Zer amlook - - - - - + ------+ - - 32. Family Elaeagnaceae 102. Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb. Ghanam ranga - - - - + + - - - + ------33. Family Euphorbiaceae 103 Euphorbia helioscopia L. Mandanro - - - + ------104. E. indica Lam. Chagzay botay ------+ - - - - - + - - - - 105. E. prostrata Aiton Unknown - - - - + ------106. E. wallichii Hook.f. Unknown ------+ ------34. Family Fagaceae 107. Quercus baloot Griff. Banj - - - - - + ------108. Q. floribunda Lindl. ex A.Camus Par banj + - - - - + ------+ ------109. Q. incana Bartram Speen banj + - - - + + - - - + - - + ------110. Q. semecarpifolia Sm. Mayer + - - - - + ------+ ------Continued…

85 35. Family Fumariaceae 111. Fumaria indica (Hausskn.) Papra - - - - + - - - - + ------Pugsley 36. Family Gentianaceae 112. Swertia cordata (Wall.ex G.Don) Loon saloon - - - - + ------C.B.Clarke 113. S. paniculata Wall. Unknown - - - - + ------37. Family Geraniaceae 114. Geranium mascatense Bioss. Unknown - - - - + ------38. Family Guttiferae 115. Hypericum perforatum L. Sheen chai ------+ + + ------39. Family Hamamelidaceae 116. Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana Barang + - - - + + ------+ ------(Decne.) Rehder 40. Family Hydrangeaceae 117. Deutzia staminea R.Br.ex.Wall. Unknown - - - - - + ------41. Family Juglandaceae 118. Juglans regia L. Goz - - - - + + + - - + ------42. Family Lamiaceae 119. Ajuga integrifolia Buch.-Ham. Boti ------+ ------Continued…

86 120. A. parviflora Benth. Boti ------+ ------121. Clinopodium umbrosum Unknown - - - - + ------(M.Bieb.) Kuntze 122. Mentha longifolia (L.) L. Enalay ------+ ------123. M.spicata L. Podina ------+ ------124. Micromeria biflora (Buch- Naray - - - - + ------Ham.ex D.Don) Benth. Shamakay 125. Nepeta laevigata (D.Don) Unknown - - - - + ------Hand.-Mazz 126. Origanum vulgare L. Shamakay ------+ - - - - + - - - - - 127. Prunella vugaris L. Unknown - - - - + ------128. Isodon rugosus (Wall.ex Bortus - - - - + + - - + + ------Benth.)Codd 129. Salvia canariensis L. Keyanr ------+ - - - - - + - - - - 130. S.nubicola Wall.ex Sweet Unknown - - - - + ------131. Scutellaria chamaedrifolia Hedge Unknown - - - - + ------& A.J.Paton 132. Thymus linearis Benth. Sperkai ------+ + + - - - - + - - - - - 133. Vitex negundo L. Marwandai - - + ------+ ------

Continued…

87 43. Family Malvaceae 134. Abelmoschus esculentus Bandy (L.) Moench ------+ - - - - 135. Corchorus capsularis L. saand ------+ 136. Hibiscus syriacus L. Unknown ------+ ------137. Malva neglecta Wallr. Panirak - - - - + - - - - + - - - - - + - - - - 44. Family Meliaceae 138. Toona sinensis (A.Juss.) Skha wonay - - - - - + ------+ ------M.Roem. 139. Melia azedarach L. Shandy + - - - - + - - - + - - - + ------45. Family Moraceae 140. Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) Gul tut - - - - - + ------L.Her.ex Vent. 141. Ficus carrica L. Anzar ------+ ------142. F. sarmentosa Buch.-Ham.ex Unknown - - - - - + ------sm. 143. Morus nigra L. Tut + - - - + + + ------46. Family Myrsinaceae 144. Myrsine africana L. Manro gaya - - - - + + ------47. Family Myrtaceae 145. Eucalyptus camaldulensis L. Lachi - - - - - + ------+ ------Continued…

88 48. Family Nyctaginaceae 146. Mirabilis jalapa L. Tora Panra ------+ ------49. Family Oleaceae 147. Fraxinus excelsior L. Unknown - - - - + + ------148. Olea ferruginea Wall.ex Aitch. Khona - - - - + + - - - + ------50. Family Onagraceae 149. Oenothera speciosa Nutt. Unknown - - - - + ------51. Family Oxalidaceae 150. Oxalis corniculata L. Zamkey tarokay - - - - + ------+ - - - - 52. Family Paeoniaceae 151. Paeonia emodi Royle Mamekh/Ward ------+ ------53. Family Papillionaceae 152. Astragalus grahamianus Benth. Kechpach - - - - + ------+ - - - - 153. Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth) Bar botay - - + ------Alston. 154. Desmodium elegans DC. Jamkaat - - - - + + ------+ ------155. Indigofera heterantha Brandis Goreja - + - - + + - - - + ------156. Lathyrus aphaca L. Unknown - - - - + ------157. L. sphaericus Retz. Pesho Kolma - - - - + ------Continued…

89 158. Lens culinaris Medik. Unknown - - - - + ------159. Lespedeza juncea (L.f.) Pers. Jalan - - - - + + ------160. Lotus corniculatus L. Unknown - - - - + ------161. Medicago lupulina L. Peshtaray - - - - + ------+ - - - - 162. Oxytropis callophylla Vassilcz. Unknown - - - - + ------163. Phaseolus vulgaris L. Shopar ------+ - - - 164. Robinia pseudoacacia L. Kekar - - - - + + ------165. Trifolium repens L. Chapatra - - - - + ------166. Medicago monantha (C.A.Mey.) Peshtaray - - - - + ------Trautv. 167. Vicia monantha Retz. Margy Khapa - - - - + ------54. Family Passifloraeae 168. Passiflora coerulea L. Unknown ------+ ------55. Family Phyllanthaceae 169. Leptopus cordifolius Decne. Speen Karachay - - - - - + ------56. Family Plantaginaceae 170. Plantago lanceolata L. Unknown - - - - + ------171. P. major L. Jabai - - - - + - - - - + ------Continued…

90 57. Family Platanaceae 172. Platanus orientalis L. - - - - + + - - - + - - - + ------58. Family Polemoniaceae 173. Polemonium caeruleum L. Unknown - - - - + + ------59. Family Polygonaceae 174. Persicaria amplexicaulis (D.Don) Unknown - - - - + ------Ronse Decr. 175. P. maculosa Gray Pulpolak - - - + ------176. Fallopia dumetorum (L.) Holub Unknown - - - - + ------177. Polygonum posumbo Buch.- Unknown - - - - + ------Ham.ex D.Don 178. Rumex dentatus L. Shalkhey - - - - + ------+ - - - - 179. R.hastatus D.Don. Tarokay - - - - + + - - - + - - - - - + - - - - 60. Family Polygalaceae 180. Polygala abyssinica R.Br.ex Unknown - - - - + ------Fresen. 181. P. sibirica L. Unknown - - - - + ------61. Family Primulaceae 182. Anagallis arvensis L. Unknown - - - - + ------Continued…

91 62. Family Ranunculaceae 183. Aquilegia pubiflora Wall. ex Bajar dantee - - - - + ------Royle 184. Clematis grata Wall. Zela - - - - + + ------185. C. graveolens Lindl Zela - - - - + + ------186. Delphinium uncinatum Hook.f. & Lajward - - - - + ------Thomson 187. Ranunculus arvensis L. Unknown - - - - + ------188. R. laetus Wall. ex Hook.f. & ------+ ------J.W.Thomson 63. Family Rhamnaceae 189. Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Bera - - - - + + - - - + ------64. Family Rosaceae 190. Cotoneaster microphyllus Kharawa - - - - + + ------Wall.ex Lindl. 191. C. nummularius Fisch. & Naray Kharawa + - - - + + - - - + ------C.A.Mey. 192. Crataegus songarica Koch. Taampasa - - - - - + - - - + ------193. Cydonia oblanga Mill. Beha ------+ ------+ - - 194. Fragaria vesca L. Shatkarey ------+ ------Continued…

92 195. Prunus cerasoides Buch.-Ham.ex Annang - - - - - + - - - + ------D.Don 196. P. cornuta (Wall.ex Royle) Changa/Bareed - - - - - + - - - + - - - + ------Steud. 197. P. domestica L. Alocha - - - - - + ------+ - - 198. Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham.ex Tangai - - - - + + ------D.Don 199. Rosa canina L. Zangali gulab - - + ------200. R. moschata Herm. Qurach - - + ------201. Rubus fruticosus L. Karwara - - + ------+ ------202. R. sanctus Schreb. Baganra - - + ------+ ------203. Spiraea canescens D. Don Soor karachay - - - - + + ------65. Family Rutaceae 204. Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Damabar ------+ ------+ - 66. Family Salicaceae 205. Populus ciliata Wall. ex Royle Popular - - - - - + ------+ ------206. Salix flabellaris Andersson Zangali karwala + - - - + + - - - + ------207. S. tetrasperma Roxb. Karwala + - - - + + ------67. Family Sapindaceae 208. Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Jawaz Cambess.) Hook. - - - - - + - - - + - - - + ------Continued…

93 209. Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. Ghwaraskai - + - - - + ------+ ------68. Family Scrophulariaceae 210. Scrophularia nodosa L. Zagzagai - - - - + ------211. Verbascum thapsus L. Kharghwag ------+ ------212. Veronica polita Fr. Mekhakai - - - - + ------69. Family Simaroubaceae 213. Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Bakyanara - - - - + + ------Swingle 70. Family Smilaceae 214. Smilax elegans Wall.ex Kunth Zela - - - - + + ------71. Family Solanaceae 215. Datura stramonium L. Harhanda - - - + - - - - - + ------216. Solanum americanum Mill. Kachmacho ------+ - - - - - + - - - - 217. S. pseudocapsicum L. Unknown ------+ ------72. Family Thymelaceae 218. Daphne mucronata Royle Legonay - - - - - + - - - + ------219. Wikstroemia canescens Wall.ex Katanr - + - - - + - - - - + ------Meisn. 73. Family Ulmaceae 220. Celtis australis L. Tor tagah - - - - - + ------Continued…

94 221. C. caucasica Willd. Zer tagah - - - - - + ------74. Family Urticaceae 222. Debregeasia saeneb (Forssk.) Ajlai - - - - - + - - - + ------Hepper & J.R.I.Wood 223. Urtica dioica L. Jalbhang - - - + ------75. Family Violaceae 224. Viola canescens Wall. Banafsha - - - - + - - - - + ------

Key:

1. Agricultural tool 2. Broom making 3. Fencing/hedge 4. Poisonous plants 5. Fodder/forage

6. Fuel wood 7. Furniture making 8. Herbal tea 9. Honey bee species 10. Medicinal

11. Milk curding 12. Ornamental 13.Thatching 14.Timber wood 15. Utensil washing

16. Vegetables 17. Cereals 18. Fruits 19. Condiment/spice 20. Fibres.

95 Table-3.4: Summary of economic use classes of plants of Tall Dardyal, Tehsil Kabal, District Swat, Pakistan.

S.No. Economic Use Classes No. of Species Percentage

1. Fodder/forage 125 56.30

2. Fuel 78 35.13

3. Medicinal 75 33.78

4. Vegetables 17 7.65

5. Timber wood 12 5.40

6. Thatching 11 4.95

7. Agriculture tool 9 4.05

8. Fencing/Hedge 8 3.60

9. Furniture making 6 2.70

10. Broom making 5 2.25

11. Ornamental 5 2.25

12. Fruits 4 1.80

13. Cereals 4 1.80

14. Poisonous plants 4 1.80

15. Honey bee species 3 1.35

16. Herbal tea 2 0.90

17. Dish washing 2 0.90

18. Condiment/spice 1 0.45

19. Fibres 1 0.45

20. Milk curding 1 0.45

96 Use Classes of plant species 140 120 100 80 60 40

Fruits

Fibers

Cereals

Fodder

Medicinal Thatching

Herbal tea Herbal

Vegetables

Ornamental

Condiments

Fuel PurposeFuel curding Milk

Timber wood Timber

Dish washing Dish

Broom making Broom

Fencing/Hedge

Agriculture tool Agriculture

Poisonous plants Poisonous Furniture making Furniture Honey bee species bee Honey

Figure-3.3: Percent economic uses of plants of Tall Dardyal.

3.3 Ethnomedicinal relevance

3.3.1 Diversity of medicinal plants

A total of 71 medicinal plant species belonging to 48 families were reported to treat about 40 human disorders. Family Rosaceae (08 species) was the predominant over others followed by Lamiaceae (06), Asteraceae (04), Chenopodiaceae and Pinaceae three species each, Anacardiaceae, Malvaceae, Solanaceae and Euphorbiaceae with two species each. Rest of the families have only one species each (Table 3.5).

3.3.2 Uses of herbal medicines

Local inhabitants of the study area were poor class families. Due to low income resources, lack of and non-accessibility of modern health facilities; indigenous people prepare herbal drugs at home for the treatment of various diseases on their own. Ajuga integrifolia, Thymus linearis, Artemisia vulgaris, Berberis lycium, Dysphania botrys and Sarcococca saligna are those plant species which possess important position in the local health care system to treat various ailments (Table 3.5). It was observed that local people who are abroad also keep these plant materials in powder form for instant health care

97 to combat some common disorders. Common diseases treated with these plant species were arthritis, kidney stone, typhoid fever, stomach problems, hepatitis, jaundice and diabetes. The more common herbal species used for the treatment of arthritis were Ajuga integrifolia, Datura stramonium. Kidney stone was treated with Hippochaete debilis while typhoid fever was treated with Cichorum intybus, Sarcococca saligna, Origanum vulgare, Thymus linearis and Platanus orientalis. Acorus calamus, Mentha longifolia, T. linearis, Isodon rugosus, Artemisia scoparia, Aesculus indica, Hypericum perforatum, Olea ferruginea were used for stomach problems while Hedera nepalensis was supposed to be very effective against diabetes.

3.3.3 Plant parts used as herbal therapy

The current study revealed that diverse plant growth forms were used for medicinal purposes. The largest proportion of indigenous medicinal plants used by local community were wild herbs (44%) followed by wild shrubs (21%), wild trees (13%), cultivated trees (8%), wild and cultivated trees (06%), cultivated herbs and wild climbers (3%), cultivated shrubs, wild and cultivated herbs 01% each (Fig. 3.4). Plant parts used as herbal remedies comprised of leaves (33%) followed by whole plant and fruits (16%), bark (09%), seed (07%), root (06%), young shoot (05%), rhizome (04%), fresh flower, fruit pulp, husk and resin 01% each (Fig. 3.5).

3.3.4 Route of application and preparation of herbal medicines

Oral mode of administration (80%) was the principal application mode of herbal preparation followed by topical treatment (18%). Most common herbal preparation used by the local community were decoction (33%) followed by powder (20%), infusion and juice (12%), paste and vegetable cooking (05%), chewing, warming, oil, milk mix 3% each and rubbing (01%) (Fig. 3.6).

98 Table-3.5: Indigenous uses of medicinal plants from Tall Dardyal, Tehsil Kabal, District Swat, Pakistan.

aVernacular c Part(s) Use Family Plant Species bHabit Occurrence Therapeutic uses Application d FC name Preparations value Wd/Clt, Rh, Powder Acoraceae Acorus calamus L. Skhawaja Rare Abdomen Pain Oral 0.83 15 Hr Lvs, chewing

Chenopodium album L. Sarmay Wd,Hr common Lvs, cooking vegetable ,Laxative Oral 0.38 3

Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Tor skhaboty Wd,Hr common WP, juice Diabetes Oral 0.67 8 Amaranthaceae Mosyakin & Clemant D. botrys (L.) Mosyakin & Lvs Juice Sore throat/buccal Oral Skha Kharawa Wd, Hr uncommon 0.91 20 Clemants Powder ulcer, Sore arm pit Topical Pistacia chinensis Lvs, Br Shanai Wd, Tr uncommon Jaundice Oral 0.76 13 Anacardiaceae (J. L. Stewart ex Brandis) Rech.f. decoction Rhus chinensis Mill. Tetray Wd, Tr Rare Fr, decoction Diabetes Oral 0.41 7 Lvs + Zizyphus Araliaceae Hedera nepalensis K.Koch Tora panra Wd,Cl common nummularia Lvs, Diabetes Oral 0.73 8 decoction Asparagus asiaticus L. Yng sh,decoction Increase milk in Asparagaceae Tendorai Wd,Hr uncommon Oral 0.57 4 in milk lactating women Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Yng sh, F, Jawkai Wd, Hr common Carminative, digestive Oral 0.88 15 Kitam. Powder Lvs Wound (antiseptic), Topical Asteraceae A. vulgaris L. Tarkha Wd, Hr common warming stop bleeding, pimple, 1.00 25 Decoction Vermifuge, diabetes Oral Cichorium intybus L. Han Wd,Hr common WP, decoction Typhoid fever Oral 0.29 2 Erigeron bonariensis L. Speen golay Wd, Hr abundant WP Decoction Diarrhea Oral 0.88 14 Continued…

99 Balsaminaceae Impatiens bicolor Royle Atrang Wd,Hr common S Brain tonic Oral 0.20 1 Reduce body heat, Rt, Decoction wound (antiseptic), Rt, powder Berberidaceae Berberis lycium Royle Kwaray Wd, Sr abundant Tonic Oral 1.00 27 Yng sh, brush Teeth cleaning, Br,decoction Hepatitis Brassicaceae Nasturtium officinale R.Br. Termera Wd,Hr common WP ,vegetable Hypertension Oral 0.29 2 Lvs, decoction Reduce body heat Hepatitis, Stop Buxaceace Sarcococca saligna Mull.Arg. Bakanr Wd, Sr common Oral 0.92 24 menses Rt, decoction Typhoid fever Canabinaceae Cannabis sativa L. Bhang Wd, Sr common Lvs, warming Back and Knee ache Topical 0.20 1 Viburnum grandiflorum Wall. ex Caprifoliaceae Gaz meva Wd, Sr common Fr Tonic Oral 0.14 1 DC. Br Back ache, jaundice, Cornaceae Cornus macrophylla Wall. Khadang Wd, Tr Rare Oral 0.88 15 Powder or use in stomach ulcer black tea Cucurbitaceae Cucurbita pepo L. Kado Clt,Hr common Lvs , rubbing Mosquito repellent Topical 0.50 1 WP Jaundice Oral Cuscutaceae Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Macha zeela Wd, Cl common Infusion Hair tonic, 0.83 15 Topical Paste antidandruff Ebenaceae Diospyros lotus L. Tor amlook Clt, Tr common Fr Diarrhea Oral 0.42 5 Ghanaum Elaegnaceae Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb. Wd, Sr uncommon Fr Tonic Oral 0.29 4 ranga Continued…

100 Hippochaete debilis (Roxb. ex Ghandal Equisetaceae Wd,Hr common WP, decoction Remove kidney stone Oral 0.67 10 Vaucher) Ching botay/bandakay Euphorbia indica Lam. Chagzay botay Wd,Hr common WP, infusion Diabetes Oral 0.43 3 Euphorbiaceae WP E. wallichii Hook.f. Mandanro Wd, Hr uncommon Vermifuge (dogs) Oral 0.20 1 Juice Quercus incana Bartram S, Decoction in Urinary retention Fagaceae Speen banj Wd, Tr common Oral 0.57 4 oil (children),asthma WP Fumaria indica (Hausskn.) Pugsley Fumariaceae Papra Wd, Hr common Powder Diarrhea Oral 0.20 1 Juice Gutiferae Hypericum perforatum L. Sheen chai Wd, Hr uncommon Lvs, Decoction Stomach acidity Oral 0.29 2 Abdomen pain Lvs (Cattle) Juglandaceae Juglans regia L. Goz Clt, Tr common Br Teeth and gum Oral 1.00 17 Fr protective Brain tonic Antiseptic, cancer, WP, decoction diarrhea, arthritis, Oral reduce body heat, Lamiaceae Ajuga integrifolia Buch.-Ham. Boti Wd, Hr common throat and internal 1.00 36 Paste body infection Topical Pimple Stomach acidity Lvs, infusion Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.) Reduce body heat Bortus Wd,Sr abundant Oral 0.93 25 Codd. Chewing in Vermifuge Lamiaceae mouth Buccal ulcer Lvs, powder, Digestive, abdomen Mentha longifolia (L.) L. Enaley Wd,Hr common Oral 0.63 5 decoction pain, constipation Continued…

101 Origanum vulgare L. Dang shamaky Wd,Hr common WP, decoction Typhoid fever Oral 0.44 4 Lvs,cooking, Salvia canariensis L. Keyanr Wd, Hr common Vegetable, Laxative, constipation Oral 0.88 14

Typhoid fever, Thymus linearis Benth. Sperkai Wd,Hr abundant WP, infusion asthma, stomach Oral 1.00 32 problems, hepatitis Corchorus capsularis L. Saand Clt, Sr uncommon S, powder Head ache Oral 0.20 1

Malvaceae Malva neglecta Wallr. Lvs, cooking Panerak Wd,Hr common Laxative ,constipation Oral 0.14 1 .vegetable Melia azedarach L. Meliaceae Bakyanra Clt ,Tr abundant S, powder Pimple on eye Topical 0.50 2

Br + Artimesia Sterility Lvs +Juglans Hemorrhoids/ piles, Moraceae Ficus carica L. Anzar Wd/Clt,Tr common Br reduce body Oral 0.63 5 Fr heat/cooling effect Stomach acidity, Wd Yng Lvs, reduce body Oleaceae Olea ferruginea Wall. ex Aitch. Khona common Oral 0.94 17 /Clt,Tr decoction heat/cooling effect, teeth pain Back ache Paeoniaceae Paeonia emodi Royle Mamekh/ward Wd, Hr rare Rh , powder menstruation and Oral 1.00 16 increase milk (cattle) F Lvs, paste Wound (antiseptic) Papilionaceae F Fl, juice Diarrhea Topical Indigofera heterantha Brandis Ghoreja Wd, Sr abundant 1.00 22 Rt, decoction Stomach acidity Oral Stem, oil Ringworm Continued…

102 Reduce body Abies pindrow (Royle ex D.Don) Kachal Wd,Tr common Lvs, infusion heat/cooling effect, Oral 0.25 3 Royle jaundice Re, paste Pimple Topical Pinus roxburghii Sarg. Re, mix with Tonic Oral Pinaceae Nakhtar Wd/Clt,Tr abundant 0.45 5 milk Jaundice, ample Lvs, decoction menstruation Reduce body heat Wd P. wallichiana A.B.Jacks. Sruf/gurgay abundant Lvs , powder both human and Oral 0.75 9 /Clt,Tr cattles Platanaceae Platanus orientalis L. Chenar Clt,Tr common Br,decoction Typhoid fever Oral 0.33 1

Plantaginaceae Plantago major L. Jabai Wd,Hr common WP ,juice Chicken pox Topical 0.29 2

Poaceae Triticum aestivum L. Ganum Clt,Hr abundant H, infusion Diabetes Oral 0.17 1

Rumex hastatus D. Don Polygonaceae Shalkhy Wd,Hr abundant F rt, juice Ringworm Topical 0.50 4

Reduce body Pteridaceae Adiantum capillus-veneris L. Sumbal Wd,Hr common Lvs ,decoction Oral 0.42 5 heat/cooling effect Ranunculus laetus Wall. ex Hook. Ranunculaceae Jabey taqay Wd,Hr common Rh, juice Ringworm ,pimple Topical 0.25 2 f. & J.W. Thomson

Rhamnaceae Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Markhnry Clt,Tr uncommon Lvs, infusion Diabetes Oral 0.83 15

Cotoneaster nummularius Fisch. & Rt, powder, Rosaceae Kharawa Wd,Sr common Allergy Oral 0.58 7 C.A.Mey. cooking in flour Continued…

103 Diabetes, sore throat, Cydonia oblonga Mill. Beha Clt,Tr rare Fr plp, juice Oral 0.93 14 hypertension

Fragaria nubicola (Lindl. ex Hook.f.) Lacaita Shatkari Wd,Hr abundant Fr Tonic Oral 0.20 1 Prunus cerasoides Buch.-Ham. ex Kacha Wd,Tr uncommon Fr Tonic Oral 0.40 2 D.Don cherry/Annang

P. cornuta (Wall. ex Royle) Steud. Changa/Bareed Wd,Tr uncommon Fr Tonic Oral 0.57 4

Rosa moschata Herrm. S + Viola Qurach Wd,Sr common canescence Lvs , Cold ,flu Oral 0.71 5 decoction Increase blood level, Rubus sanctus Schreb. Baganra Wd,Sr common Fr tonic Oral 0.38 3 R. vestitus Weihe Karwara Wd,Sr common Fr Tonic Oral 0.29 2 Reduce boy Rutaceae Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Dambara Wd,Sr uncommon S, powder heat/cooling effect Oral 0.50 4 Yng sh, Salicaceae Salix flabellaris Andersson Jangali wala Wd,Tr uncommon Cooling effect Oral 0.14 1 decoction Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Fr Abdomen pain, Sapindaceae Jawaz Wd, Tr uncommon Oral 1.00 11 Cambess.) Hook. Seed, Powder jaundice Ear and backbone Scropulariaceae Verbascum thapsus L. Khar ghwag Wd,Hr common Lvs ,warming Topical 0.82 9 ache Datura stramonium L. Harhanda Wd, Hr uncommon S Arthritis Oral 0.36 5 Solanaceae Solanum americanum Mill. Kachmacho Wd,Hr common Lvs, Fr, juice Diabetes, measles Oral 0.71 12 Fr, powder Laxative, constipation Oral Thymelaeaceae Daphne mucronata Royle Leghonay Wd,Sr abundant 0.25 2 Br,infusion Kill Picks( animals) Topical Continued…

104 Debregeasia saeneb (Forssk.) Fever , reduce body Urticaceae Ajlai Wd,Sr common Lvs, infusion Oral 0.47 7 Hepper & J.R.I.Wood heat/cooling effect Reduce body Violaceae Viola canescens Wall. Banagsha Wd,Hr common WP, decoction Oral 0.95 21 heat,cold,flu F, Lvs Teeth pain Vitaceae Vitex negundo L. Marwandai Wd,Sr uncommon Oral 0.29 2 Juice decoction Allergy

a Local language of vernacular names are in ---Pashto.

b Wd: Wild; Clt: Cultivated; Hr: Herb; Tr: Tree; Cl: Climber.

c S: Seed; F, Lvs: Fresh Leaves ; Yng, Lvs: Young Leaves; F, Fl: Fresh Flowers; Fr: Fruit; WP: Whole Plant; Br: Bark; F, Rt: Fresh Roots; Rh: Rhizome; H: Husk ;

Fr,plp: Fruit pulp; Yng, Sh: Young Shoot; Re: Resin

d Informants frequency of citation

105 Clt,Hr Wd,Cl Clt, Sr Wd/Clt Hr Wd,Clt Sr 3% 3% 1% 1% 0% Wd/Clt Tr 6% Clt, Tr 8% Wd, Hr 44% Wd,Tr 13%

Wd, Sr 21%

Figure-3.4: Percent growth form of reported medicinal flora from Tall Dardyal.

Fresh Fruit Resin Rhizome flower pulp Husk 1% Young shoot 1% 5% 4% 1% 1% Root 6% Leaves Seed 33% 7%

Bark 9%

Whole plant Fruit 16% 16%

Figure-3.5: Plant parts proportion of reported medicinal flora used for herbal preparations.

106 mix with milk Oil Warming Rubbing 3% 3% 3% 1% Paste Chewing 5% 3% Cooking Decoction 5% 33%

Juice 12%

Infusion Powder 12% 20%

Figure-3.6: Preparations of herbal plants practiced in Tall Dardyal.

12 10 8 6 4 2

…

Allerg

Pimple

Cancer

Sterility

Cold,Flu

Arthritis

Diarrhea

Diabetes

Vermifuge

Carminative

Constipation

Hypertension

Stop bleeding Stop

Abdomen pain Abdomen

Menses problem Menses

Mosquito repellent Mosquito

Haemorrhoids/Piles

Increase blood level blood Increase Remove kidney stone kidney Remove

Reduce body heat/cooling heat/cooling body Reduce

Figure-3.7: Therapeutic uses of medicinal plants in Tall Dardyal.

107 3.4 Vegetation analysis

Separate communities were established for herbs, shrubs and trees in each eight selected sub-localities (stands) of the research area. These communities were established on the basis of percent frequency value using Two Way Indicator Species Analysis (TWINSPAN) (modified after Rolecek et al. 2009) with β-diversity dissimilarity index under JUICE 7.0 software (Tichy, 2002). phi coefficient was used as species fidelity measure.

3.5 Herbs Communities

The following are the herbs communities in each sub-locality (stand). Total number of quadrates taken in each stand was 24.

1. Sub-locality: Kandav (Altitude: 1557-1796 m): Two communities were established in this sub-locality (Table 3.6). a. Brachypodium-Lespedeza-Alloteropsis Community (BLA):

BLA community was established in 3 quadrates out of 24 quadrates. Brachypodium sylvaticum, Lespedeza juncea and Alloteropsis cimicina occurred with the same frequency i.e. 67% and different fidelity values 70.7, 58.8 and 53.4 respectively. b. Apluda-Galium-Fragaria Community (AGF):

AGF community was established in 21 quadrates. Apluda mutica occurred with highest frequency (100%) and fidelity value was 70.7, followed by Galium aparine with 76% frequency and 10.5 fidelity value. Fragaria nubicola occurred with 71% frequency and the highest fidelity value 74.5.

108 Table-3.6: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Kandav.

Community No. 1 2 No. of Quadrates 3 21 Brachypodium sylvaticum 67 70.7 . --- Lespedeza juncea 67 58.8 10 --- Alloteropsis cimicina 67 53.4 14 --- Galium elegans 33 29.0 10 --- Oxalis corniculata 33 44.7 . --- Fragaria nubicola . --- 71 74.5 Viola betonicifolia 67 19.2 48 --- Galium aparine 67 --- 76 10.5 Apluda mutica 33 --- 100 70.7 Teucrium royleanum . --- 24 36.8 Desmostachya bipinnata . --- 24 36.8 Aegopodium burttii . --- 19 32.4 Lavatera cashemiriana . --- 19 32.4 Heracleum canescens . --- 14 27.7 Clinopodium umbrosum . --- 14 27.7 Salvia nubicola . --- 14 27.7 Euphorbia wallichii . --- 14 27.7 Seseli libanotis . --- 10 22.4 Bupleurum falcatum . --- 10 22.4 Polygala sibirica . --- 5 15.6 Ophiopogon intermedius . --- 5 15.6 Swertia paniculata . --- . ---

109

123 Eigen Value: 0. Value: Eigen

Eigen Value: 0.274 Ax1

Figure-3.8: PCA Ordination of herbaceous plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Kandav, Tall Dardyal.

2. Sub-locality: Doop (Altitude: 2023- 2283 m): Two communities were established in this sub-locality (Table 3.7). a. Festuca-Plantago-Taraxicum Community (FPT):

FPT community was established in 4 quadrates. Festuca gigantea was the dominant species with 100% frequency level and zero fidelity value. The co-dominant species was Plantago lanceolata with 75% frequency and highest fidelity value i.e. 77.5 and Taraxicum officinale with 50% and 57.7 frequency and fidelity value respectively. b. Arthraxon-Festuca-Aegopodium Community (AFA):

In 20 quadrates Arthraxon prionodes occurred with 100% frequency and 57.7 fidelity value. Festuca gigantea was found with 100% frequency and zero fidelity value. Aegopodium burttii occurred with 75% frequency and 77.5 fidelity value.

110 Table-3.7: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Doop.

Community No. 1 2

No. of Quadrates 4 20

Arthraxon prionodes 50 --- 100 57.7

Festuca gigantea 100 --- 100 ---

Aegopodium burttii . --- 75 77.5

Fragaria nubicola 25 --- 70 45.1

Valeriana jatamansi . --- 70 73.4

Galium aparine 50 --- 60 10.1

Artemisia vulgaris . --- 60 65.5

Persicaria amplexiculis . --- 50 57.7

Carex acutiformis . --- 45 53.9

Dryopteris blanfordii . --- 45 53.9

Arisaema flavum . --- 15 28.5

Polemonium caeruleum . --- 15 28.5

Thymus linearis . --- 10 22.9

Lespedeza juncea . --- 5 16.0

Epilobium hirsutum . --- 5 16.0

Athyrium oxyphyllum . --- 5 16.0

Taraxicum officinale 50 57.7 . ---

Plantago lanceolata 75 77.5 . ---

Cynodon dactylon 25 37.8 . ---

Onychium contiguum 25 37.8 . ---

111

120 Eigen Value: 0. Value: Eigen

Eigen Value: 0.376 Ax1

Figure-3.9: PCA Ordination of herbaceous plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Doop, Tall Dardyal.

3. Sub-locality: Choor banda (Altitude: 2023-2283 m): Two communities were established in this sub-locality (Table 3.8). a. Medicago-Gallium-Plantago Community (MGP):

MGP community Medicago lupulina occurred with highest frequency and fidelity value i.e. 86% and 80.1. Gallium aparine was the second dominated species also having 86% frequency with less fidelity value i.e. 62.5 than Medicago lupulina. The third dominated species was Plantago lanceolata with 71% frequency level and 74.5 faithfulness. b. Aristida-Dryopteris-Onychium Community (ADO):

In ADO community Aristida contorta was the dominant species with highest frequency level i.e. 94%. It was followed by Dryopteris blanfordii with 76% and Onychium japonicum with 35% frequency levels. The highest faithfulness was observed for D. blanfordii (78.7), followed by Aristida contorta (43.1) and O. japonicum (24.3).

112 Table-3.8: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Choor banda.

Community No. 1 2

No. of Quadrates 7 17

Arisaema flavum . --- 6 17.4

Oxalis corniculata 71 60.5 12 ---

Medicago lupulina 86 80.1 6 ---

Aristida contorta 57 --- 94 43.1

Thymus linearis 43 52.2 . ---

Onychium japonicum 14 --- 35 24.3

Anaphalis triplinervis 43 52.2 . ---

Galium aparine 86 62.5 24 ---

Ranunculus arvensis 29 20.9 12 ---

Plantago lanceolata 71 74.5 . ---

Fragaria nubicola 43 27.4 18 ---

Cynodon dactylon 29 30.0 6 ---

Viola canescence 57 34.3 24 ---

Circium falconeri . --- 6 17.4

Heliotropium undulatum 14 14.0 6 ---

Euphorbia wallichii . --- 6 17.4

Artemisia vulgaris . --- 29 41.5

Dryopteris blanfordii . --- 76 78.7

113

142 Eigen Value: 0. Value: Eigen

Eigen Value: 0.345 Ax1 Figure-3.10: PCA Ordination of herbaceous plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Choor banda, Tall Dardyal.

4. Sub-locality: Kamyarai (Altitude: 1796-2023 m): Three communities were established in this sub-locality (Table 3.9). a. Lepidium-Tagetes-Origanum Community (LTO):

LTO community was established in 3 quadrates. Lepidium sativum and Tagetes minuta were the dominant species both with 100% frequency level. Origanum vulgare occurred with 67% frequency level and zero fidelity value. Other faithful species were Achyranthes aspera, Amarathus viridis and Cannabis sativa with 50 fidelity level. b. Origanum-Plantago-Tagetes Community (OPT):

OPT community was established in 11 quadrates. Origanum vulgare was the dominant species showed 91% frequency level. It was followed by Plantago lanceolata and Tagetes minuta each with 45% frequency level. In this community the more faithfulness was shown by Rumex hastatus and Arthraxon prionodes each with 31.8 fidelity value.

114 c. Aristida-Oxalis-Galium Community (AOG):

AOG community was established in 10 quadrates. Aristida contorta and Oxalis corniculata each exhibited highest frequency i.e. 90%, each with 70.3 fidelity value. Galium aparine showed dominance with 80% frequency and fidelity value i.e. 65.3. In this community the highest faithfulness was exhibited by Viola betonicifolia with 78.0 fidelity value.

Table-3.9: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Kamyarai.

Community No. 1 2 3 No. of Quadrates 3 11 10 Oxalis corniculata 33 --- . --- 90 70.3 Galium aparine . --- 27 --- 80 65.3 Aristida contorta 33 --- . --- 90 70.3 Conyza bonariensis . --- 18 --- 50 46.0 Fragaria nubicola . --- . --- 60 70.7 Tagetes minuta 100 59.6 45 --- 30 --- Viola betonicifolia . --- . --- 70 78.0 Aegopodium burttii . --- . --- 20 37.8 Origanum vulgare 67 --- 91 24.9 70 --- Sonchus asper . --- . --- 20 37.8 Artemisia scoparia . --- 9 --- 30 35.6 Ajuga integrifolia . --- . --- 30 47.1 Clinopodium umbrosum . --- 18 --- 50 46.0 Rumex hastatus . --- 36 31.8 20 2.2 Achyranthes aspera 33 50.0 . --- . --- Amaranthus viridis 33 50.0 . --- . --- Cannabis sativa 33 50.0 . --- . --- Plantago lanceolata 33 --- 45 18.8 20 --- Apluda mutica . --- 9 --- 40 45.2 Cynodon dactylon . --- 18 --- 40 36.9

115 Arthraxon prionodes . --- 36 31.8 20 2.2 Artemisia vulgaris . --- . --- 20 37.8 Lotus corniculatus 33 28.8 . --- 20 4.1 Euphorbia wallichii . --- 9 7.9 10 10.5 Medicago lupulina . --- . --- 50 63.2 Taraxacum officinale . --- 18 21.3 10 1.5 Lepidium sativum 100 71.1 9 --- 40 ---

136 Eigen Value: 0. Value: Eigen

Eigen Value: 0.345 Ax1

Figure-3.11: PCA Ordination of herbaceous plant species recorded in three communities from sub-locality Kamyarai, Tall Dardyal.

5. Sub-locality: Mian Bela (Altitude: 2023-2283 m): Two communities were found in this sub-locality (Table 3.10). a. Oxalis-Cynodon-Arthraxon Community (OCA):

OCA community was established in 6 quadrates. Oxalis corniculata exhibited the highest frequency (100%) and fidelity value (94.6). It was followed by the Cynodon dactylon and Arthraxon prionodes each with 67%

116 frequency, 57.0 and zero fidelity value respectively. Other faithful species were Amaranthus viridis (44.7) and Plantago lanceolata (35.4). b. Arthraxon-Viola-Dryopteris Community (AVD):

AVD community was established in 18 quadrates. Arthraxon prionodes and Viola betonicifolia each occurred with 67% frequency and fidelity value zero and 50.7 respectively. Dryopteris blanfordii was the second dominant species exhibited 61% frequency and 66.3 fidelity level.

Table-3.10: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub locality Mian Bela.

Community No. 1 2 No. of Quadrates 6 18 Oxalis corniculata 100 94.6 6 --- Cynodon dactylon 67 57.0 11 --- Arthraxon prionodes 67 --- 67 --- Anaphalis margaritacea 17 --- 17 --- Ajuga integrifolia 33 --- 39 5.8 Amaranthus viridis 33 44.7 . --- Cannabis sativa 17 30.2 . --- Artemisia scoparia 17 30.2 . --- Galium aparine 33 --- 61 27.8 Thlaspi arvensis 17 30.2 . --- Viola betonicifolia 17 --- 67 50.7 Asplenium adiantum-nigrum 17 --- 28 13.4 Aegopodium burttii . --- 11 24.3 Thymus linearis . --- 44 53.5 Smilax elegans 17 --- 56 40.5 Dryopteris blanfordii . --- 61 66.3 Arisaema flavum . --- 39 49.1

117 Fragaria nubicola . --- 61 66.3 Plantago lanceolata 50 35.4 17 --- Artemisia vulgaris . --- 39 49.1 Achyranthes aspera . --- 17 30.2 Aristida mutabilis 17 8.0 11 --- Pteris cretica . --- 39 49.1

191 Eigen Value: 0. Value: Eigen

Eigen Value: 0.326 Ax1

Figure-3.12: PCA Ordination of herbaceous plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Mian Bela, Tall Dardyal.

6. Sub-locality: Choor Panorai (Altitude: 1236-1557 m): Two communities were established in this sub-locality (Table 3.11). a. Fragaria-Aristida-Oxalis Community (FAO):

FAO community was established in 11 quadrates. In this community Aristida mutabilis and Fragaria nubicola both species occurred with the same frequency level i.e. 64%. The fidelity value of F. nubicola was 32.9 and A. mutabilis was zero. Oxalis corniculata exhibited 55% frequency and 8.4 fidelity value.

118 b. Aristida-Dryopteris-Arthraxon Community (ADA):

ADA community was established in 13 quadrats. Aristida mutabilis was found with 100% frequency and 47.1 fidelity level. The second dominant was Dryopteris blanfordii with 85% frequency and 75.5 fidelity level. The third dominant species was Arthraxon prionodes with 77% frequency and 23.6 fidelity value. Other faithful species were Arisaema flavum (61.6), Plantago lanceolata (54.9), Trifolium repens and Rumex hestatus both the same fidelity level i.e. 54.8.

Table-3.11: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Choor panorai.

Community No. 1 2 No. of Quadrates 11 13 Carex filicina 36 47.1 . --- Aristida mutabilis 64 --- 100 47.1 Ajuga integrifolia . --- 31 42.6 Dryopteris blanfordii 9 --- 85 75.7 Urtica dioica . --- 38 48.8 Arthraxon prionodes 55 --- 77 23.6 Achyranthes aspera 45 42.7 8 --- Valeriana jatamansi 45 --- 54 8.4 Rumex dentatus . --- 46 54.8 Galium aparine 55 --- 62 7.1 Artemisia vulgaris 9 --- 38 34.5 Fragaria nubicola 64 32.9 31 --- Carex acutiformis 36 47.1 . --- Clinopodium umbrosum 45 --- 62 16.1 Oxalis corniculata 55 8.4 46 --- Arisaema flavum 9 --- 69 61.6

119 Trifolium repens . --- 46 54.8 Aegopodium burttii 27 39.7 . --- Ranunculus laetus . --- 15 28.9 Thymus linearis 9 2.5 8 --- Plantago lanceolata 9 --- 62 54.9 Onychium japonicum . --- 23 36.1 Androsace rotundifolia 9 --- 15 9.6 Micromeria biflora . --- 8 20.0

115 Eigen Value: 0. Value: Eigen

Eigen Value: 0.354 Ax1

Figure-3.13: PCA Ordination of herbaceous plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Choor Panorai, Tall Dardyal.

7. Sub-locality: Archalai (Altitude: 1557-1796 m): Two communities were established in this sub-locality (Table 3.12). a. Rumex-Plantago-Alloteropsis Community (RPA):

120 Rumex dentatus showed the highest frequency (83%) and fidelity level (84.5). The co-dominant species were Plantago lanceolata and Alloteropsis cimicina each with 67% frequency and with different fidelity values. b. Dryopteris-Aristida-Arthraxon Community (DAA):

In DAA community Dryopteris blanfordii was the dominant species with the highest frequency level (100%) and fidelity value (84.5). The co- dominance was shown by Aristida mutabilis and Arthraxon prionodes each with 75% frequency level and 58.5% and 17.7 fidelity values.

Table-3.12: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Archalai.

Community No. 1 2 No. of Quadrates 12 12

Aristida mutabilis 17 --- 75 58.5

Dryopteris blanfordii 17 --- 100 84.5

Onychium japonicum 17 --- 17 ---

Arisaema flavum . --- 33 44.7

Fragaria nubicola 42 --- 58 16.7

Achyranthes aspera 25 37.8 . ---

Oxalis corniculata 42 51.3 . ---

Plantago lanceolata 67 70.7 . ---

Arthraxon prionodes 58 --- 75 17.7

Cynodon dactylon 8 20.9 . ---

Galium aparine 67 25.1 42 ---

Salvia nubicola . --- 58 64.2

Rumex dentatus 83 84.5 . ---

Urtica dioica 33 44.7 . ---

121 Aquilegia pubiflora 33 44.7 . ---

Delphinium uncinatum 17 30.2 . ---

Alloteropsis cimicina 67 33.3 33 ---

Festuca gigantea 33 30.8 8 ---

Trifolium repens 33 44.7 . ---

169 Eigen Value: 0. Value: Eigen

Eigen Value: 0.349 Ax1

Figure-3.14: PCA Ordination of herbaceous plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Archalai, Tall Dardyal.

8. Sub-locality: Manai (Altitude: 2283-2719 m): Two communities were established in this sub-locality (Table 3.13). a. Heliotropium-Alloteropsis-Aegopodium Community (HAA):

HAA community was established in 3 quadrates. Heliotropium undulatum and Alloteropsis cimicina occurred with 100% frequency level. Aegopodium burttii and Lespedeza juncea both occurred with 67% frequency. In this community highest fidelity level (90.9) was that of H. undulatum.

122 b. Arthraxon-Dryopteris-Galium Community (ADG):

ADG community was established in 21 quadrates. Highest frequency level (67%) and fidelity value (70.7) was that of Arthraxon prionodes followed by Dryopteris blanfordii and Galium aparine each with 62% frequency level and 67.0% and 28.6 fidelity values respectively.

Table-3.13: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Manai.

Community No. 1 2

No. of Quadrates 3 21

Arisaema flavum . --- 19 32.4

Dryopteris blanfordii . --- 62 67.0

Onychium japonicum . --- 43 52.2

Artemisia vulgaris . --- 14 27.7

Anaphalis triplinervis 67 58.8 10 ---

Galium aparine 33 --- 62 28.6

Heliotropium undulatum 100 90.9 10 ---

Lespedeza juncea 67 64.6 5 ---

Valeriana jatamansi . --- 48 55.9

Plantago lanceolata . --- 48 55.9

Aegopodium burttii 67 70.7 . ---

Rumex dentatus . --- 33 44.7

Arthraxon prionodes . --- 67 70.7

Alloteropsis cimicina 100 55.9 52 ---

Aristida mutabilis . --- 33 44.7

Geranium wallichianum 33 36.4 5 ---

123

194 Eigen Value: 0. Value: Eigen

Eigen Value: 0.358 Ax1

Figure-3.15: PCA Ordination of herbaceous plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Manai, Tall Dardyal.

3.6 Shrubs Communities

The following are the shrubs communities in each sub-locality (stand). Total number of quadrates taken in each stand was 18.

1. Sub-locality: Kandav: Two communities were found in this sub- locality (Table 3.14). a. Indigofera-Berberis-Viburnum Community (IBV):

IBV community was established in 8 quadrates. Indigofera heterantha and Berberis lycium showed the highest frequency i.e. 100% with zero and 90.5 fidelity level respectively. Viburnum cotinifolium occurred with 88% frequency level and 58.4 fidelity values.

124 b. Leptopus-Berberis-Spiraea Community (LBS):

LBS community was established in 10 quadrates. Leptopus cordifolius and Berberis lycium both were found with 100% frequency level, 77.5 and zero fidelity value respectively. Spiraea canescens occurred with 90% frequency and 77.5 fidelity value.

Table-3.14: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Kandav.

Community No. 1 2

No. of Quadrates 8 10

Berberis lycium 100 --- 100 ---

Indigofera heterantha 100 90.5 10 ---

Wikstroemia canescens 88 21.4 70 ---

Viburnum cotinifolium 88 58.4 30 ---

Isodon rugosus 62 --- 70 7.9

Cotoneaster microphyllus 62 --- 80 19.3

Sarcococca saligna 12 --- 50 40.5

Spiraea canescens 12 --- 90 77.5

Leptopus cordifolius 25 --- 100 77.5

Jasminum humile 50 20.4 30 ---

Rosa moschata 25 19.7 10 ---

Smilax elegans . --- 40 50.0

125

140 Eigen Value: 0. Value: Eigen

Eigen Value: 0.586 Ax1

Figure-3.16: PCA Ordination of Shrubby plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Kandav, Tall Dardyal.

2. Sub-locality: Doop: Two communities were established in this sub- locality (Table 3.15). a. Indigofera-Wikstroemia-Berberis-Leptopus Community (IWBL):

IWBL community was established in 9 quadrates. Indigofera heterantha occurred with 100% frequency. Wikstroemia canescens was found with 67% frequency and 57.0 fidelity value. Berberis lycium and Leptopus cordifolius both occurred with 56% frequency and 11.1 fidelity level. b. Indigofera-Rubus-Viburnum Community (IRV):

IRV community was established in 9 quadrates. In this community Indigofera heterantha showed 100% frequency level with zero fidelity value. Rubus sanctus showed 78% frequency with 79.8 fidelity value. Viburnum occurred with 67% frequency and 57.0 fidelity level.

126 Table-3.15: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Doop. Community No. 1 2

No. of Quadrates 9 9

Indigofera heterantha 100 --- 100 ---

Berberis lycium 56 11.1 44 ---

Leptopus cordifolius 56 11.1 44 ---

Spiraea canescens 22 --- 44 23.6

Viburnum cotinifolium 11 --- 67 57.0

Rubus sanctus . --- 78 79.8

Rosa moschata . --- 56 62.0

Wikstroemia canescens 67 57.0 11 ---

Sarcococca saligna . --- 11 24.3

Jasminum humile 11 24.3 . ---

Isodon rugosus 11 --- 22 14.9

168 Eigen Value: 0. Value: Eigen

Eigen Value: 0.449 Ax1

Figure-3.17: PCA Ordination of Shrubby plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Doop, Tall Dardyal.

127 3. Sub-locality: Choor banda: Two communities were established in this sub-locality (Table 3.16). a. Isodon-Sarcococca Community (IS):

SI community was established in 8 quadrates. Isodon rugosus occurred with 62% frequency followed by Sarcococca saligna with 50% frequency. Fidelity level of S. saligna (43.6) was higher than I. rugosus (32.6). b. Wikstroemia-Viburnum Community (WV):

WV community was established in 10 quadrates. Wikstroemia canescens showed the highest frequency (70%) and fidelity level (73.4), followed Viburnum grandiflorum with 50% frequency and 57.7 fidelity value.

Table-3.16: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Choor banda.

Community No. 1 2 No. of Quadrates 8 10

Viburnum grandiflorum . --- 50 57.7

Wikstroemia canescens . --- 70 73.4

Sarcococca saligna 50 43.6 10 ---

Isodon rugosus 62 32.6 30 ---

128

216 Eigen Value: 0. Value: Eigen

Eigen Value: 0.476 Ax 1

Figure-3.18: PCA Ordination of Shrubby plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Choor Banda, Tall Dardyal.

4. Sub-locality: Kamyarai: Two communities were established in this sub-locality (Table 3.17). a. Rosa-Berberis-Jasminum Community (RBJ):

RBJ community was established in 5 quadrates. Rosa moschata occurred with highest frequency (100%) and fidelity level (100). Berberis lycium found with 100% frequency level and 20 fidelity values. b. Isodon-Berberis-Cotoneaster Community (IBC):

IBC community was established in 13 quadrates. The highest frequency (100%) was shown by Isodon rugosus followed by Berberis lycium (92%) and Cotoneaster microphyllous (69%). The faithful species of this community was I. rugosus with 50 fidelity value.

129 Table-3.17: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Kamyarai. Community No. 1 2

No. of Quadrates 5 13

Indigofera heterantha 40 --- 62 21.5

Berberis lycium 100 20.0 92 ---

Isodon rugosus 60 --- 100 50.0

Spiraea canescens . --- 62 66.7

Rubus sanctus 40 --- 46 6.2

Rosa moschata 100100.0 . ---

Leptopus cordifolius . --- 54 60.7

Jasminum humile 80 64.7 15 ---

Daphne mucronata 20 17.8 8 ---

Xanthoxylum armatum 20 33.3 . ---

Cotoneaster microphyllous 40 --- 69 29.4

Smilax elegans . --- 8 20.0

174 Eigen Value: 0. Value: Eigen

Eigen Value: 0.459 Ax1

Figure-3.19: PCA Ordination of Shrubby plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Kamyarai, Tall Dardyal.

130 5. Sub-locality: Mian Bela: Two communities were established in this sub-locality. (Table 3.18). a. Leptopus-Spiraea-Cotoneaster Community (LSC):

LSC community was established in 7 quadrates. Leptopus cordifolius occurred with 86% frequency level followed by Spiraea canescens (71%) and Cotoneaster microphyllous (43%). L. cordifolius showed more faithfulness (42.4) than other species. b. Viburnum-Isodon-Sarcococca Community (VIS):

VIS community was established in 11 quadrates. Viburnum cotinifolium showed the highest frequency level (91%) as well as fidelity value (91.3). Isodon rugosus was the second dominant species with 73% frequency and 58.9 fidelity values. Sarcococca saligna was in third number regarding the frequency level and first in fidelity value i.e. 68.3.

Table-3.18: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Mian Bela. Community No. 1 2

No. of Quadrates 7 11

Berberis lycium 29 1.4 27 ---

Leptopus cordifolius 86 42.4 45 ---

Isodon rugosus 14 --- 73 58.9

Spiraea canescens 71 35.2 36 ---

Cotoneaster microphyllous 43 16.3 27 ---

Indigofera heterantha . --- 55 61.2

Viburnum cotinifolium . --- 91 91.3

Sarcococca saligna . --- 64 68.3

Hedera helix 14 --- 36 25.4

131 Wikstroemia canescens . --- 55 61.2

Jasminum humile 14 8.1 9 ---

141 Eigen Value: 0. Value: Eigen

Eigen Value: 0.515 Ax1

Figure-3.20: PCA Ordination of Shrubby plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Mian Bela, Tall Dardyal.

6. Sub-locality: Choor Panorai: Two communities were established in this sub-locality (Table 3.19). a. Sarcococca-Isodon Community (SI): SI community was established in 5 quadrates. Sarcococca saligna showed 80% frequency level followed by Isodon rugosus with 60% frequency value. The faithful species of this community was S. saligna with 72.9 fidelity level. b. Isodon-Berberis-Wikstroemia Community (IBW):

IBW community was established in 13 quadrates. Isodon rugosus showed the highest frequency level (85%) followed by Berberis lycium and Wikstroemia canescens both with 62% frequency level. The faithful species of this community were B. lycium and W. canescens with 66.7 fidelity value.

132 Table-3.19: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Choor panorai. Community No. 1 2 No. of Quadrates 5 13

Sarcococca saligna 80 72.9 8 ---

Isodon rugosus 60 --- 85 27.5

Berberis lycium . --- 62 66.7

Wikstroemia canescens . --- 62 66.7

Viburnum grandiflorum . --- 15 28.9

Cotoneaster microphyllous . --- 23 36.1

Indigofera heterantha . --- 31 42.6

Smilax elegans 20 6.0 15 ---

190 Eigen Value: 0. Value: Eigen

Eigen Value: 0.429 Ax1

Figure-3.21: PCA Ordination of Shrubby plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Choor Panorai, Tall Dardyal.

133 7. Sub-locality: Archalai: Two communities were established in this sub-locality (Table 3.20). a. Berberis- Indigofera-Leptopus Community (BIL):

BIL community was established in 9 quadrates. Berberis lycium occurred with 100% frequency and 100 fidelity level, followed by Indigofera heterantha with 89% frequency and 77.8 fidelity level and Leptopus cordifolius with 67% frequency and zero fidelity value. b. Spiraea- Leptopus-Sarcococca Community (SLS):

SLS community was established in 9 quadrates. Spiraea canescens was dominant with 100% frequency and 62.0 fidelity level. Leptopus cordifolius (89%, 26.7) and Sarcococca saligna (67%, 57.0) was the co-dominant species.

Table-3.20: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Archalai.

Community No. 1 2

No. of Quadrates 9 9

Berberis lycium 100100.0 . ---

Isodon rugosus 56 62.0 . ---

Indigofera heterantha 89 77.8 11 ---

Wikstroemia canescens 56 --- 56 ---

Sarcococca saligna 11 --- 67 57.0

Spiraea canescens 44 --- 100 62.0

Leptopus cordifolius 67 --- 89 26.7

Clematis graveolens 22 35.4 . ---

134

252 Eigen Value: 0. Value: Eigen

Eigen Value: 0.530 Ax1

Figure-3.22: PCA Ordination of Shrubby plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Archalai, Tall Dardyal.

8. Sub-locality: Manai: Two communities were established in this sub- locality (Table 3.21). a. Isodon-Rubus Community (IR):

IR community was established in 7 quadrates. Isodon rugosus was the dominant species with 71% frequency and 63.6 fidelity level, followed by Rubus sanctus with 57% frequency and 63.2 fidelity valued. b. Berberis-Indigofera Community (BI):

BI community was established in 11 quadrates. Berberis lycium occurred with the highest frequency (64%) and fidelity level (68.3). Indigofera heterantha was the second abundant species with 55% frequency and 92.4 fidelity levels.

135 Table-3.21: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Manai.

Community No. 1 2

No. of Quadrates 7 11

Rubus sanctus 57 63.2 . ---

Indigofera heterantha 14 --- 55 42.4

Berberis vulgaris . --- 64 68.3

Isodon rugosus 71 63.6 9 ---

301 Eigen Value: 0. Value: Eigen

Eigen Value: 0.380 Ax1

Figure-3.23: PCA Ordination of Shrubby plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Manai, Tall Dardyal.

136 3.7 Trees communities

The following are the trees communities in each sub-locality (stand). Total number of quadrates taken in each stand was 06.

1. Sub-locality: Kandav: Two communities were found in this sub- locality (Table 3.22). a. Parrotiopsis-Pinus-Pyrus Community (PPP):

Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana occurred with 100% frequency and 100 fidelity level. Pinus wallichiana and Pyrus pashia were the co-dominant species both with 50% frequency and 25.8 fidelity level. b. Pinus-Quercus-Pinus Community (PQP):

In PQP community, the dominant species was Pinus roxburghii with 100% frequency and 100 fidelity level. The co-dominant species were Quercus incana with 25% frequency and 37.8 fidelity value and Pinus wallichiana with 25% frequency and zero fidelity value.

Table-3.22: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Kandav.

Community No. 1 2

No. of Quadrates 2 4

Pinus roxburghii . --- 100100.0

Pinus wallichiana 50 25.8 25 ---

Quercus incana . --- 25 37.8

Pyrus pashia 50 25.8 25 ---

Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana 100100.0 . ---

137

Axis2 0.282 Axis2

Eigen Value Eigen

Eigen Value Axis 1 0.436

Figure-3.24: PCA Ordination of Tree plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Kandav, Tall Dardyal.

2. Sub-locality: Doop: Two communities were established in this sub- locality (Table 3.23). a. Pinus-Quercus-Pyrus Community (PQP):

In PQP community, Pinus wallichiana was the dominant species with 100% frequency and zero fidelity value. It was followed by Quercus floribunda with 75% frequency and 25.8 fidelity level. The third dominant species was Pyrus pashia with 25% frequency and highest fidelity value i.e. 37.8. b. Quercus-Pinus-Ailanthus Community (QPA):

In QPA community, Quercus incana was the dominant species with highest frequency (100%) and fidelity value (100). Pinus wallichiana also occurred with 100% frequency but zero fidelity value. Ailanthus altissima showed 50% frequency and 57.7 fidelity value.

138 Table-3.23: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Doop.

Community No. 1 2

No. of Quadrates 4 2

Pinus wallichiana 100 --- 100 ---

Quercus floribunda 75 25.8 50 ---

Pyrus pashia 25 37.8 . ---

Quercus incana . --- 100100.0

Ailanthus altissima . --- 50 57.7

Desmodium elegans . --- 50 57.7

0.245

Eigen Value Eigen

Eigen Value Axis 1 0.494

Figure-3.25: PCA Ordination of tree plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Doop, Tall Dardyal.

139 3. Sub-locality: Choor banda: Two communities were established in this sub-locality (Table 3.24) a. Quercus-Abies Community (QA):

QA community was represented by Quercus floribunda with the highest frequency (100%) and fidelity value (100). Abies pindrow was the co- dominant species occurred with 100% frequency and 65.5 fidelity level. b. Pinus-Abies-Picea Community (PAP):

In PAP community, Pinus wallichiana occurred with the highest frequency (100%) and fidelity value (100). Abies pindrow was the co- dominant species occurred with 40% frequency and zero fidelity level. It was followed by Picea smithiana with 20% frequency and 33.3 fidelity level.

Table-3.24: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Choor banda.

Community No. 1 2

No. of Quadrates 1 5

Pinus wallichiana . --- 100100.0

Quercus floribunda 100100.0 . ---

Picea smithiana . --- 20 33.3

Abies pindrow 100 65.5 40 ---

140

0.326

Eigen Value Eigen

Eigen Value Ax1 0.460

Figure-3.26: PCA Ordination of tree plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Choor Banda, Tall Dardyal.

4. Sub-locality: Kamyarai: Two communities were established in this sub-locality (Table 3.25) a. Quercus-Pyrus-Quercus Community (QPQ):

In QPQ community, Quercus floribunda occurred with the highest frequency (100%) and zero fidelity level. The co-dominant species were Pyrus pashia with 50% frequency and 57.7 fidelity value and Quercus incana also with 50% frequency and low fidelity level i.e. 25.8. b. Olea-Quercus-Ailanthus Community (OQA):

In OQA community, Olea ferruginea showed the highest frequency (100%) and fidelity value (100). It was followed by Quercus floribunda with 100% frequency and zero fidelity value. Ailanthus altissima occurred with 50% frequency and 57.7 fidelity level.

141 Table-3.25: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Kamyarai.

Community No. 1 2

No. of Quadrates 2 4

Quercus incana 50 25.8 25 ---

Pinus roxburghii . --- 50 57.7

Quercus floribunda 100 --- 100 ---

Olea ferruginea . --- 100100.0

Ailanthus altissima . --- 50 57.7

Pyrus pashia 50 57.7 . ---

0.267

Eigen Value Eigen

Eigen Value Ax1 0.548

Figure-3.27: PCA Ordination of tree plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Kamyarai, Tall Dardyal.

142 5. Sub-locality: Mian bela: Two communities were established in this sub-locality (Table 3.26) a. Quercus-Pinus-Quercus Community (QPQ):

In QPQ community, Quercus incana was the dominant species with the highest frequency (100%) and fidelity value (100). Pinus wallichiana was the co-dominant species with 67% frequency and zero fidelity value. It was followed by Quercus floribunda with 33% frequency and 44.7 fidelity value. b. Abies-Pinus-Pinus Community (APP):

In APP community, Abies pindrow occurred with the highest frequency (100%) and fidelity value (100). Pinus wallichiana was the co- dominant species occurred with 67% frequency and zero fidelity level. It was followed by Pinus roxburghii with 33% frequency and 44.7 fidelity value.

Table-3.26: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub locality Mian Bela.

Community No. 1 2

No. of Quadrates 3 3

Pinus roxburghii . --- 33 44.7

Pinus wallichiana 67 --- 67 ---

Quercus incana 100100.0 . ---

Quercus floribunda 33 44.7 . ---

Diospyros lotus . --- 33 44.7

Olea ferruginea 33 44.7 . ---

Abies pindrow . --- 100100.0

143

0.351

Eigen Value Eigen

Eigen Value Ax1 0.420

Figure-3.28: PCA Ordination of tree plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Mian Bela, Tall Dardyal.

6. Sub-locality: Choor panorai: Two communities were established in this sub-locality (Table 3.27). a. Abies-Pinus Community (AP):

In AP community, Abies pindrow occurred with the highest frequency (100%) and fidelity value (100). Pinus wallichiana was the co-dominant species also occurred with 100% frequency but zero fidelity level. b. Pinus-Parrotiopsis-Quercus Community (PPQ):

In PPQ community, Pinus wallichiana was the dominant species occurred with the highest frequency (100%) and zero fidelity level. The co- dominant species were Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana and Quercus floribunda both occurred with 75% frequency and 77.5 fidelity level.

144 Table-3.27: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Choor panorai.

Community No. 1 2

No. of Quadrates 2 4

Pinus wallichiana 100 --- 100 ---

Quercus floribunda . --- 75 77.5

Quercus incana . --- 50 57.7

Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana . --- 75 77.5

Abies pindrow 100100.0 . ---

0.236

Eigen Value Eigen

Eigen Value Ax1 0.563

Figure-3.29: PCA Ordination of tree plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Choor Panorai, Tall Dardyal.

145 7. Sub-locality: Archalai: Two communities were established in this sub-locality (Table 3.28) a. Abies-Pinus Community (AP):

In AP community, Abies pindrow was the dominant species occurred with the highest frequency (100%) and fidelity value (100). Pinus wallichiana was the co-dominant species with 50% frequency and zero fidelity level. b. Pinus-Quercus-Pinus Community (PQP):

In PQP community, Pinus roxburghii and Quercus incana both occurred with the highest frequency (100%) and fidelity value (100). Pinus wallichiana also showed 100% frequency level but 57.7 fidelity values.

Table-3.28: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Archalai.

Community No. 1 2 No. of Quadrates 4 2

Pinus roxburghii . --- 100100.0

Pinus wallichiana 50 --- 100 57.7

Abies pindrow 100100.0 . ---

Quercus incana . --- 100100.0

Quercus floribunda . --- 50 57.7

Juglans regia . --- 50 57.7

Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana . --- 50 57.7

Ailanthus altissima . --- 50 57.7

146

0.250

Eigen Value Eigen

Eigen Value Ax1 0.571

Figure-3.30: PCA Ordination of tree plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Archalai, Tall Dardyal.

8. Sub-locality: Manai: Two communities were established in this sub- locality (Table 3.29) a. Picea-Pinus Community (PP):

In PP community, Picea smithiana occurred with the highest frequency (100%) and fidelity level (100) Pinus wallichiana also occurred with 100% frequency but zero fidelity level. b. Pinus-Abies-Quercus Community (PAQ):

In PAQ community, Pinus wallichiana was the dominant species with 100% frequency and zero fidelity value. Abies pindrow was the co-dominant species with 40% frequency and 50 fidelity value. It was followed by Quercus semicarpifolia with 20% frequency and 33.3 fidelity value.

147 Table-3.29: Synoptic table with percentage frequency and modified fidelity index (phi coefficient) of sub-locality Manai.

Community No. 1 2

No. of Quadrates 1 5

Pinus wallichiana 100 --- 100 ---

Abies pindrow . --- 40 50.0

Quercus semecarpifolia . --- 20 33.3

Picea smithiana 100100.0 . ---

0.250

Eigen Value Eigen

Eigen Value Ax1 0.454

Figure-3.31: PCA Ordination of tree plant species recorded in two communities from sub-locality Manai, Tall Dardyal.

148 3.8 Species ordination

Various ordination methods are used for plant community analysis. In the present data Principle Component Analysis (PCA) was used due to short gradient length. The species ordination results were obtained from Principle Component Analysis (PCA) using CANOCO Version 4.5 (Ter Braak and Smilauer, 2002) analysis for herbs, shrubs and trees separately in each stand.

In Kandav, two herbs communities, Brachypodium-Lespedeza- Alloteropsis and Apluda-Galium-Fragaria were recognized. As regard the species gradient analysis, as seen in figure 3.8 along the direction of the axis 1 (Eigen value 0.274) species are concentrated in the lower half. This illustrates the moisture, wet habitat and organic matter abundance (Table 3.30). The possible reason for more O.M contents was closed canopy cover and slow decomposition of O.M and thus the nutrients and fertility status of soil was more rich which favour clustering of species. In the upper half, along the direction of axis 2 (Eigen value 0.123) the scattered species demonstrates moisture gradient, sunny and drier habitat. Representative species of this stand was Brachypodium sylvaticum, Alloteropsis cimicina, Apluda mutica, Lespedeza juncea, Galium aparine and Fragaria nubicola. In Figure 3.16, shrub species gradient analysis revealed the association of Jasminum, Viburnum, Rosa and Indigofera in the lower half along the axis 1 which illustrates their affinity for open canopy and sunny habitat as compared to the upper half on the axis 2 (Eigen value..) the representative species distribution pattern is Smilax, Spiraea, Leptopus, Sarcococca and Wikstroemia which are basically sciophytes and occurred in the same habitat and form association. Likewise tree species, Pyrus and Parrotiopsis also prefer moist habitat found along the axis 1 and Pinus roxburghii and Quercus incana sunny habitat found on axis 2 (Figure 3.24).

In Doop, two herbs communities, Festuca-Plantago-Taraxicum and Arthraxon-Festuca-Aegopodium communities were established. In Figure 3.9, the species clustering distribution pattern was observed on both axises 1 and 2 above and below the middle line. The species distribution were mainly

149 affected by soil moisture and organic matter contents are in consonance with Tian et al. (2013) as this site located at high elevation with high rain fall, moisture and precipitation. Aristida contorta, Arthraxon prionodes, Dryopteris blanfordii, Onychium japonicum and Gallium aparine are some of the representative herb species of this community. Indigofera-Wikstroemia- Berberis and Indigofera-Rubus-Viburnum shrub communities were recognized. In Figure 3.17, in the lower half along the axis 1, Sarcococca saligna, Spiraea canescens, Leptopus cordifolius and Viburnum cotinifolium clustering demonstrate wet, shady habitat and relative abundance of organic matter while in the upper half along axis 2, Berberus lycium and Indigofera heterantha were found in close association, Wikstroemia canescens and Isodon rugosus in separate association. Two tree communities, Pinus- Quercus-Pyrus and Quercus-Pinus-Ailanthus were recognized in this stand. Figure 3.25 shows along the axis 1 and 2 above and below the middle line the scattered species pattern, reveals their different requirements for environmental factors.

In Choor banda, two herbs communities, Medicago-Gallium-Plantago and Aristida-Dryopteris-Onychium communities were established. Plantago lanceolata, Thymus linearis, Anaphalis triplinervis, Oxalis corniculata, Medicago lupulina and Cynodon dactylon were found in the lower half along the axis 1. These species are the representative of open canopy and sunny habitat. Dryopteris blanfordii, Onychium japonicum, Arisaema flavum, Euphorbia wallichii, Artemisia vulgaris and Fragaria nubicola are the representative of shady, wet habitat, high elevation and the soil rich in organic matter, occur in the upper half along axis 2 (Figure 3.10). It could be concluded that specific species diversity in a particular site likely related to climatic condition and soil nutrient status such findings were reported by Tian et al., 2013. Two shrubs communities i.e. Isodon-Sarcococca and Wikstroemia-Viburnum and two tree communities i.e. Quercus-Abies and Pinus-Abies-Picea were recognized. Figure 3.18 and 3.26 shows the shrub and tree species distribution respectively. The distribution pattern of species along axis 1 and 2 above and below middle line, illustrate a possible ecological and

150 altitudinal variation and it is rather complicated to explain the mountain plant communities ecological environment (Wang et al., 2002).

In Kamyarai, three herbs communities Lepidium-Tagetes-Origanum, Origanum-Plantago-Tagetes and Aristida-Oxalis-Galium were recognized. In Figure 3.11 in the lower half along the axis 1 Galium aparine, Medicago lupulina, Aristida contorta, Viola betonicifolia and Taraxicum officinale etc were found in closed association which represent moisture loving under the shabby vegetation while in the upper half along the axis 2 Tagetes minuta, Lepidium sativum, Rumex hastatus, Arthraxon prionodes, Lotus corniculatus, Cynodon dactylon and Cannabis sativa were found which represent sun loving habitat as this site were exposed and tree canopy was not so thick as compared to other sites of the area. Two shrub communities, Rosa-Berberis-Jasminum and Isodon-Berberis-Cotoneaster communities were established. In Figure 3.19 the shrub species, Xanthoxylum armatum, Daphne mucronata, Rosa moschata along axis 2 illustrate the sunny slope and Leptopus cordifolius etc in the lower half along axis 1 indicator of shady habitat. Two tree communities in this stand were Quercus-Pyrus-Quercus and Olea-Quercus-Ailanthus. In Figure 3.27 Pinus roxburghii, Olea ferruginea and Ailanthus altissima were found in the lower half along axis 1 indicate sunny, dry habitat and low elevation while in the upper half along the axis 2 Pyrus pashia and Quercus incana represent high elevation and moisture contents.

In Mian bela, two herb communities, Oxalis-Cynodon-Arthraxon and Arthraxon-Viola-Dryopteris were recognized. In Figure 3.12 the distribution pattern of species in the upper half along axis 2 demonstrate organic matter and moisture gradient while in lower half along axis 1 the aggregate growth of species illustrate high moisture, organic contents. Two shrub communities, Leptopus-Spiraea-Cotoneaster and Viburnum-Isodon-Sarcococca communities were established. The possible reason to explain the species distribution along axis 1 and 2 above and below the middle line (Figure 3.20) is high moisture and organic contents as well as high elevation. Two tree communities, Quercus-Pinus-Quercus and Abies-Pinus were recognized in this stand. The tree species distribution in this stand along the axis 1 and 2

151 above and below the middle line (Figure 3.28) shows the possible influence of moisture, nutrient status of soil and elevation as well.

In Choor panorai, two herbs communities, Fragaria-Aristida-Oxalis and Aristida-Dryopteris-Arthraxon were recognized. The rich organic matter and high moisture represent the distribution of characteristic species of such habitat along the axis 1 below the middle line while in upper half along the axis 2 the scattered distribution of species indicate the moisture and organic matter gradient (Figure 3.13). In this site two shrub communities, Sarcococca- Isodon and Isodon-Berberis-Wikstroemia were established. These associations of species were in shady slope habitat as represented in Figure 3.21, in the upper half along axis 2 the representative species were Sarcococca and Viburnum. In the lower half along axis 1 Indigofera and Cotoneaster were found in sunny sites. Tree communities, Abies-Pinus and Pinus-Parrotiopsis- Quercus communities were recognized in this site. In Figure 3.29, in the upper half along axis 2 Abies pindrow and Pinus wallichiana elevation influence as compare to Quercus incana and Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana in the lower half along axis 1.

In Archalai, two herbs communities, Rumex-Plantago-Alloteropsis and Dryopteris-Aristida-Arthraxon were established. In Figure 3.14, the distribution of species above the middle line along axis 2 represent the influence of elevation and moisture. The representative species are Dryopteris blanfordii and Salvia nubicola etc. In the lower half along the axis 1 the close associations of species indicate their similar requirement for light. Two shrub communities, Berberis-Indigofera-Leptopus and Spiraea-Leptopus- Sarcococca communities were recognized. In Figure 3.22, the distribution of species in the lower half along axis 1 indicate the affinity toward shady and moist habitat while in the upper half above the middle line along axis 2 the species represent sunny site. Tree communities in this site were Abies-Pinus and Pinus-Quercus. Figure 3.30 shows along axis 1 and 2 above and below the middle line and on the middle line the influence of elevation gradient and moisture.

152 In Manai, Heliotropium-Alloteropsis-Aegopodium and Arthraxon- Dryopteris-Galium communities were established. In Figure 3.15, along axis 1 below the middle line the aggregation of species demonstrate the influence of moisture and shady habitat as compared to the upper half along axis 2 sunny and open canopy area. Isodon-Rubus and Berberis-Indigofera communities were found in this site. Figure 3.23 shows along the axis 1 and 2 above and below the middle line the influence of light on species distribution. Picea- Pinus and Pinus-Abies-Quercus communities in this site were established. The possible reason for the distribution of species is elevation gradient along axis 1 and 2 (Figure 3.31).

3.9 Soil analysis

1. Sub-locality: Kandav

Analysis showed that the soil was less acidic i.e. pH 6.7 with electrical conductivity of 0.45 dsm-1. Organic matter in the soil was 1.39% and 9.6% lime. As regard the macronutrients nitrogen was 0.14%, calcium 0.07%, magnesium 0.02%, phosphorus 1.17 mg kg-1 and potassium 102 mg kg-1. Micronutrients analysis showed that copper were present 0.5 mg kg -1, iron 2.7 mg kg -1, zinc 1.0 mg kg-1 and manganese 0.6 mg kg-1. Textural classes analysis revealed that the soil was loamy with 41.20% sand, 44.80% silt and 14.00% clay (Table 3.30).

2. Sub-locality: Doop

The soil was less acidic i.e. pH 6.8 with electrical conductivity of 0.51 dsm-1. Organic matter was 1.11% and lime 9.1%. Macronutrients i.e. nitrogen was present 0.16%, calcium 0.08%, magnesium 0.05%, phosphorus 3.87 mg kg-1 and potassium 112 mg kg-1. Micronutrients analysis showed 0.8 mg kg-1, 3.2 mg kg-1, 0.9 mg kg-1, 0.4 mg kg-1 copper, iron, zinc and manganese respectively. The soil was sandy loam with 52.00%, 29.34% and 18.66% sand, silt and clay respectively (Table 3.30).

153 3. Sub-locality: Choor banda

The soil was less acidic with pH 6.9, electrical conductivity of 0.43 dsm-1, 1.15% and 10.5% organic matter and lime respectively. Macronutrients i.e. nitrogen was present 0.16%, calcium 0.1%, magnesium 0.05%, phosphorus 1.94 mg kg-1 and potassium 130 mg kg-1. Micronutrients analysis showed 0.3 mg kg-1, 4.5 mg kg-1, 1.2 mg kg-1, 0.6 mg kg-1 copper, iron, zinc and manganese respectively. The soil was loamy with 49.00%, 33.70% and 16.90% sand, silt and clay respectively (Table 3.30).

4. Sub-locality: Kamyarai

The soil was acidic with pH 6.3, electrical conductivity of 0.58 dsm-1, 1.06% and 8.6% organic matter and lime respectively. Nitrogen was present 0.07%, calcium 0.08%, magnesium 0.04%, phosphorus 1.37 mg kg-1 and potassium 84 mg kg-1. Micronutrients analysis revealed 0.4 mg kg-1, 2.2 mg kg-1, 1.3 mg kg-1, 1.1 mg kg-1 copper, iron, zinc and manganese respectively. The soil was loamy with 47.70%, 37.70% and 14.60% sand, silt and clay respectively (Table 3.30).

5. Sub-locality: Mian bela

The soil was loamy with 50.90%, 37.10% and 12.00% sand, silt and clay respectively. Soil pH was 6.5 with electrical conductivity of 0.27 dsm-1. 1.19% and 8.2% organic matter and lime were observed respectively. Macronutrients analysis revealed that nitrogen was present 0.18%, calcium 0.07%, magnesium 0.04%, phosphorus 3.63 mg kg-1 and potassium 82mg kg-1. Micronutrients were recorded 0.6 mg kg-1, 3.8 mg kg-1, 1.4 mg kg-1, 0.8 mg kg-1 copper, iron, zinc and manganese respectively (Table 3.30).

6. Sub-locality: Choor panorai

The soil was loamy with 44.00%, 43.44% and 12.66% sand, silt and clay respectively. The soil was acidic with pH 5.8, electrical conductivity of 0.34 dsm-1, 1.15% and 8.2% organic matter and lime respectively. Macronutrients i.e. nitrogen was present 0.17%, calcium 0.04%, magnesium

154 0.009%, phosphorus 1.02 mg kg-1 and potassium 100 mg kg-1. Micronutrients analysis showed 0.9 mg kg-1, 2.5 mg kg-1, 1.2 mg kg-1, 1.1 mg kg-1 copper, iron, zinc and manganese respectively (Table 3.30).

7. Sub-locality: Archalai

The soil was acidic with pH 5.0, electrical conductivity of 0.33 dsm-1, 1.52% and 10.1% organic matter and lime respectively. Nitrogen was present 0.22%, calcium 0.01%, magnesium 0.005%, phosphorus 6.08 mg kg-1 and potassium 125 mg kg-1. Micronutrients analysis revealed 0.6 mg kg-1, 3.5 mg kg-1, 0.7 mg kg-1, 1.3 mg kg-1 copper, iron, zinc and manganese respectively. The soil was clay-loam with 10.60% sand, 41.40% silt and 48.00% clay (Table 3.30).

8. Sub-locality: Manai

The soil was clay-loam with 14.60% sand, 39.40% silt and 46.00% clay. Soil pH was 5.1 with electrical conductivity of 0.31 dsm-1. Organic matter was 1.59% and lime 10.1%. Macronutrients i.e. nitrogen was present 0.25%, calcium 0.03%, magnesium 0.008%, phosphorus 5.23 mg kg-1 and potassium 130 mg kg-1. Micronutrients analysis showed 0.5 mg kg-1, 2.4 mg kg-1, 0.9 mg kg-1, 1.2 mg kg-1 copper, iron, zinc and manganese respectively (Table3.30).

155 Table-3.30: Soil analysis of selected stands for vegetation analysis of Tall Dardyal, Tehsil Kabal, District Swat, Pakistan.

Macronutrients Micronutrients Textural Sub-Locality Soil pH EC O.M CaCo3 Sand Silt Clay N P K Ca Mg Cu Fe Zn Mn classes (Stands) (1:5) dSm-1 ---%--- (%) ---mg kg-1--- (%) ---mg kg-1------%---

Kandav 6.7 0.45 1.39 9.6 0.14 1.17 102 0.07 0.02 0.5 2.7 1.0 0.6 41.20 44.80 14.00 Loam

Doop 6.8 0.51 1.11 9.1 0.16 3.87 112 0.08 0.05 0.8 3.2 0.9 0.4 52.00 29.34 18.66 Sandy loam

Choor banda 6.9 0.43 1.15 10.5 0.16 1.94 130 0.1 0.05 0.3 4.5 1.2 0.6 49.40 33.70 16.90 Loam

Kamyarai 6.3 0.58 1.06 8.6 0.07 1.37 84 0.08 0.04 0.4 2.2 1.3 1.1 47.70 37.70 14.60 Loam

Mian bela 6.5 0.27 1.19 8.2 0.18 3.63 82 0.07 0.04 0.6 3.8 1.4 0.8 50.90 37.10 12.00 Loam

Choor 5.8 0.34 1.15 8.2 0.17 1.02 100 0.04 0.009 0.9 2.5 1.2 1.1 44.00 43.44 12.66 Loam panorai Archalai 5.0 0.33 1.52 10.1 0.22 6.08 125 0.01 0.005 0.6 3.5 0.7 1.3 10.60 41.40 48.00 Clay Loam

Manai 5.1 0.31 1.59 10.1 0.25 5.23 130 0.03 0.008 0.5 2.4 0.9 1.2 14.60 39.40 46.00 Clay Loam

Source: Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan.

156 3.10 Mineral Nutrition

Fifteen selected plant species were analysed at three phenological stages for thirteen mineral nutrients. Of these, 07 were herbs/ forbs, 06 shrubs and 02 were tree species. The result for each mineral nutrient is given below.

3.10.1 Macronutrients

3.10.1.1 Sodium (Na)

Sodium contents were evaluated at three phenological stages i.e. Pre- reproductive, reproductive and post-reproductive stages (Table 3.31). Results indicate that among herbs, maximum level of Na contents was recorded for Salvia canariensis at reproductive stage (0.101 mg/l), followed by pre- reproductive stage (0.098 mg/l) of Artemisia scoparia. On the average Origanum vulgare has the highest Na concentration i.e. 0.0813 mg/l, followed by A. scoparia (0.07mg/l). Overall result for herb species indicated that post- reproductive stage had the maximum (0.048 mg/l) Na concentration, followed by pre reproductive stage (0.0475 mg/l) and reproductive stage (0.046 mg/l). Progressive increase in Na contents was recorded towards the maturity stage in Dysphania botrys, and O. vulgare.

Among shrubs, maximum Na contents were recorded in Daphne mucronata (0.108 mg/l) at pre-reproductive stage, followed by Isodon rugosus at post reproductive stage (0.103mg/l) and Wikstroemia canescens at reproductive stage (0.075 mg/l). On the average Isodon rugosus had the highest Na concentration (0.0646 mg/l), followed by D. mucronata (0.058mg/l) and W. canescens (0.0473 mg/l). As for as the average value of shrubs at three phenological stages was concerned it was noted that post- reproductive stage had the maximum Na contents (0.045 mg/l), followed by reproductive stages (0.036 mg/l) and pre-reproductive stage (0.035 mg/l). The trend of Na accumulation in individual shrub species revealed the progressive increase at maturity stage in Sarcococca saligna and Leptopus cordifolius. In tree species, Na level was maximum at pre-reproductive stage (0.164 mg/l)

157 and reproductive stage (0.053 mg/l) of Elaeagnus umbellata and post- reproductive stage (0.053 mg/l) of Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana. E. umbellata had the maximum level (0.0826 mg/l) of Na on the basis of average values. As a whole the tree species showed maximum Na contents at pre-reproductive stages (0.091 mg/l), followed by post-reproductive stages (0.042 mg/l) and reproductive stages (0.04 mg/l). The increase trend of Na accumulation towards maturity was recorded for P. jacquemontiana.

Table-3.31: Na (mg/l) concentration at three phenological stages in some ethnomedicinal and palatable plant species of Tall Dardyal, District Swat, Pakistan.

S.No Plant species Phenological stages Pre- Post - Reproductive Average A. Herbs Reproductive Reproductive Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & 1. 0.098 0.043 0.069 0.07 Kitam. Dysphania botrys (L.) Mosyakin 2. 0.023 0.026 0.067 0.0386 & Clemants 3. Origanum vulgare L. 0.074 0.082 0.088 0.0813 4. Salvia canariensis L. 0.011 0.101 0.019 0.0436

5. Thymus linearis Benth. 0.037 0.000 0.029 0.022

6. Apluda mutica L. 0.071 0.000 0.000 0.0236

7. Pennisetum orientale Rich. 0.019 0.070 0.070 0.053

Average 0.0475 0.046 0.048 0.047

B. Shrubs Sarcococca saligna (D.Don) 1. 0.000 0.018 0.024 0.014 Muell. Arg. 2. Leptopus cordifolius Decne 0.004 0.029 0.046 0.0263 Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.) 3. 0.049 0.042 0.103 0.0646 Codd 4. Spiraea canescens D.Don 0.027 0.021 0.028 0.0253

5. Daphne mucronata Royle. 0.108 0.036 0.030 0.058

6. Wikstroemia canescens Wall. 0.024 0.075 0.043 0.0473

158 ex Meisn.

Average 0.035 0.036 0.045 0.038

C. Trees Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana 1. 0.018 0.027 0.053 0.0326 (Decne.) Rehder. 2. Elaeagnus umbellata Thumb. 0.164 0.053 0.031 0.0826

Average 0.091 0.04 0.042 0.057

0.18 0.16 Pre-reproductive 0.14 Reproductive 0.12 Post-reproductive

0.1 0.08 0.06 0.04

0.02

orientale

Na concentration (mg/l) concentration Na

Apluda mutica Apluda

Isodon rugosusIsodon

Thymus linearis Thymus

Dysphania botrys Dysphania

Salvia canariensis Salvia

Spiraea canescens Spiraea

Origanum vulgare Origanum

Daphne mucronata Daphne

Sarcococca saligna Sarcococca

Artemisia scoparia Artemisia

Leptopus cordifoliusLeptopus

Elaeagnus umbellata Elaeagnus

Pennisetum Wikstroemia canescens canescens Wikstroemia

Parrotiopsis jacquemontianaParrotiopsis

Figure-3.32: Graphical representation of Na concentration at three phenological stages of the selected plants.

3.10.1.2 Magnesium (Mg)

The results for Mg concentration at the three phenological stages are given in Table 3.32.

Among herbs, Dysphania botrys revealed the maximum Mg concentration i.e. 27.22 mg/l and 15.74 mg/l and 14.02 mg/l respectively at pre-reproductive, post-reproductive and reproductive stages. It was followed by Thymus linearis at pre-reproductive stage (13.46 mg/l) and Origanum

159 vulgare at reproductive stage (10.28 mg/l). Taken as a whole for herbs, it was noted that pre-reproductive stage had the maximum (7.843 mg/l) Mg level, followed by post-reproductive stage (5.681 mg/l) and reproductive stage (5.034 mg/l). The increased tendency of Mg contents in individual species was not found.

All the phenological stages showed variation in Mg contents accumulation. The maximum average values of Mg concentration i.e. 18.993 mg/l, 7.309 mg/l and 7.103 mg/l was found in D. botrys, O. vulgare and T. linearis respectively. Among shrubs, maximum Mg level was observed at reproductive stage (9.458 mg/l) of Isodon rugosus. It was followed by reproductive stage (8.626 mg/l) of Leptopus cordifolius and pre-reproductive stage (7.935 mg/l) of I. rugosus. The average values showed that I. rugosus has the maximum (6.953 mg/l) Mg contents followed by Leptopus cordifolius (4.297 mg/l) and Daphne mucronata (4.118 mg/l). Like the herbs, the progressive accumulation of Mg at three phenological stages in individual species showed variation and there was not any uniform trend. It was observed that, as a whole, Mg concentration at reproductive stage was maximum (5.120 mg/l), followed by pre-reproductive stage (2.922 mg/l) and post reproductive stage (2.258 mg/l).

Comparing the tree species, Mg concentration was maximum at pre- reproductive stage (2.217 mg/l) of Elaeagnus umbellata, followed by reproductive stage (1.243 mg/l) of Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana. E. umbellata showed maximum average value of Mg contents (1.467 mg/l). Considering the phenological stages, maximum concentration was recorded at pre-reproductive stage (1.634 mg/l), followed by post-reproductive (1.159 mg/l) and reproductive stage (1.128 mg/l). The successive increase at the phenological stages was not seen i.e. in P. jacquemontiana Mg concentration was minimum at pre-reproductive stage (1.051 mg/l), maximum at reproductive stage (1.243 mg/l) and again found minimum at post reproductive stage (1.147 mg/l). In E. umbellata, Mg content was high at pre reproductive stage (2.217 mg/l), increased at post reproductive stage (1.171mg/l) again found a decrease level at reproductive stage (1.013 mg/l).

160 Table-3.32: Mg (mg/l) concentration at three phenological stages in some ethnomedicinal and palatable plant species of Tall Dardyal Hills, District Swat, Pakistan.

Phenological stages S.No. Plant species Pre- Post – Reproductive Average reproductive Reproductive A. Herbs Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & 1. 3.868 3.235 5.395 4.166 Kitam. Dysphania botrys (L.) Mosyakin 2. 27.22 14.02 15.74 18.993 & Clemants 3. Origanum vulgare L. 4.163 10.28 7.484 7.309 4. Salvia canariensis L. 2.973 2.452 2.919 2.781

5. Thymus linearis Benth. 13.46 1.526 6.323 7.103

6. Apluda mutica L. 1.924 1.263 0.491 1.226

7. Pennisetum orientale Rich. 1.294 2.464 1.416 1.724

Average 7.843 5.034 5.681 6.186

B. Shrubs Sarcococca saligna (D.Don) 1. 0.910 3.451 1.875 2.078 Muell. Arg. 2. Leptopus cordifolius Decne. 2.275 8.626 1.992 4.297 Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex 3. 7.935 9.458 3.468 6.953 Benth.) Codd 4. Spiraea canescens D.Don 3.788 1.309 0.580 1.892

5. Daphne mucronata Royle. 1.121 1.391 1.277 1.263 Wikstroemia canescens Wall. 6. 1.508 6.486 4.360 4.118 ex Meisn. Average 2.922 5.120 2.258 3.433

C. Trees Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana 1. 1.051 1.243 1.147 1.147 (Decne.) Rehder. 2. Elaeagnus umbellata Thumb. 2.217 1.013 1.171 1.467

Average 1.634 1.128 1.159 1.307

161 30 Pre-reproductive 25 Reproductive

20 Post-reproductive 15

…

concentration (mg/l) concentration

orientale

Parrotiopsis

Apluda muticaApluda

Isodon rugosusIsodon

Thymus linearisThymus

Dysphaniabotrys

Salvia canariensisSalvia

Origanum vulgareOriganum canescensSpiraea

Daphnemucronata

Sarcococcasaligna

Artemisia scoparia

Leptopus cordifoliusLeptopus

Elaeagnusumbellata

Pennisetum Wikstroemia Wikstroemia canescens

Figure-3.33: Graphical representation of Mg concentration at three phenological stages of the selected plants.

3.10.1.3 Calcium (Ca) The results for Ca concentration at the three phenological stages are given in Table 3.33. Among herbs, maximum Ca concentration was recorded at pre- reproductive stage (11.39 mg/l) of Salvia canariensis followed by pre- reproductive stage (11.02 mg/l) of Dysphania botrys, 9.380 mg/l and 8.432 mg/l for post-reproductive stages of S. canariensis and Thymus linearis respectively. The progressive increase of Ca contents toward maturity was not uniform, but was found in variable concentrations in various phenological stages of herb species. At three phenological stages as a whole, the highest content of Ca was observed at pre-reproductive stage (6.719 mg/l), followed by post reproductive stage (5.715 mg/l) and reproductive stage (4.533 mg/l). By taking the average values of individual herbs, S. canariensis had maximum Ca concentration (9.451mg/l), followed by D. botrys (8.557mg/l) and Origanum vulgare (7.070mg/l). Among shrubs, Leptopus cordifolius had the maximum Ca concentration at reproductive stage (21.37 mg/l), followed by

162 reproductive stage (8.624 mg/l) of Sarcococca saligna and pre- reproductive stage (5.550 mg/l) of Isodon rugosus. The increasing tendency of Ca contents toward maturity was found in two herbs species i.e. Spiraea canescens (4.228 mg/l, 4.372 mg/l and 4.799 mg/l) and Daphne mucronata (2.376mg/l, 3.510 mg/l and 4.650 mg/l). The average values for individual species showed that L. cordifolius had the highest (9.061 mg/l) Ca contents followed by S. saligna (5.122 mg/l) and S. canescens (4.466 mg/l). Considering the phenological stages as a whole for shrubs, maximum level was found at reproductive stage (7.520 mg/l), followed by pre-reproductive stage (3.985 mg/l) and post- reproductive stage (3.418 mg/l). The tree species revealed maximum concentration of Ca i.e. 6.206 mg/l and 3.801 mg/l respectively at reproductive stages of Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana and Elaeagnus umbellata. As a whole for trees, highest Ca contents were recorded at reproductive stage (5.003 mg/l), followed by pre-reproductive stage (2.307 mg/l) and post-reproductive stage (1.523 mg/l). Calcium accumulation trend towards maturity stage showed variation. The maximum (3.817 mg/l) average Ca concentration was shown by P. jacquemontiana and minimum (2.072 mg/l) by E. umbellata.

Table-3.33: Ca (mg/l) concentration at three phenological stages in some ethnomedicinal and palatable plant species of Tall Dardyal, District Swat, Pakistan.

Phenological stages S.No. Plant species Pre- Post - Reproductive Average reproductive Reproductive A. Herbs Artemisia scoparia Waldst. 1. 4.855 4.336 3.625 4.272 & Kitam. Dysphania botrys (L.) 2. 11.02 7.190 7.463 8.557 Mosyakin & Clemants 3. Origanum vulgare L. 6.986 8.115 6.110 7.070 4. Salvia canariensis L. 11.39 7.583 9.380 9.451

5. Thymus linearis Benth. 7.055 1.333 8.432 5.606

6. Apluda mutica L. 3.374 1.902 1.888 2.388

7. Pennisetum orientale Rich. 2.358 1.276 3.110 2.248

163 Average 6.719 4.533 5.715 5.655

B. Shrubs Sarcococca saligna 1. 4.302 8.624 2.441 5.122 (D.Don) Muell. Arg. 2. Leptopus cordifolius Decne. 2.715 21.37 3.099 9.061 Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex 3. 5.550 3.481 3.364 4.131 Benth.) Codd 4. Spiraea canescens D.Don 4.228 4.372 4.799 4.466

5. Daphne mucronata Royle. 2.376 3.510 4.650 3.512 Wikstroemia canescens 6. 4.739 3.766 2.156 3.553 Wall. ex Meisn. Average 3.985 7.520 3.418 4.974

C. Trees Parrotiopsis 1. jacquemontiana (Decne.) 2.985 6.206 2.260 3.817 Rehder. Elaeagnus umbellata 2. 1.630 3.801 0.786 2.072 Thumb. Average 2.307 5.003 1.523 2.944

25 Pre-reproductive Reproductive

20 Post-reproductive

…

concentration (mg/l) concentration

orientale

Parrotiopsis

Apluda muticaApluda

Isodon rugosusIsodon

Thymus linearis Thymus

Dysphaniabotrys

Salvia canariensisSalvia

Origanum vulgareOriganum canescensSpiraea

Daphnemucronata

Sarcococcasaligna

Artemisia scoparia

Leptopus cordifoliusLeptopus

Elaeagnus umbellataElaeagnus Pennisetum

Wikstroemia Wikstroemia canescens

Figure-3.34: Graphical representation of Ca concentration at three phenological stages of the selected plants.

164 3.10.2 Micronutrients 3.10.2.1 Chromium (Cr) The results for Cr concentration at the three phenological stages are given in Table 3.34. Among herbs, maximum concentration of Cr was recorded i.e. 0.056 mg/l and 0.048 mg/l respectively at post reproductive and pre-reproductive stages of Thymus linearis, followed by 0.048 mg/l and 0.043 mg/l respectively at post-reproductive stage of Dysphania botrys and Salvia canariensis . As a whole, Cr contents were highest at post-reproductive stage (0.033 mg/l), followed by reproductive stage (0.025 mg/l) and pre-reproductive stage (0.024 mg/l). In individual herbs, a progressive accumulation of Cr was recorded towards maturity in D. botrys, Origanum vulgare and S. canariensis. Considering the individual average, T. linearis revealed highest contents (0.047 mg/l) of Cr, followed by D. botrys (0.034 mg/l) and S. canariensis (0.031mg/l). Among the shrubs, maximum concentration of Cr was 0.048 mg/l and 0.043 mg/l respectively shown by Wikstroemia canescens and Sarcococca saligna at post reproductive stage. As a whole at three phenological stages of shrubs, maximum concentration was recorded at reproductive stage (0.024 mg/l), followed by post-reproductive stage (0.018 mg/l) and pre-reproductive stage (0.013 mg/l). Considering the increasing trend of Cr related to phenological stages of individual shrub, S. saligna and W. canescens showed an increase trend with the maturity of plant. On the basis of individual average value, W. canescens had the highest (0.027 mg/l) Cr contents, followed by Isodon rugosus (0.026 mg/l) and S. saligna (0.023 mg/l). Among trees, Elaeagnus umbellata showed maximum concentration i.e. 0.052 mg/l and 0.040 mg/l respectively at pre- reproductive and post-reproductive stages, followed pre-reproductive stage (0.022 mg/l) of Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana. Regarding the overall phenological stages, pre-reproductive stage had the highest (0.037 mg/l) Cr contents, followed by post-reproductive stage (0.029) and reproductive stage (0.019 mg/l). No increased trend of Cr contents was found at three phenological stages of both tree species. The highest average value of Cr contents was shown by E. umbellata (0.037 mg/l) as compared to P. jacquemontiana (0.019 mg/l).

165 Table-3.34: Cr (mg/l) concentration at three phenological stages in some ethnomedicinal and palatable plant species of Tall Dardyal, District Swat, Pakistan.

Phenological stages S.No. Plant species Pre- Post - Reproductive Average reproductive Reproductive A. Herbs Artemisia scoparia Waldst. 1. 0.037 0.023 0.031 0.030 & Kitam. Dysphania botrys (L.) 2. 0.028 0.028 0.048 0.034 Mosyakin & Clemants 3. Origanum vulgare L. 0.005 0.018 0.038 0.020 4. Salvia canariensis L. 0.014 0.036 0.043 0.031

5. Thymus linearis Benth. 0.048 0.038 0.056 0.047

6. Apluda mutica L. 0.020 0.000 0.005 0.008

7. Pennisetum orientale Rich. 0.017 0.032 0.010 0.019

Average 0.024 0.025 0.033 0.027

B. Shrubs Sarcococca saligna 1. 0.000 0.026 0.043 0.023 (D.Don) Muell. Arg. 2. Leptopus cordifolius Decne. 0.024 0.033 0.001 0.019 Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex 3. 0.031 0.037 0.012 0.026 Benth.) Codd 4. Spiraea canescens D.Don 0.006 0.019 0.000 0.008

5. Daphne mucronata Royle. 0.017 0.000 0.009 0.008 Wikstroemia canescens 6. 0.005 0.029 0.048 0.027 Wall. ex Meisn. Average 0.013 0.024 0.018 0.018

C. Trees Parrotiopsis 1. jacquemontiana (Decne.) 0.022 0.018 0.019 0.019 Rehder. Elaeagnus umbellata 2. 0.052 0.020 0.040 0.037 Thumb. Average 0.037 0.019 0.029 0.028

166 0.06 Pre-reproductive Reproductive 0.05 Post-reproductive

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

…

concentration (mg/l) concentration

orientale

Parrotiopsis

Apluda muticaApluda

Isodon rugosusIsodon

Thymus linearisThymus

Dysphaniabotrys

Salvia canariensisSalvia

Origanum vulgareOriganum canescensSpiraea

Daphnemucronata

Sarcococcasaligna

Artemisia scoparia

Leptopus cordifoliusLeptopus

Elaeagnusumbellata Pennisetum

Wikstroemia Wikstroemia canescens

Figure-3.35: Graphical representation of Cr concentration at three phenological stages of the selected plants.

3.10.2.2 Manganese (Mn) The results for Mn concentration at the three phenological stages are given in Table 3.35. Among herbs, maximum concentration of Mn was recorded for Dysphania botrys i.e. 0.992 mg/l, 0.987 mg/l respectively at reproductive and post-reproductive stages, followed by reproductive stage (0.967 mg/l) and pre-reproductive stage (0.961 mg/l) of Artemisia scoparia. Across the entire phenological stages of herb species, the highest Mn contents were observed at pre-reproductive stage (0.723 mg/l), followed by reproductive stage (0.702 mg/l) and post-reproductive stage (0.693 mg/l). The progressive increase trend of Mn contents towards maturity for herbs species was found with variable concentration. On the basis of average, Dysphania botrys had the highest contents (0.967 mg/l), followed by A. scoparia (0.919 mg/l) and Origanum vulgare (0.749 mg/l) as compared to the remaining four herb species. Among shrubs, Leptopus cordifolius had the maximum concentration of Mn at reproductive stage (0.835 mg/l). It was followed by pre-reproductive stage (0.760 mg/l) of Spiraea canescens and reproductive stage (0.685 mg/l) of Sarcococca saligna. The highest average Mn contents at various phenological

167 stages was observed at reproductive stage (0.655 mg/l), followed by same contents i.e. 0.588 mg/l at both pre-reproductive, reproductive stages. In individual herb species, towards maturity stage Mn concentration was observed in Isodon rugosus. In this aspect other shrubs species showed variation in Mn concentration. The average concentration across the individual shrub species, Wikstroemia canescens had maximum concentration (0.658 mg/l), followed by L. cordifolius (0.655 mg/l) and S. canescens (0.611 mg/l). The tree species i.e. Elaeagnus umbellata had highest Mn contents i.e. 1.040 mg/l, 0.577 mg/l and 0.499 mg/l respectively at pre- reproductive, reproductive and post-reproductive stages followed by reproductive stage (0.491 mg/l) of Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana. The progressive trend of Mn contents at the phenological stages revealed by E. umbellata as compared to P. jacquemontiana which showed variation. Regarding the whole phenological stages for tree species, maximum Mn concentration was found at pre-reproductive stage (0.735 mg/l), followed by reproductive stage (0.534 mg/l) and post-reproductive stage (0.441 mg/l). The average concentration for individual tree, Mn was found highest (0.705 mg/l) for E. umbellata.

Table-3.35: Mn (mg/l) concentration at three phenological stages in some ethnomedicinal and palatable plant species of Tall Dardyal, District Swat, Pakistan.

Phenological stages S.No. Plant species Pre- Post - Reproductive Average reproductive Reproductive A. Herbs Artemisia scoparia Waldst. 1. 0.961 0.967 0.829 0.919 & Kitam. Dysphania botrys (L.) 2. 0.923 0.992 0.987 0.967 Mosyakin & Clemants 3. Origanum vulgare L. 0.708 0.790 0.749 0.749 4. Salvia canariensis L. 0.639 0.518 0.596 0.584

5. Thymus linearis Benth. 0.795 0.551 0.745 0.697

6. Apluda mutica L. 0.632 0.430 0.522 0.528

7. Pennisetum orientale Rich. 0.409 0.668 0.424 0.500

Average 0.723 0.702 0.693 0.706

168 B. Shrubs Sarcococca saligna 1. 0.439 0.685 0.641 0.588 (D.Don) Muell. Arg. 2. Leptopus cordifolius Decne. 0.629 0.835 0.501 0.655 Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex 3. 0.581 0.592 0.643 0.605 Benth.) Codd 4. Spiraea canescens D.Don 0.760 0.572 0.503 0.611

5. Daphne mucronata Royle. 0.484 0.572 0.585 0.547 Wikstroemia canescens 6. 0.638 0.676 0.660 0.658 Wall. ex Meisn. Average 0.588 0.655 0.588 0.610

C. Trees Parrotiopsis 1. jacquemontiana (Decne.) 0.431 0.491 0.383 0.435 Rehder. Elaeagnus umbellata 2. 1.040 0.577 0.499 0.705 Thumb. Average 0.735 0.534 0.441 0.57

1.2 Pre-reproductive Reproductive

1 Post-reproductive

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2 concentration (mg/l) concentration

orientale

Parrotiopsis

Apluda mutica Apluda

Isodon rugosusIsodon

Thymus linearisThymus

jacquemontiana

Dysphania botrysDysphania

Salvia canariensisSalvia

Origanum vulgareOriganum canescensSpiraea

Daphne mucronataDaphne

Sarcococca salignaSarcococca

Artemisia scopariaArtemisia

Leptopus cordifoliusLeptopus

Elaeagnus umbellataElaeagnus Pennisetum

Wikstroemia canescensWikstroemia

Figure-3.36: Graphical representation of Mn concentration at three phenological stages of the selected plants.

169 3.10.2.3 Iron (Fe)

The results for Fe concentration at the three phenological stages are given in Table 3.36.

Among herbs, Thymus linearis showed maximum Fe concentration at pre reproductive (8.067 mg/l). It was followed by post-reproductive stage of Dysphania botrys (5.925 mg/l) and reproductive stage (4.241 mg/l) of T. linearis. As a whole for herb species, post-reproductive stage had the highest (3.740 mg/l) Fe contents. It was followed by pre-reproductive stage (3.359 mg/l) and reproductive stage (3.091 mg/l). In D. botrys, Fe contents accumulated in uniform manner at three phenological stages and other herbs showed variation in this aspect. Considering the average, T. linearis (5.798 mg/l) had the highest Fe contents, followed by D. botrys (4.118 mg/l) and Salvia canariensis (3.754 mg/l).

Among shrubs, maximum Fe concentration was recorded at pre- reproductive stage (18.40 mg/l) of Wikstroemia canescens. It was followed by 5.201 mg/l and 4.017 mg/l at post-reproductive stages of Isodon rugosus and W. canescens. The highest Fe contents for all herb species were revealed by pre-reproductive stage (4.614 mg/l), followed by post-reproductive stage (2.561 mg/l) and reproductive stage (2.009 mg/l). In individual herb species, Fe contents showed an increased trend toward the maturity of plant in Isodon rugosus, Spiraea canescens and Daphne mucronata. Highest Fe contents were recorded in W. canescens (8.222 mg/l) followed by Isodon rugosus (3.900 mg/l) and Leptopus cordifolius (1.877 mg/l) on the basis of average values. Maximum concentration of Fe was revealed by Elaeagnus umbellata at pre- reproductive stage (2.194 mg/l) followed by 1.843mg/l and 1.784 mg/l respectively at pre-reproductive and reproductive stages of Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana. As a whole, Fe contents were highest at pre-reproductive stage (2.018 mg/l), followed by reproductive stage (1.645 mg/l) and post- reproductive stage (1.287 mg/l). Maximum average Fe contents were shown by E. umbellata (1.689 mg/l). No progressive trend of Fe contents were recorded towards the maturity of tree species.

170 Table-3.36: Fe (mg/l) concentration at three phenological stages in some ethnomedicinal and palatable plant species of Tall Dardyal, District Swat, Pakistan.

Phenological stages S.No. Plant species Pre- Post - Reproductive Average reproductive Reproductive A. Herbs Artemisia scoparia Waldst. 1. 3.031 2.936 3.087 3.018 & Kitam. Dysphania botrys (L.) 2. 2.842 3.588 5.925 4.118 Mosyakin & Clemants 3. Origanum vulgare L. 3.093 3.892 3.795 3.593 4. Salvia canariensis L. 3.824 3.699 3.741 3.754

5. Thymus linearis Benth. 8.067 4.241 5.086 5.798

6. Apluda mutica L. 1.334 1.508 3.141 1.994

7. Pennisetum orientale Rich. 1.324 1.774 1.410 1.502

Average 3.359 3.091 3.740 3.396

B. Shrubs Sarcococca saligna 1. 1.244 1.559 1.366 1.389 (D.Don) Muell. Arg. 2. Leptopus cordifolius Decne. 2.442 1.953 1.238 1.877 Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex 3. 2.984 3.517 5.201 3.900 Benth.) Codd 4. Spiraea canescens D.Don 1.489 1.514 2.041 1.681

5. Daphne mucronata Royle. 1.127 1.264 1.507 1.299 Wikstroemia canescens 6. 18.40 2.249 4.017 8.222 Wall. ex Meisn. Average 4.614 2.009 2.561 3.061

C. Trees Parrotiopsis 1. jacquemontiana (Decne.) 1.843 1.784 1.206 1.611 Rehder. Elaeagnus umbellata 2. 2.194 1.506 1.368 1.689 Thumb. Average 2.018 1.645 1.287 1.65

171 Pre-reproductive Reproductive 20 Post-reproductive 18

16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2

concentration (mg/l) concentration

orientale

Parrotiopsis

Apluda mutica Apluda

Isodon rugosusIsodon

Thymus linearis Thymus

jacquemontiana

Dysphania botrysDysphania

Salvia canariensisSalvia

Spiraea canescensSpiraea

Origanum vulgareOriganum

Daphne mucronata Daphne

Sarcococca salignaSarcococca

Artemisia scopariaArtemisia

Leptopus cordifoliusLeptopus

Elaeagnus umbellataElaeagnus

Pennisetum Wikstroemia canescensWikstroemia

Figure-3.37: Graphical representation of Fe concentration at three phenological stages of the selected plants.

3.10.2.4 Cobalt (Co)

The results for Co concentration at the three phenological stages are given in Table 3.37. Among herbs, the highest contents of Co was recorded at pre reproductive stage (0.214 mg/l) of Salvia canariensis, followed by Apluda mutica at post-reproductive stage (0.163 mg/l) and Origanum vulgare at pre- reproductive stage (0.128 mg/l). Taking the overall phenological stages, maximum Co level for herb species was recorded at post-reproductive stage (0.101 mg/l), followed by reproductive stage (0.094 mg/l) and pre-reproductive stage (0.086 mg/l). The progressive increasing trend of Co concentration was not seen in any of herb species. Across the average concentration, highest Co contents were recorded for S. canariensis (0.126 mg/l), which was followed by Apluda mutica (0.115 mg/l) and O. vulgare (0.111 mg/l). Among shrubs, maximum concentration was revealed by Daphne mucronata at pre- reproductive stage (0.255 mg/l). It was followed by at pre-reproductive stage (0.233 mg/l) of Wikstroemia canescens, post-reproductive stage (0.119 mg/l) of

172 Spiraea canescens and reproductive stage (0.119) of Leptopus cordifolius. Among the average of phenological stages of all shrubs, Co concentration were 0.130 mg/l, 0.087 mg/l and 0.072 mg/l respectively recorded for pre- reproductive, post-reproductive and reproductive stages. Considering the average, highest Co concentration was found in Daphne mucronata (0.156 mg/l). It was followed by W. canescens (0.145 mg/l) and S. canescens (0.086 mg/l). Accumulation of Co contents towards plant maturity was not observed in any shrub species. In tree species, Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana had the highest Co contents at pre-reproductive stage (0.241 mg/l), followed by reproductive stage (0.095 mg/l) of the same specie and pre-reproductive stage (0.079 mg/l) of Elaeagnus umbellata. At three phenological stages of trees, no increase trend of Co contents was observed. Among the overall phenological stages, pre- reproductive had the highest concentration (0.16 mg/l), followed by reproductive stage (0.085 mg/l) and post-reproductive stage (0.063 mg/l). P. jacquemontiana had the maximum average value (0.130 mg/l) and E. umbellata had minimum (0.075 mg/l). Table-3.37: Co (mg/l) concentration at three phenological stages in some ethnomedicinal and palatable plant species of Tall Dardyal, District Swat, Pakistan.

Phenological stages S.No Pre- Post - Plant species Reproducti Averag . reproductiv Reproducti ve e e ve A. Herbs Artemisia scoparia 1. 0.042 0.120 0.076 0.079 Waldst. & Kitam. Dysphania botrys (L.) 2. 0.051 0.093 0.063 0.069 Mosyakin & Clemants 3. Origanum vulgare L. 0.128 0.082 0.125 0.111 4. Salvia canariensis L. 0.214 0.061 0.105 0.126

5. Thymus linearis Benth. 0.026 0.126 0.124 0.092

6. Apluda mutica L. 0.107 0.076 0.163 0.115 Pennisetum orientale 7. 0.037 0.102 0.057 0.065 Rich.

173 Average 0.086 0.094 0.101 0.093

B. Shrubs Sarcococca saligna 1. 0.062 0.000 0.068 0.043 (D.Don) Muell. Arg. Leptopus cordifolius Dec 2. 0.068 0.119 0.052 0.079 ne. Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex 3. 0.091 0.033 0.087 0.070 Benth.) Codd Spiraea canescens 4. 0.075 0.065 0.119 0.086 D.Don Daphne mucronata 5. 0.255 0.115 0.100 0.156 Royle. Wikstroemia canescens 6. 0.233 0.101 0.101 0.145 Wall. ex Meisn. Average 0.130 0.072 0.087 0.096

C. Trees Parrotiopsis 1. jacquemontiana (Decne.) 0.241 0.095 0.056 0.130 Rehder. Elaeagnus umbellata 2. 0.079 0.078 0.070 0.075 Thumb. Average 0.16 0.085 0.063 0.102

Pre-reproductive 0.3 Reproductive

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

concentration (mg/l) concentration 0

orientale

canescens

Wikstroemia

Parrotiopsis

Apluda mutica Apluda

Isodon rugosusIsodon

Thymus linearisThymus

jacquemontiana

Dysphania botrysDysphania

Salvia canariensisSalvia

Origanum vulgareOriganum canescensSpiraea

Daphne mucronataDaphne

Sarcococca salignaSarcococca

Artemisia scopariaArtemisia

Leptopus cordifoliusLeptopus Elaeagnus umbellataElaeagnus Pennisetum

Figure-3.38: Graphical representation of Co concentration at three phenological stages of the selected plants.

174 3.10.2.5 Nickel (Ni) The results for Ni concentration at the three phenological stages are given in Table 3.38. Among herbs, the highest (0.244 mg/l) Ni contents were recorded both at reproductive and post-reproductive stages and pre-reproductive stage (0.199 mg/l) of Origanum vulgare. It was followed by post reproductive stage (0.190 mg/l) of Artemisia scoparia and at reproductive stage (0.131 mg/l) of Thymus linearis. Across the phenological stages, as a whole for herbs, high average of Ni contents i.e. 0.174 mg/l, 0.170 mg/l and 0.154 mg/l respectively at post-reproductive, reproductive and pre-reproductive stages. In individual herb species, the highest average Ni contents value was noted for O. vulgare (0.229 mg/l) which was followed by A. scoparia (0.183 mg/l) and Dysphania botrys (0.162 mg/l). Toward maturity of individual plant species increased Ni level was noted in O. vulgare and Saliva canariensis. In overall phenological stages for all herbs, progressive tendency was also recorded in average values i.e. 0.154 mg/l, 0.170 mg/l and 0.174 mg/l. Among shrubs, maximum Ni concentration was shown by Sarcococca saligna at reproductive stage (0.229 mg/l). It was followed by 0.205 mg/l and 0.189 mg/l respectively at reproductive and pre-reproductive stages of Wikstroemia canescens. The overall phenological stages for shrubs, showed highest Ni contents at reproductive stage (0.173 mg/l), pre-reproductive stage (0.147 mg/l) and post-reproductive stage (0.142 mg/l). Recording the average concentration in individual herb species, W. canescens had the highest (0.185 mg/l) Ni contents. It was followed by S. saligna (0.176 mg/l) and Isodon rugosus (0.147 mg/l). No progressive accumulation of Ni contents was noted in successive phenological stages. All the shrub species showed variation in this aspect. Elaeagnus umbellata, the tree species had the highest Ni contents at pre- reproductive stage (0.159 mg/l). It was followed by reproductive stage (0.156 mg/l) of Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana. Considering the overall phenological stages, maximum concentration was found at pre-reproductive stage (0.153 mg/l), post-reproductive stage (0.118 mg/l) and reproductive stage (0.153 mg/l). Maximum average value of Ni contents was noted for E. umbellata (0.147 mg/l). No progressive increases at various phenological stages were recorded for tree species.

175 Table-3.38: Ni (mg/l) concentration at three phenological stages in some ethnomedicinal and palatable plant species of Tall Dardyal, District Swat, Pakistan.

Phenological stages S. Plant species Pre- Post - No. Reproductive Average reproductive Reproductive A. Herbs Artemisia scoparia Waldst. 1. 0.188 0.172 0.190 0.183 & Kitam. Dysphania botrys (L.) 2. 0.149 0.170 0.169 0.162 Mosyakin & Clemants 3. Origanum vulgare L. 0.199 0.244 0.244 0.229 4. Salvia canariensis L. 0.136 0.136 0.158 0.143

5. Thymus linearis Benth. 0.151 0.131 0.179 0.153

6. Apluda mutica L. 0.141 0.154 0.139 0.144

7. Pennisetum orientale Rich. 0.116 0.186 0.139 0.147

Average 0.154 0.170 0.174 0.166

B. Shrubs Sarcococca saligna 1. 0.130 0.229 0.171 0.176 (D.Don) Muell. Arg. 2. Leptopus cordifolius Decne. 0.139 0.163 0.109 0.137 Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex 3. 0.146 0.141 0.154 0.147 Benth.) Codd 4. Spiraea canescens D.Don 0.140 0.160 0.139 0.146

5. Daphne mucronata Royle. 0.140 0.141 0.122 0.134 Wikstroemia canescens 6. 0.189 0.205 0.162 0.185 Wall.ex Meisn. Average 0.147 0.173 0.142 0.154

C. Trees Parrotiopsis 1. jacquemontiana (Decne.) 0.148 0.156 0.097 0.133 Rehder. Elaeagnus umbellata 2. 0.159 0.144 0.140 0.147 Thumb. Average 0.153 0.15 0.118 0.140

176 0.3 Pre-reproductive Reproductive 0.25 Post-reproductive

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

concentration (mg/l) concentration

orientale

Apluda muticaApluda

Isodon rugosusIsodon

Thymus linearisThymus

Dysphaniabotrys

Salvia canariensisSalvia

Origanum vulgareOriganum canescensSpiraea

Daphnemucronata

Sarcococcasaligna

Artemisia scoparia

Leptopus cordifoliusLeptopus

Elaeagnusumbellata

Pennisetum Wikstroemia Wikstroemia canescens

Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana

Figure-3.39: Graphical representation of Ni concentration at three phenological stages of the selected plants.

3.10.2.6 Copper (Cu)

The results for Cu concentration at the three phenological stages are given in Table 3.39.

Among herbs, maximum Cu concentration was recorded for Origanum vulgare at post reproductive stage (0.240 mg/l), followed by 0.145 mg/l, 0.134 mg/l and 0.104 mg/l respectively at pre-reproductive, reproductive and post- reproductive stages of Artemisia scoparia. Taking the overall phenological stages, highest Cu contents i.e. 0.098 mg/l, 0.092 mg/l and 0.077 respectively was recorded for post-reproductive, pre-reproductive and reproductive stages. In individual herb species high average value of Cu contents was observed for O. vulgare (0.137 mg/l). It was followed by A. scoparia (0.127 mg/l) and Thymus linearis (0.087 mg/l). The minimum average value i.e. 0.47 mg/l was recorded for Apluda mutica. Considering the increasing tendency towards

177 maturity was not revealed by any herb species. They all showed variation. Among shrubs, Wikstroemia canescens had highest Cu contents at post- reproductive stage (0.691 mg/l). It was followed by Isodon rugosus at pre- reproductive stage (0.254 mg/l) and Spiraea canescens at reproductive stage (0.193 mg/l). On the basis of overall average of the three phenological stages, maximum Cu concentration was recorded at post-reproductive (0.178 mg/l), followed by pre-reproductive (0.097 mg/l) and reproductive stage (0.084 mg/l).

Considering the individual shrub species, the average of various phenological stages highest (0.271 mg/l) Cu contents was recorded in W. canescens. It was followed by I. rugosus (0.165 mg/l) and S. canescens (0.108 mg/l). Among the shrubs, only Sarcococca saligna showed successive accumulation of Cu contents at three phenological stages i.e. 0.061 mg/l, 0.066 mg/l and 0.072 mg/l. Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana had highest i.e. 0.112 mg/l and 0.086 mg/l respectively at reproductive and pre-reproductive stages. It was followed by reproductive stage (0.080 mg/l) of Elaeagnus umbellata. A uniform progressive increase at three phenological stages was not recorded for tree species. Across the average of phenological stages of tree species, Cu contents i.e. 0.096 mg/l, 0.077 mg/l and 0.051 mg/l respectively were revealed by reproductive, pre-reproductive and post-reproductive stages. P. jacquemontiana showed maximum (0.085mg/l) average of Cu concentration than E. umbellata (0.063 mg/l).

178 Table-3.39: Cu (mg/l) concentration at three phenological stages in some ethnomedicinal and palatable plant species of Tall Dardyal, District Swat, Pakistan.

Phenological stages S.N Pre- Post - Plant species Reproducti Averag o. reproducti Reproducti ve e ve ve A. Herbs Artemisia scoparia 1. 0.145 0.134 0.104 0.127 Waldst. & Kitam. Dysphania botrys (L.) 2. 0.088 0.049 0.074 0.070 Mosyakin & Clemants 3. Origanum vulgare L. 0.092 0.079 0.240 0.137 4. Salvia canariensis L. 0.081 0.075 0.082 0.079

5. Thymus linearis Benth. 0.113 0.069 0.080 0.087

6. Apluda mutica L. 0.062 0.037 0.043 0.047 Pennisetum orientale 7. 0.064 0.097 0.066 0.075 Rich. Average 0.092 0.077 0.098 0.089 B. Shrubs Sarcococca saligna 1. 0.061 0.066 0.072 0.066 (D.Don) Muell. Arg. Leptopus cordifolius De 2. 0.062 0.055 0.038 0.051 cne. Isodon rugosus (Wall. 3. 0.254 0.087 0.155 0.165 ex Benth.) Codd Spiraea canescens 4. 0.075 0.193 0.058 0.108 D.Don Daphne mucronata 5. 0.055 0.063 0.054 0.057 Royle. Wikstroemia canescens 6. 0.077 0.045 0.691 0.271 Wall. ex Meisn. Average 0.097 0.084 0.178 0.119

C. Trees Parrotiopsis 1. jacquemontiana 0.086 0.112 0.059 0.085 (Decne.) Rehder. Elaeagnus umbellata 2. 0.068 0.080 0.043 0.063 Thumb. Average 0.077 0.096 0.051 0.074

179 Pre-reproductive Reproductive 0.8 Post-reproductive

0.7

0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2

0.1 concentration (mg/l) concentration

orientale

Parrotiopsis

Apluda mutica Apluda

Isodon rugosusIsodon

Thymus linearis Thymus

jacquemontiana

Dysphania botrysDysphania

Salvia canariensisSalvia

Origanum vulgareOriganum canescensSpiraea

Daphne mucronataDaphne

Sarcococca salignaSarcococca

Artemisia scopariaArtemisia

Leptopus cordifoliusLeptopus

Elaeagnus umbellataElaeagnus Pennisetum

Wikstroemia canescensWikstroemia

Figure-3.40: Graphical representation of Cu concentration at three phenological stages of the selected plants.

3.10.2.7 Zinc (Zn)

The results for Zn concentration at the three phenological stages are given in Table 3.40.

Among herbs, Origanum vulgare had highest Zn contents at post- reproductive stage (0.825 mg/l), which was followed by pre-reproductive stage (0.590 mg/l) of Thymus linearis and reproductive stage (0.449 mg/l) of Artemisia scoparia. As a whole the average of various phenological stages of herb species, maximum Zn concentration was recorded at post-reproductive stage (0.316 mg/l), followed by pre-reproductive (0.310 mg/l) and reproductive stage (0.267 mg/l). Considering the individual herb species, the average value of Zn contents was highest (0.521 mg/l) in O. vulgare, medium (0.397 mg/l) in T. linearis, and lowest (0.153 mg/l) in Salvia canariensis. Taking the individual species, no progressive tendency of Zn accumulation was recorded among herbs. Among shrubs, the highest Zn contents i.e. 14.27 mg/l, 1.191 mg/l and 0.445 mg/l respectively were shown by pre-reproductive,

180 post reproductive stages of Wikstroemia canescens and pre-reproductive stage of Isodon rugosus. The whole phenological stages showed maximum Zn level at pre-reproductive (2.599 mg/l), followed by 0.405 mg/l and 0.267 mg/l respectively by post-reproductive and reproductive stages. On the basis of individual species average, W. canescens had the maximum (5.240 mg/l) Zn concentration, followed by Isodon rugosus (0.341 mg/l) and Daphne mucronata (0.281 mg/l). All the shrub species showed variation in Zn contents accumulation toward maturity stage. Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana had the maximum level of Zn i.e. 0.192 mg/l and 1.182 mg/l at reproductive and pre- reproductive stages. It was followed by pre-reproductive stage (0.172 mg/l) of Elaeagnus umbellata. Both the tree species showed variation regarding the progressive increase of Zn contents toward the maturity of plant. Same average value i.e. 0.154 mg/l of Zn contents were recorded in both the trees. As a whole at various phenological stages, reproductive stage had the highest (0.178 mg/l) Zn contents, followed by pre-reproductive (0.177 mg/l) and post- reproductive stages (0.107 mg/l).

Table-3.40: Zn (mg/l) concentration at three phenological stages in some ethnomedicinal and palatable plant species of Tall Dardyal, District Swat, Pakistan.

Phenological stages S.# Plant species Pre- Post - Reproductive Average reproductive Reproductive A. Herbs Artemisia scoparia Waldst. 1. 0.347 0.449 0.277 0.357 & Kitam. Dysphania botrys (L.) 2. 0.290 0.161 0.188 0.213 Mosyakin & Clemants 3. Origanum vulgare L. 0.379 0.360 0.825 0.521 4. Salvia canariensis L. 0.185 0.126 0.149 0.153

5. Thymus linearis Benth. 0.590 0.167 0.436 0.397

6. Apluda mutica L. 0.170 0.186 0.172 0.176

7. Pennisetum orientale Rich. 0.210 0.422 0.171 0.267

181 Average 0.310 0.267 0.316 0.297

B. Shrubs Sarcococca saligna 1. 0.174 0.343 0.271 0.262 (D.Don) Muell. Arg. 2. Leptopus cordifolius Decne. 0.267 0.303 0.148 0.239 Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex 3. 0.445 0.264 0.315 0.341 Benth.) Codd 4. Spiraea canescens D.Don 0.187 0.127 0.231 0.181

5. Daphne mucronata Royle. 0.256 0.309 0.278 0.281 Wikstroemia canescens 6. 14.27 0.260 1.191 5.240 Wall. ex Meisn. Average 2.599 0.267 0.405 1.090

C. Trees Parrotiopsis 1. jacquemontiana (Decne.) 0.182 0.192 0.088 0.154 Rehder. Elaeagnus umbellata 2. 0.172 0.165 0.126 0.154 Thumb. Average 0.177 0.178 0.107 0.154

16 Pre-reproductive 14 Reproductive 12 Post-reproductive 10 8 6 4 2

concentration (mg/l) concentration

orientale

Apluda mutica Apluda

Isodon rugosusIsodon

Thymus linearisThymus

Dysphania botrysDysphania

Salvia canariensisSalvia

Spiraea canescensSpiraea

Origanum vulgare Origanum

Daphne mucronataDaphne

Sarcococca salignaSarcococca

Artemisia scopariaArtemisia

Leptopus cordifoliusLeptopus

Elaeagnus umbellataElaeagnus

Pennisetum Wikstroemia canescensWikstroemia

Parrotiopsis jacquemontianaParrotiopsis

Figure-3.41: Graphical representation of Zn concentration at three phenological stages of the selected plants.

182 3.10.2.8 Silver (Ag)

The results for Ag concentration at the three phenological stages are given in Table 3.41.

Among herbs, maximum Ag concentration i.e. 0.024 mg/l was recorded at pre-reproductive stage of Apluda mutica and post-reproductive stage of Pennisetum orientale. It was followed by reproductive stage (0.008 mg/l) of Artemisia scoparia and pre-reproductive stage (0.007 mg/l) of Salvia canariensis. Across the overall average of phenological stages, pre- reproductive stage had the maximum Ag level (0.005 mg/l), followed by post- reproductive stage (0.003 mg/l) and reproductive stage (0.002 mg/l). On the basis of average of individual herb species at various phenological stages, A. mutica and Pennisetum vulgare both had the maximum level (0.008 mg/l) of Zn contents. It was followed by S. canariensis (0.003 mg/l) and A. scoparia, Origanum vulgare and Thymus linearis (0.002 mg/l each). In Dysphania botrys, Ag contents were absent at all phenological stages. Variation in phenological stages was found regarding the progressive accumulation of Ag contents. Among shrubs, maximum concentration (0.019 mg/l) of Ag contents was found at reproductive stage of Daphne mucronata. It was followed by pre-reproductive stage (0.013 mg/l) of Leptopus cordifolius and reproductive stage (0.011 mg/l) of Spiraea canescens. As a whole average Ag contents of various phenological stages were 0.005 mg/l, 0.002, mg/l and 0.0006 mg/l respectively at reproductive, pre-reproductive and post-reproductive stages. Considering the individual average for shrub species, D. mucronata had maximum (0.006 mg/l) Ag contents. It was followed by L. cordifolius (0.005 mg/l) and S. canescens (0.003 mg/l). In Sarcococca saligna, Isodon rugosus Ag contents were found absent. The accumulation of Ag contents was only found at post-reproductive stage (0.004 mg/l) of Wikstroemia canescens. In Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana, Ag contents were recorded only at pre- reproductive stage (0.016 mg/l) and absent in reproductive and post- reproductive stages. Same for Elaeagnus Umbellata Ag contents was only recorded at reproductive stage (0.009 mg/l) and absent in other two phenological stages.

183 Table-3.41: Ag (mg/l) concentration at three phenological stages in some ethnomedicinal and palatable plant species of Tall Dardyal, District Swat, Pakistan.

Phenological stages S.# Plant species Pre- Post - Reproductive Average reproductive Reproductive A. Herbs Artemisia scoparia Waldst. 1. 0.000 0.008 0.000 0.002 & Kitam. Dysphania botrys (L.) 2. 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Mosyakin & Clemants 3. Origanum vulgare L. 0.005 0.002 0.000 0.002 4. Salvia canariensis L. 0.007 0.003 0.000 0.003

5. Thymus linearis Benth. 0.000 0.005 0.001 0.002

6. Apluda mutica L. 0.024 0.000 0.000 0.008

7. Pennisetum orientale Rich. 0.002 0.000 0.024 0.008

Average 0.005 0.002 0.003 0.003

B. Shrubs Sarcococca saligna 1. 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 (D.Don) Muell. Arg. 2. Leptopus cordifolius Decne. 0.013 0.004 0.000 0.005 Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex 3. 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Benth.) Codd 4. Spiraea canescens D.Don 0.000 0.011 0.000 0.003

5. Daphne mucronata Royle. 0.000 0.019 0.000 0.006 Wikstroemia canescens 6. 0.000 0.000 0.004 0.001 Wall. ex Meisn. Average 0.002 0.005 0.0006 0.002

C. Trees Parrotiopsis 1. jacquemontiana (Decne.) 0.016 0.000 0.000 0.005 Rehder. Elaeagnus umbellata 2. 0.000 0.009 0.000 0.003 Thumb. Average 0.008 0.004 0.000 0.004

184 0.03 Pre-reproductive Reproductive 0.025 Post-reproductive

0.02

0.015

0.01

0.005

concentration (mg/l) concentration

orientale

Apluda mutica Apluda

Isodon rugosusIsodon

Thymus linearisThymus

Dysphania botrysDysphania

Salvia canariensisSalvia

Spiraea canescensSpiraea

Origanum vulgareOriganum

Daphne mucronataDaphne

Sarcococca salignaSarcococca

Artemisia scopariaArtemisia

Leptopus cordifoliusLeptopus

Elaeagnus umbellataElaeagnus

Pennisetum Wikstroemia canescensWikstroemia

Parrotiopsis jacquemontianaParrotiopsis

Figure-3.42: Graphical representation of Ag concentration at three phenological stages of the selected plants.

3.10.2.9 Cadmium (Cd)

The results for Cd concentration at the three phenological stages are given in Table 3.42.

Among herbs, Pennisetum orientale has the highest Cd contents at reproductive stage (0.083 mg/l), followed by reproductive stage (0.081 mg/l) of Origanum vulgare and pre-reproductive stage (0.079 mg/l) of Artemisia scoparia. Considering the individual herb species, highest average Cd contents were observed for A. scoparia (0.071 mg/l), followed by Dysphania botrys (0.064 mg/l) and O. vulgare (0.053 mg/l). Across the whole average value of Cd at three phenological stages, maximum concentration was recorded at reproductive stage (0.054 mg/l). It was followed by pre-reproductive stage (0.047 mg/l) and post-reproductive stage (0.041 mg/l). In Thymus linearis, Cd concentration remained the same (0.026 mg/l) at pre-reproductive and reproductive stages and showed progressive increase (0.073 mg/l) towards maturity. Other herb species showed variation in Cd contents toward plant

185 maturity. Among shrubs, maximum Cd contents were recorded for Isodon rugosus at pre-reproductive stage (0.062 mg/l) and reproductive stage (0.061 mg/l). It was followed by the same Cd concentration i.e. 0.059 mg/l recorded both for pre-reproductive of Spiraea canescens and reproductive stage of Wikstroemia canescens. Considering the individual species average, W. canescens showed the highest (0.046 mg/l) average contents, followed by Sarcococca saligna (0.043 mg/l) and Spiraea canescens (0.038 mg/l). As a whole for shrubs, average value of Cd contents at three phenological stages were observed at post-reproductive stage (0.048 mg/l). It was followed by reproductive stage (0.036 mg/l) and pre-reproductive stage (0.035 mg/l). S. saligna and Daphne mucronata revealed an increased tendency of Cd contents toward maturity of plant. In trees i.e. Elaeagnus umbellata showed highest concentration (0.053 mg/l) both at pre-reproductive and post-reproductive stages and 0.013 mg/l at reproductive stage. It was followed by 0.029 mg/l concentration at all the three phenological stages of Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana. It is included that in P. jacquemontiana Cd concentration remained uniform at three growth stages. Maximum concentration among the whole phenological stages were recorded at pre-reproductive stage (0.041 mg/l) followed by post-reproductive stage (0.041 mg/l) and reproductive stage (0.03 mg/l). The maximum average value for individual species was shown by E. umbellata (0.045 mg/l).

186 Table-3.42: Cd (mg/l) concentration at three phenological stages in some ethnomedicinal and palatable plant species of Tall Dardyal, District Swat, Pakistan.

Phenological stages S.No. Plant species Pre- Post - Reproductive Average reproductive Reproductive A. Herbs Artemisia scoparia Waldst. 1. 0.079 0.058 0.078 0.071 & Kitam. Dysphania botrys (L.) 2. 0.057 0.069 0.067 0.064 Mosyakin & Clemants 3. Origanum vulgare L. 0.076 0.081 0.004 0.053 4. Salvia canariensis L. 0.034 0.037 0.032 0.034

5. Thymus linearis Benth. 0.026 0.026 0.073 0.041

6. Apluda mutica L. 0.019 0.028 0.021 0.022

7. Pennisetum orientale Rich. 0.038 0.083 0.017 0.046

Average 0.047 0.054 0.041 0.047

B. Shrubs Sarcococca saligna 1. 0.027 0.045 0.057 0.043 (D.Don) Muell. Arg. 2. Leptopus cordifolius Decne. 0.021 0.005 0.043 0.023 Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex 3. 0.062 0.061 0.057 0.06 Benth.) Codd 4. Spiraea canescens D.Don 0.059 0.020 0.036 0.038

5. Daphne mucronata Royle. 0.022 0.031 0.042 0.031 Wikstroemia canescens 6. 0.023 0.059 0.057 0.046 Wall. ex Meisn. Average 0.035 0.036 0.048 0.019

C. Trees Parrotiopsis 1. jacquemontiana (Decne.) 0.029 0.029 0.029 0.029 Rehder. Elaeagnus umbellata 2. 0.053 0.031 0.053 0.045 Thumb. Average 0.041 0.03 0.041 0.037

187 0.09 Pre-reproductive 0.08 Reproductive Post-reproductive 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02

0.01 concentration (mg/l) concentration

orientale

Parrotiopsis

Apluda mutica Apluda

Isodon rugosusIsodon

Thymus linearisThymus

jacquemontiana

Dysphania botrysDysphania

Salvia canariensisSalvia

Spiraea canescensSpiraea

Origanum vulgare Origanum

Daphne mucronataDaphne

Sarcococca salignaSarcococca

Artemisia scopariaArtemisia

Leptopus cordifoliusLeptopus

Elaeagnus umbellataElaeagnus

Pennisetum Wikstroemia canescensWikstroemia

Figure-3.43: Graphical representation of Cd concentration at three phenological stages of the selected plants .

3.10.2.10 Lead (Pb)

The results for Pb concentration at the three phenological stages are given in Table 3.43.

Among herbs, Pennisetum orientale, had highest (1.243 mg/l) Pb concentration at reproductive stage, followed by pre-reproductive stage (0.277 mg/l) of Thymus linearis and post-reproductive stage (0.227 mg/l) of Salvia canariensis. Across the whole phenological stages, maximum level of Pb was recorded at reproductive stage (0.258 mg/l), followed by post-reproductive stage (0.153 mg/l) and pre-reproductive stage (0.151 mg/l). Considering the average for individual herb species Pennisetum orientale showed maximum concentration (0.533 mg/l). It was followed by S. canariensis (0.193 mg/l) and T. linearis (0.162 mg/l). The increasing tendency towards maturity stage was observed in Dysphania botrys and Apluda mutica. In this aspect other herbs showed variation. Among shrubs, Wikstroemia canescens showed maximum Pb concentration at reproductive stage (0.382 mg/l) and post-reproductive

188 stage (0.348 mg/l). It was followed by 0.189 mg/l and 0.186 mg/l respectively of reproductive stages of Isodon rugosus and Spiraea canescens. The overall average of phenological stages revealed highest Pb contents i.e. 0.187 mg/l, 0.153 mg/l and 0.145 mg/l respectively at reproductive, post-reproductive and pre-reproductive stages. Individual average concentration was highest i.e. 0.296 mg/l, 0.178 mg/l and 0.159 mg/l respectively for W. canescens, Daphne mucronata and I. rugosus. In all shrub species variation was noted regarding the progressive increase trend of Pb contents at phenological stages. Elaeagnus umbellata showed maximum concentration i.e. 0.342 mg/l at pre- reproductive stage. It was followed by reproductive stage (0.205mg/l) of Parrotiopsis Jacquemontiana and reproductive stage (0.157 mg/l) of E. umbellata. The highest concentration at phenological stages recorded were 0.249 mg/l, 0.181 mg/l and 0.095 mg/l respectively at pre-reproductive, reproductive and post-reproductive stages. Individual highest average contents i.e. 0.184 mg/l were shown by E. umbellata. No uniformity was shown by the tree species in the aspect of progressive increase of Pb contents at various growth stages.

Table-3.43: Pb(mg/l) concentration at three phenological stages in some ethnomedicinal and palatable plant species of Tall Dardyal, District Swat, Pakistan.

Phenological stages S.No. Plant species Pre- Post - Reproductive Average reproductive Reproductive A. Herbs Artemisia scoparia Waldst. 1. 0.119 0.116 0.073 0.102 & Kitam. Dysphania botrys (L.) 2. 0.022 0.050 0.066 0.046 Mosyakin & Clemants 3. Origanum vulgare L. 0.188 0.014 0.227 0.143 4. Salvia canariensis L. 0.200 0.193 0.188 0.193

5. Thymus linearis Benth. 0.277 0.057 0.154 0.162

6. Apluda mutica L. 0.088 0.137 0.175 0.133

7. Pennisetum orientale Rich. 0.166 1.243 0.191 0.533

189 Average 0.151 0.258 0.153 0.187

B. Shrubs Sarcococca saligna 1. 0.115 0.015 0.117 0.082 (D.Don) Muell. Arg. 2. Leptopus cordifolius Decne. 0.183 0.183 0.042 0.136 Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex 3. 0.163 0.189 0.127 0.159 Benth.) Codd 4. Spiraea canescens D.Don 0.071 0.186 0.105 0.120

5. Daphne mucronata Royle. 0.182 0.170 0.183 0.178 Wikstroemia canescens 6. 0.159 0.382 0.348 0.296 Wall. ex Meisn. Average 0.145 0.187 0.153 0.161

C. Trees Parrotiopsis 1. jacquemontiana (Decne.) 0.156 0.205 0.135 0.165 Rehder. Elaeagnus umbellata 2. 0.342 0.157 0.055 0.184 Thumb. Average 0.249 0.181 0.095 0.175

1.4 Pre-reproductive 1.2 Reproductive Post-reproductive

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

concentration (mg/l) concentration

…

orientale

Parrotiopsis

Apluda muticaApluda

Isodon rugosusIsodon

Thymus linearisThymus

Dysphaniabotrys

Salvia canariensisSalvia

Spiraea canescensSpiraea

Origanum vulgareOriganum

Daphnemucronata

Sarcococcasaligna

Artemisia scoparia

Leptopus cordifoliusLeptopus

Elaeagnusumbellata Pennisetum

Wikstroemia Wikstroemia canescens Figure-3.44: Graphical representation of Pb concentration at three phenological stages of the selected plants.

190 Table-3.44: Degree of palatability of some selected plant species used for mineral analysis at three phenological stages.

Phenological stages S.No. Plant species Pre- Post – Reproductive reproductive Reproductive A. Herbs Artemisia scoparia Waldst. 1. MP LP RP & Kitam. Dysphania botrys (L.) 2. LP RP RP Mosyakin & Clemants 3. Origanum vulgare L. HP MP LP 4. Salvia canariensis L. HP HP HP

5. Thymus linearis Benth. HP HP MP

6. Apluda mutica L. HP HP MP

7. Pennisetum orientale Rich. HP HP HP

B. Shrubs Sarcococca saligna 1. LP RP RP (D.Don) Muell. Arg. 2. Leptopus cordifolius Decne. LP RP RP Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex 3. HP HP HP Benth.) Codd 4. Spiraea canescens D.Don HP HP RP

5. Daphne mucronata Royle. RP RP RP Wikstroemia canescens 6. MP LP RP Wall. ex Meisn. C. Trees Parrotiopsis 1. jacquemontiana (Decne.) MP LP RP Rehder. Elaeagnus umbellata 2. MP MP LP Thumb.

Key: HP: Highly palatable, MP: Mostly palatable, LP: Less palatable, RP: Rarely palatable

191 3.11 Proximate Analysis

The results of proximate analysis of the selected ethnomedicinal and palatabile forage plant species are given in Table 3.45.

3.11.1 Moisture (%)

Variation in moisture contents were observed in herb species at three phenological stages. Artemisia scoparia showed 3.27% moisture contents at reproductive stage, followed by pre-reproductive (2.92%) and post- reproductive (2.40%) stages. High moisture contents (1.77%) were recorded in Dysphania botrys at post-reproductive stage as compared to pre-reproductive (1.51%) and reproductive (1.35%) stages. Origanum vulgare contained high moisture (2.06%) at reproductive stage followed by post-reproductive stage (1.14%) and pre-reproductive stage (0.08%). At post-reproductive stage, 2.43% moisture contents were observed in Salvia canariensis followed by reproductive stage (2.40%) and pre-reproductive stage (2.14%).

At pre-reproductive stage Thymus linearis contained 9.73%, followed by post-reproductive (9.35%) and reproductive stage (8.55%). In Apluda mutica, the highest moisture contents were recorded at post-reproductive stage as compared to pre-reproductive (6.74%) and reproductive (5.83%) stage. At reproductive stage of Pennisetum orientale the highest value (8.79%) of moisture was recorded, followed by pre-reproductive and post reproductive stages i.e. 8.05% and 7.86% respectively. Among the herbs, the highest average value of moisture was revealed by T. linearis (9.21%), followed by P. orientale (8.23%) and A. mutica (6.84%). Shrubs also showed variation in moisture contents at three phenological stages.

The highest moisture contents (2.44%) were observed at post- reproductive stage followed by pre-reproductive (1.90%) and reproductive stage (1.89%) of Sarcococca saligna. The highest moisture contents were recorded at reproductive stage (9.52%) of Leptopus cordifolius, at post- reproductive stage of Isodon rugosus (2.88%) and Spiraea canescens

192 (10.85%), at pre-reproductive stage of Daphne mucronata (8.11%) and Wikstroemia canescens (2.56%). The highest average moisture values were recorded for L. cordifolius (9.14%), followed by S. canescens (9.09%) and D. mucronata (7.31%). In tree species, Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana and Elaeagnus umbellata both contained the highest moisture contents at post- reproductive stage i.e. 8.88% and 5.03% respectively.

3.11.2 Ash (%)

At vegetative stage maximum ash contents were recorded in some herb and shrub species i.e. Salvia canariensis (15.70%), Dysphania botrys (12.34%), Thymus linearis (11%), Artemisia scoparia (8.74%) and Apluda mutica (8.23%), in shrub species Isodon rugosus (7.65%), Leptopus cordifolius (5.54%), Sarcococca saligna (5.46%) and Wikstroemia canescens (5.45%).

In herb species at reproductive stage, maximum ash contents were exhibited by S. canariensis (14.68%), T. linearis (13.73%) and Dysphania botrys (12.19%), in shrub species Sarcococca saligna (8.60%), followed by W. canescens (6.45%) and I. rugosus (6.08%). Among herbs, at post- reproductive stage maximum ash contents were recorded in S. canariensis (13.44%), D. botrys (10.84%) and T. linearis (9.17%), in shrubs, W. canescens contained maximum ash (6.46%) followed by S. canescens (5.90%) and L. cordifolius (5.38%). Decreased tendency in ash contents were found toward the maturity stage of D. botrys, S. canariensis, A. mutica, L. cordifolius, I. rugosus and D. mucronata. A progressive increase towards maturity was exhibited by Spiraea canescens, Wikstroemia canescens and Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana (Table 3.45).

Among herbs, the maximum average value of ash contents were recorded for S. canariensis (14.60%), followed by D. botrys (11.79%) and T. linearis (11.30%). The maximum average values among shrubs were recorded for I. rugosus (6.21%), W. canescens (6.12%) and Sarcococca saligna

193 (5.94%). P. jacquemontiana has maximum (4.08%) ash value than Elaeagnus umbellata (3.82%).

3.11.3 Crude fats (%)

Maximum crude fats were recorded at vegetative stage of herbs i.e. 14.03%, 13.25% and 12.60% for Thymus linearis, Salvia canariensis and Origanum vulgare respectively. At reproductive stage, T. linearis contained maximum fats (13.57%), followed by Artemisia scoparia (11.41%) and S. canariensis (11.16%). At post-reproductive stage, 28.77%, 15.11% and 12.01% fat contents were exhibited by O. vulgare, T. linearis and S. canariensis respectively.

In shrub species at vegetative stage, maximum fat contents were recorded in Leptopus cordifolius (34.92%), followed by Spiraea canescens (15.30%) and Isodon rugosus (12.99%). At reproductive stage, 60.26%, 16.16% and 14.41% were shown by Leptopus cordifolius, Sarcococca saligna and Wikstroemia canescens respectively. At post-reproductive stage, S. saligna contained maximum fats (18.86%), followed by W.canescens (16.45%) and L. cordifolius (14.84%). In A. scoparia and P. orientale decreased tendency while in S. saligna, W.canescens and increased tendency of crude fat accumulation was observed in Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana towards maturity stage (Table 3.45).

Rest of the species showed variation in fats at three phenological stages. Among herbs, the highest average value of fats were recorded for O. vulgare (17.04%), followed by T. linearis (14.23%) and S. canariensis (12.14%). In shrub species highest average values were 36.67%, 15.59% and 14.39% for L. cordifolius, S. saligna and W. canescens respectively. Fat average value of P. jacquemontiana was high (10.99%) than Elaeagnus umbellata (10.16%).

194 3.11.4 Crude fibres (%)

In herb species, the highest percentage of crude fibres at three phenological stages was exhibited by Apluda mutica (33.55%, 47.81%) and Pennisetum orientale (30.45%, 30.40% and 28.60%). Artemisia scoparia contained crude fibre in descending order 16.21% > 14.03% > 13.32% at three phenological stages. In Origanum vulgare crude fibres increased towards maturity stage i.e. 18.70%, 19.31% and 19.73%. Dysphania botrys, Salvia canariensis and Thymus linearis showed variation in crude fibres at three phenological stages.

In herb species, average values indicate highest crude fibres in A. mutica (43.12%), followed by P. orientale (29.81), S. canariensis (21.34%) and T. linearis (20.76%). Among shrub species, the highest crude fibres at three phenological stages were recorded in Daphne mucronata (25.21%, 29.14% and 20.12%) and Sarcococca saligna (25.76% 24.23% and 20.41%). Increased tendency of crude fibres were observed in Leptopus cordifolius towards maturity stage (15.20% →18.14% →19.53%). Isodon rugosus showed decreased trend (15.71% → 12.03% → 10.21%), Spiraea canescens and Wikstroemia canescens exhibited variation toward maturity.

In shrub species the highest average values of crude fibres were found for D. mucronata (24.82%), followed by S. saligna (23.46%) and W. canescens (20.27%). Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana showed variation (18.42%, 20.45% and 21.19%) and Elaeagnus umbellata decreased trend toward maturity stage (22.20% → 19.74% →17.30%).

3.11.5 Soluble Proteins (%)

Soluble proteins in herb species were high and showed variation at three phenological stages as in Origanum vulgare (37.85% →40.87% → 28.40%), Thymus linearis (34.21% →41.34% →32.64%). Artemisia scoparia and Dysphania botrys also showed variation in soluble proteins. Progressive increase of soluble proteins was recorded in Pennisetum orientale (16.05% →

195 19.07 →24.40%) and in Apluda mutica decrease trend (17.93% → 12.05% → 9.81%) towards maturity stage. In shrub species, Isodon rugosus contained the highest soluble proteins at three phenological stages (48.52%, 37.78% and 30.25%) as compared to other species. Soluble proteins decreased towards plant maturity as in Sarcococca saligna (23.34%→22.32%→21.34%), Spiraea canescens (30.52% → 20.13%→14.52%) and Wikstroemia canescens (28.13%→ 27.42% → 26.36%). Daphne mucronata and Leptopus cordifolius showed variation at three phenological stages. Among shrub species maximum average values recorded were 38.85%, 29.79% and 29.50% for I. rugosus, D. mucronata and L. cordifolius respectively. In tree species, Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana and Elaeagnus umbellata showed variation in soluble proteins toward maturity. E. umbellata has maximum average value (19.88%) as compared to P. jacquemontiana (10.31%

3.11.6 Carbohydrates (%)

In herb species, Dysphania botrys and Artemisia scoparia contained maximum carbohydrates at three phenological stages as compared to other species (Table 3.45). Decreased trend in carbohydrates accumulation were recorded in Origanum vulgare (24.20%→22.94% →16.77%) and Pennisetum orientale (29.56%, 25.01% and 23.77%). Variation in carbohydrates toward maturity stage was observed in D. botrys, Salvia canariensis, Thymus linearis and Apluda mutica (Table 3.45).

An increased trend in carbohydrates was recorded in A. scoparia at three phonological stages. Maximum average values recorded were 44.67%, 38.46% and 26.11% for D. botrys, A. scoparia and Pennisetum orientale respectively. In shrub species, maximum carbohydrates at vegetative stage were recorded in Wikstroemia canescens (32.34%), followed by Sarcococca saligna (31.77%) and Daphne mucronata (26.61%). At reproductive stage, 41.06%, 30.83% and 28.12% were the maximum carbohydrates values exhibited by Spiraea canescens, Isodon rugosus and Wikstroemia canescens respectively.

196 Maximum values at post-reproductive stage by I. rugosus (38.64%), S. canescens (34.18%) and S. saligna (33.17%). Decreased trend of carbohydrates were recorded in Daphne mucronata (26.61% →23.86% → 17.25%), progressive increase in I. rugosus (13.28% → 30.83% → 38.64%) and variation at three phenological stages in rest of the herb species. In tree species, maximum carbohydrates at three phonological stages were showed by Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana (50.31% → 45.82% → 43.37%) and Elaeagnus umbellata (43.29% → 45.91% → 40.50%)

197 Table-3.45: Proximate composition (%) of the selected ethnomedicinal and palatable forage plants of Tall Dardyal, Tehsil Kabal, District Swat. Phenological Moisture Crude fats Crude fibres Soluble proteins Carbohydrates S.No. Plant species Ash (%) stages (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) A. Herbs S1 2.92 8.74 12.43 16.21 31.89 27.81 1. Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kitam. S2 3.27 2.56 11.41 14.03 29.23 39.50 S3 2.40 4.74 10.28 13.32 21.19 48.07 Average 2.86 5.34 11.37 14.52 27.43 38.46 S 1.51 12.34 10.49 13.76 18.32 43.58 Dysphania botrys (L.) Mosyakin & 1 2. S 1.35 12.19 10.08 14.31 16.21 45.86 Clemants 2 S3 1.77 10.84 11.88 11.12 19.81 44.58 Average 1.54 11.79 10.81 13.06 18.11 44.67 S1 0.08 6.57 12.60 18.70 37.85 24.20 3. Origanum vulgare L. S2 2.06 5.07 9.75 19.31 40.87 22.94 S3 1.14 5.19 28.77 19.73 28.40 16.77 Average 1.09 5.61 17.04 19.24 35.70 21.30 S1 2.14 15.70 13.25 21.71 28.80 18.40 4. Salvia canariensis L. S2 2.40 14.68 11.16 22.01 32.91 16.84 S3 2.43 13.44 12.01 20.32 32.64 19.16 Average 2.32 14.60 12.14 21.34 31.45 18.13 S1 9.73 11.00 14.03 24.01 34.21 7.02 5. Thymus linearis Benth. S2 8.55 13.73 13.57 18.10 41.34 4.71 S3 9.35 9.17 15.11 20.17 30.80 15.40 Average 9.21 11.30 14.23 20.76 35.45 9.04 S1 6.74 8.23 9.88 33.55 17.93 23.67 6. Apluda mutica L. S2 5.83 6.33 8.44 47.81 12.05 19.54 S3 7.96 5.32 9.79 48.01 9.81 19.11 Average 6.84 6.62 9.37 43.12 13.26 20.77 S1 8.05 5.54 10.35 30.45 16.05 29.56 7. Pennisetum orientale Rich. S2 8.79 6.82 9.91 30.40 19.07 25.01 S3 7.86 6.36 9.01 28.60 24.40 23.77 Average 8.23 6.24 9.75 29.81 19.84 26.11

198 B. Shrubs S 1.90 5.46 11.77 25.76 23.34 31.77 Sarcococca saligna (D.Don) Muell. 1 1. S 1.89 8.60 16.16 24.23 22.32 26.80 Arg. 2 S3 2.44 3.78 18.86 20.41 21.34 33.17 Average 2.07 5.94 15.59 23.46 22.33 30.58 S1 8.74 5.54 34.92 15.20 53.38 17.78 2. Leptopus cordifolius Decne. S2 9.52 5.41 60.26 18.14 16.09 9.42 S3 9.17 5.38 14.84 19.53 19.03 32.05 Average 9.14 5.44 36.67 17.62 29.50 19.75 S1 1.85 7.65 12.99 15.71 48.52 13.28 3. Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.) Codd S2 1.30 6.08 11.98 12.03 37.78 30.83 S3 2.88 4.92 13.10 10.21 30.25 38.64 Average 2.01 6.21 12.69 12.65 38.85 27.58 S 8.25 3.49 15.30 18.51 30.52 23.93 Spiraea canescens D.Don 1 4. S 8.18 3.70 11.92 15.01 20.13 41.06 2 S3 10.85 5.90 12.62 21.93 14.52 34.18 Average 9.09 4.36 13.28 18.48 21.72 33.05 S1 8.11 4.18 12.19 25.21 23.70 26.61 5. Daphne mucronata Royle. S2 7.76 3.81 9.30 29.14 26.13 23.86 S3 6.07 3.75 13.27 20.12 39.54 17.25 Average 7.31 3.91 11.58 24.82 29.79 22.57 S1 2.56 5.45 12.31 19.21 28.13 32.34 6. Wikstroemia canescens Wall. ex Meisn. S2 2.20 6.45 14.41 21.40 27.42 28.12 S3 1.92 6.46 16.45 20.21 26.36 28.60 Average 2.22 6.12 14.39 20.27 27.30 29.68 C. Trees S 7.02 3.65 10.63 18.42 9.97 50.31 Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana (Decne.) 1 1. S 8.39 4.22 11.42 20.45 9.70 45.82 Rehder. 2 S3 8.88 4.37 10.92 21.19 11.27 43.37 Average 8.09 4.08 10.99 20.02 10.31 46.50 S1 2.38 3.09 9.93 22.20 19.11 43.29 2. Elaeagnus umbellata Thumb. S2 2.06 3.92 9.26 19.74 19.11 45.91 S3 5.03 4.46 11.29 17.30 21.42 40.50 Average 3.15 3.82 10.16 19.74 19.88 43.23 S1: Pre-reproductive stage, S2: Reproductive stage, S3: Post-reproductive stage

199 12

6 4 Moisture (%) 2 Pre-reproductive stage Reproductive stage

0 Post-reproductive stage

orientale orientale

canescens canescens

cordifolius

Apluda mutica Apluda

Isodon rugosus rugosus Isodon

Thymus linearis linearis Thymus

Dysphania botrys Dysphania

Salvia canariensis canariensis Salvia

Origanum vulgare vulgare Origanum

Spiraea

Artemisia scoparia Artemisia

Sarcococca saligna saligna Sarcococca

Daphne mucronata Daphne

Leptopus

Elaeagnus umbellata umbellata Elaeagnus

Pennisetum

Wikstroemia Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana jacquemontiana Parrotiopsis Herbs Shrubs Trees

Figure-3.45: Moisture (%) of the selected ethnomedicinal and forage plants of Tall Dardyal.

18 16 14 12 10 8 Ash % 6 4 Pre-reproductive stage 2 Reproductive stage

0 Post-reproductive stage

orientale orientale

canescens

cordifolius

Apluda mutica mutica Apluda

Isodon rugosus Isodon

Thymus linearis linearis Thymus

Dysphaniabotrys

Salvia canariensis canariensis Salvia

Origanum vulgare vulgare Origanum

Spiraea

Artemisia Artemisia scoparia

Sarcococca saligna

Daphnemucronata

Leptopus

Elaeagnus umbellataElaeagnus

Pennisetum

Wikstroemia Parrotiopsisjacquemontiana Herbs Shrubs Trees

Figure-3.46: Ash (%) of the selected ethnomedicinal and forage plants of Tall Dardyal.

200 70 60 50 40 30 20 Crude fat (%) 10 Pre-reproductive stage

Reproductive stage

Post-reproductive stage

orientale orientale

canescens

cordifolius

Apluda mutica mutica Apluda

Isodon rugosus Isodon

Thymus linearis linearis Thymus

Dysphaniabotrys

Salvia canariensis canariensis Salvia

Origanum vulgare vulgare Origanum

Spiraea

Artemisia Artemisia scoparia

Sarcococca saligna

Daphnemucronata

Leptopus

Elaeagnus umbellataElaeagnus

Pennisetum

Wikstroemia Parrotiopsisjacquemontiana Herbs Shrubs Trees

Figure-3.47: Crude fat (%) of the selected ethnomedicinal and forage plants of Tall Dardyal.

60 50 40 30 20 10 Crude fibres (%)

0 Pre-reproductive stage

Reproductive stage

Post-reproductive stage

orientale orientale

canescens

cordifolius

Apluda mutica mutica Apluda

Isodon rugosus Isodon

Thymus linearis linearis Thymus

Dysphaniabotrys

Salvia canariensis canariensis Salvia

Origanum vulgare vulgare Origanum

Spiraea

Artemisia Artemisia scoparia

Sarcococca saligna

Daphnemucronata

Leptopus

Elaeagnus umbellataElaeagnus

Pennisetum

Wikstroemia Parrotiopsisjacquemontiana Herbs Shrubs Trees

Figure-3.48: Crude fibers (%) of the selected ethnomedicinal and forage plants of Tall Dardyal.

201 60 50 40 30

20 Soluble proteins (%) 10 Pre-reproductive stage

Reproductive stage

Post-reproductive stage

orientale orientale

canescens

cordifolius

Apluda mutica mutica Apluda

Isodon rugosus Isodon

Thymus linearis linearis Thymus

Dysphaniabotrys

Salvia canariensis canariensis Salvia

Origanum vulgare vulgare Origanum

Spiraea

Artemisia Artemisia scoparia

Sarcococca saligna

Daphnemucronata

Leptopus

Elaeagnus umbellataElaeagnus

Pennisetum

Wikstroemia Parrotiopsisjacquemontiana Herbs Shrubs Trees

Figure-3.49: Soluble proteins (%) of the selected ethnomedicinal and forage plants of Tall Dardyal.

60 50 40 30

20 Carbohydrates (%) 10 Pre-reproductive stage

0 Reproductive stage

Post-reproductive stage

orientale orientale

canescens

cordifolius

Apluda mutica Apluda

Isodon rugosus rugosus Isodon

Thymus linearis linearis Thymus

Dysphania botrys Dysphania

Salvia canariensis canariensis Salvia

Origanum vulgare vulgare Origanum

Spiraea

Artemisia scoparia Artemisia

Sarcococca saligna saligna Sarcococca

Daphne mucronata Daphne

Leptopus

Elaeagnus umbellata umbellata Elaeagnus

Pennisetum

Wikstroemia Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana jacquemontiana Parrotiopsis Herbs Shrubs Trees

Figure-3.50: Carbohydrates (%) of the selected ethnomedicinal and forage plants of Tall Dardyal.

202 3.12 Qualitative analysis of secondary metabolites

Qualitative analysis of 12 important secondary metabolites of the selected forage and ethnomedicinal plants is given in tables 3.46-3.60.

3.12.1 Alkaloids

Alkaloids contents were found in ethanolic crude extract, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions but were absent in n-hexane fraction of Apluda mutica, Salvia canariensis at three phenological stages. Ethanol crude extract, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana showed presence of alkaloids at three phenological stages except in chloroform fraction at reproductive stage. Negative result was recorded for n- hexane fraction at various growth stages. Alkaloids contents were present in ethanolic crude extract at pre- reproductive and reproductive stages of Wikstroemia canescens and ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate fraction at post-reproductive stage. Chloroform and n-hexane fraction showed negative results at three phenological stages. At three phenological stages Sarcococca saligna, Spiraea canescens, Daphne mucronata, Thymus linearis and Pennisetum orientale contained alkaloids in all fractions except for n-hexane fraction. Elaeagnus umbellata showed the presence of alkaloid contents in ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate fraction at three reproductive stages and in chloroform fraction at reproductive and post-reproductive stages. Chloroform fraction at pre-reproductive and n-hexane at three phenological stages showed absence of alkaloids. Ethanolic crude extract of Leptopus cordifolius has alkaloid contents at three phenological stages, in chloroform fraction at pre-reproductive and ethyl-acetate at post-reproductive stages. The remaining fractions showed the absence of alkaloids. Similar results were also recorded for Dysphania botrys except in chloroform fraction where alkaloids contents were found absent at pre-reproductive stage. Isodon rugosus contained alkaloids at various phenological stages in ethanolic crude extract and in chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions at pre-reproductive stages. N- hexane fraction showed negative result. Artemisia scoparia showed similarity in alkaloid contents with I. rugosus but has contradiction in ethyl-acetate

203 fraction results. Crude ethanolic extraction and ethyl-acetate fraction of Origanum vulgare have alkaloid contents at various phenological stages and chloroform fraction at post-reproductive stage. It was found absent in n- hexane fraction at all phenological stages.

3.12.2 Anthocyanins and Betacyanins

Apluda mutica showed positive results in all fractions at pre- reproductive stage and also in crude ethanolic extract and ethyl-acetate fractions at post-reproductive stage. Anthocyanins and betacyanins were absent in all fractions at reproductive stage. Salvia canariensis showed the presence of anthocyanins and betacyanins in all fractions at post-reproductive stage. Ethanolic crude extract of Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana has anthocyanin and betacyanins at post-reproductive stage only. Wikstroemia canescens showed positive results in ethanolic crude extract at three phenological stages. Anthocyanin and betacyanins were found in ethyl-acetate fraction at pre- reproductive and reproductive stages. Anthocyanin and betacyanins existed at pre-reproductive stage in n-hexane and at reproductive stage in chloroform fractions. In Sarcococca saligna anthocyanin and betacyanins were present in all fractions except n-hexane fraction at post-reproductive stage. Artemisia scoparia, Dysphania botrys, Origanum vulgare, Thymus linearis, Spiraea canescens, Daphne mucronata and Elaeagnus umbellata showed negative results for anthocyanin and betacyanins in all fractions at three phenological stages. Crude ethanolic extract and chloroform fraction of Pennisetum orientale have anthocyanin and betacyanins at post-reproductive stage and were non-existent in rest of the stages. Positive results for anthocyanin and betacyanins were recorded in ethanolic crude extract and chloroform fraction at pre-reproductive stage of Leptopus cordifolius. They were not found in all fractions at reproductive and post-reproductive stages. In Isodon rugosus anthocyanin and betacyanins were present in crude ethanolic extract, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions at pre-reproductive stage. They were also found in crude ethanolic extract at reproductive stage. Post-reproductive stage showed their absence in all fractions.

204 3.12.3 Anthraquinones

Anthraquinones were not available in all fractions at three phenological stages of Wikstroemia canescens, Sarcococca saligna, Daphne mucronata, Leptopus cordifolius and Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana. Dysphania botrys and Origanum vulgare showed the presence of anthraquinones in crude ethanolic extract at pre-reproductive, reproductive and post-reproductive stages. It was also observed in ethyl-acetate fraction at pre-reproductive and post-reproductive stages and in chloroform fraction at pre-reproductive stage. The absence of anthraquinones was recorded for n-hexane fraction at three phenological stages. Artemisia scoparia showed the presence of anthraquinones in ethanolic crude extract at various phenological stages. Chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions also showed its presence at pre- reproductive stage. Chloroform and crude ethanolic fractions contained anthraquinones at three phenological stages of Apluda mutica, and n-hexane fraction at reproductive stage only. The presence of anthraquinones was confirmed in ethanolic crude extract at pre-reproductive and reproductive stages of Pennisetum vulgare. Chloroform fraction showed its presence at pre- reproductive stage. Its absence was observed in all fractions at post- reproductive stage. Results showed absence of anthraquinones in all fractions at pre-reproductive and post-reproductive stages of Salvia canariensis. It was found only in crude ethanolic and chloroform fractions at reproductive stage. Thymus linearis showed the presence of anthraquinones in ethanolic crude extract at three phenological stages. It was also observed in ethyl-acetate fraction at pre-reproductive and post-reproductive stages. At reproductive stage, anthraquinones were also present in chloroform fraction. At various phenological stages, anthraquinones were absent in n-hexane fraction. In Isodon rugosus, anthraquinones were absent in all fractions at reproductive and post-reproductive stages but were found only in ethanolic crude extract at pre-reproductive stage. Anthraquinones were present in ethanolic crude extract and chloroform fractions only at post-reproductive stage of Spiraea canescens. Negative results were recorded for all fractions at pre-reproductive and reproductive stages. Elaeagnus umbellata showed the presence of

205 anthraquinones in crude ethanolic extract at pre-reproductive and reproductive stages. Chloroform fraction also showed positive result for anthraquinones at reproductive stage. At post-reproductive stage, all fractions showed negative results.

3.12.4 Cardiac glycosides

Ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate fraction showed the presence of cardiac glycosides at pre and post-reproductive stages of Artemisia scoparia. Reproductive stage, however, showed negative results in all fractions. Dysphania botrys has cardiac glycosides in ethanolic fraction at three phenological stages and also in ethyl-acetate fraction at pre-reproductive stage. Chloroform and n-hexane fractions showed negative results for cardiac glycosides. In Origanum vulgare, cardiac glycosides were only observed in ethanolic crude extract at three phenological stages. All fractions showed presence of cardiac glycosides at reproductive stage of Salvia canariensis,. In ethanolic crude extract and n-hexane fraction, cardiac glycosides were observed at pre and post-reproductive stages. Ethyl-acetate at post- reproductive stage also showed positive results. In chloroform and ethyl- acetate fractions at pre-reproductive stage and chloroform faction at post- reproductive stage absence of cardiac glycosides were noted. Thymus linearis showed the presence of cardiac glycosides in all fractions at three phenological stages, except n-hexane fraction at pre and post-reproductive stages. Ethyl-acetate fraction at pre-reproductive stage, n-hexane and ethyl- acetate fractions at reproductive stage of Apluda mutica showed negative results for cardiac glycosides. The rest of the fractions showed its presence. The presence of cardiac glycosides was observed in ethanolic crude extraction of Pennisetum vulgare at three phenological stages. Chloroform fraction at post-reproductive stage also indicated its presence. Absence of cardiac glycosides was noted in the rest of the fractions. Chloroform and n-hexane fractions of Leptopus cordifolius at reproductive and post-reproductive stages indicated absence of cardiac glycosides. Ethyl-acetate fraction at pre- reproductive stage also showed negative result. The rest of the fractions showed the presence of cardiac glycosides. In Daphne mucronata, cardiac

206 glycosides were present in all fractions at three phenological stages except in n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions at post-reproductive stage. Ethanolic crude extract of Sarcococca saligna showed presence of cardiac glycosides at three phenological stages and also in n-hexane fraction at pre- reproductive stages. The rest of the fractions showed their absence. In Isodon rugosus, ethanolic crude extract indicated the presence of cardiac glycosides at three phenological stages. Ethyl-acetate fraction at pre-reproductive and reproductive stages also showed their presence. Cardiac glycosides were found absent in n-hexane and chloroform fractions at pre-reproductive and reproductive and post-reproductive stages. Cardiac glycosides were only observed in ethyl-acetate and n-hexane fractions of Spiraea canescens at reproductive stage. It was found absent in all fractions of pre and post- reproductive stages. Wikstroemia canescens showed the presence of cardiac glycosides in all fractions at three phenological stages except in n-hexane and chloroform fractions at post-reproductive stage. Chloroform, ethyl-acetate and n-hexane fractions of Elaeagnus umbellata at post-reproductive stage showed negative results for cardiac glycosides. At pre-reproductive stage, n-hexane fraction also showed absence of cardiac glycosides. At reproductive stage, all fractions indicated the presence of cardiac glycosides. At pre-reproductive stage of Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana, cardiac glycosides were present in all fractions. Only ethanolic crude extract showed their presence at reproductive stage. At post-reproductive stage cardiac glycosides were recorded in ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate fractions.

3.12.5 Flavonoids

Flavonoids were present in all fractions at three phenological stages of Artemisia scoparia but were absent only in n-hexane fraction at reproductive stage. At post-reproductive stage of Dysphania botrys, n-hexane and chloroform fractions showed negative results. Rest of the fractions showed presence of flavonoids at pre-reproductive and reproductive stages. All fractions showed presence of flavonoids at three phenological stages of Apluda mutica, Origanum vulgare and Wikstroemia canescens. At post- reproductive stage, flavonoids were absent in n-hexane fraction. Flavonoids

207 were confirmed in all fractions at three phenological stages of Salvia canariensis, Daphne mucronata and Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana. Chloroform fraction at post-reproductive stage and n-hexane fraction at pre- reproductive stage of Thymus linearis showed negative results for flavonoids. Rest of the fractions at three phenological stages indicated the presence of flavonoids. At pre-reproductive stage of Pennisetum orientale, flavonoids were present in all fractions except n-hexane. At reproductive stage, ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate fraction indicated the presence of flavonoids and its absence in n-hexane and chloroform fractions. At post-reproductive stage, n-hexane showed the absence and other three fractions indicated the presence of flavonoids. In Leptopus cordifolius n-hexane fraction at reproductive, n-hexane and chloroform fractions at post-reproductive stage indicated the absence of flavonoids. These were present in the rest of the fractions at three phenological stages. At pre-reproductive stage of Sarcococca saligna, flavonoids were present in all fractions. At reproductive stage, these were available in all fractions except n-hexane fraction. At post-reproductive, flavonoids were present in ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate fraction. Chloroform and n-hexane fractions showed the absence of flavonoids. Isodon rugosus indicated the presence of flavonoids in all fractions at pre- reproductive stage. At reproductive and post-reproductive stages, flavonoids were present in all fractions except n-hexane fraction. Flavonoids were found absent only in n-hexane and chloroform fraction at pre-reproductive stage of Spiraea canescens. These were found in all fractions at three phenological stages. In Elaeagnus umbellata, flavonoids were present in all fractions at various phenological stages but were absent in n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions at post-reproductive stage.

3.12.6 Glycosides

Glycosides were absent in n-hexane fraction and were in present other fractions at pre-reproductive stage of Artemisia scoparia. At reproductive stage glycosides were present in ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate fraction and found absent in n-hexane and chloroform fractions. At post- reproductive stage, glycosides were absent in n-hexane fraction and were

208 present in the rest of fractions. In Dysphania botrys glycosides were present in ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate fraction at pre-reproductive stage. Ethanolic crude extract showed the presence of glycosides at reproductive and post-reproductive stages. The rest of the fractions showed negative results for glycosides. At pre-reproductive and reproductive stages of Origanum vulgare only n-hexane fraction showed the absence of glycosides. At post-reproductive stage, glycosides were present in ethanolic crude extract only. Other fractions showed their absence. In Salvia canariensis, glycosides were present only in ethanolic crude extract at reproductive stage and were found absent in rest of the fractions and growth stages. At pre-reproductive stage of Thymus linearis, ethanolic crude extract and chloroform fractions showed positive results for glycosides but were found absent in the rest of the fractions. At reproductive stage, glycosides were absent in chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions and were present in other two fractions. At post-reproductive stage, ethanolic crude extract showed the presence of glycosides and their absence in other three fractions. At pre and post-reproductive stages of Apluda mutica glycosides were absent in all fractions and were present only in ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate fraction at reproductive stage. Pennisetum orientale, Leptopus cordifolius, Ealegnus umbellata glycosides were found absent in all fractions at three phenological stages. Glycosides were present only in ethanolic crude extract at reproductive stage of Daphne mucronata and Wikstroemia canescens. The rest of the fractions at various phenological stages showed negative results for glycosides. At post-reproductive stage of Sarcococca saligna, ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate fractions showed positive results for glycosides. The rest of the fractions showed their absence at various phenological stages. At pre-reproductive stage of Isodon rugosus, ethanolic crude extract contained glycosides. At reproductive stage, ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate indicated the presence of glycosides and the rest of the fractions showed their absence. At post-reproductive stage, glycosides were only found in ethanolic crude extract. In Spiraea canescens, glycosides were found in ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate fractions at pre-reproductive stage. At reproductive and post-reproductive stages, glycosides were only present in ethanolic crude extract. Glycosides were

209 absent in n-hexane and chloroform fractions at pre-reproductive stage of Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana. They were also found absent in all fractions at reproductive stage. At post-reproductive stage they were only absent in chloroform fraction and were present in rest of the fractions.

3.12.7 Amino acids and Proteins

Results showed that amino acids and proteins were only absent in n- hexane fraction at three phenological stages of Artemisia scoparia. The rest of fractions showed their presence. At pre-reproductive stage of Dysphania botrys, amino acids and proteins were found absent in n-hexane fraction only while at reproductive stage, they were present in ethanolic crude extract. At post-reproductive stage, the presence of amino acids and proteins were noted in ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate fractions. The rest of the fractions showed their absence. Origanum vulgare showed positive results for amino acids and proteins in ethanolic crude extract at reproductive and post- reproductive stages. They were found absent in the rest of the fractions at various phenological stages. At post-reproductive stage of Salvia canariensis and Thymus linearis amino acids and proteins were absent in n-hexane fraction. Positive results were shown by all fractions at various phenological stages. Apluda mutica showed the absence of amino acids and proteins only in n-hexane fraction at pre-reproductive stage. They were present in all fractions at various phenological stages. At pre-reproductive stage of Pennisetum orientale amino acids and proteins were found in ethanolic crude extract and n-hexane fraction. At reproductive stage, positive results for amino acids and proteins were noted in ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate fraction. At post-reproductive stage, ethanolic crude extract and chloroform fraction indicated the presence of amino acids and proteins. Amino acids and proteins were found in ethanolic crude extract of Leptopus cordifolius at three phenological stages. Ethyl-acetate fraction at reproductive and post- reproductive stages and n-hexane fraction at pre-reproductive stage showed their presence. In Daphne mucronata, amino acids and proteins were absent in two fractions i.e. n-hexane and chloroform fraction at reproductive and post- reproductive stages. They were found in the rest of the fractions at various

210 phenological stages. Sarcococca saligna showed the presence of amino acids and proteins only in ethanolic crude extract at post-reproductive stage. They were found absent in the rest of the fractions at various phenological stages. At pre-reproductive and reproductive stages of Isodon rugosus, only n-hexane fraction showed absence of amino acids and proteins. At post-reproductive stage, they were found only in ethanolic crude extract. Spiraea canescens showed the presence of amino acids and proteins only in ethanolic crude extract at pre-reproductive and reproductive stages. At post-reproductive stage, they were found in all fractions. In Wikstroemia canescens, amino acids and proteins showed positive results in ethanolic crude extract at three phenological stages. Amino acids and proteins were also present in chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions at pre-reproductive and reproductive stages. The rest of fractions showed negative results. Ethanolic crude extract and ethyl- acetate fraction of Elaeagnus umbellata showed the presence of amino acids and proteins at three phenological stages. At reproductive stage, they were only present in chloroform fraction. They were present in the rest of the fractions. Amino acids and proteins were found in al fractions at pre and post- reproductive stages of Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana. At reproductive stage they were absent in n-hexane and ethyl-acetate fractions.

3.12.8 Reducing sugars

Reducing sugars were found in all fractions at pre-reproductive stage of Artemisia scoparia. Ethanolic crude extract showed the presence of reducing sugars at reproductive and post-reproductive stages. Reducing sugars were found in ethyl-acetate fraction at reproductive stage of A. scoparia. At pre-reproductive stage of Dysphania botrys reducing sugars were absent only in n-hexane fraction. They were found in ethanolic crude extract at reproductive and post-reproductive stages. The rest of the fractions showed their absence. Origanum vulgare showed similarity with D. botrys at pre- reproductive stage regarding the presence and absence of reducing sugars. At reproductive and post-reproductive stages, reducing sugars were found in ethanol crude extract and ethyl-acetate fractions. Ethanolic crude extract of Salvia canariensis at pre-reproductive and reproductive stages showed

211 positive results for reducing sugars. At post-reproductive stage, reducing sugars were found in all fractions. In Thymus linearis, ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate fraction showed the presence of reducing sugars at three phenological stages. At post-reproductive stage, chloroform fraction showed the presence of reducing sugars. At pre-reproductive stage of Apluda mutica and Sarcococca saligna, all fractions showed the absence of reducing sugars. At reproductive and post-reproductive stages, reducing sugars were present only in ethanolic crude extract. Only ethanolic crude extract of Pennisetum orientale showed positive results for reducing sugars at pre-reproductive stage. At reproductive stage, ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate fraction indicated the presence of reducing sugars.

Ethanolic crude extract and n-hexane fraction showed positive results for reducing sugars at post-reproductive stage. In Leptopus cordifolius, reducing sugars were only observed in ethanolic crude extract at post- reproductive stage. The rest of the fractions showed the absence of reducing sugars at various phenological stages. Ethanolic crude extract and n-hexane fraction showed the presence of reducing sugars at pre and post-reproductive stages of Daphne mucronata. At reproductive stage, reducing sugars were only found in ethanolic crude extract. The rest of the fractions showed negative results for reducing sugars at various phenological stages. Reducing sugars were found in ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate fraction at pre and post-reproductive stages of Isodon rugosus. Glycosides were found at pre- reproductive and reproductive stages in chloroform fraction and ethanolic extract. At pre-reproductive stage of Spiraea canescens ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate fraction showed positive results for reducing sugars. Ethanolic crude extract at reproductive and post-reproductive stage and chloroform fraction at reproductive stage showed the presence of reducing sugars. The rest of the fractions showed negative results for reducing sugars. Wikstroemia canescens contained reducing sugars only in ethanolic crude extract at three phenological stages. These were found absent in the rest of the fractions. Ethanolic crude extract of Elaeagnus umbellata showed the presence of reducing sugars only at post-reproductive stage. They were absent in all

212 fractions at pre-reproductive and reproductive stages. In Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana, reducing sugars were observed in ethanolic crude extract at three phenological stages. Ethyl-acetate and n-hexane fraction also showed presence of reducing sugars at pre and post-reproductive stages respectively.

3.12.9 Saponins

Saponins were present in ethanolic crude extract, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions at pre-reproductive stage of Artemisia scoparia. At reproductive and post-reproductive stages, saponins were observed in ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate fractions. Similar trend of saponins presence at reproductive and post-reproductive stages were also observed for Dysphania botrys. At reproductive stage of D. botrys, ethanolic crude extract indicated the presence of saponins. At three phenological stages of Origanum vulgare, n-hexane fraction showed the absence of saponins. Saponins absence was also observed in chloroform fraction at pre-reproductive stage. Saponins were found in all fractions at pre-reproductive stage of Salvia canariensis. At reproductive and post-reproductive stages, ethanolic crude extract and ethyl- acetate fraction showed positive results for saponins. The rest of the fractions showed the absence of saponins. In ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate fraction of Thymus linearis showed the presence of saponins at pre and post- reproductive stages. At reproductive stage saponins were absent only in n- hexane fraction. Like the pre and post-reproductive stages of T. linearis, Apluda mutica, Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana and Pennisetum orientale also showed similarity with it at three phenological stages. In Leptopus cordifolius and Daphne mucronata, saponins were found in ethanolic crude extract at three phenological stages and only in ethyl-acetate fraction at pre-reproductive stage. The rest of the fractions showed the absence of saponins. Sarcococca saligna and Isodon rugosus showed similarity with Thymus linearis, Apluda mutica, P. jacquemontiana and Pennisetum vulgare in the presence of saponins at pre-reproductive and reproductive stages. S. saligna showed similarity at post-reproductive with L. cordifolius and D. mucronata regarding the presence of saponins. In I. rugosus, saponins were only absent in n-hexane fraction at post-reproductive stage. Spiraea canescens contained saponins in

213 ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate fractions at pre and post-reproductive stages. At reproductive stage, saponins were present only in ethanolic crude extract. The rest of the fractions showed negative results for saponins. Ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate fraction of Wikstroemia canescens showed positive results for saponins at pre-reproductive and reproductive stages. At post-reproductive stage, only ethanolic crude extract showed the presence of saponins. The rest of the fractions showed negative results at various phenological stages. In Elaeagnus umbellata saponins were found in ethanolic crude extract at three phenological stages. At pre-reproductive stage, ethyl-acetate fraction also showed positive results. Saponins were absent in the rest of the fractions at various phenological stages.

3.12.10 Steroids

Results revealed that steroids were found in all fractions at pre- reproductive stage of Artemisia scoparia. At reproductive and post- reproductive stage, it was only absent in ethyl-acetate fraction. Steroids were present in the rest of the fractions. Dysphania botrys showed similarity at three phenological stages with reproductive and post-reproductive stages of A. scoparia. Steroids were available in all fractions at pre-reproductive stage of Origanum vulgare. At reproductive stage, saponins were only present in ethanolic crude extract. At post-reproductive stage, only ethyl-acetate fraction showed negative results for steroids. In Salvia canariensis steroids were observed in all fractions at three phenological stages. At pre-reproductive stage of Thymus linearis, steroids were unavailable in all fractions. At reproductive stage, all fractions showed positive results for steroids. At post- reproductive stage, steroids were only absent in n-hexane fraction. Steroids were observed in all fractions at pre-reproductive stage of Apluda mutica. At reproductive stage, all fractions exhibited the presence of steroids except n- hexane fraction. Ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate fraction showed positive results for steroids at post-reproductive stage. In Pennisetum orientale at pre-reproductive stage, steroids were present in all fractions except ethyl- acetate fraction. In all fractions steroids were absent at reproductive stage, and were present at post-reproductive stage. All fractions showed positive results

214 for Leptopus cordifolius at pre-reproductive stage. Absence of steroids was noted in ethyl-acetate fraction at reproductive stage and its presence was confirmed in ethanolic crude extract at post-reproductive stage. All fractions showed positive results for steroids at reproductive and post-reproductive stages of Daphne mucronata. Only ethyl-acetate fraction at pre-reproductive stage showed negative result for steroids. In Sarcococca saligna, steroids were found in all fractions at three phenological stages except ethyl-acetate fraction at reproductive and post-reproductive stages. Steroids were only present in ethanolic crude extract of Isodon rugosus at post-reproductive stage. At pre- reproductive stage of Spiraea canescens, steroids were not observed in ethyl- acetate fraction but rest of the fractions showed its presence. In all fractions, steroids were present at reproductive stage and were absent at post- reproductive stage. Wikstroemia canescens showed the absence of steroids only in ethyl-acetate fraction at reproductive and post-reproductive stages and presence in rest of the fractions. At pre-reproductive stage of Elaeagnus umbellata, steroids were only absent in n-hexane fraction. They were found in all fractions at reproductive stage and only in ethanolic crude extract at post- reproductive stage. At pre-reproductive and reproductive stages of Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana, steroids were found in all fractions. Only ethyl- acetate fraction showed negative results for steroids at post-reproductive stage.

3.12.11 Tannins

At pre-reproductive stage of Artemisia scoparia, tannins were absent only in n-hexane fraction. It was found absent in all fractions at reproductive stage. At post-reproductive stage, tannins were found in ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate fraction. In Dysphania botrys, the presence of tannins was observed in ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate fraction at pre and post-reproductive stages. At reproductive stage, tannins were confirmed only in ethanolic crude extract. Origanum vulgare showed similarity at three phenological stages with pre and post-reproductive stages of D. botrys regarding the presence of tannins. At pre-reproductive stage of Salvia canariensis, tannins were present in ethanolic crude and ethyl-acetate fraction. At reproductive stage, tannins were absent only in n-hexane fraction and were

215 present in all fractions at post-reproduction stage. Ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate fraction of Thymus linearis showed the presence of tannins at three phenological stages. It was absent in the rest of the fractions. Tannins were only absent in n-hexane fraction of Apluda mutica at pre-reproductive stage. At reproductive stage, it was found in ethanolic crude extract and chloroform fraction. At post-reproductive stage, tannins were absent only in ethyl-acetate fraction. In Pennisetum orientale and Leptopus cordifolius, the presence of tannins was observed in ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate fractions at pre-reproductive and reproductive stages. At post-reproductive stage, tannins were found in ethanolic crude extract and chloroform fraction in P. orientale and only in ethanolic crude extract of L. cordifolius. The presence of tannins was noted in ethanolic crude extract at three phenological stages of Daphne mucronata. It was also found in n-hexane fraction and chloroform fractions at pre and post-reproductive stages of D. mucronata. The absence of tannins was observed in the rest of the fractions. Ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate fractions showed the presence of tannins at three phenological stages of Sarcococca saligna and Isodon rugosus. Tannins were absent in the rest of the fractions. In Spiraea canescens, positive tannins results were shown by ethanolic crude extract at pre-reproductive and reproductive stages. Chloroform fraction also showed the presence of tannins at reproductive stage. The absence of tannins was observed in the rest of the fractions. Tannins were found only in ethanolic extract of Wikstroemia canescens at three phenological stages. At pre-reproductive stage of Elaeagnus umbellata, ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate fraction showed the presence of tannins. At reproductive stage, tannins were absent only in n-hexane fraction and were present in ethanolic crude extract at post reproductive stage. At three phenological stages of Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana, tannins showed positive results only in ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate fraction.

3.12.12 Terpenoids

Terpenoids were observed in all fractions at three phenological stages of Apluda mutica, Artemisia scoparia and Thymus linearis except ethyl- acetate fraction at pre-reproductive stage. Origanum vulgare showed the

216 presence of terpenoids in all fractions at various phenological stages but were found absent in ethyl-acetate fraction at three phenological stages. In Dysphania botrys, all fractions have terpenoids at pre-reproductive stage. At reproductive and post-reproductive stages, terpenoids were observed in all fractions except ethyl-acetate fraction. Positive results for terpenoids were noted in ethanolic crude extract and n-hexane fraction at pre and post- reproductive stages of Pennisetum vulgare. It was also recorded in ethyl- acetate fraction at pre-reproductive and ethanolic crude extract at reproductive stage. Salvia canariensis showed the presence of terpenoids in all fractions at three phenological stages. Positive results for terpenoids were shown by all fractions except ethyl-acetate fraction at three phenological stages of Isodon rugosus Wikstroemia canescens and Leptopus cordifolius. Daphne mucronata showed negative results for terpenoids in ethyl-acetate fraction at reproductive and post-reproductive stages. The presence of terpenoids was observed in all fractions at pre-reproductive stages. Ethanolic crude extract, chloroform and n-hexane fractions at reproductive and post-reproductive stages also showed positive results. The presence of terpenoids was observed in all fractions at pre- reproductive stage of Sarcococca saligna. Terpenoids were found at reproductive stage in ethanolic crude extract and ethyl-acetate fraction and in all fractions at post-reproductive stage except ethyl-acetate fraction. In Elaeagnus umbellata terpenoids were absent in ethyl-acetate fractions at pre and post-reproductive stages. All other fractions showed its presence. In Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana, terpenoids were absent in n-hexane and chloroform fractions at pre-reproductive stage. At post-reproductive stage, in chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions terpenoids were also found absent. The results of the fractions showed its presence at three phenological stages. Ethanolic crude extract and n-hexane fraction of Spiraea canescens showed positive results for terpenoids at three phenological stages. Chloroform and ethyl-acetate fraction also showed the presence of terpenoids at post- reproductive stage. Chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions showed the absence of terpenoids at pre-reproductive and reproductive stages.

217 Table-3.46: Phytochemical screening of ethanol (crude extract), n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Apluda mutica L.

Pre-reproductive stage Reproductive stage Post-reproductive stage Ethanol Ethyl- Ethanol Ethyl- Ethanol Phytochemical constituents n-Hexane Chloroform n-Hexane Chloroform n-Hexane Chloroform Ethyl-acetate fraction acetate fraction acetate fraction fraction Fraction fraction Fraction fraction fraction fraction (crude) fraction (crude) fraction ( crude) Alkaloids + _ + + + _ + + + _ + +

Anthocyanin and Betacyanins + + + + _ _ _ _ + _ _ +

Anthraquinones + _ + _ + + + _ + _ + _

Cardiac glycosides + + + _ + _ + _ + + + +

Flavonoids + + + + + + + + + _ + +

Glycosides _ _ _ _ + _ _ + _ _ _ _

Amino acids and Proteins + _ + + + + + + + + + +

Reducing sugars _ _ _ _ + _ _ _ + _ _ _

Saponins + _ _ + + _ _ + + _ _ +

Steroids + + + + + _ + + + _ _ +

Tannins + _ + + + _ + _ + + + _

Terpenoids + + + _ + + + + + + + +

Key: + Presence, - Absence

218 Table-3.47: Phytochemical screening of ethanol (crude extract), n-hexane,chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Salvia canariensis L.

Anthocyanin and ______+ + + + Betacyanins Anthraquinones _ _ _ _ + _ + _ _ _ _ _ Cardiac glycosides + + _ _ + + + + + + _ + Flavonoids + + + + + + + + + + + + Glycosides _ _ _ _ + ______Amino acids and Proteins + + + + + + + + + + _ + Reducing sugars + _ _ _ + _ _ _ + + + + Saponins + + + + + _ _ + + _ _ + Steroids + + + + + + + + + + + + Tannins + _ _ + + _ + + + + + + Terpenoids + + + + + + + + + + + +

Key: + Presence, - Absence

219 Table-3.48: Phytochemical screening of ethanol (crude extract), n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana (Decne.) Rehder

Pre-reproductive stage Reproductive stage Post-reproductive stage Phytochemical Ethanol n- Chlorofor Ethyl- Ethanol n-Hexane Chlorofor Ethyl- Ethanol n-Hexane Chlorofor Ethyl- constituents fraction Hexane m acetate fraction fraction m acetate fraction fraction m acetate (crude) fraction Fraction fraction (crude) fraction fraction (crude) Fraction fraction Alkaloids + – + + + – – + + – + + Anthocyanin and Betacyanins – – – – – – – – + – – – Anthraquinones – – – – – – – – – – – – Cardiac glycosides + + + + + – – – + – – + Flavonoids + + + + + + + + + + + + Glycosides + – – + – – – – + + – + Amino acids and Proteins + + + + + – – + + + + + Reducing sugars + – – + + – – – + + – – Saponins + – – + + – – + + – – + Steroids + + + + + + + + + + + – Tannins + – – + + – – + + – – + Terpenoids + _ _ + + + + + + + _ _ Key: + Presence, - Absence

220 Table-3.49: Phytochemical screening of ethanol (crude extract), n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Wikstroemia canescens Wall. ex Meisn.

Pre-reproductive stage Reproductive stage Post-reproductive stage Phytochemical constituents Ethanol n- Chloroform Ethyl- Ethanol n-Hexane Chloroform Ethyl- Ethanol n-Hexane Chloroform Ethyl- fraction Hexane Fraction acetate fraction fraction fraction acetate fraction fraction fraction acetate (crude) fraction fraction (crude) fraction (crude) fraction Alkaloids + – – – + – – – + – – + Anthocyanin and Betacyanins + + – + + – + + + – – – Anthraquinones – – – – – – – – – – – – Cardiac glycosides + + + + + + + + + – – + Flavonoids + + + + + + + + + – + + Glycosides – – – – + – – – – – – – Amino acids and Proteins + – + – + – – + + – – – Reducing sugars + – – – + – – – + – – – Saponins + – – + + – – + + – – – Steroids + + + + + + + – + + + – Tannins + – – – + – – – + – – – Terpenoids + + + – + + + – + + + –

Key: + Presence, - Absence

221 Table-3.50: Phytochemical screening of ethanol (crude extract), n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Sarcococca saligna (D.Don) Muell. Arg.

Pre-reproductive stage Reproductive stage Post-reproductive stage

Phytochemical Ethanol n- Chloroform Ethyl- Ethanol n-Hexane Chloroform Ethyl- Ethanol n-Hexane Chloroform Ethyl- constituents fraction Hexane fraction acetate fraction fraction fraction acetate fraction fraction fraction acetate (crude) fraction fraction (crude) fraction (crude) fraction

Alkaloids + – + + + – + + + – + + Anthocyanin and + + + + + + + + + – + + Betacyanins Anthraquinones – – – – – – – – – – – – Cardiac glycosides + + – – + – – – + – – – Flavonoids + + + + + – + + + – – + Glycosides – – – – – – – – + – – + Amino acids and Proteins – – – – – – – – + – – – Reducing sugars – – – – + – – – + – – – Saponins + – – + + – – + + – – – Steroids + + + + + + + – + + + – Tannins + – – + + – – + + – – + Terpenoids + + + + + – – + + + + –

Key: + Presence, - Absence

222 Table-3.51: Phytochemical screening of ethanol (crude extract), n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Spiraea canescens D.Don

Flavonoids + – – + + + + + + + + +

Glycosides + – – + + – – – + – – – Amino acids and Proteins + – – – – + – – + + + + Reducing sugars + – – + + – + – + – – – Saponins + – – + + – – – + – – +

Steroids + + + – + + + + – – – –

Tannins + – – – + – + – – – – –

Terpenoids + + – – + + – – + + + + Key: + Presence, – Absence

223 Table-3.52: Phytochemical screening of ethanol (crude extract), n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Pennisetum orientale Rich.

Pre-reproductive stage Reproductive stage Post-reproductive stage Phytochemical Ethanol n- Chloroform Ethyl- Ethanol n-Hexane Chloroform Ethyl- Ethanol n-Hexane Chloroform Ethyl- constituents fraction Hexane acetate fraction fraction acetate fraction fraction acetate fraction fraction Fraction fraction fraction fraction fraction (crude) (crude) (crude) Alkaloids + – + + + – + + + – + + Anthocyanin and – – – – – – – – + – + – Betacyanins Anthraquinones + – + – + – – – – – – – Cardiac glycosides + – – – + – – – + – + – Flavonoids + – + + + – – + + – + + Glycosides – – – – – – – – – – – – Amino acids and Proteins + + – – + – – + + – + –

Reducing sugars + – – – + – – + + + – – Saponins + – – + + – – + + – – + Steroids + + + – – – – – + + + + Tannins + – – + + – – + + – + – Terpenoids + + – + + – – – + + – –

Key: + Presence, - Absence

224 Table-3.53: Phytochemical screening of ethanol (crude extract), n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Thymus linearis Benth.

Pre-reproductive stage Reproductive stage Post-reproductive stage Phytochemical constituents Ethanol n-Hexane Chloroform Ethyl- Ethanol n-Hexane Chloroform Ethyl- Ethanol n-Hexane Chloroform Ethyl- fraction fraction fraction acetate fraction fraction fraction acetate fraction fraction fraction acetate (crude) fraction (crude) fraction Crude) fraction Alkaloids + – + + + – + + + – + + Anthocyanin and – – – – – – – – – – – – Betacyanins Anthraquinones + – – + + – + – + – + + Cardiac glycosides + – + + + + + + + – + + Flavonoids + – + + + + + + + + – + Glycosides + – + – + + – – + – – – Amino acids and Proteins + + + + + + + + + – + + Reducing sugars + – – + + – – + + – + + Saponins + – – + + – + + + – – + Steroids – – – – + + + + + – + + Tannins + – – + + – – + + – – + Terpenoids + + + – + + + + + + + + Key: + Presence, - Absence

225 Table-3.54: Phytochemical screening of ethanol (crude extract), n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Daphne mucronata Royle.

Anthocyanin and – – – – – – – – – – – – Betacyanins Anthraquinones – – – – – – – – – – – – Cardiac glycosides + + + + + + + + + – – – Flavonoids + + + + + + + + + + + + Glycosides – – – – + – – – – – – – Amino acids and Proteins + + + + + – + + + + – + Reducing sugars + + – – + – – – + + – – Saponins + – – + + – – – + – – – Steroids + + + – + + + + + + + + Tannins + + – – + – – – + – + – Terpenoids + + + + + + + – + + + – Key: + Presence, - Absence

226 Table-3.55: Phytochemical screening of ethanol (crude extract), n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Elaeagnus umbellata Thumb.

Pre-reproductive stage Reproductive stage Post-reproductive stage Phytochemical Ethanol n-Hexane Chloroform Ethyl- Ethanol n-Hexane Chloroform Ethyl- Ethanol n-Hexane Chloroform Ethyl- constituents fraction fraction fraction acetate fraction fraction fraction acetate fraction fraction fraction acetate (crude) fraction (crude) fraction (crude) fraction Alkaloids + – – + + – + + + – + + Anthocyanin and – – – – – – – – – – – – Betacyanins Anthraquinones + – – – + – + – – – – – Cardiac glycosides + – + + + + + + + – – – Flavonoids + + + + + + + + + – – – Glycosides – – – – – – – – – – – – Amino acids and Proteins + – – + + – + + + – – + Reducing sugars – – – – – – – – + – – – Saponins + – – + + – – – + – – – Steroids + – + + + + + + + – – – Tannins + – – + + – + + + – – – Terpenoids + + + – + + + + + + + –

Key: + Presence, - Absence

227 Table-3.56: Phytochemical screening of ethanol (crude extract), n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Leptopus cordifolius Decne.

Pre-reproductive stage Reproductive stage Post-reproductive stage Phytochemical Ethanol n- Chloroform Ethyl- Ethanol n-Hexane Chloroform Ethyl- Ethanol n-Hexane Chloroform Ethyl- constituents fraction Hexane fraction acetate fraction fraction fraction acetate fraction fraction fraction acetate (crude) fraction fraction (crude) fraction (crude) fraction Alkaloids + – + – + – – – + – – + Anthocyanin and + – + – – – – – – – – – Betacyanins Anthraquinones – – – – – – – – – – – – Cardiac glycosides + + + – + – – + + – – + Flavonoids + + + + + – + + + – – + Glycosides – – – – – – – – – – – – Amino acids and Proteins + + – + + – – + + – – – Reducing sugars – – – – – – – – + – – – Saponins + – – + + – – – + – – – Steroids + + + + + + + – + – – – Tannins + – – + + – – + + – – – Terpenoids + + + – + + + – + + + – Key: + Presence, - Absence

228 Table-3.57: Phytochemical screening of ethanol(crude extract), n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Dysphania botrys L.

Cardiac glycosides + – – + + – – – + – – –

Flavonoids + + + + + + + + + – – +

Glycosides + – – + + – – – + – – –

Amino acids and Proteins + – + + + – – – + – – + Reducing sugars + – + + + – – – + – – – Saponins + – – + + – – – + – – + Steroids + + + – + + + – + + + – Tannins + – – + + – – – + – – +

Terpenoids + + + + + + + – + + + –

Key: + Presence, - Absence

229 Table-3.58: Phytochemical screening of ethanol (crude extract), n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Isodon rugosus (Wall.ex Benth.) Codd

Cardiac glycosides + – – + + – – + + – – –

Flavonoids + + + + + – + + + – + +

Glycosides + – – – + – – + + – – –

Amino acids and Proteins + – + + + – + + + – – –

Reducing sugars + – + + + – – – + – – +

Saponins + – – + + – – + + – + +

Steroids – – – – – – – – + – – –

Tannins + – – + + – – + + – – +

Terpenoids + + + – + + + – + + + – Key: + Presence, - Absence

230 Table-3.59: Phytochemical screening of ethanol (crude extract), n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kitam

Cardiac glycosides + – – + – – – – + – – +

Flavonoids + + + + + – + + + + + +

Glycosides + – + + + – – + + – + +

Amino acids and Proteins + – + + + – + + + – + +

Reducing sugars + + + + + – – + + – – –

Saponins + – + + + – – + + – – +

Steroids + + + + + + + – + + + –

Tannins + – + + – – – – + – – +

Terpenoids + + + – + + + + + + + + Key: + Presence, - Absence

231 Table-3.60: Phytochemical screening of ethanol (crude extract), n-hexane, chloroform and ethyl-acetate fractions of Origanum vulgare L.

Cardiac glycosides + – – – + – – – + – – –

Flavonoids + + + + + + + + + – + +

Glycosides + – + + + – + + + – – –

Amino acids and Proteins – – – – + – – – + – – –

Reducing sugars + – + + + – – + + – – +

Saponins + – – + + – + + + – + +

Steroids + + + + + – – – + + + –

Tannins + – – + + – – + + – – +

Terpenoids + + + – + + + – + + + –

Key: + Presence, - Absence

232

Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kitam Dysphania botrys L.

Origanum vulgare L. Salvia canariensis L.

Thymus linearis Benth. Apluda mutica L.

Figure-3.51: Pictures of the selected plant species for chemical analysis.

233

Pennisetum orientale Rich. Sarcococca saligna (D.Don) Muell. Arg.

Leptopus cordifolius Decne. Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.) Codd

Spiraea canescens D.Don Daphne mucronata Royle.

Figure-3.52: Pictures of the selected plant species for chemical analysis.

234

Wikstroemia canescens Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana Wall. ex Meisn. (Decne) Rehder

Elaeagnus umbellata Thumb.

Figure-3.53: Pictures of the selected plant species for chemical analysis.

235 3.13 Differential herbage palatability and seasonal availability

Of the total 324 documented species from the area, 122 plants were palatable (Table 3.61). Among them, 78 species (63.93%) were herbs, 14 species (11.47%) were shrubs and 30 species (24.59%) were trees. There were 95 species existed in April, 111 species in May, 97 species in June, 91 species in July, 88 species in August, 68 species in September, 47 species in October, 27 species in November and 07 species in December. In April, sprouting started in some plants and as a whole in May which positively influenced herbage palatability. The young leaves were highly preferred by goats and sheep. Herbaceous flora and grasses were highly preferred by cow, buffalo and donkey. Therefore palatability rate was high in April to August. Degree of herbage palatability and animal preference decreased in the subsequent months.

In the area, winter season was prolonged and severe (November to March). In these months domesticated animals were forced to graze/feed on less palatable and even non palatable plants and stored dry grasses particularly Pennisetum orientale, Apluda mutica, Desmostachya bipinnata, Arthraxon prionodes, Setaria pumila. Leaves of Quercus incana, Pinus roxburghii and P. wallichiana were also used as fodder and in this part of the year the grazing animals suffer the most. Among the herbs Apluda mutica, Aristida contorta, Salvia canariensis and all the recorded shrubs were found throughout the growing seasons. Of the total recorded species, the overall ratio of palatable species was 37.65%. Palatability increased from April to August, thereafter gradually decreased.

Highly palatable herb species gradually increased from April to August (57.69 to 84.61%) and decline started onward. Highly palatable shrubby species remained similar from April to August (92.85%) and decreased in September (42.85%) and October (14.28%). Highly palatable trees species were 63.33% in April, increased in May (86.66%) and remained unchanged in June, July and August (80%) and declined in September (63.33%) and onward. Mostly palatable species increased from April to May (3.84 to 5.12%)

236 and then decreased in June (1.28%). Less palatable herbaceous species were observed in October (16.66%), November (24.35%) and December (1.28%). Inconsistent trends were observed in non-palatability of herbaceous species during June to October and similarity in tree species during these months (Table 3.62).

The most preferred plant parts used by livestocks were leaves (53 spp., 43.44%) followed by aerial parts (46 spp., 37.70%) and whole plant (23 spp., 18.85%) (Table 3.61, Fig 3.56). The common domesticated animals in the area were goat, sheep, cow, buffalo and donkey. Goats and sheep preferred 44 species (36.06%), among them 04 species (9.09%) were herbs, 13 species (29.54%) were shrubs and 27 species (61.36%) were trees. Cow and buffalo showed preference only towards herbs (09 species, 7.37%). Cow, buffalo and donkey preferred only herbs (34 species, 27.86%). All the domesticated animals preferred 35 species (28.68%), among them 31 species (88.57%) were herbs, 01 species (2.85%) was shrub and 03 species (8.57%) were trees (Table 3.61, Fig.3.55).

237 Table-3.61: Palatability, seasonal availability and animal preference of flora of Tall Dardyal, District Swat, Pakistan.

Apr May Jun Jly Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec S.No. Plant species Part used Animal Preference Palatability A. Herbs 1. Alliaria petiolata (M.Bieb.) Cavara & Cow, Buffalo, Donkey Hp HP ------AP Grande 2. Allium griffithianum Boiss. HP HP ------AP All* 3. Alloteropsis cimicina (L.) Stapf HP HP HP HP HP HP LP LP - AP Cow, Buffalo 4. Amaranthus caudatus L. HP HP HP HP HP - - - - WP Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 5. A. viridis L. HP HP HP HP HP - - - - WP Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 6. Apluda mutica L. HP HP HP HP HP HP LP LP - AP Cow, Buffalo 7. Aristida contorta F.Muell. HP HP HP HP HP HP LP LP - AP Cow, Buffalo 8. A. mutabilis Trin. & Rupr. HP HP HP HP HP HP LP LP - AP Cow, Buffalo 9. Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kitam. - MP MP RP NP NP - - - AP Goat, Sheep 10. Arthraxon prionodes (Steud.) Dandy HP HP HP HP HP HP LP LP - AP Cow, Buffalo 11. Asparagus capitatus Browicz HP HP HP HP HP - - - - AP Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 12. Astragalus grahamianus Benth. HP HP ------Lvs Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 13. Avena sativa L. HP HP ------AP Cow, Buffalo, Donkey Continue…

238

14. Brachypodium sylvaticum (Huds.) P.Beauv. HP HP HP HP HP HP LP LP - AP Cow, Buffalo 15. Brassica rapa L. HP HP ------AP Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 16. Cardamine hirsuta L. HP HP ------AP Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 17. Chenopodium album L. HP HP HP HP HP - - - - AP Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 18. Cichorium intybus L. HP HP ------AP All* 19. Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. HP HP HP HP HP Hp Hp - - WP Goat, Sheep 20. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. HP HP HP HP HP HP LP LP - AP Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 21. Cyperus rotundus L. HP HP HP HP HP HP - - - AP Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 22. Cyperus imbricatus Retz. HP HP HP HP HP HP - - - AP Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 23. Dactylis glomerata L. HP HP HP HP HP HP LP LP - AP Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 24. Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf HP HP HP HP HP HP LP LP - AP Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 25. Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P.Beauv. HP HP HP HP HP HP LP LP - AP Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 26. Eruca vesicaria (L.) Cav. HP HP ------AP All* 27. Euphorbia indica Lam. - - - HP HP - - - - WP All* 28. E. prostrata Aiton - HP HP HP HP - - - - WP All* 29. Fallopia dumetorum (L.) Holub ------HP HP WP Goat, Sheep 30. Festuca gigantea (L.) Vill. HP HP HP HP HP HP LP LP - AP Cow, Buffalo 31. Fumaria indica (Hausskn.) Pugsley HP HP ------WP All* Continue…

239

32. Helictotrichon junghuhnii (Buse) Henrard HP HP HP HP HP HP LP LP - AP Cow, Buffalo 33. Lactuca scandens C.C.Chang HP HP HP ------Lvs Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 34. L. serriola L. HP HP HP ------Lvs Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 35. L. dissecta D.Don HP HP HP ------Lvs Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 36. Lathyrus sphaericus Retz. HP HP ------WP All* 37. L. aphaca L. HP HP ------WP All* 38. Lens culinaris Medik. HP HP ------WP All* 39. Lespedeza juncea (L.f.) Pers. - HP HP HP HP NP NP - - Lvs Goat, Sheep 40. Lotus corniculatus L. HP HP HP HP HP - - - - WP All* 41. Malva neglecta Wallr. - HP HP HP - - - - - AP Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 42. Medicago lupulina L. HP HP HP ------WP All* 43. M. monantha (C.A.Mey.) Trautv. HP HP ------WP All* 44. Miscanthus nepalensis (Trin.) Hack. HP HP HP HP HP HP LP LP - AP Cow, Buffalo 45. Nasturtium officinale R.Br. HP HP HP HP HP - - - - WP Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 46. Origanum vulgare L. - HP HP HP HP - - - - AP All* 47. Oxalis corniculata L. - HP HP HP HP - - - - WP All* 48. Pennisetum orientale Rich. HP HP HP HP HP HP HP LP - AP Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 49. Phaseolus vulgaris L. - - HP HP HP - - - - AP All* Continue…

240

50. Piptatherum gracile Mez HP HP HP HP HP HP HP LP - AP Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 51. Plantago major L. - - HP HP HP - - - - AP Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 52. Poa bulbosa L. HP HP HP HP HP HP HP LP - AP Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 53. P. pratensis L. HP HP HP HP HP HP HP LP - AP Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 54. Polygala sibirica L. - - HP HP HP - - - - WP All* 55. P. abyssinica R.Br. ex Fresen. - - HP HP HP - - - - WP All* 56. Rorippa islandica (Oeder) Borbás - - HP HP HP - - - - AP Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 57. Rumex hastatus D.Don Mp MP RP RP RP RP RP RP - Lvs All* 58. Rumex dentatus L. HP HP HP HP HP - - - - Lvs Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 59. Sagina apetala Ard. HP HP ------WP Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 60. Salvia canariensis L. HP HP HP HP HP - - - - AP All* 61. Scorzonera virgata DC. MP MP ------Lvs All* 62. Scrophularia nodosa L. Mp Mp NP NP NP NP - - - AP All* 63. Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. & Schult. HP HP HP HP HP HP HP LP - AP Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 64. Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke HP HP ------WP Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 65. Solanum americanum Mill. HP HP HP HP HP - - - - WP Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 66. Sonchus asper (L.) Hill HP HP HP HP - - - - - AP Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 67. Sorghum halepense L. HP HP HP HP HP HP HP LP - AP Cow, Buffalo, Donkey Continue…

241

68. Stellaria media (L.) Vill. HP HP AP Cow, Buffalo, Donkey 69. Taraxacum campylodes G.E.Haglund HP HP HP HP - - - - - Lvs All* 70. Thymus linearis Benth. HP HP HP HP HP HP HP HP LP WP All* 71. Trifolium repens L. HP HP HP HP HP - - - - WP All* 72. Triticum aestivum L. HP HP HP ------AP All* 73. Tulipa clusiana DC. HP HP HP ------AP All* 74. Veronica polita Fr. HP HP ------AP All* 75. Vicia monantha Retz. HP HP ------WP All* 76. Viola betonicifolia Sm. - HP HP HP HP - - - - AP All* 77. Youngia japonica (L.) DC. HP HP ------AP All* 78. Zea mays L. - - HP HP HP HP - - - AP All* B. Shrubs 1. Berberis lycium Royle HP HP HP HP HP HP NP - - Lvs Goat, Sheep 2. Clematis grata Wall. HP HP HP HP HP HP NP - - Lvs Goat, Sheep 3. Cotoneaster microphyllus Wall.ex Lindl. HP HP HP HP HP HP NP - - Lvs Goat, Sheep 4. Gymnosporia wallichiana M.A.Lawson - MP MP ------Lvs Goat, Sheep 5. Indigofera heterantha Brandis HP HP HP HP HP HP HP - - Lvs Goat, Sheep 6. Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.) Codd HP HP HP HP HP HP NP - - Lvs All* Continue…

242

7. Leptopus cordifolius Decne. HP HP HP HP HP RP NP - - Lvs Goat, Sheep 8. Myrsine africana L. HP HP HP HP HP HP HP - - Lvs Goat, Sheep 9. Rosa canina L. HP HP HP HP HP RP - - - Lvs Goat, Sheep 10. Rubus fruticosus L. HP HP HP HP HP RP - - - Lvs Goat, Sheep 11. Sageretia thea (Osbeck) M.C. Johnst. HP HP HP HP HP RP - - - Lvs Goat, Sheep 12. Spiraea canescens D.Don HP HP HP HP HP RP NP - - Lvs Goat, Sheep 13. Viburnum cotinifolium D. Don HP HP HP HP HP RP - - - Lvs Goat, Sheep 14. Wikstroemia canescens Wall. ex Meisn. HP HP HP HP HP RP NP - - Lvs Goat, Sheep C. Trees 1. Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle HP HP HP HP HP HP - - - Lvs All* 2. Melia azedarach L. HP HP HP HP HP HP - - - Lvs Goat, Sheep 3. Buxus wallichiana Baill. HP HP HP HP HP RP - - - Lvs Goat, Sheep 4. Celtis australis L. HP HP HP HP HP RP - - - Lvs Goat, Sheep 5. C. caucasica Willd. HP HP HP HP HP RP - - - Lvs Goat, Sheep 6. Cornus macrophylla Wall. - HP HP HP HP RP RP - - Lvs Goat, Sheep 7. Cydonia oblonga Mill. HP HP HP HP HP RP - - - Lvs Goat, Sheep 8. Desmodium elegans DC. - HP HP HP HP HP HP - - Lvs Goat, Sheep 9. Diospyros kaki L.f. - HP HP HP HP HP HP - - Lvs Goat, Sheep Continue…

243

10. D. lotus L. - HP HP HP HP HP HP - - Lvs Goat, Sheep 11. Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb. HP HP NP NP NP NP NP - - Lvs Goat, Sheep 12. Euonymus hamiltonianus Wall. - HP RP RP RP RP RP MP MP Lvs Goat, Sheep 13. Fraxinus excelsior L. HP HP HP HP HP HP HP - - Lvs Goat Sheep 14. Juglans regia L. HP HP HP HP HP HP HP - - Lvs All* 15. Morus nigra L. HP HP HP HP HP HP HP - - Lvs Goat Sheep 16. Olea ferruginea Wall. ex Aitch. HP HP HP HP HP HP HP HP HP Lvs Goat, Sheep 17. Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana (Decne.) Goat, Sheep HP ------Lvs Rehder 18. Pinus roxburghii Sarg. ------HP Lvs Goat, Sheep 19. P. wallichiana A.B.Jacks. ------HP Lvs Goat, Sheep 20. Populus ciliata Wall. ex Royle HP HP HP HP HP HP HP - - Lvs Goat, Sheep 21. Prunus cornuta (Wall. ex Royle) Steud. HP HP HP HP HP HP - - - Lvs Goat, Sheep 22. P. domestica L. HP HP HP HP HP HP - - - Lvs Goat, Sheep 23. P. cerasoides Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don HP HP HP HP HP HP - - - Lvs Goat, Sheep 24. Pyrus communis L. HP HP HP HP HP HP - - - Lvs Goat, Sheep 25. P. pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don - HP HP HP HP HP - - - Lvs Goat, Sheep 26. P. pseudopashia T.T.Yu - HP HP HP HP HP - - - Lvs Goat, Sheep Continue…

244

27. Quercus incana Bartram HP RP RP RP RP RP RP RP HP Lvs All* 28. Salix flabellaris Andersson - HP HP HP HP HP HP HP - Lvs Goat, Sheep 29. S. tetrasperma Roxb. - HP HP HP HP HP HP HP - Lvs Goat, Sheep 30. Ziziphus jujuba Mill. HP HP HP HP HP HP HP - - Lvs Goat, Sheep

Key: HP: Highly palatable; MP: Mostly palatable; LP: Less palatable; RP: Rarely palatable; NP: Non palatable; WP: Whole plant; AP: Arial parts; Lvs: Leaves; *All: Goat, Sheep, Cow, Buffalo and Donkey

245

Table-3.62: Seasonal availability (%) and degree of palatability of some important plant species.

Growth Habit Degree of Palatability April May June July August September October November December HP 76.92 84.61 67.94 61.53 57.69 30.76 10.25 2.56 1.28 MP 3.84 5.12 1.28 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Herbs LP 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 16.66 24.35 1.28 RP 0.00 0.00 1.28 2.56 1.28 1.28 1.28 1.28 0.00 NP 0.00 0.00 1.28 1.28 2.56 3.84 1.28 0.00 0.00 HP 92.85 92.85 92.85 92.85 92.85 42.85 14.28 0.00 0.00 MP 0.00 7.14 7.14 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Shrubs LP 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 RP 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 50 0.00 0.00 0.00 NP 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 50.00 0.00 0.00 HP 63.33 86.66 80.00 80.00 80.00 63.33 36.66 10.00 13.33 MP 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.33 3.33 Trees LP 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 RP 0.00 3.33 6.66 6.66 6.66 23.33 10.00 3.33 0.00 NP 0.00 0.00 3.33 3.33 3.33 3.33 3.33 0.00 0.00

246

April Seasonal availability (%) May 100 June July 80 August September 60 October 40 November December

Species ( %) ( Species 20

0 HP MP LP RP NP HP MP LP RP NP HP MP LP RP NP Herbs Shrubs Trees Degree of palatibility

Figure-3.54: Seasonal availability and differential palatability of plant species of Tall Dardyal

40 Herbs 35 Shrubs

30 Trees 25 20 15 Species (%) Species 10 5 0 Goat and Sheep Cow and Buffalo Cow, Buffalo and All Donkey

Growth habit

Figure-3.55: Plant species preferred by animals in Tall Dardyal

247

50 45 Aerial parts 40

30 25

20 Species (%) Species 15 10 5 0 Herbs Shrubs Trees Growth form

Figure-3.56: Preferred plant parts by animals in Tall Dardyal

248

Figure-3.57: View of grazing and browsing animals in the study area.

249

Figure-3.58: View of grazing and browsing animals in the study area.

250

CHAPTER-4

DISCUSSION

4.1 Floristic Diversity and its Ecological attributes

Floristic checklists provide botanical information of a particular geographical region and a starting point for detailed biological study. Floristic list is time saving and easy to handle due to its conciseness. Rich floristic diversity is an indication of suitable growing conditions. Flora richness, both in number and variety of species contribute to the biodiversity of an area. The problem associated to flora conservation and utilization is urgent need to be focused and resolved (Khan et al., 2011). Study of floristic diversity is crucial as it contributes to ecological sustainability of natural plant resources and conservational management of natural habitats for wildlife (Ahmad and Ehsan, 2012). Floristic diversity provides information about the habitat, life form and related climatic conditions.

Mountain conserves biological diversity; act as a germplasm bank for species reproduction, survival and preservation. As compared to plains, mountains also maintain and preserve more complete vegetation (He, 2006). Due to habitats heterogenecity and concentrated environment gradient, mountains always have been a refuge for large species diversity and a historic geological cradle for reproduction and differentiation of emerging flora.

The research area, Tall Dardyal is mountainous region climatically falls in sub-tropical and moist temperate region. It was occupied by thick and dense vegetation particularly in upper parts of the area. The floristic diversity of the area comprised of 324 species belonging to 93 families. It includes 78 dicots, 08 monocots, 02 gymnosperms and 05 pteridophytes families. There were 32 monocot genera and 206 dicot genera. Gymnosperms and pteridophytes have 04 and 09 genera respectively. Asteraceae, Poaceae, Rosaceae, Lamiaceae and Papillionaceae were the dominant families of the research area. Our results partially agree with Khan et al. (2013), Parswan et

251 al. (2010), Saima et al. (2009) and Sher and Khan (2007) who has reported Asteraceae as the dominant family. The adjoining area of our research area named as Qalagai Hills comprised of 209 vascular plant species belonging to 167 genera and 75 families (Ilyas et al., 2013), some of the reported species from this area were occupants of our research site and this can be attributed to similarity in environmental conditions prevailing in both of these areas.

The floristic list of our research area is somewhat different from the cited workers below mainly because of the difference in environmental factors. The floristic diversity of different regions were explored by various researchers Viz Mastuj Valley, Chitral comprised of 571 species (Hussain et al. (2015), Gadoon, Swabi, of 260 plant species (Sher et al., 2014), Lal Suhanra national park, 212 plant species (Wariss et al., 2014), District Tank flora, 205 plant species (Badshah et al., 2013), Senha, Kotli, Azad Kashmir, 112 plant species (Ahmad et al., 2012), 161 plant species from Takht-e- Nastrati (Khan et al., 2012), 88 plant species of vascular flora from CAT DUA Island Vietnam (Qin et al., 2012), 402 vascular plant species from Nandiar Valley, Battagram (Haq et al. (2010), 133 plant species from reserved forest of Palla patty village, Tamil Nadu (Ganesan et al., 2009), 120 plant species from Samahni Valley, Azad Kashmir (Hussain and Ishtiaq, 2009), 79 plant species from Dureji game reserve, Khirthar range (Parveen et al., 2008).

Biological spectrum is the distribution of life forms of a plant community under a given set of environmental conditions (Hussain, 1989). Life form indicates community structure and habitat conditions as well as the biotic interactions. Life form is an important physiognomic attribute of vegetation that reflects the genetic pool and tolerance towards the climatic variation. Biological spectra point out phytoclimatic conditions of geographically different vegetation. Occurrence of similarity in biological spectrum of different regions shows similarity in ecological conditions. Therophytes had dominated the Tall Dardyal Hills followed by hemicryptophytes. The present study partially is in line with the findings of Hussain et al. (2015); Badshah et al. (2013); Ilyas et al. (2013); Shah et al. (2013); Sher et al., 2011; Sher and Khan (2007); Durrani et al. (2005) and

252

Agrawal et al (2004). Hemicryptophytes are the characteristic feature of temperate regions (Cain and Castro, 1959). Therophytes grow in harsh climatic conditions (Shimwell, 1971). The dominance of therophytes also indicates that the climatic conditions or biotic factors not support the phanerophytes. Though the climatic conditions are favourable for phanerophytes but have changed the life form into therophytes mainly because of overgrazing, deforestation, conversion of forest into terrace cultivation.

Life form/growth form and leaf size spectra are important ecological characteristics which have been used in the description of vegetation. Leaf size spectrum also play role in establishment of plant association. Our findings were supported by Sher et al. (2014) who reported microphylls as the dominant leaf spectra. Amjad (2012) reported microphylls as the dominant leaf size class from Kotli Hills. Ganga chotti and Bedori Hills were dominated by microphyllous and nanophyllous species (Malik et al., 2007). Chagharzai Valley, Buner vegetation was dominated by microphyllous species (Sher and Khan, 2007). The current report also corresponds with Ilyas et al. (2013) who reported nanophylls and microphylls as the leading leaf spectra of Qalagai Hills, Swat. Hussain et al. (2015) exploration also showed similarity with our work regarding nanophylls. The dominance of microphylls and nanophylls are indicator of harsh climatic conditions.

The flora included 297 wild species and 27 cultivated species. Among the cultivated species Triticum aestivum, Zea mays, Oryza sativa, Brassica rapa, Cucurbita pepo, Abelmoscus esculentus, Allium cepa, Prunus persica, Pyrus communis, Ailanthus altissima are more common in the area. The current situation is in accordance with the finding of Hussain et al. (2015) due to similarity in climatic conditions.

4.2 Ethnobotanical relevance

Out of 324 plant species recorded from the research area, 224 plant species were used by the local inhabitants for various livelihoods. The area under investigation is characteristically a remote rural area inhabited by people

253 whose chief traditional activity is rearing livestock and farming. The indigenes obtain milk, yogurt and butter for dietary purposes. 125 species (56.30%) of grass, herbs, shrubs and trees (leaves) are used as fodder in fresh form. The people also collect a great deal of grass in summer season, store it at home and then use it as dry fodder in winter when an alternate source of fodder is not available in the field. Our findings are supported by the work of Amjad et al. (2013) who reported the fodder and forage species as the major bulk used as fodder and forage from Nikyal, Kotli, Kashmir. The locals of Chagharzai, Ashezai and Salarzai Valleys, Buner, depend on grass and other plant species for fodder and forage purpose (Sher et al., 2011, 2014). Bahru et al. (2014) documented fodder/forage plants from Awash National Park, Ethopia, used by the Afar and Oromo nations. The flora of Patriata, also contribute the major bulk of fodder and forage species (Ahmed et al., 2013). Joshi and Joshi (2003) categorized fodder and forage plant species from hilly areas of Nepal. It may be concluded that fodder and forage plant species are used universally in all parts of the world and they have a significant impact on the livestock economy of an area.

The status of wild plants in every time and area has always been the subject of high concern. The poor economic status and lack of alternative fuel source has forced the inhabitants of the research area to use plants as source of fuel like the people of Ashezai and Salarzai Valleys (Sher et al., 2014), Central Punjab (Zereen and Khan, 2012), Neelum Valley, Kashmir (Mahmood et al., 2011), Chitral Gol National Park (Khan et al., 2011), Kotli, Azad Jammu and Kashmir (Ajaib et al., 2010), Ranyal Hills, Shangla (Ibrar et al., 2007) and Chikar areas Muzafarabad (Saghir et al., 2001). The flora of Tall Dardyal Hills contributes to the ethnobotanic wealth of Pakistan in particular and to the world in general. The local people possess rich knowledge of ethnobotanically important plants of the area. The study reflects a distinct life style of ethnic groups and different economic uses of the mentioned plants. Since majority of the indigenous people live below the poverty line, and they do not have access to modern resources, therefore they still rely on plant resources for their diverse life needs. They use wild plants as fodder and

254 forages because one of their sources of income is rearing livestock. Most of the people inhabiting the upper hills sites use plants for thatching and construction purposes. They make agriculture tools from various plants as most people of the area are farmers. Poor economic condition has compelled the locals to use wild as well as cultivated plants as vegetables. Rumex hastatus is used as wild vegetable while Mentha longifolia, Origanum vulgare and Zanthoxylum armatum are used as spices and powdered drugs in Chail Valley, Swat (Ahmad et al., 2014). Wild medicinal plants are characteristically abundant in the area where they are used as indigenous medicines for treatment of various ailments. The detailed account of medicinally important plant species of the area are given in the preceding heading. The present findings are supported by the investigations undertaken by Hassan et al., (2015), Wariss et al., (2014), Ahmed et al., (2013), Ilyas et al., (2013), Nasrullah et al., (2012), Afzal et al., (2009), Ali and Qaiser (2009).

4.3 Ethnomedicines and its relative importance

A total of 71 medicinal plants belonging to 48 families were reported to treat about 40 human disorders. Indigofera heterantha, Artemisia vulgaris, Berberis lycium, Aesculus indica, Juglans regia, Ajuga integrifolia, Thymus linearis and Paeonia emodi exhibited highest used value among the reported medicinal plants. High use values of medicinal plants revealed the acceptability of herbal preparation of reported plants in the local community of the study area. Least use value was reported for Viburnum grandiflorum which was used as tonic, Malva neglecta as laxative and Salix flabelaria has cooling effects. Results of this study were in accordance with the previously reported pattern of plants diversity and relative importance from Pakistan, Brazil and Iran (Mendonca Filho and Menezes, 2003; Mahmood et al., 2013b; Sadeghi and Mahmood, 2014). To evaluate the relative importance of plants in indigenous healthcare system use value is used as micro-statistical tool which reflects people interaction with specific plants as best medicines against ailments. To find out new active biological compounds plants with high used

255 value may be focused for further phytochemical screening (Mahmood et al., 2012).

Common diseases reported from the area were arthritis, kidney stone, typhoid fever, stomach problems, hepatitis, jaundice and diabetes. Hedera nepalensis, Rhus chinensis, Artemisia vulgaris, Dysphania ambrosioides, Euphorbia indica, Triticum aestivum, Cydonia oblanga, Ziziphus sativa and Solanum americanum exhibiting almost similar mode of action as reported by Saqib et al. (2014) from Kotli Sattian, Pakistan. Hepatitis and jaundice were reported to treat by Pistacia chinensis, Berberis lycium, Sarcococca saligna and Thymus linearis while Melia azedarach was considered effective against pimple on eyes and as emollient. The reported medicinal plants contain various secondary metabolites e.g. alkaloids, saponins, tannins, terpenoids, cardiac glycosides and phenols (Ayeni and Yahaya, 2010). The therapeutic and protective value in phyto-medicines is the reflection of these phytochemicals (Dike et al., 2012). Gul et al. (2012) evaluated that extract of different parts of Datura stramonium was effective as antimicrobial agent. Further, anti-microbial activity of Cannabis sativa was investigated by Esra et al. (2012) with potential results. The present study may be used as base line for further phytochemical and pharmaceutical exploration of medicinal plants used by the local community for different ailments.

Leaves, the pre-dominant and most frequently used medicinal plant part has been reported by different workers from different regions of the globe (Bibi et al., 2014, 2015; Guler et al., 2015; Samoisy and Mahomoodally, 2015; Malla et al., 2015; Olorunnisola et al., 2013; Traore et al., 2013; Ullah et al., 2013; Ighere et al., 2011; Nguta et al., 2010; Asase et al., 2005). Leaves are considered to be the most important plant part used in herbal medicines, as their role for photosynthetic factory in plants which provide a site for more bioactive constituent storage (Srithi et al., 2009). Actually, bioactive constituents of plants have been reported to possess medicinal worth against diseases (Balick and Cox, 1996; Bhattarai et al., 2006). Leaves are easily assessable, abundant and their harvesting protect the medicinal plants from their irreversible destruction (Giday et al., 2003, 2009; Zheng and Xing, 2009;

256

Neves et al., 2009; Bibi et al., 2014; Shah et al., 2015). Leaves are renewable source of herbal medicines and present at all phenological stages of all life forms (Odonne et al., 2013).

Earlier reports regarding decoction and powder as the most used herbal preparations in the area support our findings (Saqib et al., 2014; Bibi et al., 2015). Data reported from Nigeria showed that decoction was the frequently used herbal preparation (Dike et al., 2012; Iyamah and Idu, 2015). Plant part is first washed with water and then boiled to prepare decoction while infusion is obtained by soaking of plant material in water for whole night and filtered. Variation in quantity of dosage before breakfast was recorded for decoction and infusion and no specific pattern was observed for dosage; similar findings were reported by Mahmood et al. (2012). Our study revealed that most of the herbal preparations were single plant based while some consisted of more than one plant species as reported by Saqib et al., 2014. High population density, economic burden, scarcity of modern health facilities and increasing costs of modern drugs compelled the inhabitants of the remote areas to rely on indigenous medicinal flora. This report documents the quantitative estimation of indigenous medicinal plants of Tall Dardyal Hills. Diversity and efficacy of medicinal plants and positive attitude of local people toward herbal medicines for health problems in the study area favoured the aims of this study to document this treasure. Old community was more allied to indigenous plants and they have potential information about medicinal values of the indigenous plants. There is an imbalance in the demand and availability of medicinal plants in the study area, so it is suggested that farmers should be motivated and trained to cultivate the medicinal plants on local farms to meet this demand. Botanical parks/sites should be constructed at protected areas for conservation of medicinal plants.

4.4 Vegetation analysis

Forty nine plant communities of herbs, shrubs and trees were established using TWINSPAN analysis with β-diversity dissimilarity index under JUICE 7.0 software in eight selected sub-localities (stands). These

257 communities were established on the basis of percent frequency, comprised of 108 plant species. Among these, 75 were herbs, 18 shrubs and 15 trees. (Synoptic tables 3.6 to 3.29). The combination of elevation, soil pH, organic matter, macro, micronutrients and soil texture influenced and controlled the formation of plant community distribution patterns in the research area. Herbaceous communities i.e. Brachypodium-Lespedeza-Alloteropsis in Kandav,Festuca-Plantago-Taraxicum in Doop, Lepidium-Tagetes-Origanum and Origanum-Plantago-Tagetes communities in Kamyarai and Heliotropium- Alloteropsis-Aegopodium community in Manai were found in open canopy and sunny habitats while other herbaceous communities in different sites were recorded from closed canopy and shady habitats. Shrubs communities were mostly found at different elevation in sunny and dry habitats. The representative species were Berberis lycium, Indigofera heterantha etc, while Wikstroemia canescens, Leptopus cordifolius, Viburnum grandiflorum, Sarcococca saligna and Jasminum humile were recorded from moist and shady slope habitats. This demonstrates a close relation of plant types with environmental factors as reported by Tian et al., 2013. Variation in elevation and environmental factors have close relationship and thus play important role in species diversity gradient patterns (Whittaker et al., 2001; Tang et al., 2004;

Qian et al., 2011). The distribution of natural plant communities is the outcome of composite interactions between plants and the environment (Jiang, 1994).

Altitude itself demonstrates a combination of other climatic variables which closely correlated with many other environmental factors (Petr, 2009; Xu, 2011). In the study area, in addition to pH, texture and nutrient status of soil (Table 3.30), elevation, temperature and precipitation were the most important factors restricting the plant communities distribution. At higher elevation (Doop, Choor banda, Choor panorai, Mian bela, Manai) Oak and coniferous forest, Quercus incana, Quercus floribunda, Pinus wallichiana, Abies pindrow and Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana shrub species Sarcococca saligna, Leptopus cordifolius, Wikstroemia canescens, Spiraea canescens, herbs species Dryopteris blanfordii, Onychium japonicum and Aristida

258 contorta grew very densely in wet conditions and more precipitation than lower altitude. At lower elevation (Kamyarai) there was open canopy cover and dry habitat, representative tree species were Olea ferruginea, Pinus wallichiana and Ailanthus altissima, shrub species were Isodon rugosus, Berberis lycium, Indigofera heterantha and Cotoneaster microphyllous, herb species were Lepidium sativum, Tagetes minuta, Origanum vulgare, Plantago lanceolata, Achyranthes aspera, Amaranthus viridis and Cannabis sativa. The plant species which grow together in a community reflect similar requirements and conditions for survival in terms of environmental factors (Ter Baak, 1987).

This study provides important scientific evidence for the utilization and protection of vegetation and plant resources and also provides basic data and a reference case for the restoration of degenerated mountain vegetation. The plant species distribution pattern in the research area showed significant correlation with moisture, organic matter and elevation. Most of the herbs, shrubs and trees were located in shady and low temperature sites which demonstrate a close relation of plant types and environmental factors.

4.5 Mineral Nutrition

The research area is a mountainous region. In hilly areas, food availability and security are related to agriculture (Ogoye and Hansen, 2003). Livestock production is one of the vital components of hill agriculture where traditional ways of animal’s management are employed (Singh and Bohra, 2005). As a matter of fact, wild plants are the cheapest source of food and medicines since long. In the research area, the indigenous people have been using the wild plants as essential components of their livelihood in various forms round the year like fodder/forage, food and indigenous medicines. Living organisms require mineral nutrients in order to sustain the normal functioning of life. Some of these mineral nutrients are needed in large amount while some in trace amount and they are referred to as macro and micronutrients respectively (McDowell, 2003). At least 25 mineral nutrients are

259 likely requirement for human health (Stein, 2010; Graham et al., 2007). According to Fan et al. (2012), 900 million people are malnourished and more than 2 billion suffer from micronutrients deficiency in the world. The possible risk of one or more essential elements deficiencies in human diets e.g. Ca, Mg, Cu, I, Se and particularly the deficiencies of Fe and Zn has been estimated in one-third population of the world (Stein, 2010; White and Broadley, 2009). Plants are the main source of essential mineral elements which are considered as the pre-requisite for human and animal health. Mineral elements enter the food chain through plants. Livestock animals are important components of food chain which link plants and human in the transfer of trace mineral elements (Lozak et al., 2002). Therefore, plants are considered the fundamental source of mineral elements and have great impact on human, animals and plant health.

Plant material analyses for mineral nutrients status are helpful to evaluate nutrient deficiency or toxicity. The analyses of herbage highlight mineral imbalances and help pastoral farmers to evaluate mineral nutrient deficiency that might affect the animal’s health on which they feed. In most parts of the world, the deficiencies of macro elements (Ca, P, Mg, Na and S) and micro-elements (Cu, Mn, Fe, and Zn) have influenced grazing livestock production (Judson and McFarlane, 1998). Feedstuffs and forages are the main sources of mineral elements of livestock animals. Mineral feed sources are harvested forages, pasture plants and mineral supplements (Khan et al., 2009; McDowell and Arthington, 2005). To improve the forage utilization and its productivity, it is important to know the nutritive status of range forage species and their influence on livestock production (Islam and Adams, 2000). Mineral nutrients play a prime role in livestock health as well as production (McDonald et al., 2009). Irrespective of large population, the poor productivity of cattle is, by and large, attributed to mineral deficiency (Sharma et al., 2003).

The investigated seven herb species at three phenological stages for 13 macro and micro-nutrients were found in descending order of Mg > Ca > Fe > Mn > Zn > Pb > Ni > Co > Cu > Cd = Na > Cr whereas Ag was absent in

260

Dysphania botrys. The current findings also show similarity with the investigation undertaken by Maiga et al., 2005; Barminas et al., 1999; Guil et al., 1996 concerning the concentration of some mineral elements in descending order. Among the individual herb species, the accumulation of mineral nutrients in Artemisia scoparia was recorded in descending order of Ca > Mg > Fe > Mn > Zn > Ni > Cu > Pb > Co > Cd > Na > Cr > Ag. Dysphania botrys had maximum concentration of Mg, Ca and Fe as compared to Mn, Zn, Ni, Cu, Co, Cd, Pb, Na, Cr, while Ag was found absent. Origanum vulgare followed the same descending order of Mg > Ca > Fe > Mn > Zn > Ni like Dysphania botrys except Pb > Cu > Co > Na > Cd > Cr > Ag. Salvia canariensis is considered both a vegetable and fodder herb. It contained the highest concentration of Ca, Fe and Mg and the other nutrient elements were found in the order of Mn > Pb > Zn > Ni > Co > Cu > Na > Cd > Cr > Ag. Thymus linearis had the highest concentration of Mg, Fe and Ca. Other 10 elements were evaluated in descending order of Mn > Zn > Pb > Ni > Co > Cu > Cr > Cd > Na > Ag. Maximum concentration of nutrient elements in Apluda mutica was recorded in descending order of Ca > Fe > Mg > Mn > Zn > Ni > Pb > Co > Cu > Na > Cd > Cr =Ag. Pennisetum orientale had accumulated Ca, Mg and Fe in maximum concentration and other elements in the order of Pb > Mn > Zn > Ni > Cu > Co > Na > Cd > Cr > Ag.

There are various reasons for inherently low concentrations of Ca and Mg in edible plant species like Poales (Watanabe et al., 2007; Broadley et al., 2004) which corresponds to the current investigation where in Apluda mutica and Pennisetum orientale had low concentration of Ca and Mg at three phenological stages. Mashwani et al., 2012 reported the lowest concentration of Ca in Pennesitum orientale which further lends support to our analysis. Acar et al., 2009 also evaluated insufficient quantity of Ca and Mg in forage grass.

The low concentration of Ca and Mg in forage grass can safely be attributed to high soil pH, high cation-exchange capacity of soil which hold abundant Mg, cation competition i.e. soil with high levels of K or Ca compete with Mg and provide less Mg to the plant and low soil temperature has

261 influence on the uptake of these minerals. In the current situation, the grass had less Ca and Mg level. In general, grazing pasture plants have a higher Mg content (Khan et al., 2006; Islam et al., 2003) which contradicts our findings. Ca and Mg are essential for normal growth and the development of livestock (Khan et al., 2004). The accumulation of mineral elements in plants depends on various factors e.g. soil properties, available amount of elements, climatic conditions and plant properties as well (Warman, Termeer, 2005a; Bengtsson et al., 2003). Juknevicius and Sabiene (2007) reported less level of Mg, Ca, Mn, Zn, Co and Fe in some cultivated grass at the University of Agriculture, Lithuanian which partially agrees with our results. As a whole, the macro and micro elements in shrubs were found in the order of Ca > Mg > Fe > Mn > Pb > Ni > Cu > Co > Zn > Na > Cd > Cr > Ag. Individual shrub species, for instance, Leptopus cordifolius and Spiraea canescens showed the same concentration order of Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn, Ni, and Pb. The other four minerals were found in a variable concentration in both herbs. Sarcococca saligna had the following order of mineral i.e. Ca > Mg > Fe > Ni > Mn > Zn > Pb > Cu > Co=Cd > Na > Cr > Ag. Isodon rugosus showed highest level of Mg, Ca Fe and others elements showed the concentration order i.e. Mn > Zn > Cu > Pb > Ni > Co > Na > Cd > Cr > Ag. Iron (Fe) and Zn recorded in highest concentration in Wikstroemia canescens as compared to other herbs species and other minerals accumulated in the order of Mg > Ca > Mn > Pb > Cu > Ni > Co > Na > Cd > Cr > Ag. In animals Zn plays act as an antioxidant agent and in plant membranes as well (Bray and Betteger, 1990; Din et al., 1996). Therefore, wild plants might be considered an important antioxidant source (Kumari et al., 2004). An increased and decreased variation in minerals concentration were recorded in the analysed herb and shrub and tree species which is supported by Acar et al., 2001 that a large variation exist among the species with respect to mineral concentrations. Variation also observed at various phenological stages of individual plant species which is in line with the investigation of Hussain and Durrani (2008) that inconsistent increased/decreased generally found at various phenological stages of forage plants. In Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana and Elaeagnus umbellata Ca > Fe > Mg > Mn > Pb > Zn > Ni were recorded, Co, Cu, Na, Cd, Cr and Ag showed

262 variation in quantity. Such high Ca contents were also reported in tree species by Zaidi et al., 2010. The current study showed the highest contents of macronutrients (Ca and Mg) and micronutrients (Fe, Zn and Mn) in the investigated most plant species as similarly reported by Hussain et al., 2013; Adnan et al., 2010; Khan et al., 2009; Khan, 2003; Islam et al., 2003. Deshmukh and Rathod (2013) evaluated in wild tuberous plants remarkably high Ca and least Cu contents and Hanif et al., 2006 evaluated high Ca contents in spinach. These findings are in line with our current investigation. Ghings et al., 1996 also reported all macro minerals, Zn and except Na in greater quantity in forages which show similarity with the current study. Micro-mineral elements were found in small quantity as reported by Shad et al., 2013 poor quantity of Pb, Cd, Cr and Ni from 07 wild food plant species. Khan et al., 2006 also reported lower level of micronutrients i.e. Cu and Zn in forages. Mirzaei (2012) investigated inadequate amounts of Cu and Na in forages which closely agree with our finding.

Optimum concentration of elements is required for many physiological functions of human body including growth stimulation, nerve conduction, oxygen transport, safeguarding and repair of tissues and bones. Trace elements in most cases act as cofactor (Olarsch, 2003; Speich et al., 2001). Iron is crucial for haemoglobin, myoglobin and helps the body to fight against various diseases (Wang and Chen, 1990; Leung et al., 1999). Copper plays a key position in energy metabolism. It is an important co-factor and an antioxidant. Zinc is essential for growth, sickle cell anaemia, skin diseases, sexual organs development, reproduction and boosts resistance to infection. Zn deficiency decreases resistance against pathogens, impairment in growth and leads to dwarfism. Cu has role in iron metabolism and its deficiency has impact on bone cortices and rupturing of vessels (Obiajunwa et al., 2002). Chromium and Manganese in plants possess curing properties against cardiovascular diseases and diabetes (Ajasa et al., 2004). Chromium improves insulin and in turn lowers glucose levels in the blood. Cr is also vital for growth, immune system, synthesis of DNA and RNA (Manore et al., 2009). Manganese is important for bone formation. Cobalt is an important constituent

263 of vitamin B12. Ca is the most abundant macroelement in plants, play role in treating wounds and stop blood loss (Obiajunwa et al., 2002; Okaka and Okaka, 2001).

4.6 Proximate analysis

A wide variety of plant species are used by a large population of the country for various livelihood such as food, medicines, shelter and fuel etc. Knowledge of indigenous wild edible plant resources need nutritional and phytochemical assessment before it is irreversibly vanished to future generations. The investigated ethnomedicinal and forage plants contained high amount of carbohydrates, soluble proteins, crude fibres, crude fats, ash and moisture. The average values of nutritional/proximate composition of the selected plant species showed variation in increasing order as in Dysphania botrys, carbohydrates > soluble proteins > crude fibres > ash > crude fats > moisture. Origanum vulgare, soluble proteins > carbohydrates > crude fibres > crude fats > ash > moisture. Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana, carbohydrates > crude fibres > crude fats > soluble proteins > moisture > ash. Sarcococca saligna, carbohydrates > crude fibres > soluble proteins > crude fats > ash > moisture. Our results partially agree with the finding of Adnan et al., 2010 who also reported maximum carbohydrates in the investigated medicinal plants.

The highest carbohydrates were reported in Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana (46.50%) and lowest in Thymus linearis (9.04%). Carbohydrates quantity varies in different plant species as in Dennettia tripetala (62%) (Saputera et al., 2006), Croton tiglium (15.51%) (Shah et al., 2009), Withania coagulans (32.35%) and 92.65% in Chenopodium album (Ullah et al., 2013), Amaranthus hybridus (52.18%) and Ipomea batatas (51.95%) (Aluko et al., 2012). Carbohydrates, dietary fibres, proteins, fats, moisture and ash contents of wild plant resources are very important for human health (Nisar et al., 2009; Hussain et al., 2010). Carbohydrates are essential component of diet help to maintain animal and plant life and also

264 provide raw materials for nutraceutical industry (Ebun-Oluwa and Alade, 2007). Carbohydrates provide energy to all body cells particularly the brain cells. Proteins and amino acids are fundamental nutrients for life. In the investigated plants soluble proteins range from 9.97% to 53.38% at pre- reproductive stage of Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana and Leptopus cordifolius respectively. Variation in protein contents were also reported in other plant species like 7.09 % in Parinari polyandra (Abolaji et al., 2007), 8% in Forsskalea tenacissima (Adnan et al., 2010) and 26 % in Croton tiglium (Shah et al., 2009). Fats are the chief source of energy and help in uptake of vitamins and development of tissues (Zello, 2006). High fat contents lead to obesity (Hassan and Umar, 2006). Dietary fats act as flavoring agents and increase palatability of food (Antia et al., 2006). The crude fats range from 8.44% at reproductive stage of Apluda mutica to 28.77% at post-reproductive stage Origanum vulgare. Analysis of commonly consumed vegetables in Nigeria revealed 8.30 to 27.0% crude fats which support our finding (Nesamvuni et al., 2001). Crude fats slow down carbohydrates utilization and contribute to food energy value.

Ash contents are an indication of minerals, in all the investigated plants ash range from 2.56% at reproductive stage of Artemisia scoparia to 15.70% at pre-reproductive stage of Salvia canariensis. Ocimum gratissimum contained 6.88% ash (Edeoga et al., 2006) and 12.0% in Leonotis leonorus (Jimoh et al., 2010). Comparison of these results indicate the richness of minerals in all the analysed plants and their nutritional importance. Dietary fibres play important role in decreasing obesity, constipation, hypertension, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, diverticulosis and breast cancer (Ishida et al., 2000; Rao and Newmark, 1998; Bassi and Marangoni, 1984). Apluda mutica and Pennisetum orientale both showed similarity in the order of crude fibres > carbohydrates > soluble proteins > crude fats > moisture > ash. The crude fibres range from 10.21% at post-reproductive stage of Isodon rugosus to 48.01% at post-reproductive stage of Apluda mutica. The highest contents of crude fibers imply that the investigated plants can be used a better dietary supplement especially for diabetes, obese and hypertensive patients.

265

Soluble proteins, crude fibres and other contents were found in increasing order in herb and shrub species as in Salvia canariensis, soluble proteins > crude fibres > carbohydrates > ash > crude fats > moisture. Thymus linearis, soluble proteins > crude fibres > crude fats > ash > moisture > carbohydrates. Daphne mucronata, soluble proteins > crude fibres > carbohydrates > crude fats > moisture > ash. Isodon rugosus, soluble proteins > carbohydrates > crude fats > crude fibres > ash > moisture. Leptopus cordifolius, crude fats > soluble proteins > carbohydrates > crude fibres > moisture > ash. Similarity in average values in increasing order were exhibited by Artemisia scoparia, Wikstroemia canescens and Elaeagnus umbellata, carbohydrates > soluble proteins > fibres > fats > ash > moisture. Spiraea canescens also showed similarity with these three species but showed variation in ash and moisture order.

The present investigation will provide new wild botanical data and food resources for future study by food chemists, nutraceutical, beverages, taxonomists and plant breeders. It will be helpful for improvement of diet nutritional status of indigenous population of the country.

4.7 Secondary metabolites

Investigation on twelve phytochemicals in the selected plants revealed that most of them were found in ethanolic crude extract as compared to other fractions. The current study confirmed the evidence that ethanolic solvent is more appropriate than other solvents in extracting secondary metabolites of plants (Ahmad et al., 1998; Cowan, 1999; Emad et al., 2009). In plant extraction process, the use of alcohols also maximizes the bioavailability of active constituents. The concentration of active constituents can also be assessed by the extraction process. Water-alcohol extraction method is used for extraction of phenolic compounds and its presence can also be observed separately in both extracts (Perry et al., 2001). Nature is the prime source of high phytochemical diversity. Many of them possess potential discrete bioactivities beyond those related to minerals and vitamins. They could

266 provide health benefits in various forms as substrates for biochemical processes, cofactors and inhibitors of enzymatic reactions, squestrants of undesirable substances in intestines, scavengers of toxic chemicals, selective inhibitors of harmful intestinal bacteria, enhancers for absorption of essential nutrients etc. Such phytochemicals include alkaloids, terpenoids, phenolics and fibres (Dillard and German, 2000; Webb, 2013).

More than 4,000, phytochemicals have been recorded so far. Out of these, 150 phytochemicals have been investigated in detail (American Cancer Society, 2002). These have been classified on the bases of their physical and chemical properties and protective nature (Mathai 2000). Phytochemicals are responsible for the color, odor and flavor of plant foods. Phytochemicals, also grouped as phytonutrients, are found in vegetables, herbs, whole grains, fruits, seeds, nuts, legumes and spices (Webb, 2013). Terpenes constitute an important class of phytonutrients in grains, green foods and soy plants (Harborne and Baxter, 1993). Phytochemical-rich foods decrease the risk of diabetes, improving insulin sensitivity thereby indirectly prevents weight gain. Most probably, also reduces inflammation (Caster et al., 2010; Castejon and Casado, 2011). Phytochemicals rich diet is important for human health due to their considerable antioxidant properties (Dixon et al., 2005; Crozier et al., 2009). Flavonoids, phenolic acids and tannins are the major groups which contain these antioxidant compounds. Of these, about 19% antioxidant capacity of the total diet is accounted for by tannins (Floegel et al., 2010). Terpenoids exhibits diverse functions from deadly toxic to entirely edible. They also play a role as antimicrobial and ecologically symbiotes attractants for pollination, seed dispersal and as antigerminative phytotoxic allelopaths. It confers fragrance, flavor, and taste to plant products (De Almeida, 2010; De Martino, 2010). From ecological point of view, alkaloids, by and large, act as toxins and feeding deterrent to herbivores and insects (Harborne, 1993).

Natural products play a key role in the prevention and treatment of various human diseases. Among them terpenoids is the most widespread and largest group of secondary metabolites. Therapeutic uses of some terpenoids have been recognized for centuries as anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antifungal,

267 antiviral, antiparasitic, antihyperglycemic and antitumoral agents (Paduch et al., 2007; Heras and Hortelano, 2009). Flavonoids are the most varied group of phytochemicals. More than 6,000 flavonoids have been described in plant foods (Arts and Hollman, 2005). Flavonoids are essential components of animal and human diet. Flavonoids are biologically active compound against liver toxins, inflammation, microorganisms, free radicals and tumor (Okwu, 2004). Generally flavonoids are responsible for taste, colour, fat oxidation prevention in food and also provide protection to enzymes and vitamins (Yao et al., 2004). Besides imparting attractive colours to food products, some red pigments of anthocyanins and betacyanin activate free radical scavenging and some related antioxidant activities (Cai et al., 2003; Stintzing et al., 2005; Tesoriere et al., 2008; Fracassetti et al., 2013; Li et al., 2013). Anthocyanins and betalains, used as food colorant, may confer protection against some oxidative stress-related infirmities in humans (Lee et al., 2005; Allegra et al., 2007; Wallace, 2011; Christensen et al., 2012; Hobbs et al., 2012). Saponins modulate cell mediated immunity , enhance antibody production (Oda et al., 2000), monocyte production (Delmas et al., 2000; Yui et al., 2001) as well as show inflammation (De Oliveira et al., 2001; Haridas et al., 2001). Saponins are essential agent for synthesis of sex hormones and ensuring hormonal balance (Okwu, 2003). Saponins act as antifungal, hypoglycemic, and lower serum cholesterol in animals (Sapna et al., 2009). Tannins are astringent polyphenolic compounds play role in healing of wounds. They also have anti- diarrhea and anti-diuretic properties (Okwu and Okwu, 2004).

4.8 Palatability and seasonal availability

Herbage palatability is influenced by various factors such as growth and phenological stage, morphology, chemical composition, seasonal availability, accessibility to plants, richness of preferred plants and environmental conditions (Wahid, 1990; Kababia et al., 1992; Grunwaldt et al., 1994; Nyamangara and Ndlovu, 1995; Hussain and Durrani, 2009; Khan and Hussain, 2012; Amjad et al., 2014). There were 95 species existed in April, 111 species in May, 97 species in June, 91 species in July, 88 species in

268

August, 68 species in September, 47 species in October, 27 species in November and 07 species in December. In April, sprouting started in some plants and as a whole in May which positively influenced herbage palatability. Therefore palatability rate was high in April to August. Degree of herbage palatability and animal preference decreased in the subsequent months. Decline of annuals, subsequently shrubs and trees provide fresh fodder (Marqueus et al., 2004). In the area, longevity and severity forced the domesticated animals to feed on less palatable and even non palatable plants and stored dry grasses particularly Pennisetum orientale, Apluda mutica, Desmostachya bipinnata, Arthraxon prionodes, Setaria pumila. Leaves of Quercus incana, Pinus roxburghii and P. wallichiana were also used as fodder and in this part of the year the grazing animals suffer the most. Similar findings were also reported by Hussain and Durrani (2009), Amjad et al. (2014) and Shaheen et al. (2014). Among the herbs Apluda mutica, Aristida contorta, Salvia canariensis and all the recorded shrubs were found throughout the growing seasons. Palatability increased from April to August, thereafter gradually decreased. The occurrence of green plant materials increases grazing efficiency of ungulates (Amjad et al., 2014).

269

CONCLUSIONS

The present study was carried out during 2013-2015 to explore the floristic diversity, vegetation analysis, ethnobotany, palatability, qualitative, elemental and proximate analysis of some selected ethnomedicinal and palatable forage plants of Tall Dardyal, Tehsil Kabal, District Lower Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. The study showed that flora of Tall Dardyal comprised of 324 species belonging to 251 genera and 93 families. Of them 78 were dicots families, 08 monocots, 02 gymnosperms and 05 pteridophytes. There were 32 monocot genera and 206 dicot genera. Gymnosperms and pteridophytes have 04 and 09 genera respectively. Results indicated that there were more representation of the families Asteraceae, Poaceae, Rosaceae, Lamiaceae and Papillionaceae and were therefore the dominant families of the area. Regarding the biological spectrum therophytes were the dominant life form. The second dominant was the class hemicryptophyte. Leaf size spectra revealed that microphylls were the dominant leaf size class followed by nanophylls, mesophylls and leptophylls. Ethnobotanical study showed that 224 plants were used by the local inhabitants for various livelihoods. Among them fodder/forage species were the dominant followed by fuel and medicinal plants. Diversity and relative importance of medicinal plants showed that a total of 71 medicinal plants belonging to 48 families were reported which were used for nearly 40 disorders. Among reported plants, family Rosaceae was the predominant followed by Lamiaceae, Asteraceae and Amaranthaceae. Indigofera heterantha, Artemisia vulgaris, Berberis lycium, Aesculus indica, Juglans regia, Ajuga integrifolia, Thymus linearis and Peonia emodi exhibited highest used value among the medicinal plants. Least use value was reported for Vibernum grandiflorum which was used as tonic. Regarding the use of herbal medicines it was found that Ajuga integrifolia, Thymus linearis, Artemisia vulgaris, Berberis lycium, Dysphania botrys and Sarcococa saligna possessed key position in the local health care system to treat various ailments. Principal source of herbal remedies preparations reported were leaves followed by whole plant and fruits, bark, seed, root, young shoot, rhizome, fresh flower, fruit pulp, husk and resin. Most common herbal preparation used

270 by the local community were decoction followed by powder, infusion and juice, paste and chewing, warming, oil, milk mix. Common diseases reported from the area were arthritis, kidney stone, typhoid fever, stomach problems, hepatitis, jaundice and diabetes. Forty nine plant communities were established, among these 17 herbs communities, 16 each shrubs and trees communities in the selected sub-localities (stands). Plant communities were established on the basis of percent frequency value using TWINSPAN analysis with β-diversity dissimilarity index under JUICE 7.0. The results revealed that plant genera and species were relatively diverse comprised of a total 108 plant species. Among these, 74 were herbs, 18 shrubs and 15 trees. Species ordination of each sub-locality for herbs, shrubs and trees were performed by Principle Component Analysis (PCA) using CANOCO Version 4.5 analysis software. Physico-chemical analysis of the selected stands for vegetation analysis revealed that soil textural classes were mostly loamy and clay loam with pH ranged from 5.0 to 6.9. Organic matter ranged from 1.06 to 1.59% and lime from 8.2 to 10.1%. The investigated herb species at three phenological stages for macro and micro-nutrients were found in descending order of Mg > Ca > Fe > Mn > Zn > Pb > Ni > Co > Cu > Cd = Na > Cr > whereas Ag was absent in Dysphania botrys. The macro and micro elements in shrubs were found in the order of Ca > Mg > Fe > Mn > Pb > Ni > Cu > Co > Zn > Na > Cd > Cr > Ag. In Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana and Elaeagnus umbellatathe mineral elementswere in descending order, Ca > Fe > Mg > Mn > Pb > Zn > Ni > were recorded in the same order and Co, Cu, Na, Cd, Cr and Ag showed variation in quantity. The investigated ethnomedicinal and forage plants contained high amount of carbohydrates, soluble proteins, crude fibres, crude fats, ash and moisture. Qualitative phytochemical determination of selected forage and ethnomedicinally important plants revealed that secondary metabolites were predominantly found in ethanolic crude extract followed by ethyl-acetate and chloroform fractions and rarely observed in n-hexane fraction. The investigation is of particular significance to know the presence of these phytochemicals in various fractions and to provide a base line data for its further quantification and utilization in pharmaceutical industry. Of the total 324 documented species, 122 plants were palatable. Among them, 78 species

271 were herbs, 14 species were shrubs and 30 species were trees. There were 95 species existed in April, 111 species in May, 97 species in June, 91 species in July, 88 species in August, 68 species in September, 47 species in October, 27 species in November and 07 species in December. The common domesticated animals in the area were goat, sheep, cow, buffalo and donkey. Goats and sheep preferred 44 species, among them 04 species were herbs, 13 species were shrubs and 27 species were trees. Cow and buffalo showed preference only towards 09 herbs species. Cow, buffalo and donkey preferred 34 herbs species.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT

The study area is floristically rich both in number and variety of plant species which contribute to the ecological sustainability of natural plant resources, biodiversity and conservational management of natural habitats for wildlife. It also provides a baseline for the vegetation of the area which can be of great help in multiple ways. The plant species identified can contribute to the wellbeing of the community because of their medicinal and nutritious value. The chemical contents in various plant species have curative use in the treatment of some common human diseases. They also offer rich nutrition of variety of types. This is why it paves a way for further scientific exploration, especially in pharmaceutical and nutraceutical industries.

272

SUGGESTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

 Extensive efforts are needed to explore the flora of various regions; especially, remote virgin mountainous Valleys. New plants are added to the flora of the country.

 Ex-situ and In-situ conservation of medicinal plants are needed which are the basis of pharmaceutical industries.

 Medicinal plants research organization/ industry shall give attention to preserve the indigenous knowledge and plant wealth to provide continuous supply for pharmaceutical and nutraceutical industries.

 Awareness must be raised among the indigenes for proper collection, preservation and post harvest loss of medicinal plants.

 Government should give some alternative solutions to the locals for cultivation of medicinal plants and to conserve the valuable medicinal flora.

 The reported potential medicinal flora of the research area and of other regions of the country should be explored on phytochemical and pharmacological basis.

 Modern computer softwares should be used for vegetation analysis which give accurate results and save time as compared to manual analysis.

 Vegetation analysis of different parts of the country needs exploration along with climatic and topographic characteristics. Such study provides fruitful information for biodiversity conservation strategy makers of natural plant communities.

 Soil of different regions of country should be analysed which will provide understanding of composition and diversity of vegetation of that particular area.

273

 Policy makers should focus on deforestation pressure which leads to soil erosion and reduces vegetation cover.

 Coordination should be established between the universities, research organizations and industries regarding biodiversity and plant conservation to establish a new fruitful strategy for plant conservation.

 Tourism department should start recreational activities in the research area and income thus generated should be utilized for uplifting of backward area.

274

REFERENCES

Abbas, F., T. Akhtar and A. Mian. 2009. Phytosociological analysis within the range of Grey Goral in Pakistan and Azad Kashmir. Pak. J. Bot., 41(2): 667-682.

Abbas, R. Z., D. D. Colwell and J. Gilleard. 2012a. Botanicals: An alternative approach for the control of avian coccidiosis. Worlds.Poult. Sci. J. 68: 203–215.

Abbas, R. Z., Z. Iqbal, A. Khan, Z. U. D. Sindhu, J. A. Khan, M. N. Khan and A. Raza. 2012b. Options for integrated strategies for the control of avian coccidiosis. Int. J. Agric. Biol., 14: 1014‒1020.

Abolaji, O. A., A. H. Adebayo and O. S. Odesanmi. 2007. Nutritional Qualities of Three Medicinal Plant Parts (Xylopia aethiopica, Blighia sapida and Parinari polyandra) commonly used by Pregnant Women in the Western Part of Nigeria. Pak. J. Nutr. 6 (6): 665-668.

Acar, Z., I. Ayan and C. Gulser. 2001. Some morphological and nutritional properties of legumes under natural conditions. Pak. J. Biol. Sci., 4, 1312-1315.

Acar, Z., I. Ayan, O. Asci, U. Basaran and H. Mut. 2009. Biodiversity in morphological properties and nutritional values of forage grass species. J. Env. Biol. 30(4): 583-589.

Adnan, M., J. Hussain, M. T. Shah, Z. K. Shinwari, F. Ullah, A. Bahader, N. Khan, A. L. Khan and T. Watanabe.2010. Proximate and nutrient composition of medicinal plants of humid and sub-humid regions in North-west Pakistan. J. Med. Plants Res. 4(4): 339-345.

Afzal, M., Shah, S. Sikandar, M. Shinwari. 2001. Ecological Zones of Pakistan. National History Research in Pakistan. Pakistan Scientific and Technological Information Center, Islamabad.

275

Afzal, S., N. Afzal, M. R. Awan, T. S. Khan, A. G. R. Khanum and S. Tariq. 2009. Ethnobotanical studies from Northern Pakistan. J. Ayub. Med. Coll. Abbottabad. 21(1):52-7.

Agrawal, A. K., B. Singh, P. Prakash and M. P. S. Pramar. 2004. Structure and function of an Indian Alpine meadow as affected by nomadic grazing. In: Biodiversity and Environment, pp: 335–354. Arvind, K. (ed.). A. P. H. Publishing Corporation, 5-Ansari road Darya Gang New Delhi, India.

Ahmad, I., M. S. A. Ahmad, M. Hussain, M. Ashraf, M. Y. Ashraf and M. Hameed. 2010. Spatiotemporal aspects of plants community structure in open scrub rangeland of sub-mountainous Himalayan plateaus. Pak. J. Bot., 42(5): 3431-3440.

Ahmad, I., Z. Mehmood and F. Mohammed. 1998. Screening of some Indian medicinal plants for their antimicrobial properties. J. Ethnopharmacol. 62: 183 193.

Ahmad, K. S., W. K. Kayani, M. Hameed, F. Ahmad and T. Nawaz. 2012. Floristic diversity and ethnobotany of Senhsa, District Kotli, Azad Jammu and Kashmir (Pakistan). Pak. J. Bot., 44: 195-201.

Ahmad, K., M. Ahmad and C. Weckerle. 2013. Ethnobotanical studies of the Eastern plains of Takht-e-Sulaiman Hills. Pak. J. Bot., 45(S1): 197- 205.

Ahmad, K., M. Ashraf, Z. I. Khan and E. E.Valeem. 2008. Evaluation of macro-mineral concentrations of forages in relation to ruminants requirements:a case study in Soone Valley, Punjab, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 40(1): 295-299.

Ahmad, M., S. Sultana, S. F. Hadi, T. B. Hadda, S. Rashid, M. Zafar, M. A. Khan, M. P. Z. Khan and G. Yaseen.2014. An Ethnobotanical study of Medicinal Plants in high mountainous region of Chail Valley (District Swat- Pakistan). J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 10:36.

276

Ahmad, N., A. Mahmood, A. Mahmood, S. S. Tahira, A. Bano, R. N. Malik, S. Hassan and M. Ishtiaq. 2014a. Relative importance of indigenous medicinal plants from Layyah District, Punjab Province, Pakistan. J. Ethnopharmacol. http//dx.doi.org./10.1016/j.jep.2014.05.052.

Ahmad, N., A. Mahmood, S.S. Tahira, A. Bano, R. N. Malik, S. Hassan and A. Ashraf. 2014b. Ethanomedicinal knowledge and relative importance of indigenous medicinal plants of Cholistan desert, Punjab Province, Pakistan. J. Ethnopharmacol. 155, 1263-1275.

Ahmad, S. S and H. Ehsan. 2012. Analyzing the herbaceous flora of Lohi Bher Wildlife Park under variable environmental stress. Pak. J. Bot., 44 (1): 11-14.

Ahmad, S. S., Husain, S. Z., 2008. Ethnomedicinal survey of plants from salt range of Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 40(3): 1005-1011.

Ahmed, Ejaz., M. Arshad, A. Saboor, R. Qureshi, G. Mustafa, S. Sadiq and S.K. Chaudhari.2013. Ethnobotanical appraisal and medicinal use of plants in Patriata, New Muree, evidence from Pakistan. J. Ethnobiol.

Ethnomed. 9:3. doi: 10.1186/1746-4269-9-13.

Ahmed, M. 1976. Multivariate analysis of the vegetation around Skardu. Agri. Pak., 26:177-187.

Ahmed, M. 1986. Vegetation of some foothills of Himalayan range of Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 18(2):261-269.

Ahmed, M. 1988a. Plant communities of some northern temperate forests of Pakistan. Pak. J. Forest, 38:33-40.

Ahmed, M. and S. A. Qadir.1976. Phytosociological studies along the way of Gilgit to Gopis ,Yasin and Shunder. Pak. J. Forest. 26:93-104.

277

Ahmed, M., K. Nazim, M. Siddiqui, M. Wahab, N. Khan, M. U. Khan and S. S. Hussain. 2010. Community description of Deodar forests from Himalayan range of Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 42(5): 3091-3102.

Ahmed, M., N. Khan, M, Wahab, S. Hamza, M. F. Siddiqui, K. Nazim and M.U. Khan. 2009. Description and structure of Olea ferruginea Royle forests of Dir Lower District of Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 41(6): 2683- 2695.

Ahmed, M., T. Hussain, A. H. Sheikh, S.S. Hussain and M.F. Siddiqui. 2006. Phytosociology and structure of Himalayan forests from different climatic zones of Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 38(2): 361-383.

Ahmed, S. S. 2012. Species response to environmental variables in Ayubia National Park, Pakistan using multivariate analysis. Pak. J. Bot., 44(4): 1225-1228.

Ajaib, M., Z. U. D. Khan, N. Khan and M. Wahab. 2010. Ethnobotanical studies on useful shrubs of District Kotli, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 42(3): 1407-1415.

Ajasa, M. A., O. M. Bello, O. M. Ibrahim, A. I. Ogunwande and O. N. Olawore. 2004. Heavy trace metals and macronutrients status in herbal plats of Nigeria. Food Chem. 85(1): 67-71.

Akinmoladun, A. C., E. O. Ibukun, E. Afor, E. M. Obuotor and E. O. Farombi. 2007. Phytochemical constituent and antioxidant activity of extract from the leaves of Ocimum gratissimum. Sci. Res. Essays. 2(5): 163-166.

Alam, J. and S. I. Ali. 2009. Conservation status of Astragalus gilgitensis (Fabacease): A critically endangered species in the Gilgit District, Pakistan. Phyton (Horn, Austria). 48(2): 211-223.

Ali, H. 2003.Trade of medicinal plants in Mingora city. M.Sc. Thesis Department of Botany, Government Post Graduate College, Bannu.

278

Ali, H. and M. Qaiser. 2009. The Enthnobotany of Chitral Valley, Pakistan with particular reference to medicinal plants. Pak. J. Bot., 41(4): 2009- 2041.

Ali, H. and M. Qaiser. 2010. Contribution to the red list of Pakistan: a case study of Astragalus gahiratensis (Fabaceae-Papilionoideae). Pak. J. Bot., 42(3): 1523-1528.

Ali, H., H. Ahmad and M. Yousaf. 2003. Trade of local medicinal herbs in Mingora city. In: Proceeding of workshop on conservation and sustainable uses of medicinal and aromatic plants of Pakistan. p.81-89.

Ali, S.I. 2000. Impact of environmental degradation on biodiversity. In: Proceedings Pakistan Academy of Science, 37(1): 93-97.

Allegra, M., L. Tesoriere, M. A. Livrea. 2007. Betanin inhibits the myeloperoxidase/nitrite-induced oxidation of human low density lipoproteins. Free Rad Res., 41:335–341.

Aluko, B. T., O. I. Oloyede and A. J. Afolayan. 2012 .Phytochemical and nutrient compositions of the leaves of Ocimum canum Sims. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 11(63): 12697-12701.

Amanullah, A. Khan and H. Khan. 2005. Forage potential of Vetch varieties at Peshawar. Sarhad. J. Agric., 21(3): 324-325.

American Cancer Society. Phytochemicals. Available at http://www.cancer.org/eprise/main/docroot/ETO/c ontent/ETO_5_3X_Phytochemicals, June 2000.

Amin, A. and R. M. Ashfaque. 1982. Phytosociological studies of Ayub National Park, Rawalpindi. Pak. J. For., 32:130-135.

Amjad, M. S. 2012a. Life form and leaf size spectra of vegetation in Kotli Hills, Azad Jammu and Kashmir (Pakistan). Greener J. Agric. Sci., 2(7): 345-350.

279

Amjad, M. S. 2015. Ethanobotanical profile and floristic diversity of Bana Valley, Kotli (Azad Jammu and Kashmir), Pakistan. Asian Pac. J. Trop Biomed. 5(4): 292-299.

Amjad, M. S., M. Arshad and M. Z. Malik. 2013. An overview of human-plant interaction in Nikyal rangeland District Kotli Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Afri. J. Plant Sci. 7(12): 571-576.

Amjad, M. S., M. Arshad, S. Fatima and N. Mumtaz. 2014. Palatability and Animal Preferences of Plants in Tehsil Nikyal, District Kotli, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. Ann. Res. Rev. Bio. 4 (6): 953-961.

Antia, B. S, E. J. Akpan, P. A. Okon and I. U. Umoren. 2006. Nutritive and Anti-Nutritive Evaluation of sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas) leaves, Pak. J. Nutr. 5(2):166-168.

AOAC. 1990. Official methods of analysis. 15th edition. Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Washington DC, USA.

Arceusz, A., I. Radecka and M. Wesolowski. 2010. Identification of diversity in elements content in medicinal plants belonging to different plant families. Food Chem. 120: 52-58.

Arts, I. C. and P. C. Hollman. 2005. Polyphenols and disease risk in epidemiologic studies. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 81:317-325.

Asase, A., A. A . Oteng-Yeboah, T. G . Odamten and M. S. J. Simmonds. 2005. Ethnobotanical study of some Ghanaian anti-malarial plants. J. Ethnopharmacol. 99, 273–279.

Ashraf, M., M. Q. Hayat, S. Jabeen, N. Shaheen, M. A. Khan and G. Yasmin. 2010. Artemisia L. Species Recognized by the Local Community of Northern Areas of Pakistan as Folk Therapeutic Plants. J. Med. Plants Res. 4: 112-119.

280

Atta, M.S., A. Moinuddin, A. Alia, T. Lubna and U.J. Syed. 2012. The ecology and dynamics of Juniperus excelsa forest in Balochistan- Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 44(5): 1617- 1625.

Awan, M. R., M. Shah, S. Ahmad and M.Idris.2002. Impact of soil characteristics on the vegetation of Swat District. Pakistan. J. Agric. Res.17 (1): 76-80.

Awofolu, O. 2005. A survey of trace metals in vegetation, soil and lower animal along some selected major roads in metropolitan city of Lagos. Environ. Monit. Assess. 105, 431–447.

Ayeni, K. E. and S.A. Yahaya. 2010. Phytochemical screening of three medicinal plants Neem leaf (Azadirachta indica), Hibiscus leaf (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis) and Spear grass leaf (Imperata cylindrica). Cont. J. Pharm. Sci. 4: 47–50.

Badshah, L., F. Hussain and Z. Sher. 2013. Floristic inventory, ecological characteristics and biological spectrum of Rangeland, District Tank, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 45(4): 1159-1168.

Bahru, T., Z. Asfaw and S. Demissew. 2014. Ethnobotanical study of forage/fodder plant species in and around the semi-arid Awash National Park, Ethopia. J. For. Res. 25(2): 445-454.

Bakker, E. S., M. E. Ritchie , H. Olff, D. G. Milchunas and J. M. H. Knops. 2006. Herbivore impact on grassland plant diversity depends on habitat productivity and herbivore size. Ecol. Lett. 9: 780–788.

Balick, M. J. and P. A. Cox. 1996. Plants, culture, and people. The Science of Ethnobotany. Scientific American Library, a Division of HPHLP, New York.

Barminas, J. T., M. Charles and D. Emmanuel. 1999 . Mineral composition of non-conventional leafy vegetables. Plant Food and Hum. Nutr., 53: 29 - 36.

281

Bartoszul, H., W. Dembek, T. Jezierski , J. Kaminski, J. Kupis, A. Liro, P. Nawrocki, T. Sidor and Z. Wasilewski. 2001. Spasanie wet meadows in the Valleys of the river Narew and Biebrza as a method to protect their values. Library News IMUZ. 98.146

Basgel, S and S. B. Erdemoglu. 2006. Determination of mineral and trace elements in some medicinal herbs and their infusions consumed in Turkey. Sci. Total Env. 359: 82-89. Bassi, D. and B. Marangoni.1984. Contributo allo studio varietale Del Castagno da frutto (Castanea sativa Mill): Caratteri biometrici e analisi chimico-fisiche dei frutti. Rivista di Frutticoltura. 6, 43-46.

Beck, J. L. and J. M. Peek. 2005. Diet composition, forage selection, and potential for forage competition among elk, deer, and livestock on aspen-sagebrush summer range. Rangeland Ecol. Manage. 58: 135– 147.

Beg, A. R. 1975.Wildlife habitats of Pakistan. Bull. No.5. Pak. Forst. Inst.

Beg, A.R. and M. H. Khan. 1984. Some more plant community and the future of dry Oak forest zone Swat Valley. Pak. J. Forest, 34:25-35.

Bengtsson, H., I. Oborn, S. Jonsson, I. Nilsson and A. Andersson. 2003. Field balances of some mineral nutrients and trace elements in organic and conventional dairy farming-a case study at Ojebyn, Sweden. Eur. J. Agron. 20. 101–116.

Bhattarai, S., R. P. Chaudhary and R. S.Taylor. 2006. Ethnomedicinal plants used by the people of Manang District, central Nepal. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 2, 41.

Bibi, T., M. Ahmad, R. B. Tareen, N. M. Tareen, R. Jabeen, Saeed-Ur- Rehman, S. Sultana, M. Zafar, G. Yaseen. 2014. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants in District Mastung of Balochistan province Pakistan. J. Ethnopharmacol. 157: 79–89.

282

Bibi, T., M. Ahmed, N. M. Tareen, R. Jabeen, S. Sultana, M. Zafar, S. Z. Abidin. 2015. The endemic medicinal plants of Northern Balochistan, Pakistan and their uses in traditional medicine. J. Ethnopharmacol. 173, 1–10.

Black, C.A. 1965. Methods of Soil Analysis. Part-ii. Soc. Agron. Inc. Publ. Madison, Wiconsin. USA.

Bocuk, H., C. Ture, and O. Ketenoglu. 2009. Plant diversity and conservation of the northeast Phrygia region under the impact of land degradation and desertification (Central Anatolia, Turkey). Pak. J. Bot., 41(5): 2305- 2321.

Boeing, H., A. Bechthold, A. Bub, S. Ellinger and D. Haller. 2012. Critical review: vegetables and fruit in the prevention of chronic diseases. Eur. J. Nutr. 51: 637-663.

Bradford, M. M. 1976. A rapid and sensitive for the quantitation of microgram quantitites of protein utilizing the principle of protein-dye binding. Anal. Biochem. 72: 248-254.

Bray, S. and S. J. Betteger. 1990. Nutritional assessment of diets served in two girls hostel of Udaipur city. Indian J. Nutr. Diet. 29: 338-341.

Bremner, J. M. and C. S. Mulvaney. 1982. Nitrogen-total. In A. L. Page., R. H. Miller., and D.R. Keenay. Methods of soil analysis. Part 22nd ed. Agron, 9:595-621.

Broadley, M. R., H.C. Bowen and H. L. Cotterill.2004. Phylogenetic variation in the shoot mineral concentration of angiosperms. J. Exp. Bot. 55: 321–336.

Cai, Y., M. Sun and H. Corke. 2003. Antioxidant activity of betalains from plants of the Amaranthaceae. J. Agric Food Chem. 51:2288–2294.

283

Cain, S. A. and G. M. D. Castro. 1959. Manual of Vegetation Analysis, pp: 225–285. Harpers and Brothers publishers, New York, USA.

Castejon, G. M. and R. A. Casado. 2011. Dietary phytochemicals and their potential effects on obesity: a review. Pharmacol. Res. 64(5):438-455.

Caster, P., L. J. Gray, J. Troughton, K. Khunti and M. J. Davies. 2010. Fruit and vegetable intake and incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analysis. Br. Med. J. 341: 4229.

Chah, K. F., Eze, C. A., Emuelosi, C. E. and Esimone, C. O., 2006. Antibacterial and wound healing properties of methanolic extracts of some Nigerian medicinal plants. J. Ethnopharmacol.104: 164 -167.

Chambers, J. C., B. A. Roundy, R. R. Blank, S. E. Meyer and A. Whittaker. 2007. What makes Great Basin sagebrush ecosystems invasible by Bromus tectorum? Ecol. Monogr. 77: 117–145.

Champion, H., S. K. Seth and G. M. Khattak.1965. Forest types of Pakistan. Pak. For. Inst. Pesh.

Chan, K. 2003. Some aspects of toxic contamination in herbal medicines, Chemosphere. 52: 1361-1371.

Choudhary, K., M. Singh and U. Pillai. 2008. Ethanobotanical survey of Rajastan- an update. Am Eurasian. J. Bot., 1(2): 38-45.

Christensen, K. Y., A. Naidu, M. E. Parent, J. Pintos, M. Abrahamowicz, J. Siemiatycki and A. Koushik. 2012. The risk of lung cancer related to dietary intake of flavonoids. Nutr. Cancer. 64: 964–974.

Christianson, D. A. and S. Creel. 2007. A review of environmental factors affecting elk winter diets. J. Wildl. Manage. 71: 164–176.

Cipriotti, P. A. and M. R. Aguiar. 2012. Direct and indirect effects of grazing constrain shrub encroachment in semi-arid Patagonian steppes. App. Veg. Sci. 15: 35–47.

284

Cook, J. G. 2002. Nutrition and food. In: Toweill D. E. and Thomas J. W., editors. North American elk: Ecology and management. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 259–349.

Cote, S. D., T. P. Rooney, J. P. Tremblay, C. Dussault and D. M. Waller. 2004. Ecological impacts of Deer overabundance. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 35: 113–147.

Cowan, M. M. 1999. Plant products as antimicrobial agents. Clin. Microbial. Rev., 12: 564 582.

Cox, P. A. 2000. Will tribal knowledge survive the millennium? Science. 287: 44-45.

Criagg, G. M. and J.N. David. 2001. Natural product drug discovery in the next millennium. J. Pharm. Biol., 39: 8–17.

Crozier, A., I. B. Jaganath and M. N. Clifford. 2009. Dietary phenolics: Chemistry, bioavailability and effects on health. Nat Prod Rep., 26:1001–1043.

Danlami, U., B. M. David and S. A. Thomas. 2012. The phytochemicals, proximate and elemental analyses of Securinega virosa leaf extracts. Res. J. Engineer. Appl. Sci. 1(6): 351-354.

Daubenmire, R. F. 1959. Canopy coverage method of vegetation analysis. Northwest Sci. 33:43-64.

De Almeida, L. F. R., F. Frei, E . Mancini, L . De Martino and V. De Feo. 2010. Phytotoxic activities of Mediterranean essential oils. Molecules.15: 4309–23.

De Martino, L., E. Mancini, L. F. R. de Almeida, V. De Feo. 2010. The antigerminative activity of twenty-seven monoterpenes. Molecules.15: 6630–7.

285

De Oliveira, C. A. C., A. C. Perez, G. Merino, J.G. Prieto, Al. Alvarez.2001. Protective effects of Panax ginseng on muscle injury and inflammation after eccentric exercise. Comp Biochem Physiol., 130(3):369–377.

Dejaco, C. E. and G. O. Batzli. 2013. Palatability of plants to small mammals in nonnative grasslands of east-central Illinois. J. Mammal. 94(2): 427- 435.

Delmas, F., C. Di Giorgio, R. Elias, M. Gasquet, N. Azas, V. Mshvildadze, G. Dekanosidze, E. Kemertelidze and P. Timon-David. 2000. Antileishmanial activity of three saponins isolated from ivy, alpha- hederin, beta-hederin and hederacolchiside A (1), as compared with their action on mammalian cells cultured in vitro. Planta Medica.66 (4): 343–347.

Deshmukh, S. and V. Rathod. 2013. Nutritional evaluation of some wild edible tuberous plants. Asian J. Pharm Clin Res., 6(2):58-60.

Devi, N. K., N. H. Sharma and S. Kumar. 2008. Estimation of essential and trace elements in some medicinal plants by PIXE and PIGE techniques, Nucl. Instrum. Meth. Phys. Res. B 266: 1605-1610.

Diallo, D., Hveem, B., Mahmoud, M. A., Berge, G., Paulsen, B. S, Maiga, A. 1999. An ethnobotanical survey of herbal drugs of Gourma District, Mali. Pharm. Biol. 37, 80-91.

Dike, P. I., O. O. Obembe and E. F. Adebiyi. 2012. Ethnobotanical survey for potential antimalarial plants in South-Western Nigeria. J. Ethnopharmacol. 144: 618–626.

Dillard, C. J. and J. B. German. 2000. Phytochemicals: Nutraceuticals and human Health. J. Sci. Food Agric. 80:1744-1756.

Din, A., A. M. Salariya and M. Yasin. 1996. Determination of zinc contents in vegetables. Sci. Inter. 8: 285-286.

286

Dixon, R. A., D. Y. Xie and S. B. Sharma. 2005. Proanthocyanidins-A final frontier in flavonoid research? New Phytol. 165:9–28.

Dolezal, J. & Srutek, M., 2002. Altitudinal changes in composition and structure of mountain temperate: A case study from the western Carpathians. Springer Netherlands, 158: 201–21.

Duncan, A. 2005. Farm Animals and Biodiversity. Anim. Sci. 81: 187-188.

Durrani, M. J., F. Hussain and S. Rehman. 2005. Ecological characteristics of plants of Harboi rangeland, Kalat, Pakistan. J. Trop. and Subtrop. Bot. 13 (2): 130-138.

Eberhardt, E., W.B. Dickore and G. Miehe. 2006. Vegetation of Hunza Valley: diversity, altitudinal distribution and human impact In: Karakorum In Transition: Culture, Development and Ecology in the Hunza Valley. (Ed.): H. Kreutzmann. Oxford University Press. Ebun-Oluwa, P.O. and A.S. Alade. 2007. Nutritional potential of Berlandier Nettle spurge (Jatropha cathatica) seed. Pak. J. Nutr. 6: 345-348.

Edeoga, H. O., D. E. Okwu and B.O Mbaebie. 2005. Phytochemical constituents of some Nigerian medicinal plants. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 4 (7): 685-688. Edeoga, H. O., G. Omosun and L. G. Ushe. 2006. Chemical composition of Hyptiss sauveolens and Ocimum gratissimum hybrid form Nigeria. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 5(10): 892-893.

Ejtehadi, H., T. Amini and H. Zare. 2005. Importance of vegetation studies in conservation of wildlife: a case study in Miankaleh wildlife refuge, Mazandaran Province, Iran, Archive of SID. 53-58.

El-Keblawy, A., T. Ksiksi and H. El Alqamy . 2009. Camel grazing affects species diversity and community structure in the deserts of the UAE. J. Arid Environ. 73: 347-354.

287

Emad, M. A., S. K. Amna, I. Nazlina. 2009. Antibacterial activity of oleo- gum resins of Commi phoramolmol and Boswellia papyrifera against methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Sci. Res. Essays. 4(4): 351 356.

Esra, M., M. Ali, Aisha, Almagboul, Z. I. Salwa, M. E. Khogali, M. Umelkheir and A. Gergeir. 2012. Antimicrobial activity of Cannabis sativa L. Scientific Research. 03, 61–64, http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/cm.2012.31010.

Everest, A., Ozturk, E., 2005. Focusing on the ethnobotanical uses of plants in Mersin and Adana Provinces (Turkey). J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 1, 1–6.

Fabricant, D. S., Farnsworth, N. R. 2001. The value of plants used in traditional medicine for drug discovery. Environ. Health Perspect. 109, 69-75.

Fadiyimu, A. A., A. N. Fajemisin and J. A. Alokan. 2011. Chemical composition of selected browse plants and their acceptability by West African dwarf sheep. Livest. Res. Rural Deve. 23(12).http://www.Irrd23/12/fad.htm.

Fan, S., C. Ringler, E. Nkonya and A.J. Stein. 2012. Ensuring food and nutrition security in a green economy. IFPRI Policy Brief. 21: 1-4. Washington: International Food Policy Research Institute.

Floegel, A., K. Dae-Ok, C. Sang-Jin, W. O. Song, M. L. Fernandez, R. S. Bruno, S. I. Koo and O. K. Chun. 2010. Development and validation of an algorithm to establish a total antioxidant capacity database of the US diet. Int. J. Food Sc. Nut. 61 (6): 600-623.

Fracassetti, D., C. Del Bo, P. Simonetti, C. Gardana, D. Klimis-Zacas and S. Ciappellano. 2013. Effect of time and storage temperature on anthocyanin decay and antioxidant activity in wild blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium) powder. J. Agric. Food Chem. 27:2999– 3005.

288

Ganesan, S., M. Ponnuchamy, M. Kesavan and A. Selvaraj. 2009. Floristic composition and practices on the selected sacred groves of Pallapatty village (Reserved forest), Tamil Nadu. Indian J.Tradit. know. 8 (2): 154-162.

Ghings, E. E., M. R. Haferkamp, R. K. Hkitschmidt and M. G. Karl.1996. Mineral Dynamics in Forages of the Northern Great Plains. J. Range Manage. 49:234-240.

Ghulam, R. S. and Q. Muhammad. 2012. Distribution pattern, ecology and endemism of family Crassulaceae in Pakistan and Kashmir. Pak. J. Bot. 44(6): 2055-2061.

Giday, M., Z. Asfaw and Z. Woldu. 2009. Medicinal plants of the Meinit ethnic group of Ethiopia: an ethnobotanical study. J. Ethnopharmacol. 124: 513–521.

Giday, M., Z. Asfaw, T. Elmqvist and Z. Woldu. 2003. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by the Zay people in Ethiopia. J. Ethnopharmacol. 85: 43–52.

Gorade, P. D. and M. N. Datar. 2014. Checklist of Palatable Grass Species from Peninsular India. Not. Sci. Biol. 6(4): 441-447.

Govaerts, R., 2001. How many species of seed plant are there? Taxon. 50, 1085–1090.

Graham, R. D., R. M. Welch, D.A. Saunders. 2007. Nutritious subsistence food systems. Adv. Agron. 92: 1–74.

Grunwaldt, E.G., A. R. Pedrani and A. I. Vich.1994. Goat grazing in arid piedmont of Argentina. Small Ruminant Res. 13:211-216.

Guil, J. L., M. E. Torija, J. J. Gimenez, I. Rodriguez and A. Gimenez. 1996. Calcium determination in wild edible plants. Food Chem. 44: 1821- 1823.

289

Gul, H., R. N. Qaisrani, M. A. Khan, S. Hassan and N. Younis. 2012. Antibacterial and antifungal activity of different extracts of Datura stramonium (branches and leaves sample). J. Biotechnol. Pharm. Res. 9: 141–148.

Guler, B., E. Manav and E. Ugurlu. 2015. Medicinal plants used by traditional healers in Bozuyuk (Bilecik-Turkey). J. Ethanopharmacol.173:39-47.

Gulshan, A. B. and A. A. Dasti. 2012. Studies on animal grazing preference and socio-economic impacts of animals on human population. J. Agric. & Biol.Sci. 7(3) 3: 206-214.

Haider, S., V. Naithani, J. Barthwal, P. Kakkar. 2004. Heavy metal content in therapeutically important medicinal plants, Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 72: 119-127.

Hameed, I. and F. Hussain.2015. Proximate and elemental analysis of five selected medicinal plants of family Solanaceae. Pak. J. Pharm. Sci. 28(4): 1203-1215.

Hameed, M., M. Ashraf, F. Al-Quriany, T. Nawaz, M.S.A. Ahmad, A. Younis A. and N. Naz. 2011. Medicinal flora of the Cholistan desert - A review. Pak. J. Bot. 43(SI): 39-50.

Hanif, R., Z. Iqbal, M. Iqbal, S. Hanif and M. Rasheed. 2006. Use of vegetable as nutritional role in human health. J. Agric. Biol Sci. 1: 18-22.

Harborne J. R. Introduction to ecological biochemistry. 4th ed. London: Elsevier; 1993.

Harborne, J. B. and H. Baxter. 1993. Phytochemical Dictionary: A handbook of bioactive compounds from plants, Taylor & Francis, London, UK.

Haridas, V., C. J. Arntzen and J. U. Gutterman. 2001. Avicins, a family of triterpenoid saponins from Acacia victoriae (Bentham), inhibit activation of nuclear factor-kappa B by inhibiting both its nuclear

290

localization and ability to bind DNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 98(20):11557–11562.

Hassan, H. U., W. Murad, N. Ahmad, A. Tariq, I. Khan, N. Akhtar and S. Jan. 2015. Indigenous uses of the plants of Malakand Valley, District Dir (lower), Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Pak. J. Weed Sci. Res.21(1): 83-99. Hassan, L. G. and K. J. Umar. 2006. Nutritive value of Balsam Apple (Momordica balsanina L.) leaves. Pak. J. Nutr. 5(6): 522 – 529.

Havlin, J. L. and P.N. Sultanpour. 1981. Evaluation of the AB-DTPA soil test for iron and zinc. Soil. Sci. Am. J. 45:55-70.

Hayat, M. Q, M. A. Khan, M. Ahmad, N. Shaheen, G. Yasmine and S. Akhter. 2008. Ethnotaxonomical approach in the identification of useful medicinal flora of tehsil Pindigheb (District Attock) Pakistan, Ethnobot. Res. Appl. 6: 35-62.

Hayat, M. Q., M. A. Khan, M. Ashraf and S. Jabeen. 2009. Ethnobotany of the genus Artemisia L. (Asteraceae) in Pakistan. Ethnobot. Res. Appl. 7: 147-162.

He, J., F. Du, J. Wang, Y. M. Yang, T. Ding and M. Shi. 2006. A study on the flora of semi-humid evergreen broad-leaved forest in lancangjiang nature reserve. J. W. China Forest. 35(2): 57-63.

Heady, H. F. 1964. Palatability of herbage and animal preference. J. Range Mgmt. 17:76-82.

Heinrich M. 2000. Ethnobotany and its role in drug development. Phytother. Res. 14: 479–488.

Heinrich M. 2005. Challenges and threats to interdisciplinary medicinal plant research. In Handbook of Medicinal Plants, Zahora Yaniv. Haworth: Binghampton, New York.

291

Heras, D. L. B., S. Hortelano. 2009. Molecular basis of the anti-inflammatory effects of terpenoids. Inflamm Allergy Drug Targets. 8(1): 28-39.

Hill, A. F. Economic Botany. A textbook of useful plants and plant products, 2nd edn. Mc Garw-Hill Book Company Inc, New York. 1952.

Hobbs, D. A., N. Kaffa, T. W. George, L. Methven, J. A. Lovegrove. 2012. Blood pressure-lowering effects of beetroot juice and novel beetroot- enriched bread products in normotensive male subjects. Br. J. Nutr. 108: 2066–2074.

Humboldt, A.V. 1808. Views of nature with scientific Erla explanations.

Hussain, Z. S., R.N. Malik, M. Javaid and S. Bibi. 2008. Ethnobotanical properties and uses of medicinal plants of Morgha Biodiversity Park, Rawalpindi. Pak. J. Bot. 40: 1897–1911.

Hussain, F. 1989. Filed and Laboratory Manual of Plant Ecology. p: 422. N. A. H . E., University Grants commission, Islamabad, Pakistan.

Hussain, F. and A. Shah. 1989. Phytosociology of the vanishing subtropical vegetation of Swat with special reference to Docut Hills. I: Winter Aspect. Sci. Khyber. 2: 27-36.

Hussain, F. and I. Ilahi. 1991. Ecology and Vegetation of Lesser Himalayas, Pakistan. Department of Botany, University of Peshawar. p. 187.

Hussain, F. and M. J. Durrani 2009a. Seasonal availability, palatability and animal preferences of forage plants in Harboi arid range land, Kalat, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot. 41(2): 539 – 554.

Hussain, F. and M. J. Durrani.2008. Mineral composition of some range grasses and shrubs from Harboi rangeland, Kalat.Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot. 40(6): 2513-2523.

292

Hussain, F., S. M. Shah, L. Badshah and M. J. Durrani. 2015. Diversity and ecological characteristics of flora of Mastuj Valley, District Chitral, Hindukush range, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot. 47(2): 495-510.

Hussain, I. and H. Khan. 2010. Investigation of heavy metal content in medicinal plant, Eclipta alba L. J. Chem. Soc. Pak. 32(1): 28-33.

Hussain, I., M. Ishaq, I. Rehman, I. Ahmad, and M. Shakirullah. 2006. Comparative studies of vitamin C contents in different processed and un-processed milk samples. J. Chem. Soc. Pak. 28(3):236-240.

Hussain, I., S. Rehman and R. Amin. 2010. Phytochemical composition and heavy metal contents of Xanthium stramonium and Solanum xanthocarpum.World Appl. Sci. J. 10(30): 294-297.

Hussain, J., F. U. Khan, R. Ullah, Z. Muhammad, N. Rehman, Z. K. Shinwari, I. U. Khan, M. Zohaib, I. Din and S. M. Hussain. 2011. Nutrient evaluation and elemental analysis of four selected medicinal plants of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot. 43(1): 427-434.

Hussain, J., N. U. Rehman, A. Al-Harrasi, L. Ali, A. L. Khan and M. A. Albroumi. 2013. Essential oil composition and nutrient analysis of selected medicinal plants in Sultanate of Oman. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Dis. 3(6): 421-428.

Hussain, J., N. U. Rehman, A.L. Khan, M .Hamayun, S. M. Hussain and Z. K. Shinwari. 2010. Proximate and essential nutrients evaluation of selected vegetables species from Kohat region, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot. 42: 2847-2855.

Hussain, T., M. Ishtiaq. 2009. A floristic description of flora and ethnobotany of Samahni Valley (A.K.), Pakistan. Ethanobot. leaflets. 13: 873-899.

Hussain, Z. S., R. N. Malik, M. Javaid and S. Bibi. 2008. Ethnobotanical properties and uses of medicinal plants of Morgha Biodiversity Park, Rawalpindi. Pak. J. Bot. 40(5): 1897-1911.

293

Ibrar, M. 2003. Conservation of indigenous medicinal plants and their traditional knowledge found in moist temperate Himalayas Pakistan. Ph.D. thesis, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan.

Ibrar, M., F. Hussain and A. Sultan. 2007. Ethnobotanical studies on plant resources of Ranyal Hills, District Shangla, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot. 39(2): 329-337.

Ighere,D.A.,Ajiboye,T.O.,Edagbo,D.E.,Borokini,T.I.,Alowonle,A.A.,Micheal, C.,Giwa,A.,Adeyemo,A.,2011.Ethnobotanical survey of local herbs used for the treatment of malaria fever among the Urhobo people in Delta State, Nigeria. Int. J. Curr.Res.3: 336–339.

Ilyas, M., R. Qureshi, Z. K. Shinwari, M. Arshad, S. N. Mirza and Z. U. Haq. 2013. Some ethnoecological aspects of the plants of Qalagai Hills, Kabul Valley, Swat, Pakistan. Int. J. Agric. Bio.15: 801-810.

Ilyas, M., R. U. Qureshi, M. Arshad and S. N. Mirza. 2013. A preliminary checklist of the vascular flora of Kabal Valley, Swat, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot. 45(2):605-615.

Ilyas, M., Z. K. Shinwari and R. U. Qureshi. 2012. Vegetation composition and threats to the montane temperate forest ecosystem of Qalagai Hills, swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot. 44: 113-122.

Iqbal, M. Z., S. Z. Shah and M. Shafiq. 2008. Ecological surveys of certain plant communities around urban areas of Karachi. J. Appl. Sci. Environ.12 (3) 51- 60. Ishida, H., H. Suzuno, N. Sugiyama, S. Innami, T. Todokoro and A. Maekawa. 2000. Nutritional evaluation of chemical component of leaves, stalks and stems of sweet potatoes (Ipomea batatas poir). Food Chem. 68, 359–367.

Ishtiaq, M., A. Mahmood and M. Maqbool. 2015. Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants from Sudhanoti District (AJK), Pakistan. J. Ethnopharmacol. 168, 201–207.

294

Ishtiaq, S., M. Ashraf, M. Q. Hayat and M. Asrar. 2013. Phytochemical analysis of Nigella sativa and its antibacterial activity against clinical isolates identified by ribotyping. Int. J. Agric. Biol. 15: 1511–1156.

Islam, M. and M. A. Adams. 2000. Nutrient characteristics of foliage and the availability of water in a rangeland near Quetta, Balochistan, Pakistan. Pak. J. Biol. Sci. 3: 2058- 2062.

Islam, M.R, C.K. Saha, N.R. Sharker, M. Jahilil and M. H. Zaman. 2003. Effect of variety on proportion of botanical fraction and nutritive value of different Napier grass (Pennisetum puporeum) and relationship between botanical fraction and nutritive value. Asian-Aust. J. Anim. Sci.16: 177-188.

Iyamah, P.C., M. Idu. 2015. Ethanomedicinal survey of plants used in the treatment of malaria in South Nigeria. J. Ethnopharmacol. 173: 287- 302.

Jabeen, S., M. T. Shah, S. Khan and M. Q. Hayat.2010. Determination of major and trace elements in ten important folk therapeutic plants of Haripur basin, Pakistan. J. Med. Plants Res. 4 (7): 559-566.

Jamal, Z., Ahmad, M., Zafar, M., Sultana, S., Khan, M. A., Shah, G. M., 2012. Medicinal plants used in traditional folk recipes by the local communities of Kaghan Valley, Mansehra Pakistan. Indian J. Tradit. Knowl.11 (4): 634–639. Jimoh, F. O., A. A. Adedapo and A. J. Afolayan. 2010. Comparison of the nutritional value and biological activities of the acetone, methanol and water extracts of the leaves of Solanum nigrum and Leonotis leonorus. Food Chem. Toxicol. 48(3): 964-971.

Jennings, M. D., D. Faber-Langendoen, O. L. Loucks, R. K. Peet and D. Roberts. 2009. Standards for associations and alliances of the U.S. National Vegetation Classification. Ecological Monographs. 79(2): 173-199.

295

Jiang, H., J. H. Huang and L. Z. Chen. 1994. DCA ordination, quantitative classification and environmental interpretation of plant community in Dongling Mountain. Acta Bot. Sin., 36(7): 539-551.

Joshi, A. R. and K. Joshi. 2003. Fodder plants of hilly areas of Bagmati and Langtang watershed, Nepal: Ethnobotany and future consevation strategy. Ethnobot.15:107-114.

Joshi, A. R., Joshi, K., 2006.Trend of ethnobotanical research and conservation of useful species in Nepal. Bionot. 9, 6–7.

Judson, G. J. and J. D. McFarlane. 1998. Mineral disorders in grazing livestock and the usefulness of soil and plant analysis in the assessment of these disorders. Aust. J. Exp. Agric.38:707-723.

Juknevicius, S. and N. Sabiene. 2007. The content of mineral elements in some grasses and legumes. Ekologija. 53(1): 44–52.

Kababia, D., S. Landan, A. Perevolostsky, Y. Vecht, L. Eliasof and S. Zeltzer.1992. The feeding behaviour of milking goats in woody rangeland in the Judean Mountains. Hasssadch.72:1536-1540.

Kalisz, S., R. B. Spigler and C. C. Horvitz. 2014. In a long-term experimental demography study, excluding ungulates reversed invader’s explosive population growth rate and restored natives. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 111: 4501–4506.

Katsuno T (1977). Phytosociological studies on the roadside vegetation Part 1. Bull. Coll. Agric. Vet. Med. Nihon Uty. 34: 311-343.

Kawo, A. H., B. A. Abdullahi, Z. A. Gaiya, A. Halilu, M. Dabai, and M.A. Dakare. 2009. Preliminary phytochemical screening, proximate and elemental composition of Moringa oleifera lam seed powder. Bayero J. Pure. Appl. Sci. 2(1): 96 – 100.

296

Kayani, S., Ahmad, M., M, Zafar, M., Sultana, S., Khan, M,Z., Ashraf, M, A., Hussain, J.,Yaseen, G., 2014. Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants for respiratory disorders among the inhabitants of Gallies-Abbotabad, North Pakistan. J. Ethnopharmacol. 156, 47-60.

Kelbassa,U., A. Ayale, G. Merga. 2004. Traditional medicine in Ethiopia. In: Proceedings of the National Work shop held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 30June–2 July, 2003. EHNRI, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Khan, M., F. Hussain and S. Musharaf. 2012. Biological characteristics of plant species in Tehsil Takht-e-Nasrati, Pakistan. J. Bio. and Env. Sci. 2(3):42-47.

Khan, M. and F. Hussain. 2012. Palatability and animal preferences of plants in Tehsil Takht-e-Nasrati, District Karak, Pakistan. Afr. J. Agric. Res. 7(44): 5858-5872.

Khan, M. P. Z., M. Ahmad, M. Zafar, S. Sultana, M. I. Ali, and H. Sun. 2015. Ethanomedicinal uses of Edible Wild Fruits (EWFs) in Swat vally, North Pakistan. J. Ethnopharmacol. 173,191–203.

Khan, M., F. Hussain and S. Musharaf. 2013. Biodiversity of plant species in Tehsil Takht-e-Nasrati, Pakistan. Int. J. Biodiver. Conserv. 5(1): 39-46.

Khan, M., F. Hussain and S. Musharaf. 2013. Floristic composition and biological characteristics of the vegetation of Sheikh Maltoon town District Mardan, Pakistan. Annu. Rev. Res. Biol. 3(1): 31-41.

Khan, N., M. Ahmad, M. Wahab, K. Nazim, and M. Ajaib. 2010. Phytosociology, structure and physicochemical analysis of soil in Quercus baloot forest, District Chitral, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot. 42(4): 2429-2441.

Khan, N., M. Ahmed, A. Ahmad., S. S. Shaukat, M. Wahab, M. Ajaib, M. F. Siddiqui and M. Nasir. 2011. Important medicinal plants of Chitral Gol National park (CGNP) Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot. 43(2): 797-809.

297

Khan, N., M. Ahmed, S. S. Shaukat, M. Wahab, M. F. Siddiqui. 2010. Structure, diversity, and regeneration potential of Monotheca buxifolia (Falc.) A. DC. dominated forests of Lower Dir District, Pakistan. Front. Agric. China. DOI 10.1007/s11703-010-1062-2

Khan, S. M., S. Page, H, Ahmad, H. Shaheen, Z. Ullah, M. Ahmad and D. M .Harper. 2013. Medicinal flora and ethanoecological knowledge in the Naran Valley ,Western Himalaya, Pakistan. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 9:4.

Khan, W., H. Ahmad, F. Haq, M. Islam and F. Bibi. 2012. Present status of moist temperate vegetation of Thandiani forests District Abbottabad Pakistan. Int. J. Biosci..10 (2):80-88.

Khan, Z. I. 2003. Effect of seasonal variation on the availability of macro-and micro, nutrients to animals (sheep and goats) through forage from soil. Ph.D. Thesis University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, 286 pp.

Khan, Z. I., A. Hussain, M. Ashraf and L. R. McDowell. 2006. Mineral Status of Soil and Forages in South Western Punjab, Pakistan. Asian- Australlian J. Anim. Sci. 19(8): 1139–47.

Khan, Z. I., A. Hussain, M. Ashraf, M.Y. Ashraf, E. E. Valeem and M.S. Ahmad. 2004. Soil and forage (Trace elements) status of a grazing pasture in the semiarid region of Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot. 36: 851-856.

Khan, Z. I., M. Ashraf and E. E. Valeem. 2006. Forage mineral status evaluation: The influence of pastures. Pak. J. Bot.38: 1043-1054.

Khan, Z. I., M. Ashraf, K. Ahmad, N. Ahmad, M. Danish and E. E. Valeem. 2009. Evaluation of mineral composition of forages for grazing ruminants in Pakistan, Pak. J. Bot. 41(5): 2465-2476.

Kharkwal, G., P. Mehrotra, Y.S. Rawat and Y.P.S. Pangtey. 2005. Phytodiversity and growth form in relation to altitudinal gradient in the

298

Central Himalayan (Kumaun) region of India. Curr. Sci. 89(5): 873- 878.

Kilic, M., O. S Arslan. 2010. Turkey’s forests and biodiversity. Workshop on international symposium on biology of rare and endemic plant species. (Biorare symposium) may 26-29 2010. Fethiye-Mugla, Turkey.

Koe, H and H. Sari. 2009. Trace metal contents of some medicinal, aromatic plants and soil samples in the Mediterranean region, Turkey. J. Appl. Chem. Res. 8: 52-57.

Koehler, F. E., C. D. Moudre and B.L. McNeal.1984. Laboratory manual for soil fertility. Washington State University Pluman, USA.

Kratochwil, A. 1999. Biodiversity in ecosystems: Some principles. In: Biodiversity in ecosystems. (Ed.): A. Kratochil. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 5-38.

Kumari, M., S. Gupta, A. J. Lakshmi and J. Prakash. 2004. Iron bioavailability in green leafy vegetables cooked in different utensils. Food Chem. 86: 217-222.

Kumbi, E.T. 2007. Use and conservation of traditional medicine plants by indigenous people in Gimbi Woreda, Western Wellega, Ethiopia (master thesis). Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia.

Lama,Y. C., S. K. Ghimire and Y. Aumeeruddy-Thomas. 2001. Medicinal plants of Dolo: Amchi’s knowledge and conservation.WWF Nepal Program, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Lee, C. H., M. Wettasinghe, B. W. Bolling, L. L. Ji, K.L. Parkin. 2005. Betalains, phase II enzyme-inducing components from red beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) extracts. Nutr. Cancer.53:91–103.

299

Lehndal, L., J. Agren. 2015. Herbivory differentially affects plant fitness in three populations of the Perennial Herb Lythrum salicaria along a Latitudinal Gradient. PLoS ONE 10(9): doi:10.1371/Journal. Leung, W.C., M. F. Wong, P. H. F Lo and C. K. Leung.1999. Removal and recovery of heavy metals by bacteria isolated from activated sludge treating industrial effluents and municipal wastewater. Water Sci. Technol. 12, 233–240.

Li, C., J. Feng, W.Y. Huang and X.T. An. 2013. Composition of Polyphenols and antioxidant activity of rabbiteye blueberry (Vaccinium ashei) in Nanjing. J. Agric. Food Chem. 23:523–531.

Liang, J., Q. Q. Wang and B.L. Huang. 2004. Concentration of hazardous heavy metals in environmental samples collected in Xiaman, China as determined by vapor generation non-dispersive atomic fluorescence spectrometry. Anal. Sci. 20: 85.

Liu, J., L. Wang, D. Wang, S. P. Bonser, F. Sun, Y. Zhou, Y. Gao and X. Teng. 2012. Plants Can Benefit from Herbivory: Stimulatory Effects of Sheep Saliva on Growth of Leymus chinensis. PLOS ONE. 7(1): 1-8.

Lloyd, K. M., M. L. Pollock, N.W.H. Mason and G.L.William.2010.Leaf trait–palatability relationships differ between ungulate species: evidence from cafeteria experiments using naïve tussock grasses. New Zealand. J. Ecol. 34(2): 219-226.

Lozak, A., K. Soltyk, P. Ostapczuk and Z. Fijalek. 2002. Determination of selected trace elements in herbs and their infusions. Sci. Total Environ., 289: 33-34.

Magurran, A. E. 2006. Measuring biological diversity. Oxford: Blackwell.

Mahmood, A., A. Mahmood and A. Tabassum. 2011. Ethanomedicinal survey of plants from District Sialkot, Pakistan. J. Appl. Pharm. 2(3): 212- 220.

300

Mahmood, A., A. Mahmood and M. Mahmood. 2012. Indigenous wild medicinal plants used by local people of Dudial area, District Mirpur, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. J. Med. Plants Res. 6(13): 2686- 2690.

Mahmood, A., A. Mahmood and R.N. Malik. 2012. Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants from Leepa Valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. J. Ethnopharmacol. 143(1): 338–346.

Mahmood, A., A. Mahmood, G. Mujtaba, M. S. Mumtaz, W. K. Kayani and M. A. Khan. 2012. Indigenous medicinal knowledge of common plants from District Kotli Azad Jammu and Kashmir Pakistan. J. Med.Plants Res. 6(35): 4961-4967.

Mahmood, A., A. Mahmood, H. Shaheen, R. A. Qureshi, Y. Sangi, and S. A. Gilani. 2011a. Ethno medicinal survey of plants from District Bhimber Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. J. Med. Plants Res. 5(11): 2348- 2360.

Mahmood, A., A. Mahmood, I. Naveed, M. M. Memon, H. Bux, M. Y. Majeed, G. Mujtaba and M. S. Mumtaz. 2011b. Indigenous medicinal knowledge of common plants used by local people of Hattian Bala District, Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK), Pakistan. J. Med. Plants Res. 5(23): 5517-5521.

Mahmood, A., A. Mahmood, R. N. Malik, Z.K. Shinwari. 2013b. Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants from Gujranwala District, Pakistan. J. Ethnopharmacol. 148, 714–723.

Mahmood, A., R. A. Qureshi, A. Mahmood, Y. Sangi, H. Shaheen, I. Ahmad and Z. Nawaz.2011d. Ethnobotanical survey of common medicinal plants used by people of District Mirpur, AJK, Pakistan. J. Med.Plants Res. 5(18): 4493-4498.

301

Mahmood, A., R. N. Malik, Z. K. Shinwari and A. Mahmood. 2011c. Ethnobotanical survey of plants from Neelum, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot. 43: 105-110.

Maiga, A., D. Diallo, R. Bye and B. S. Paulsen. 2005 . Determination of some toxic and essential metal ions in medicinal and edible plants from Mali. J. Agric. Food Chem. 53: 2316–2321.

Malik, A. Z., A. Hussain, K. Iqbal and A. B. Bhatt. 2014. Species richness and diversity along the disturbance gradient in Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary and its adjoining areas in Garhwal Himalaya, India. Int. J. Curr. Res. 6(12): 10918-10926.

Malik, F., Hussain, S., Dil, A. S., Hannan, A., Gilani, A. H., 2005. Islamic republic of Pakistan. In: Ong, C.K., Bodeker, G., Grundy, C., Burford, G., Shein, K. (Eds.), WHO Global Atlas of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicine (Map Volume). World Health Organization, Geneva, pp. 165–169 (Chapter 22).

Malik, N. Z., F. Hussain and Z. H. Malik. 2007. Life form and leaf size spectra of plant communities harbouring at Ganga Choti and Bedori Hills. Int. J. Agric. Bio. 15(6): 833-838.

Malik, N. Z., M. Arshad and S. N. Mirza. 2007. Phytosociological attributes of different plant communities of Pir Chinasi Hills of Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Int. J. Agric. Biol. 9(4):569-574.

Malik, Z.A. 2014. Phytosociological behavoiur, anthropogenic disturbances and regeneration status along an altitudinal gradient in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary (KWLS) and its adjoining areas. Ph. D Thesis HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar Uttarakhand.

Malla, B., D. P. Gauchan and R.B. Chhetri. 2015. An ethanobotanical study of medicinal plants used by ethnic people in Parbat District of West Nepal. J. Ethnopharmacol. 165:103-117.

302

Manore, M., L. N. Meyer and J. Thompson. 2009. Mineral and Exercise. In: Sport Nutrition for Health and Performance. Thames and Hudson, New York, USA, p. 608.

Mansoor, A., Ibrahim, M. A. Zaidi and M. Ahmed. 2011. Antiprotozoal activities of Carum copticum. Bangl. J. Pharmacol. 6: 51–54.

Marqueus, M. C. M., J. J. Roper and A. P. B. Salvalaggio. 2004. Phenological patterns among plants life form in a subtropical forest in Southern Brazil. J. Plant. Ecol.173(2):203-213.

Mashwani, Z. R., M. A. Khan, M. Ahmad, M. Zafar, N. I. Raja, M. Arshad and S. Ullah. 2012. Macro-mineral quantification of the forage grass species in the Gandgar Hills, Western Himalaya, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot. 44: 117-121.

Mathai, K. “Nutrition in the Adult Years” In Krause’s Food, Nutrition, and Diet Therapy, 10th ed., ed. L.K. Mahan and S. Escott-Stump, 271, 274- 275. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co. 2000.

McClean, E. O. 1982. Soil pH and lime requirement. P. 209-223. In A. L. Page., R. H. Miller and D. R. Keeny, (ed) Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 2 2nd ed. Am. Soc. Agron. 9: 199-208.

McDonald, P., R. A. Edwards, J. F. D. Greenhalgh and C. A. Morgan. 2009. Animal Nutrition .6th edn. Pearson Education Ltd.

McDowell, L. R. 2003. Minerals in animals and human nutrition. 2nd Ed, Elsevier Science BV. Amsterdam, the Netherlands, pp. 144.

McDowell, L. R. and D. Arthington. 2005. Minerals for Grazing Ruminants in Tropical Regions. Extension Bulletin, Animal Science Department University of Florida, USA.

Megersa, M., Z. Asfaw, E. Kelbessa, A. Byene and B. Woldeab. 2013. An ethanobotanical study of medicinal plants in Wayu Tuka District, East

303

Welega Zone of Oromia regional state, Ethiopia. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 9: 68.

Mendonca Filho and Menezes. 2003. Study of the utilization of medicinal plants by the population of the Big Island. R J. Rev. Bras. Farmacogn. 13: 55–58.

Meng, D., J. T. Zhang and M. Li. 2012. Diversity of woodland communities and plant species along an altitudinal gradient in the Guancen Mountains, China. Scientific World J. ID 398765, 7 pages.

Mirzaei, F. 2012. Minerals profile of forages for grazing ruminants in Pakistan. J. Anim. Sci. 2(3): 133-141.

Moe, S., L. Rutina, H. Hytteborn and D.J. Toit. 2014. Impala as controllers of elephant-driven change within a savanna ecosystem. In: Skarpe C., du Toit J. and Moe S., editors. Elephants and savanna woodland ecosystems: a study from Chobe National Park, Botswana. Chichester, UK: Wiley Blackwell and Zoological Society of London. pp. 154–171.

Mojab, F., M. Kamalinejad, N. Ghaderi and H. R. Vanidipour. 2003. Phytochemicals screening of some species of Iranian plants. Iran. J. Pharmacol. 3: 77-82.

Morgan, W.T. 1981. Ethnobotany of the Turkana: Use of Plants by a Pastoral People and their Livestock in Kenya. J. Econ. Bot. 35: 96-130.

Motiekaityte, V. 2006. Conservation diversity of vascular plants and their communities in situ, applying the conception of ecosystem pool Ekologija. 2:1-7.

Mtengeti, E. J. and A. Mhelela. 2006. Screening of potential indigenous browse species in semi-arid central Tanzania. A case of Gairo division. Livestock Research for Rural Development 18 (8). http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd18/8/mten18108.htm.

304

Muhammad, S., B. M. Khan, G. Bakhtiar and H. Zahid. 2012. Effect of weed density on leaf area index and biological yield of maize. Pak. J. Bot. 44(6): 1939-1942.

Muhammad, S., B.M. Khan, G. Bakhtiar and H. Zahid. 2012. Effect of weed density on leaf area index and biological yield of maize. Pak. J. Bot. 44(6): 1939-1942.

Murray, S., Margaret, S., Schoeninger, J., Henry, Travis, T. B., Pickering, R., Judith, A., Marlett, A., 2001. Nutritional composition of some wild plant foods and honey used by Hadza foragers of Tanzania. J. Food Compos.Anal.14(1):3–13.

Mysterud, A. 2000. Diet overlap among ruminants in Fennoscandia. Oecologia 124: 130–137.

Namgail, T., G. S. Rawat, C. Mishra, S. E. V. Vieren and H.H.T. Prins. 2012. Biomass and diversity of dry alpine plant communities along altitudinal gradients in the Himalayas. J. Plant Res. 125: 93-101.

Nasrullah, M. Nisar, Suliman and Z. Ali. 2012. Ethnobotanical wealth of Jandool Valley, Dir lower, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (kpk), Pakistan. Int. J. Phytomed. 4: 351-354.

Nazir, A., R. N. Malik and H. Shaheen. 2014. Floristic composition, life form and leaf spectra of plant communities recorded at Sarsawa Hills District Kotli, Azad Kashmir. Afri.J. Soil Sci. 2 (4): 077-078.

Nazir, A., R. N. Malik and M. Ajaib. 2012. Phytosociological studies of the vegetation of Sarsawa Hills, District Kotli, Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Biologia (Pakistan). 58(1&2):123-133.

Nelson, D. W. and L. E. Sommer. 1982. Total carbon, organic carbon and organic matter. Pp. 539- 577. In A.L. Page., R.H. Miller and D.R. Keeny, (ed) Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 2 2nd ed. Am. Soc. Agron. Madison. WI. Organization, New Delhi, India.

305

Nesamvuni, C., N. Steyn and M. Potgieter. 2001. Nutrient analysis of selected western African foods. South African J. Sc. 97: 51-54.

Neves, J. M., C. Matos, C. Moutinho, G. Queiroz and L. R. Gomes. 2009. Ethnopharmacological notes about ancient uses of medicinal plants in Tras-os-Montes (northern of Portugal). J. Ethnopharmacol. 124: 270– 283.

Nguta, J. M., J. M. Mbaria, D.W. Gakuya, P. K. Gathumbic and S. G. Kiamad. 2010. Traditional antimalarial phytotherapy remedies used by the South Coast community, Kenya. J. Ethnopharmacol. 131: 256– 267.

Nielson, P. A. 2010. Variable Palatability of Quaking Aspen for Large Ungulate Herbivores. M.Sc thesis. Department of Plant and Wildlife Sciences, Brigham Young University. Nisar, M., S. A. Tariq and I. Ullah. 2009. Nutritional levels of Indigofera gerdiana wall and Crataegus songrica K. Koch. Pak. J. Bot. 41(3): 1359-1361.

Noss, R.F. 1990. Indicators for monitoring biodiversity: a hierarchical approach. Conserv. Bio. 4(4): 355-364.

Nyamangara, M. E. and L. R. Ndlovu.1995. Feeding behaviour, feed intake, chemicals and botanical composition of the diet of indigenous goats raised on natural vegetation in a semiarid region of Zimbabwe. J. Agri. Sci.124:455-461. Obiajunwa, E. I., A. C. Adebajo and O.R. Omobuwajo.2002. Essential and trace element contents of some Nigerian medicinal plants. J.Radioanal. Nucl.Chem. 252 (3): 473-476.

Oda, K., H. Matsuda, T. Murakami, S. Katayama, T. Ohgitani and M. Yoshikawa. 2000. Adjuvant and haemolytic activities of 47 saponins derived from medicinal and food plants. Biol Chem. 381(1): 67–74.

306

Odadi, W.O., M. K. Karachi , S. A. Abdulrazak and T. P. Young. 2013. Protein supplementation reduces non-grass foraging by a primary grazer. Ecol. Appl. 23: 455–463.

Odonne, G., C. Valadeau, J. A. Castillo, D. Stien, M. Sauvain and G. Bourdy.2013. Medical ethnobotany of the Chayahuita of the Paranapura basin (Peruvian Amazon). J. Ethnopharmacol. 146: 127– 153.

Odum, E.P. 1959. Fundamentals of Ecology 2nd ed. Sounders, Philadelphia, USA.

Ogoye, N. C. and J. A. Hansen. 2003. Traditional gathering of wild vegetables among the Luo of western Kenya A- Nutritional anthropology project. Ecol. Food and Nutri. 9: 126-128. Okaka, J.C. and A. N. O. Okaka. 2001. Food Composition, Spoilage and Shelf Life Extension. Ocjarco Academic Publishers, Enugu, Nigeria: 54-56.

Okoli, I. C., M. O. Anunobi, B. E. Obua and V. Enemuo. 2003. Studies on selected browses of southeastern Nigeria with particular reference to their proximate and some endogenous anti nutritional constituents. Livestock Research for Rural Development.15 (9). http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd15/9/okol159.htm. Okwu, D. E. 2003. Efficacy of B. pinnatum. Nigeria Agric. J. 34: 143- 148.

Okwu, D. E. and M. E. Okwu. 2004. Chemical Composition of Spondiasmombin linn plant parts. J. Sustain. Agric. Environ. 6(2): 140- 147.

Olarsch, G. 2003. Trace minerals and health reviving a lost legacy. A Vioce for Eco-Agriculture, ACRES USA. 33(2):1-6.

Olorunnisola, O. S., A. Adetutu, E. A. Balogun and A.J. Afolayan. 2013. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used in the treatment of

307

malaria in Ogbomoso, South-west, Nigeria. J. Ethnopharmacol. 150:71–78.

Oluwatosin, K. Y., and J. T. Ekanem. 2010. Studies of phytochemical constituents and anti-trypanosomal properties of fermented wheat germ and garlic bulbs extract on Trypanosoma brucei infected rats. J. Med. Plants Res. 4(19): 2016-2020.

Paduch, R., M. K. Szerszen, M. Trytek, J . Fiedurek. 2007. Terpenes: substances useful in human healthcare. Arch. Immunol.Ther.Exp. 55(5): 315-327.

Parekh, J. and S. Chanda, 2007. Antibacterial and phytochemical studies on twelve species of Indian medicinal plants. Afr. J. Biomed. 10: 175–181.

Parekh, J. and S. Chanda, 2008. Phytochemicals screening of some plants from western region of India. Plant Archeol. 8: 657–662.

Parswan, K., J. P. Mehta and Subodh. 2010. Floristic composition and biological spectrum of vegetation of alpine meadows of Kedarnath: Garhwal Himalayas. Nature and Sci. 8(7): 109-115.

Partel, M., R. Kalamees, U. Reier, E. Tuvi, E. Roosalute,A. Vellak, M.Zobel. 2005. Grouping and prioritization of vascular plant species for conservation: combining natural rarity and management need. Biol. Cons. 123:271-278.

Peet, R. K. 1975. Relative diversity indices. Ecol. 56:496-498.

Peet, R.K. 1974. The measurement of species diversity. Ann. Review Ecol. Evo Syst. 5: 285-307.

Perry, N. B., E. J. Burgessa and V. L. Glennie. 2001. Echinacea standardization: analytical methods for phenolic compounds and typical levels in medicinal species. J. Agric. Food Chem. 49 (4): 1702– 1706.

308

Perveen, A., G. R. Sarwar and I. Hussain. 2008. Plant biodiversity and phytosociological attributes of Dureji (Khirthar range). Pak. J. Bot. 40(1): 17-24.

Petr, S. 2009. Presence of cushion plants increases community diversity in the high equatorial Andes. Flora. 204(4): 270–277.

Phillips, O. and A. H. Gentry. 1993. The useful plants of Tambopata Peru: I. Statistical hypotheses tests with a new quantitative technique. Economic Bot. 47: 15–32.

Pignatti, S. 1997. Ecologia Vegetale . 2nd ed.Torino, 531p.

Pignatti, S.1998. The woods of Italy. Synecology and Biodiversity, Torino, Torino. 677p.

Polyakov, M., I. Majumdar and L. Teeter. 2008. Spatial and temporal analysis of the anthropogenic effects on local diversity of forest trees. For Eco. Manag. 255: 1379-1387.

Potts, M. D., S. J. Davies, W. H. Bossert, S.Tan and M.N. Supardi. 2004. Habitat heterogenecity and niche structure of trees in two tropical rain forests. Oecologica. 139:446-453.

Qian, Y.B., H.Y. Zhang, Z.N. Wu and Z.C. Wang. 2011. Vegetation composition and distribution on the northern slope of Karlik Mountain to Naomaohu basin, East Tianshan Mountains. J. Arid Land. 3(1): 15- 24.

Qin, X. S., R. J. Zhang and F. W. Xing. 2012. A study on the flora and vegetation of CAT DUA Island, Northeastern Vietnam. Pak. J. Bot. 44(4): 1229-1232.

Qureshi, R., A. Waheed, M. Arshad and T. Umbreen. 2009. Medico- ethnobotany of Tehsil Chakwal, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot. 41(2): 529-538.

309

Rafi, M.1965. Vegetation types of Balochistan Province. Pak. Govt. Printing Press, Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan.

Rahim, S. M. A., S. Hasnain, R. A. Shamsi and F. Jabeen. 2011. The phytosociological analysis of saline area of Tehsil Ferozewala, District Sheikhupura (Punjab).Pakistan. Afri. J. Environ. Sci. Technol.5(4): 316-326.

Ramesh, R. and M. Andu.1996. Chemical Methods for Environmental Analysis, Water and Sediment. McMillan India Ltd. Pp. 17-67. Rao, C. V. and H. L. Newmark.1998. Chemo-preventive effect of Squalene on colon cancer. Carcinogenesis. 19, 287–290.

Rauf. A., A. Khan, N. Uddin, M. Akram, M. Arfan, G. Uddin and M. Qaisar. 2014. Preliminary phytochemical screening, antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of Euphorbia milli. Pak. J. Pharm. Sci. 27(4): 947-951.

Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography, Oxford University Press.

Reisner, M. D., G. B. Grace, D. A. Pyke and P. S. Doescher. 2013. Conditions favouring Bromus tectorum dominance of endangered sagebrush steppe ecosystems. J. Appl. Ecol. 50: 1039–1049.

Richards, L. A.,ed 1954. Diagnose and Improvement of Saline and Alkaline Soils. U.S.D.A Hand Book No. 60. Washington D.C.

Rolecek, J., L. Tichy, D. Zeleny and M. Chytry. 2009. Modified TWINSPAN classification in which the hierarchy respects cluster heterogeneity. J. Veg. Sci. 20, 596-602.

Rook, A. J., B. Dumont, J. Isselstein, K. Osoro, D. E. Wallis, M. F. Vries, G. Parente and J. Mills. 2004. Matching type of livestock to desired biodiversity outcomes in pastures: a review. Biol. Cons. 119: 137-150.

310

Sadeghi, Z. and A. Mahmood .2014. Ethno-gynecological knowledge of medicinal plants used by Baluch tribes, southeast of Baluchistan, Iran. Rev. Bras. Farmacogn.24: 706-715.

Sadeghi, Z., K. Kuhestani, V. Abdollahi and A. Mahmood. 2014. Ethnopharmacological studies of indigenous medicinal plants of Saravan region, Baluchistan, Iran. J. Ethnopharmacol. 153, 111–118.

Saghir, I. A., A. A. Awan, S. Majid, M. A. Khan, S. J. Qureshi and S. Bano. 2001. Ethnobotanical studies of Chikar and its Allied Areas of District Muzaffarabad. J. Biol. Sci. 1(12): 1165-1170.

Saglam, C. 2013. A phytosociological study of the forest, shrub and steppe vegetation of Kizildag and evirons (Isparta,Turkey). Turk. J. Bot. 37: 316- 335.

Saima, S., A. A. Dasti, Q. Abbas and F. Hussain. 2009. Floristic diversity during monsoon in Ayubia National Park, District, Abbottabad, Pakistan. Pak. J. Pl. Sci. 16(1): 43-50.

Samoisy, A.K. and M. F. Mahomoodally. 2015. Ethanopharmacological analysis of medicinal plants used against non-communicable diseases in Rodrigues Island, Indian Ocean. J.. Ethnopharmacol. 173: 20-38. Sapna, D. D., G. D. Dhruv and K. Harmeet. 2009. Saponins and their biological activities. Pharma. Times. 41(3):13-16.

Saputera, M., R. Djumali, K. Sapta, B. S. Leonardus, D. Iswantini. 2006. Gas chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of Indonesian Croton tiglium seeds. J. App. Sci. 6(7): 1576-1580.

Saqib, Z., A. Mahmood, R.N. Malik, A. Mahmood, J. H. Syed and T. Ahmad. 2014. Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants in Kotli Sattian, Rawalpindi District, Pakistan. J. Ethnopharmacol. 151: 820–828.

Sargin, S. A., 2015. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants in Bozyazi District of Mersin,Turkey. J. Ethnopharmacol. 173,105-126.

311

Sargin, S.A., E. Akcicek and S.Selvi. 2013a. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by the local people of Alasehir (Manisa) in Turkey. J. Ethnopharmacol. 150, 860–874.

Sax, D.F., S.D.Gaines.2003.Species diversity: From global decreases to local increases. Trends Ecol Evol. 18: 561-566.

Saxena, H. O., A. Soni, N. Mohammad and S. K. Choubey. 2014. Phytochemical screening and elemental analysis in different plant parts of Uraria picta Desv.: A Dashmul species. J. Chem. Pharm. Res. 6(5):756-760.

Schickhoff, U. 2006. The Forest of Hunza Valley: Scarce resources under threat In: Karakorum In Transition: Culture, Development, and Ecology in the Hunza Valley. (Ed.): H. Kreutzmann. Oxford University Press: 123-144.

Schippmann, U., Leaman, D., Cunnigham, A. B., 2006. Cultivation and wild collection of medicinal and aromatic plants under sustainability aspects. In: Bogers, R.J., Craker, D., Lange, D. (Eds.), Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Springer, Dordrecht, p. 17, Wageningen U. R Frontis.

Shabbir, R., A.Jabeen.2012.Contribution to the red list of plants of Pakistan. A Review. J. Biodivers. Environ. Sci. 2(8):14-25.

Shad, A. A., H. U. Shah and J. Bakht. 2013. Ethnobotanical assessment and nutritive potential of wild food plants. J. Anim.Plant Sci. 23(1): 92-97.

Shah, A. J., M. A. Zaidi, H. Sajjad, Hamdullah and A. H. Gilani. 2011. Antidiarrheal and Antispasmodic activities of the extract of Vincetoxicum stocksii are mediated through calcium channel blockade. Bangl. J. Pharmacol. 6: 46–50.

Shah, A., K. A. Bharati, J. Ahmad and M. P. Sharma. 2015. New ethno medicinal claims from Gujjar and Bakerwals tribes of Rajouri and

312

Poonch Districts of Jammu and Kashmir,India. J. Ethnopharmacol. 166:119–128.

Shah, M., A. Zaman, A. Sayyed, Husna, S. N. M. Shah and T. Z.Bokhari.2014 .Community structure dynamics of plants of Farash Hills Katlang, District Mardan, Pakistan. South Asian J. Life Sci. 2 (1): 12 –19.

Shah, M., F. Hussain, S. N. M. Shah, I. Ahmad and H. Wasila. 2013. Life form and floristic characteristics along altitudinal gradient of humid temperate forests located in remote area of Pakistan. Global J. Biodivers. Sci.Manag. 3(2): 276-281.

Shah, S. M., F. Hussain, M. Khan. 2013. Phytosociological studies on alpine vegetation of Mastuj Valley, Hindukush range, Pakistan. Int. J. Biosci. (3): 152-157. Shah, M. T, S. Begum and S. Khan. 2009. Pedo and biogeochemical studies of mafic and ultramfic rocks in the Mingora and Kabal areas, Swat, Pakistan”. Environ. Earth Sci. DOI: 10.1007/s12665-009-0253-8.

Shaheen, H., R. Qureshi, A. Akram, M. Gulfraz and D. Potter. 2014. A Preliminary floristic checklist of Thal desert, Punjab, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot. 46(1): 13-18.

Shaheen, H., R. Qureshi, S. Iqbal and M. F. Qasem. 2014. Seasonal availability and palatability of native flora of Santh Saroola Kotli Sattian, Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Afri. J. plant sci. 8(2):92-102.

Sharma, E., and N. Chettri. 2005. ICIMOD’s transboundry biodiversity management initiative in the Hindu Kush-Himalayas. Mt. Res. Dev. 25(3): 278-281.

Sharma, K. R, M. Agrawal and M.F. Marshall. 2009. Heavy metals in vegetables collected from production and market sites of a tropical urban area of India. Food Chem. Toxicol. 47: 583-591.

313

Sharma, M. C., C. Joshi and S. Gupta. 2003. Prevalence of mineral deficiency in soils, plants and cattle of certain Districts of Uttar Pradesh. Indian J. Vet. Med. 23: 4-8.

Sharma, P., J. C. Rana, U. Devi, S. S. Randhawa, and R. Kumar. 2014. Floristic Diversity and Distribution Pattern of Plant Communities along Altitudinal Gradient in Sangla Valley, Northwest Himalaya. Sci. World J. Volume. ID 264878, 11 pages.

Sheded, G.M., I. D. Pulford and I.A. Hamed. 2006. Presence of major and trace elements in seven medicinal plants growing in the South-Eastern Desert. Egypt. J. Arid Env. 66: 210-217.

Sheikh, K., T. Ahmad and M. A. Khan. 2002. Use, exploitation and prospects for conservation: people and plant biodiversity of Naltar Valley, northwestern Karakorums, Pakistan. Biodivers. Conserv. 11: 715 742.

Sher, Z. and Z. D. Khan. 2007. Floristic composition, life form and leaf spectra of the vegetation of Chagharzai Valley, District Buner. Pak. J. Pl. Sci. 13 (1): 57-66.

Sher, Z., F. Hussain and L. Badshah. 2014. Biodiversity and ecological characterization of the flora of Gadoon Rangeland, District Swabi, Khyber Pukhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Iran. J. Bot. 20 (1): 96-108.

Sher, Z., F. Hussain and M. Ibrar. 2014. Traditional knowledge on plant resources of Ashezai and Salarzai Valleys, District Buner, Pakistan. Afr. J. Plant Sci. 8(1): 42-53.

Sher, Z., F. Hussain, L. Badshah and M. Wahab. 2011. Floristic composition, communities and ecological characteristics of weeds of wheat fields of Lahore, District Swabi, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot. 43(6): 2817-2820.

Sher, Z., Z. U. Kan and F. Hussain.2011. Ethnobotanical studies of some plants of Chagharzai Valley, District Buner, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot. 43(3): 1445-1452.

314

Sher. Z and Z. U. D. Khan.2007. Floristic composition, life form and leaf spectra of the vegetation of Chagharzai Valley, District Buner. Pak. J. Pl. Sci. 13(1): 57-66.

Shimwell, D.W. 1971. Description and Classification of Vegetation. Sidgwoick and Jackson, London.

Shinwari, Z. K. and M. Qaiser. 2011. Efforts on conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants of Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot. 43(Special Issue): 5- 10.

Shirin, K., S. Imad, S. Shafiq, K. Fatima. 2010. Determination of major and trace elements in the indigenous medicinal plant Withania somnifera and their possible correlation with therapeutic activity. J. Saudi Chem. Soc. 14: 97-100.

Siddiqui, M. F., M. Ahmed, S. S. Hussain, S. S. Shaukat and N. Khan.2011. Vegetation description and current status of moist temperate coniferous forests of Himalayan and Hindukush region of Pakistan. FUUAST J. BIOL. 1(2): 99-114.

Siddiqui, M.F., M. Ahmed, M. Wahab and N. Khan. 2009. Phytosociology and structure of Pinus roxburghii Sargent (Chir Pine) in lesser Himalayan and Hindu Kush range of Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot. 41(5): 2357-2369.

Singh, V. and B. Bohra. 2005. Livestock feed resources and feeding practices in hill farming system-a review. Indian J. Anim. Sci. 75: 121–27.

Sofowora, A., 1982. Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicinal in Africa. John Wiley and Sons, New York, p. 256.

Soltanpour, P. N. and A. P. Schwab. 1977. A new soil test for simultaneous extraction of macro and micronutrients in alkaline soils Comm. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 8: 195-207.

315

Soukand, R., A. Pieroni, M. Biro, A. Denes, Y. Dogan, A. Hajdari, R. Kalle, B. Reade, B. Mustafa, A. Nedelcheva, C. L. Quave and L. Luczaj.2015. An ethnobotanical perspective on traditional fermented plant foods and beverages in Eastern Europe. J. Ethnopharmacol. 170: 284–296. Speich, M., A. Pineau and F. Ballereau .2001. Minerals trace elements and related biological variables in athletes and during physical activity. Clin. Chim. Acta. 312, 1-11.

Srithi, K., H. Balslev, P. Wangpakapattanawong, P. Srisanga and C. Trisonthi. 2009. Medicinal plant knowledge and its erosion among the Mien (Yao) in northern Thailand. J. Ethnopharmacol. 123: 335–342.

Stamp, N. 2003. Out of the quagmire of plant defense hypothesis. Q. Rev. Biol. 78:23–55.

Stein, A. J. 2010. Global impacts of human mineral malnutrition. Plant and Soil. 335: 133-154.

Stewart, K. M., R.T. Bowyer, J. G. Kie, B. L. Dick and R.W. Ruess. 2009. Population density of North American elk: effects on plant diversity. Oecologia. 161: 303–312.

Stintzing, F. C., K. M. Herbach, M. R. Mosshamme, R. Carle, W. Yi, S. Sellappan, C. C. Akoh, R. Bunch and P. Felker. 2005. Color, betalain pattern, and antioxidant properties of Cactus pear (Opuntia spp.) clones. J. Agric Food Chem. 53:442–451.

Suttie, J. M., S. G. Reynolds and C. Batello. 2005. Grasslands of the World. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, p. 514.

Tadzabia, K., H. M. Maina, O. N. Maitera and J. S. Ezekiel. 2013. Evaluation of phytochemical and elemental contents of Haematostaphis barteri leaves and stem bark in Hong local government area of Adamawa state, Nigeria. J. Chem. Pharm. Res. 5(9):150-156.

316

Tang, Z.Y. and J.Y. Fang. 2004. A review on the elevational patterns of plant species diversity. Chinese Biodivers., 12(1): 20-28.

Tastad, A., K. Salkin, N. Battikha, A.W. Jasra and M. Louhaichi. 2010. Ecological dynamics of protected and unprotected rangelands in three climatic zones of Syria. Pak. J. Agri. Sci. 47: 89-98.

Ter Baak, C. J. F. 1987. The analysis of vegetation environmental relationship by canonical correspondence analysis. Vegetation. 69, 69-77.

Ter Braak, C. J. F. and P. Smilauer. 2002. CANOCO reference manual and user's guide to Canoco for Windows: software for canonical community ordination (version 4.5). Microcomputer Power, Ithaca, New York, USA.

Tesoriere, L., M. Fazzari, F. Angileri, C. Gentile and M. A. Livrea. 2008. In vitro digestion of betalainic foods. Stability and bioaccessibility of betaxanthins and betacyanins and antioxidative potential of food digesta. J. Agric Food Chem. 56:10487–10492.

Theron, A. J., G. R. Tintinger and R. Anderson. 2012. Harmful Interactions of Non- Essential Heavy Metals with Cells of the Innate Immune System. J .Clinic. Toxicol. S3:005. doi: 10.4172/2161-0495.S3-005.

Thirumalai, T., Elumalai, E. K., Therasa, S. V., Senthilkumar, B., David, E., 2010. Ethnobotanical survey of folklore plants for the treatment of jaundice and snakebites in Vellore Districts of Tamilnadu, India. Ethnobot. Leaflet. 14, 529–536.

Tian, Z. P., L. Zhuang, S. Lu, W. H. Li, Z. K. Wang and Y. Liu. 2013. Characteristics of vegetation and the vertical distribution patterns on the northern slope of the Usun Mountains, Xinjiang. Pak. J. Bot. 45(4): 1123-1134.

Tichy, L., 2002. JUICE, software for vegetation classification. J. Veg. Sci. 13 (3), 451-453.

317

Towhidi, A. and M. Zhandi. 2007. Chemical composition, in vitro digestibility and palatability of nine plant species for dromedary camels in the province of Semnan, Iran. Egyptian J. Biol. 9:47-52.

Traore, M. S., S. Diane, A. Camara, A. Diallo, A. Balde, A. Keita, S. M. Keita, K. Outare, F. B. Magassouba, I. Diakite, A. Diallo, L. Peters and A.M. Balde.2013.Ethnobotanical survey on plants used by Guinean traditional healers in the treatment of malaria. J. Ethnopharmacol. 150: 1145–1153.

Uddin, G., A. Rauf, M. Qaisar, A. Latif and M. Ali. 2011. Preliminary phytochemical screening and antimicrobial activity of Hedera halix L. Middle-East J. Sci. Res. 8: 198.

Uddin, G., A. Rauf, M. Arfan, M. Ali, M. Qaisar, M. Saadiq and M. Atif. 2012. Preliminary phytochemical screening and antoxidant activity of Bergenia caliata. Middle-East J. Sci. Res. 11: 1140.

Ugulu, I, 2011.Traditional ethnobotanical knowledge about medicinal plants used for external therapies in Alaşehir, Turkey. Int. J. Med. Aroma. Plants.1, 101–106.

Ullah, M., M. U. Khan, A. Mahmood, R. N. Malik, M. Hussain, S. M. Wazir, M. Daud and Z. K. Shinwari. 2013. An ethnobotanical survey of indigenous medicinal plants in Wana District South Waziristan agency, Pakistan. J. Ethnopharmacol. 150, 918–924.

Ullah, Z., M. K. Baloch, I. B. Baloch and F. Bibi. 2013. Proximate and Nutrient Analysis of Selected Medicinal Plants of Tank and South Waziristan Area of Pakistan. Middle-East J. Sci. Res. 13(10): 1345- 1350.

Van, A. O.W. 2000. Shrub invasions of North American semiarid grasslands. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 31: 197–215.

318

Vasu, K., J.V. Goud, A. Suryam and M.A. Singara. 2009. Biomolecular and phytochemical analyses of three aquatic angiosperms. Afr. J. Microbiol. 3: 418–421.

Vavra, M., C.G. Parks and M. J. Wisdom. 2007. Biodiversity, exotic plant species, and herbivory: The good, the bad, and the ungulate. For. Ecol. Manage. 246: 66–72.

Veblen, K. E and T.P.Young. 2010. Contrasting effects of cattle and wildlife on the vegetation development of a Savanna landscape mosaic. J. Ecol. 98: 993–1001.

Vuuren, D. P., V. Sala and H. M. Pereira. 2006. The future of vascular plant diversity under four global scenario. Ecol Soc. 11: 25-42.

Wahab, M., M. Ahmed and N. Khan. 2008. Phytosociology and dynamics of some pine forests of Afghanistan. Pak. J. Bot. 40(3): 1071-1079.

Wahid, A. 1990. Dietary composition and nutritional status of sheep and goats grazing in two rangeland types in Balochistan, Pakistan. Ph.D Thesis, Oregon State University.

Wallace, T. C. 2011. Anthocyanins in cardiovascular disease. Adv Nutr. 2:1–7. Wang, J. and C. Chen. 1990. Biosorption of heavy metals by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Biotechnol. Adv. 24, 427–451. Wang, G. H., G. S. Zhou and L. M. Yang. 2002. Distribution, species diversity and life-form spectra of plant communities along an altitudinal gradient in the northern slopes of Qilianshan Mountains, Gansu, China. Plant Ecol. 165: 169-181.

Warda, M. and M. Rogalski. 2004. Grazing animals as an element of natural landscape. Annales University of Maria Curie Sklodowska, Sec. E. 59(4): 1985-1991.

319

Wariss, H. M., S. A. Pirzada, K. Alam, S. Anjum and R. Qureshi. 2014. Flora of Lal Suhanra National Park, Bahawalpur, Punjab, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot. 46(4): 1331-1341.

Wariss, H. M., S. Ahmad, S. Anjum, K. Alam. 2014. Ethnobotanical Studies of Dicotyledonous Plants of Lal Suhanra National Park, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. Int. J. Sci. Res. 3(6):2452-2460.

Warman, P. R. and W. C. Termeer. 2005 a. Evaluation of sewage sludge, septic waste and sludge compost applications to corn and forage: yields and N, P and K content of crops and soils. Bioresour. Technol. 96(8): 955–961.

Wasilewski, Z. 2006. An evaluation of sward quality in grazed grasslands of various habitats. Water-Environ Rural Areas. 6(16): 413-421.

Watanabe, T., M.R. Broadley and S. Jansen. 2007. Evolutionary control of leaf element composition in plants. New Phytol. 174: 516–523.

Webb, D. 2013. Phytochemical’s Role in Good Health. Today’s Dietitian. 15 (9): 70.

White, P. J. and M.R. Broadley. 2009. Biofortification of crops with seven mineral elements often lacking in human diets – iron, zinc, copper, calcium, magnesium, selenium and iodine. New Phytol. 182: 49–84.

Whittaker, R.J., K.J. Willis and R. Field. 2001. Scale and species richness: towards a general, hierarchical theory of species diversity. J. Biogeogra., 28: 453-470.

Williamson, E.M. 2003. Major Herbs of Ayurveda. Churchill Livingstone: Edinburgh.

Wilson, E. O. 1992. The Diversity of Life. Penguin, London, UK. 432 pp.

320

Xu, Y. J., Y. N. Chen, W. H. Li, H. H. Zhou, H. L. Sun, Zhi Li and Y.P. Chen. 2011. Vegetation patterns and ecological factors in the Ili River Valley, Xinjiang, China. Nord. J. Bot. 29:87-96.

Yamauchi, A. and N. Yamamura. 2004. Herbivory promotes plant production and reproduction in nutrient‐poor conditions: Effects of plant adaptive phenology. Am. Nat. 163(1): 138-153.

Yao, L. H., Y. M. Jiang and J. Shi. 2004. “Flavonoids in food and their health benefits,” Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. 59(3): 113–122.

Yui, S., K. Ubukata, K. Hodono, M. Kitahara, Y. Mimaki, M. Kuroda, Y. Sashida and M. Yamazaki. 2001. Macrophage-oriented cytotoxic activity of novel triterpene saponins extracted from roots of Securidaca inappendiculata . Int. Immunopharmacol. 1 (11): 1989–2000.

Zaidi, M. A., Crow, S. A., 2005. Biologically active traditional medicinal herbs from Balochistan, Pakistan. J. Ethnopharmacol. 96, 331–334.

Zaidi, M. A., G. Shaheen, N. Jehan, A. Mansoor and A. Yousafzai. 2010. Elemental composition of some arid environment fodder and medicinal plants of Quetta. J. Chem. Soc. Pak. 32(1): 71-77. Zain, U., M. K. Baloch, I. B. Baloch and F. Bibi. 2013. Proximate and Nutrient Analysis of Selected Medicinal Plants of Tank and South Waziristan Area of Pakistan. Middle-East J. Sci. Res. 13 (10): 1345- 1350.

Zaman, M. A., Z. Iqbal, R.Z. Abbas and M.N. Khan. 2012. Anticoccidial activity of herbal complex in broiler chickens challenged with Eimeria tenella. Parasitol., 139: 237–243. Zello, G.A. 2006. Dietary Reference Intakes for the macronutrients and energy: considerations for physical activity. Appl. Physiol. Nutr.Metab. 31, 74-79.

321

Zereen. A and Z. U. D. Khan. 2012. A survey of ethnobotanically important trees of central Punjab, Pakistan. 2012. Biologia (Pakistan). 58(1 and 2): 21-30.

Zheng, X. and F. Xing. 2009. Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants around Mt. Yinggeling, Hainan Island, China. J. Ethnopharmacol. 124: 197– 210.

Zhou, G. S. and Y. H. Wang. 1999. Global change and climate vegetation classification research and perspective. Chinese Sci. Bulletin. 44(24): 2589-2593.

322