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In partial fulfillmentIn partial LeavingAntisemitic an Regime for a Fascist Country: The HungarianThe Numerus ClaususRefugees in Italy Supervisors: Department of

Professors MáriaProfessors Kovács and of the requirements Central European University By Ágnes Kelemen Katalin Jewish Studies ProgramJewish Budapest, Hungary Submitted to Submitted

Nationalism Studies 2014

for thedegree ofMasterArts

Victor Karády Victor

CEU eTD Collection be permission made ofthe thewritten Author. without made. copies such any of part Library. European Central the lodgedin and Author the givenby instructions the with accordancein only made maypart,be Author. the with rests thesis this of text the in Copyright Statement of Copyright

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This page must form a a form must page This CEU eTD Collection Germany. Nazi to allied were countries both though even Hungary, in Jews than Shoah the surviving of German in refugees clausus numerus war the during Furthermore, citizens. own its for did countryhome their than Jews, foreignfor even assimilation universit Italian enrollingmaturity forgraded lowerHungarian in werethe bestexams sufficient their but students investigated. is period Bologna of University the of a focus, of principal a As office. Mussolini’s with correspondence individuals and administrators, public Italian and Hungarian of diplomat, Hungarian th of that including perspectives, multiple from peregrination clausus numerus the of analysis the enabling investigated are articles journal and statistics documents, archival to addition in discussed is Hungary, ally, Italy’s of politics receptivity antisemitic the by Italy’s haunted students the fascist towards of paradox The researched. previously been not has peregrination work this of novelty The Italy. fascist clausus antisemitic Hungarian the of consequences the on research the to contributes thesis The Abstract law of 1920 by investigating the byinvestigating 1920 of law

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CEU eTD Collection Table 3: Table 2: Table 1: List Tablesof Bibliography Conclusion V. The Numerus C ItalianIV. Fascist Education Higher and Students Foreign Jewish III.FascistItalya Target as Peregrination ofJewish Country Clausus Numerus the of Age the in Italy to Peregrination Jewish Hungarian of Dynamics The II. oftheI. Numerus ClaususContext Social Historical The Introduction List ofTables Acknowledgements Table Contentsof ...... Literature Articles L Documents, Archival S Life IV. Student Italy 2.Hungarian Jewish in IV.1.InternationalizeItalian FascistEfforts to Universities III.Fascist Regime and 2.The III. Italian within Developmentof Antisemitism 1.The Fascism

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CEU eTD Collection version hyphenised the that “Semitism” suggeststhat argument the with agree I since consistently, option second the use will I word. one as 1 Italystudies. for of thepurposes anddecadea For calamity.unexpected shocking, a was 1938 in expulsion their and Jews Hungarian) (including foreign for environment hospitable a was Italy fascist 1938 until up However, fascism. and antisemitism disassociate fascism of history subsequent the of horrors the to Due another. for right one left They country. fascist a in antisemitism Italian interwar of foreign students. discr antisemitic no was 1938 of legislation antisemitic the peregrination their of country attractivetarget refugees”. clausus “numerus the are They Italy. fascist of universities the at studied peregrination their during and regime antisemitic an of refugees intellectual as period interwar Introduction

data mentioned in all Hungarian personal documents of the interwar period, period, interwar the of universityand other administrators from documents authorities knew was these Jewis sources who personal Hungarian all in mentioned data whose num There is a debate whether antisemitism should be written in the traditional form with a hyphen (anti hyphen a with form traditional the in written be should antisemitism whether debate a is There e rus hs hss is thesis This As the title of the thesis suggests, with my work I aim to draw attention to a curious facet curious a to attention draw to aim I work my with suggests, thesis the of title the As denomination was “Israelite” according to their documents. Religion was an anagraphic anagraphic an was Religion documents. their to according “Israelite” was denomination S

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Victor Karády, Victor lausus in Hungary, 1920 Hungary, in lausus Mária Vi " Fenyves, Katalin Judit Molnár (ed.), (ed.), Molnár Judit – k 30. tor Karády and Peter Tibor Nagy (Eds.), (Eds.), Nagy Tibor Peter and Karády tor ; Kovács, Kovács, eadn te mgain f h nmrs luu eie, itr Karády Victor exiles, clausus numerus the of emigration the Regarding and 1920 of law clausus numerus the of issue the confronted often has Scholarlyliterature Katalin – 40.

Törvénytől sújtva: a numerus clausus Magyarországon, 1920 Magyarországon, clausus numerus a sújtva: Törvénytől " Egyetemi antiszemitizmus és értelmiségi kényszerpályák. Magyar kényszerpályák. értelmiségi és antiszemitizmus Egyetemi Szegvári umerus umerus - » uoen olgs n h A The In Colleges European Jogfosztás

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In the same year a monograph on the numerus clausus and especially and clausus numerus the on monograph yeara same Inthe 90 éve: tanulmányok a numerus claususról numerus a tanulmányok éve: 90 (Budapest: Napvilág Kiadó, 2012). Napvilág Kiadó, (Budapest:

Nmrs luu Rgltos n Counter in Regulations Clausus (Numerus (Budapest: Nonprofit Társadalomkutató Egyesület, 2011). Egyesület, Társadalomkutató Nonprofit (Budapest: (Academic Antisemitism and Intellectual Constraint Careers. Hungarian Jewish Hungarian Careers. Constraint Intellectual and Antisemitism (Academic

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law’s introduction, on the exiles of the numerus clausus, on the on clausus, numerus the of exiles the on introduction, law’s Diplomáselit lausus)" The Numerus C Numerus The e f h Nmrs Clausus) Numerus The of ge 2 - , in ,

felfogások és a numerus clausus (Neither woman, nor Jew? nor woman, (Neither clausus numerus a és felfogások Even the original misogynist intentions behind intentions misogynist original the Even 2

Jogfosztás Jogfosztás ) (Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1988); Akadémiai Kiadó, (Budapest: ) lausus in Hungary. Studies on the First Anti First the on Studies Hungary. in lausus Research , elnordli ayrrzgn a sd és zsidó a Magyarországon: ellenforradalmi z n chapter a in

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90 éve. Tanulmányok a numer a Tanulmányok éve. 90 Reports on Central European History 1. 1. History European Central on Reports

( Deprivation of R of Deprivation milestone in Hungarian history, Hungarian in milestone - 1945. 1945. " - , eouinr Hnay O the On Hungary: Revolutionary by Katalin Fenyves and by by and Fenyves Katalin by eétr Szemle Levéltári - zsidó diákság a nyugat a diákság zsidó (Down b (Down 5

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ace ace lausus in Hungary. Studies on the First Anti First the on Studies Hungary. in lausus ls Sgoi "oto l stud gli "Contro Signori, Elisa Michael

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The latter was divided between between wasdivided latter The The velocity of Jews becoming Hungarian is demonstrated by data on the increasing number of Jews speaking speaking Jews of number increasing the on data by demonstrated is Hungarian becoming Jews of velocity The

communities, and although Neologue leaders were the most active in promoting assimilation, the other two two other the assimilation, promoting in active most the were leaders Neologue although and communities,

Jewish assimilation in Hungary in assimilation Jewish the and law clausus numerus the contextualize to aims chapter first The Anikó Anikó War. MTA Történettudományi Intézete, 2000, 98. 2000, Intézete, Történettudományi MTA ih rciig niomn ta wtde fo te otat n h ed f h First the of end the in contract the from withdrew that environment receiving a with

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Victor Karády, Karády, Victor Lajos Szabolcsi, Szabolcsi, Lajos Ibid., 203 Ibid., emi oee, fe te Firs the after However, im and meu i Hnay uig h Frt ol Wr I te rs accusations press the In War. World First the during Hungary in impetus gained tism “ Magyarisation Egyenlőség – h Pltc o Icuin n Ecuin Jw ad ainls i Hungary in Nationalism and Jews Exclusion: and Inclusion of Politics The

zd dsore n es s ifrn from different as Jews on discourse a ized 204.

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it with legitimacy. with it

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Instead of sharing such a grave accusation, I onl I accusation, grave a such sharing of Instead

(Budapest: MTA Judaisztikai Kutatócsoport, 1993), 173. 1993), Kutatócsoport, Judaisztikai MTA (Budapest: 9

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As Tibor Frank put it: “It was certainly not certainly was “It it: put Frank Tibor As - called “Christian Course” that was based on illiberal, exclusive nationalism as opposed to the to opposed as nationalism exclusive illiberal, on based was that Course” “Christian called Apart from the rise of antisemitism during the war, also the impact of the Trianon Treaty Trianon the of impact the also war, the during antisemitism of rise the from Apart By 1920 after a after 1920 By - Jewish Hungarians, but they still constituted an easily distinguishable cluster. The The cluster. distinguishable easily an constituted still they but Hungarians, Jewish

For further detailed analysis of the so called Jewish question see question Jewish called so the of analysis detailed further For it ad oiis hud e ae it acut Te os f ot f h non the of most of loss The account. into taken be should politics and ciety - Hungarian Professionals Professionals Hungarian

series of changes of guard, Admiral Horthy succeeded in establishing the establishing in succeeded Horthy Admiral guard, of changes of series

e First World War abruptly stopped the process of integration and the and integration of process the stopped abruptly War World First e

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usin n ugr: Political Hungary: in Question - Trianon

fulfilled.

“Greater Hungary’s” population. In population. Hungary’s” “Greater 22 th

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io Frank, Tibor

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reduction of the proportion of Jews inthe studentbody. ofreduction Jews theproportion of niversities and to the crisis of university degrees. Similarly to its Russian Russian its to Similarly degrees. university of crisis the to and niversities ars there was multiple oversubscription to universities. Until 1920 the onlythe 1920 universities. Until to oversubscription multiple therewas ars

23

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a a itrainl rbe o the of problem international an was

proposition. The expression “numerus clausus” in word by word in clausus” “numerus expression The proposition. ( Frank, Frank, Double Exile Double 11

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Viktor Viktor Victor Karády, Karády, Victor n 90 344 1920, In Kovács, Kovács, Viktor Karády, Karády, Viktor

ks

. 28 Jews in pre in Jews Karády,

A telling data is that in Hungary between 1900 and the First World War around twenty around War World First the and 1900 between Hungary in that is data telling A n Europe Centrale Moderne Centrale Europe n övntl sújtva Törvénytől S - - Jewish high school graduates. school high Jewish tudies.) 1941) (Educati

- 3 Jw lvd n on ad 129 and towns in lived Jews 234 Iskolarendszer és felekezeti egyenlőtlenségek Magyarországon, 1867 Magyarországon, egyenlőtlenségek felekezeti és Iskolarendszer - Jws Over "Jewish four percent four Jews livedinthe countryside.Jews ; " sdsg mdriái, polgárosodás. modernizáció, Zsidóság,

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itr Karady, Victor (Budapest: Replika Kör, 1997), 251. 1997), Kör, Replika (Budapest: - Yearbook of the Jewish Studies Programme Studies Jewish the of Yearbook war nl ytm n Dnmntoa I Denominational and System onal , , 215. 24

Hungary successfully and successfully Hungary A higher proportion of Jewish youth than Christian youth graduated in graduated youth Christian than youth Jewish of proportion higher A

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Europe: Négalités Et Conflits Ethniques Et Religieux Dans Les Étites Et Leur Leur Et Étites Les Dans Religieux Et Ethniques Conflits Et Négalités Europe: 35. ,

- were present in the intelligentsia in much higher proportions than in than proportions higher much in intelligentsia the in present were Schooling Revisited : The Case of Hungarian Secondary Education in the Old Old the in Education Secondary Hungarian of Case The Revisited : Schooling

n a a eil o assimilation of vehicle a as and of the university students students university the of

; Ethnic and Denominational Inequalities and Conflicts in Elites and Elite Elite and Elites in Conflicts and Inequalities Denominational and Ethnic Gábor Gyáni and György Kövér, Kövér, György and Gyáni Gábor y Liga, 1938), 61. Liga,y1938),

(Budapest: John Wesley Theological Seminary, 2012). Seminary, Wesley John Theological (Budapest: H istory of Hungary from the the from Hungary of istory 25

Of course this was also a consequence of the higher the of consequence a also was this course Of 27 -

12 eih oneprs n h sm socio same the in counterparts Jewish 2 Jw lvd in lived Jews 121

en masse en -

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were Jewish, in contrast to six percent of percent six to contrast in Jewish, were (CEU)

g. By Jewish over Jewish By g. utilized higher education as a means a as education higher utilized , (1999): 75 (1999): , . Such an observation was true for for true was observation an Such . R

Magyarország társadalomtörténete a a társadalomtörténete Magyarország eform eform h countryside the – E 91. ra to the Second World War) World Second the to ra - 1945: történeti szociológiai szociológiai történeti 1945: Embourgeoisement

- . - schooling I mean mean I schooling

1945: 1945: Alajos Kovács, Kovács, Alajos 26

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Péter Tibor Nagy, Tibor Péter Andor Ladányi, Andor For instance, in 1910 out of 6743 Hungarian lawyers lawyers Hungarian 6743 of out 1910 in instance, For But why did the high proportion of Jews in the student body become a subject of such a such of subject a become body student the in Jews of proportion high the did why But a nti semites identified higher education as the field in which Jewish emancipation could emancipation Jewish which in field the as education higher identified semites -

(Budapest: Helikon, 2001), 54. Helikon, 2001), (Budapest:

nobles. At the same time the children of the Jewish middle class could enter the the enter could class middle Jewish the of children the time same the At nobles. classes. middle Jewish and Gentile between labor of division functioning Tibor Nagy, Nagy, Tibor "On the 1928 Amendment to the Hungarian Numerus Clausus Act." Clausus Numerus Hungarian the to Amendment 1928 the "On “ The Numerus Clausus Law in Inter in Law Clausus Numerus The -

Jewish. He argued that the oversupply of law graduates was clearly a result a clearly was graduates law of oversupply the that argued He Jewish. Vol. 35, No. 1 (2005): 13 (2005): No. 1 35, Vol. 29

70. ée Tbr Nagy Tibor Péter

- Jewish Law and Academic Anti Academic and Law Jewish

- ald “h called – 31

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the university; becamecentral hotbed theofantisemitism. –

a coalition of different (religious, anti (religious, differentof coalition a they could work as doctors, lawyers, engineers. In fact In engineers. lawyers, doctors, as work could they – soia” ide lse, epeim for euphemism a classes, middle istorical” 22. 22.

rud ht u t tee oil itrcl facts, historical social these to due that argued

13 - War Hungary. Pioneering European Antisemitism”, European Pioneering Hungary. War

09 ee eih Mária Jewish. were 3049 umerus clausus cannot result in any other other any in result cannot clausus umerus - Semitism in Modern Central Europe. Central Modern in Semitism fore? Before the war there was a more a was there war the Before fore? – ikája 1867 és 1945 között. (Liberalism, (Liberalism, között. és 1945 1867 ikája

not

n rtoa basis rational a on e iure de , in in , The Numerus Clausus in in Clausus Numerus The

Kovács, Kovács, but , - capitalist and anti and capitalist s al a 1901 as early as e facto de Liberalizmus, Liberalizmus, , Eds , nsciously déclassé . 30

. Vik . Thus,

East – the tor tor

a - , CEU eTD Collection 33 24 32 reduction of Jewish actual the clear tenth nine the least gr national racial proportion or ofthe countrywide achieve the Hungary in living groups national and racial certain to youngsters of proportion the that and capacity intellectual the also reliability, moral and nation the to loyalty “above regard to had faculties the enrollment, of permission the issuing and faculty, each to students admissible of number the define to Education Law and Budapest of Academies”) University the at Economics of Faculty Polytechnics, University, to movements youth class middle young Gentiles who could nomore a service hope for career incivil orpublic administration. the for professions liberal of market labor the ensure to necessity a also becau solely not professions liberal the from competitors Jewish exclude to wanted class middle “historical” the of leaders opinion The work. longer no could pre the territories, of loss the to due 1920 in His prophetic was colleagues rarethe century. intuition amongof hisJewish at the turn th law, facultiesof

Kovács, Kovács, Ibid., 52 Ibid., th

and 26 and The above detailed reasons together reasons detailed above The reduced was administration public and service civil Hungarian the in market labor the As – Törvénytől sújtva Törvénytől th 54.

of November 1901. ofNovember

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- Semitism in Modern Central Europe Central Modern in Semitism ( 1939)" Bloomington: Bloomington: Although Hungary was the only country in the 1920s 1920s the in country only the was Hungary Although This “ denominational The Numerus Clausus in Hungary. Studies on the First Anti First the on Studies Hungary. in Clausus Numerus The ; in , xctv odnne f h nmrs luu law clausus numerus the of ordinance Executive , in , be removed be constituted xctv ordinance executive

Edited by Karády Viktor a Edited "A l "A h Nmrs luu i Hnay Suis n h Frt Anti First the on Studies Hungary. in Clausus Numerus The Jogfosztás Jogfosztás engyel zsidóság helyzete a két világháború között. (The Status of Polish Jewry between the Two Two the between Jewry Polish of Status (The között. világháború két a helyzete zsidóság engyel Indiana University Press, 1983); Lucian Nastasă, Nastasă, Lucian 1983); Press, University Indiana e most recent volume of studies on the Hungarian numerus clausus was was clausus numerus Hungarian the on studies of volume recent most e

the only exception. only the group was converted into a into converted was group

also in Romania and Poland. and Romania in also -

90 éve. Tanulmányok a numerus claususról. (Deprivation of rights rights of (Deprivation claususról. numerus a Tanulmányok éve. 90 ,

” was suddenly excluded from the Hungarian nation and labeled as labeled and nation Hungarian the from excluded suddenly was ” 292

, Eds. Viktor Karády and Peter Tibor Nagy, Tibor 219 Peter Karády Viktor and Eds. , –

99; Ezra M Ezra 99; itd h pretg o te eonzd ainlte i the in nationalities recognized the of percentage the listed nd Peter Tibor Nagy. Tibor Peter nd 1923 the Polish Minister of Public Worship and Education Education and Worship Public of Minister Polish the 1923 , 1920. , .”. nay Rmna n Poland. and Romania ungary, endelsohn, 36 C

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90 years ago. ago. years 90

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the two World Wars.)". Worldtwo the Due 327 , oee, mgain a as a ey hrceitc eih reaction. Jewish characteristic very a also was emigration However,

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sities was regularly on the agenda. For those who did not get not did who those For agenda. the on regularly was sities

t a nt h cs wt te ugra Jewish Hungarian the with case the not was It 16

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0 v. T éve. 90 Oobsession with Numerus Clausus Clausus Numerus with Oobsession the strictest way, and there there and way, strictest the nláyk numerus a anulmányok "A numerus clausus clausus numerus "A itr Ka Victor -

rády rády free”

CEU eTD Collection Archives. National Hungarian on Report Hungary. of Israelites of of Office Office the to Committee Aid Studant Jewish Central the 1929. Irodájának Országos Izraeliták Magyarországi a 39 Western at Students Jewish alatt. clausus numerus a főiskolákon 38 were universities foreign at studied who students Hungarian of percent eighty that estimated f in and Hungarian in students Jewish Hungarian about statistics his in know not do Yearbooks the of data the from Jewish, were students émigré the of majority the that assume to reasonable very is it education higher Hungarian of development mentioned earlier the to due in enrolled Hungarians of number were not financed by the Committee, whosewereCommittee, families could maintain notfinancedthem abroad. by the anti the of sure make we organization, this 1922 Student the with abroad graduating Jews Hungarian of number the is which year, academic each enrollments new fifty and hundred four thousand one count we if 1920s, the during thousand five than more at estimated be can students Jewish émigré of Jewish those among were who families that universities, Hungarian from exclusion their to due universities

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Szabolcsi Lajos jelentése a K a jelentése Lajos Szabolcsi he he Aaei Anti (Academic that only those émigrés are counted who had to leave because because leave to had who counted are émigrés those only that Hu

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, 1929, K28 (Department of Nationalities and Minorities), 14/53rd item, 14/53rd Minorities), and Nationalities of (Department K28 1929, , 39 their children, it was the m the was it children, their gra Saitcl Yearbooks Statistical ngarian

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CEU eTD Collection Ed. wars.)" world Hungarian two the on történetéhez.(Studies egyetemjárás the magyar külföldi újkori between Bologna and Padua of universities the of students Hungarian 42 “Jews only about 41 Universities)" Foreign and Hungarian 40 studies. their after Hungary to returned who those on again imposed was clausus numerus the way this In university. the by naturalized degree foreign their have to order in semesters four for university Hungarian a in foreign enroll to a had clausus” in numerus the enrolled around get who of purpose the those “with university ordinance, the to According law. clausus numerus the in p to order in regulation the updated 1928 of Education Public and Religion of Ministry the of ordinance An procedure. graduateItalyfrom for applied naturalization. because or it, achieve to difficulties the of because either naturalized, were degrees Italian few Only on. later modified was degrees university foreign naturalizing of regulation the bee have would degrees institutions such degrees of their for hoped Graduates justifiably Germany. to and Austria to Czechoslovakia, of universities leavingGermany suggested preponderance in1933 among the ofJews them. students Hungarian of proportion huge the and war, the after law clausus numerus the to due e Hungarian the of most clausus, numerus state a receiving those counting (not Jewish

Ibid. Alajos Ková Alajos Zsuzsanna Orosz, Orosz, Zsuzsanna

Ákos Horváth (Budapest: ELTE, 1997), 231. 1997), ELTE, Ákos(Budapest: Horváth

Alajos Kovács was a statistician well statistician a was Kovács Alajos auaiain a rgltd y lw f 86 17:I) s qie complicated quite a as (1876:XIV) 1876 of law a by regulated was Naturalization numerus the of waves first The

cs, cs, from from "Magyarországi zsidó hallgatók a hazai és külföldi főiskolákon. főiskolákon. külföldi és hazai a hallgatók zsidó "Magyarországi A aoa é a bolo a és padovai "A Hungary”. revent Jews from using the naturalization of foreign degrees as a loophole a as degrees foreign of naturalization the using from Jews revent n naturalized, the numerus clausus law would have lost sense, therefore sense, lost have would law clausus numerus the naturalized, n

, Magyar Statisztikai Szemle Magyar o be to gnai egyetem magyarországi hallgatói a két világháború között. között. világháború két a hallgatói magyarországi egyetem gnai - known for his antisemitism. He never wrote a wrote never He antisemitism. his for known clausu

migrant students were Jewish, a proportion which grewwhich proportion a Jewish, were students migrant naturalized - funded stipend). funded

s refugees went to study in study to went refugees s 18

n Hung in

Vol. Vol. 16, 16, 40 ary. However, of course if all the the all if course of However, ary.

No. No. He argued that even earlier to the to earlier even that argued He P ere

9. (1938): (1938): 898. 9. grination grination (Hungarian Jewish Students at at Students Jewish (Hungarian

the German the A 41 broad in in broad

bout bout

, in , Hungarian Jews Hungarian Tanulmányok az Tanulmányok M odern odern

- only few few only speaking A (The ge.) 42 , ,

CEU eTD Collection Archives. National item, Hungarian 717/16th Politics. Economic 44 Magyar Királyi (Budapest: ( onwards. 1923 from statisztiká emigration clausus numerus of country in earned were three only degrees naturalized three hundred two of out that see to 1930 and 1920 between naturalized degrees of statistics official the to refer also can one degrees foreign naturalized 43 clausus numerus of countries target alre has primary emigration the being countries’ these to due Italy in that is conclusion astonishing immigrant professionalswere competitors,butwere asaccepted. notseen dangerous more even An well. as countries other the Hungary. in undesired thus Jewish, be to likely very were negotiations to referring 1937, in officer Hungarian A Italians. with compete to market labor Italian in remained but politics, educational fascist by aimed as culture” Italian spread “to graduation after return also It 1927. of friendship” of “contract Hungarian yearscountries in theconcerned ont propor the account into taken if especially was, degrees Italian of proportion the low how find we 1930s, early and 1920s the in universities Hungarian University Debrecen Budapest

" Szeged Source of data included in included data of Source Egyetemi oklevelek kölcsönös elismerése (Mutual rec (Mutual elismerése kölcsönös oklevelek Egyetemi Sum Pécs

This low number of naturalized Italian degrees is noteworthy in the light of the Italian the of light the in noteworthy is degrees Italian naturalized of number low This 1: Table dif from degrees naturalized of number the Comparing h eirto o nmrs luu rfge t Cehsoai, uti ad Germany, and Austria Czechoslovakia, to refugees clausus numerus of emigration The

ja az 1931/32. tanévben (Statistics of Hungarian Hungarian of (Statistics tanévben 1931/32. az ja

1918

Naturalized foreign university degrees at the Hungarian universities Hungarian the at degrees university foreign Naturalized 1920 1920 1918 Period about mutual recognition of degrees argued that Hungarians graduating in Italy in graduating Hungarians that argued degrees of recognition mutual about -

1934 ady been studied by historians. by studied been ady - - - 34 33 33

K

özponti Statisztikai Hivatal (Central Royal Hungarian Office for Statistics), Statistics), for Office Hungarian Royal (Central Hivatal Statisztikai özponti

the table: the Austrian Austrian

degrees 129 100 14 11

4 Ibid., 232. Ibid.,

he basis of the Hungarian basis ofthe he Yearbooks. Statistical

To demon To German degrees 142 125 3 7 7 19 ognition of university degrees)" university of ognition

strate the low proportion of Italian degrees among the among degrees Italian of proportion low the strate nvriy tdns n h Aaei Y Academic the in Students University K suggests that most of the Hungarians did not did Hungarians the of most that suggests

a r Gyula Jánik,(Ed.), Jánik,(Ed.), Gyula á Swiss degrees Swiss d tion y 44

–

However, this was the case with all with case the was this However, 43 35 of Hungarian students among these these among students Hungarian of

1 4 3 a

ft e r

ferent countries at the four four the at countries ferent investigating

Italy, despite Italy being a target target a being Italy despite Italy, Czechoslovak Czechoslovak mga fikli hallgatók főiskolai magyar A degrees , 1937, K69 Department of of Department K69 1937, , 43 19 15 2 2 -

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Ibid., 13. Ibid., Frank, e Karády, v nn e r r

e si si of se Tibor Frank is Frank Double Exile Double t t i ies,

e medi the

Eytm atseiims s remsg knseplá. Magyar kényszerpályák. értelmiségi és antiszemitizmus "Egyetemi s throughout 1920sand 1930sw the p a a f Ka t rticul

e Frank conducted extensive research on the Hungarian Jewish migrants who after who migrants Jewish Hungarian the on research extensive conducted Frank Viennese r 1920 r ca r first and foremost foremost and first á l ssionals (doctors in most most in (doctors ssionals d

m. Michael m. a f . y

a r

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ludes ost a nd

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that more

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interested i interested

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. Therefore I limit myself to note to myself limit I Therefore . that

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CEU eTD Collection Germany." Imperial so the as War World First the before already associations student by framed was students foreign Jewish Russian against hostility 49 48 countries. co Jewish Hungarian remaining the 1933 elsewhere. and Switzerland France, Italy, towards migration new a provoking Jews, foreign for environment hostile a became 1923 by which Germany, to H Vienna besides institutions popular most the were Czechoslovakia of universities German the clausus numerus the yearsof few Infirst the circumstances. changesof quick the to Germanydue German different the Vienna, between students mo focus a has the Italian universities’ archives that preserve the students’ files from the fascist period. The The period. fascist the from files students’ the preserve that archives universities’ Italian the among Jews of proportion the out o files the all find reviewwould one if students migrant Hungarian to possible be would it enrollment, for degrees school high their present to needed students Since Italy. in Hungarians among Jewish were source Hungarian to turn to needs one Thus, denomination. individual’s the indicated degrees, school high and certificates birth including documents, personal Hungarian non of number the contracts, bilateral Hungar in manifested ties, cultural and political Italian of strengthening the to due However, Germany. and Austria Czechoslovakia, of proportion the that assume to reasonable is it Hungary, from peregrination academic of targets typical

owever Michael Miller, "Numerus Clausus Exiles: Hungarian Jewish Hungarian Exiles: Clausus Miller,"Numerus Michael Antisemitic hostility towards foreign students was not a brand new phenomenon in Germany, since anti since Germany, in phenomenon new brand a not was students foreign towards hostility Antisemitic ian guest students could increase during the interwar period. Unlike Italian documents, documents, Italian Unlike period. interwar the during increase could students guest ian Since Italian universities (at least since the early modern age) had not belonged to the the to belonged not had age) modern early the since least (at universities Italian Since ,

after the Czechoslovak currency crashed, many of t of many crashed, currency Czechoslovak the after - ald “Ausländer called re similar to mine to similar re

Jews among Hungarian students was similarly high in Italy to that in in that to Italy in high similarly was students Hungarian among Jews Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook LeoInstitute Baeck

frage”.

. 48

Miller presents the continuous migration of Hungarian JewishHungarian of migration continuous the presentsMiller Jack Wertheimer, Wertheimer, Jack

26 (1981):26 23 oy f eln lo et o te bv mentioned above the for left also Berlin of lony 21

- paig nvriis f Czechoslovak of universities speaking "T – he »Unwanted Element«. East European Jews in in Jews European East Element«. »Unwanted he Students in Inter in Students 46.

49

he numerus clausus refugees went went refugees clausus numerus he After the Nazi seizure of power in power of seizure Nazi the After f all the Hungarian students in all in students Hungarianthe all f - WarBerlin"

s to find out who who out find to s - Hungarian Hungarian - Jewish a and ia - Jewish Jewish .

CEU eTD Collection Hungarian of History 53 A Students Fenyő Lili 2010). Editore, ( P Rome in The Hábermann Resistance: the of Doctor (A scelte 52 Hungarian of 51 134. 2009), Catholic University), Péter (Pázmány Egyetem Katolikus Hungarian of History 50 1942) Bologna of universities the to influx students’ Hungarian on study prosopographical relations”. denominational Hungary’s in Jewry of proportion receiv Italy to emigration the on all find to Italy in theystudied that know we Szlavikovszki high Italian interwar in students universities. Italian in enrolled students Hungarian claususknew exiles. they were numerus from well, as sources of types other from information had I whom about study my for the archivesof the in Hungarianfiles students’ six s high certificate, birth including student, given the to connected documents the all contain typically dossiers students’

Simon Teich in the University of Turin ( ofTurin University in the Teich Simon Szlavikovsz Beáta Szlavikovszki, Szlavikovszki, Beáta Szlavikovszki, Beáta ing a stipend probably the “representation of Jewry was multiple when compared to the to compared when multiple was Jewry of “representation the probably stipend a ing and Padua and What is so far known is that during the interwar period seven hundred and forty and hundred seven period interwar the during that is known far so is What broad) , ilntevtlk klödn l mga diáksá magyar élő külföldön a Pillanatfelvételek - ki, "Fejezetek a magyar a "Fejezetek ki, the Italian Cultural Relations between 1880 and and 1945.)". 1880 between Relations Cultural Italian ;

Lívia Fleischmann (who Magyarised her name to Fenyő) in Florence who published her memoirs: memoirs: her published who Florence in Fenyő) to name her Magyarised (who Fleischmann Lívia

(Budapest: Jupiter Nyomda, 1929). Nyomda, Jupiter (Budapest: , students of the period. the of students

51

- - even though it is not complete, as quite a few people are missing about whom about missing are people few a quite as complete, not is it though even (1920 Italian Cultural Relations betwee Relations Italian Cultural Italian Cultural Relations between 1880 and 1945.)" and 1880 between Relations Cultural Italian na ai Hábermann, Maria Anna "Fejezetek a magyar a "Fejezetek magyar a "Fejezetek chool degree, application, and eventually her/his thesis. I studied forty studied I thesis. her/his eventually and application, degree, chool -

1935) 1935) Szlavikovszki

- by Zsuzsanna Orosz, which includes also details on the students’ the on details also includes which Orosz, Zsuzsanna by olasz kulturális kapcsolatokról 1880 kapcsolatokról kulturális olasz . Simone Teich Alasia, Alasia, Teich Simone 52 er education already exists in the dissertation of Beáta Beáta of dissertation the in exists already education er laces, laces,

- - A olasz kulturális kapcsolatokról 1880 kapcsolatokról kulturális olasz olasz legislation antisemitic Hungarian of impact the Regarding pparently in some university archives it was not possiblenot was it archives universitysome in pparently

l aiit d carta. di labirinto Il

T kulturális iishreft ntn htaogtesuet not students the among that noting to herself limits he

n 1880 and 1945.)" 1945.)" and 1880 n E 22 ncounters, ncounters,

University kapcsolatokról 1880 kapcsolatokról g életéből (Snapshots from the Life of Hungarian Hungarian of Life the from (Snapshots életéből g 50 Un medico della Resistenza: i luog Resistenza: della medico Un

gnrl rspgah o Hungarian of prosopography general A

T he he Te ayit o Papers.) of Labyrinth (The C

– , , 143 of Bologna, I chose such students suchchose I Bologna, of hoices) 1945 között. (Chapters from the History History the from (Chapters között. 1945

(Doctoral dissertation, Pázmány Péter Péter Pázmány dissertation, (Doctoral

53

– –

1945 között. 1945 the from (Chapters között. 1945 Trn: e2, 2010). Seb27, (Torino: h rfr t a earlier an to refers She (Chapters from the the from (Chapters hi, gli incontri, le incontri, gli hi,

(Milano: Proedi Proedi (Milano: which I which (1923 Aladár ; - four four - - CEU eTD Collection Orosz to according Hungarian [The között. Bolog világháború két a hallgatói magyarországi 54 the 1920sand 1930s. present chapter next country). target insignificant an (previously Italy to even abroad, peregrination massive with clausus numerus the to reacted Jewry Hungarian indeed, And Jews. of mobility social over Jewish against “weapon” a multiple to response not hundred ninety and hundred reconstructed. clausus. numerus the of exiles definitely additionally were who sources, of types multiple in find the I whom students in present students the Szlavikovszk and of Orosz few of a prosopographies quite on information found I chapters, following not or Jewish were students enrolled the among found she individuals the migration this on clausus numerus the graduation) faculty,enrollment, of (date studies e te it o suet i te rspgah o Zusn Ooz ( Orosz. Zsuzsnna of prosopography the in students of lists the See na between the Two World W World Two the between na a rare phenomenon Summing up the first chapter, we can state that the numerus clausus was an antisemitic an was clausus numerus the that state can we chapter, first the up Summing Uni The and eighty

, however, est o Blga en te ot oua aog oeg suet had students foreign among popular most the being Bologna of versity - - s one Hungarians were enrolled were Hungarians one nine oversubscriptions

In this way one pattern of integration of HungarianJewis of integration Inway of pattern this one

the dynam the .

t

hree

ugra suet i ti pro. t h Uiest o Padua of University the At period. this in students Hungarian

ars.]". pe

ople - ics of the numerus clausus provoked migration to Italy during during Italy to migration provoked clausus numerus the of ics schooling

, Imre , Klein The number of Hungarian students in Bologna Bologna in students Hungarian of number The

to Hungarian universities after the First World War and and War World First the after universities Hungarian to in her aforementioned her in identified , László Klein László , 23 i i , . 54

n alternative sources. I concentrate on the the on concentrate I sources. alternative n

Orosz, Orosz, , however, migration between the two was two the between migration however, , ,

justifiably,

and György Kardos seem to be doubly counted. be to seem Kardos György and although she reflects she although S Orosz, "A padovai és a bolognai egyetem egyetem bolognai a és padovai "A Orosz, uet o the of tudents

study, study, as

the reason of reason the did not examine whether examine not did U was three hundred and two two and hundred three was ieste o Pda and Padua of niversities .

As I unfold in the the in unfold I As h students can becan students h

on the impact of impact the on

the upwards the ,

The The two two two

CEU eTD Collection C 55 XIV.) theXXV) original quotalaw of abolished. theJewish (1920: was current constr to efforts political cotemporary by up backed and held, still is law clausus numerus the of gravity the and significance the downplaying i since necessary, p is emphasis the This on father. applicants’ based quota a for was changed quota law Jewish clausus explicit numerus the the and when amended 1928, until not and War World Second the of end the migratory the of overview an and move report diplomatic confidential a of basis the on argued is Hungarians among Jews of preponderance the and Italy in found be to possibilities the about with written reports all of first sources, qualitative in of chronologically basis the migrationon presented are Italy this to Jews of Hungarian attracting factors trends The terms. quantitative the outlining clausus, numerus the of age the the The II. Hungarian universities. The author The universities. Hungarian phony th combats

lausus in Hungary, 1920 Hungary, in lausus Mária Numerus C ment from 1938 by Alajosment fromK 1938by

It is important to emphasize that the duration of the numerus clausus lasted from 1920 to 1920 from lasted clausus numerus the of duration the that emphasize to important is It Hunga from peregrination of dynamics the of picture a provides chapter This Dw b Lw Te ueu cass in clausus numerus The Law. by “Down Kovács, Kovács, amendment which led to a slight increase in the number of accepted Jewish students at students Jewish accepted of number the in increase slight a to led which amendment artv o te ueu cass tts ht n h aedd eso o te a (1928: law the of version amended the in that states clausus numerus the of narrative D ynamics of Hungarian Jewish Hungarian of ynamics is interpretation is Törvénytől sújtva: a numerus clausus Magyarorsz clausus numerus a sújtva: Törvénytől lausus – 1945.)

.

55

The author argues that the alleged abolition in 1928 was only a only was 1928 in abolition alleged the that argues author The ovács

accepts the interpretation that the direct consequences of the the of consequences direct the that interpretation the accepts .

c a oiie mg o te Horthy the of image positive a uct 24

P

eregrination to Italy in the in Italy to eregrination h proe f nomn Hnain youth Hungarian informing of purpose the ugr, 1920 Hungary, n Hungarian public discourse a narrative narrative a discourse public Hungarian n ágon, 1920 ágon, - 1945. – 1945”

( Down by Law. The N The Law. by Down (

y ái Kovács Mária by oeso o the of rofession - eie This regime. ry to Italy in Italy to ry A ge of ge umerus umerus CEU eTD Collection K Education, and 65./65 Religion of Ministry 1932, clausus.)", numerus and abroad to transfers Currency 57 77. 1981), Press, 56 from Hungary very difficult, arguingfrom Hungary difficult, very among other qu Jewish the of education. implementation higher Hungarian the in change significant any notice not did they that indicated 1932 in Education and Religion of Minister the to Vienna in studying Hungarians sta professional of non sake preferably the admitting for servants) (civil advantaged be should occupations which predictable was it account into taken be to had profession father’s applicant’s the thus quota, professional a for changed was origin ethnic applicants’ unsatisfactory. was the amendment at issue the with dealt which organizations Committee Foreign liberalism. b cannot state Hungarian the and withdrawn be can emancipation Jewish that arena international the in demonstration political a but terms, quantitative in intelligentsia arguin by clausus numerus the (approximately and regimeHorthy the of apologists the against data this turns she however Jews Hungarian of masses affect not did clausus numerus

Nathaniel Katzburg, Katzburg, Nathaniel "Bécsi magy "Bécsi - 61, Hungarian National Archives. Hungarian 61, National h hpciy f h aedet a clear was amendment the of hypocrisy The operative numeru the to due so do to forced were we but choice, own our for abroad study to come not did we Since g that the major aim of the of aim major the that g

ar diákság állásfoglalása. Deviza és numerus clausus. (Resolution of Hungarian Students in Vienna. Vienna. in Students Hungarian of (Resolution clausus. numerus és Deviza állásfoglalása. diákság ar

tistics in mind. Also the protest letter against the numerus clausus written by by written clausus numerus the against letter protest the Also mind. in tistics –

Hungary and the Jews: Policy and Legislation, 1920 Legislation, and Policy Jews: the and Hungary we find our wish that we should be able to receive enough currency for the for currency enough receive to able be should we that wish our find we

and

s clausus law law clausus s - Jewish students, and the law indicated the professions keeping the the keeping professions the indicated law the and students, Jewish the 57

line salt Universelle Israélite Alliance hy rtse aant h rglto mkn mny transfer money making regulation the against protested They 56

h iciiaig aarp rln te osdrto of consideration the ruling paragraph incriminating The a ntisemitic law was not a marginalization of Jews from the from Jews of marginalization a not was law ntisemitic – . Due to the occupational structure of Hungarian society Hungarian of structure occupational the to Due .

which is especially detrimental for the poor and is still is and poor the for detrimental especially is which 25

s

that o otmoais s well. as contemporaries to Lea

u o Nations of gue te w itrainl Jewish international two the , - 1943

(Ramat Gan: Bar Gan: (Ramat rcgie ta the that recognized , e forced to adhere to adhere to forced e

ie thousand five oh the Both - - Ilan University University Ilan 636/ box 671./ box 636/ t in ota Joint Joint ), ), s

CEU eTD Collection Anti Academic Act.” Clausus Numerus Hungarian 1928.) in Law 60 Nagy, 27 Tibor KarádyPeter and Victor Eds. Anti First the on Studies Hungary. in Clausus 59 58 years.subsequent academic 1928 year academic the for students émigré on data the comparing worth is it 1929, in came amendedlaw the on basedregulationnew the Since migrantstudents. of number same the around oscillated only 1928, after significantly decrease not did migration Kovács,amendment namelyanti notabolish thatthe did t on focusing studies his of two in Ladányi Andor possible it made 1928 1919 History, clausus, numerus the on Nagy her in period interwar the throughout universities Hungarian in quota Jewish the of implementation éems s é ms i évnbn éő ueu clausus numerus lévő Ibid. érvényben rendelkezésün is bocsássanak hogy most kívánságunkat, még és sérelmes

Andor Ladányi, " Ladányi, Andor Mária Mária „ Minthogy mi nem saját akaratunkból jöttünk külföldre tanulni, hanem erre minket a szegénydiákságra különösen különösen szegénydiákságra a minket hanemerre tanulni, külföldre jöttünk akaratunkból saját nem mi Minthogy further

. 59

h saitc o Hnain suyn i hge euain bod eel ht student that reveal abroad education higher in studying Hungarians of statistics The Besides purposes ofourstudymostjustified.

Kovács, Kovács, Furthermore,

works as well. Her study, in the volume edited by Victor Karády and Péter Tibor Tibor Péter and Karády Victor by edited volume the in study, Her well. as works - ", ", Semitism in Modern Central Europe. Central Modern in Semitism - Századok 1945” "The Hungarian Numerus Clausus: Ideology, Apology and History, 1919 History, and Apology Ideology, Clausus: Numerus Hungarian "The A numerus clausus törvény 1928. évi módosításáról. (On the Amendment of the Numerus Clausus Clausus Numerus the of Amendment (Onthe módosításáról. évi 1928. törvény clausus numerus A “Down by law” law” by “Down

o pa aot pootoaiy, hl i fc ipeetn discrimination. implementing fact in while “proportionality”, about speak to

, t

he sociological phenomena of the time are discussed in this writing, which writing, this in discussed are time the of phenomena sociological he suggests already with the title that the history of the law did not end in end not did law the of history the that title the with already suggests o. 2, o 6 19) 1117 (1994): 6 No. 128, Vol.

, I ,

n The Numerus Clausus in Hungary. Studies on the First Anti First the on Studies Hungary. in Clausus Numerus The Te H “The Mária – - 55. Jewish Law and Academic Anti Academic and Law Jewish

r a aumnan zvraa flttsr süsgs valutát.” szükséges folytatására zavartalan tanulmányaink a kre

ungarian Numerus Clausus: Ideology, Apology and and Apology Ideology, Clausus: Numerus ungarian 58 , Eds. , Vik oás argued Kovács

26 –

48. he amendment in 1928 suggests 1928 in amendment he tor Karády and Péter Tibor Nagy, Tibor 69 Péter and Karády tor Adr Ladányi, Andor ; - törvény kényszerített, jogosnak érezzük azt a a azt érezzük jogosnak kényszerített, törvény - Jewish discriminationat all. Jewish

ht hr ws otniy n the in continuity was there that - Semitism in Modern Central Europe. Central Modern in Semitism O te 98 Am 1928 the “On - 1945." to force in Octoberforcein to – , I , - 111. Jewish Law and and Law Jewish nmn t the to endment n 60 the same as same the The

-

9 with 29 Numerus Numerus

,

CEU eTD Collection the received and 1930s the in experiments his fulfilled who in medicine in 1937. Prize Nobel Szentgyörgyi, Albert is abroad, not and Hungary in 62 293. (1932): 1930/31.)", to 1929/30 from abroad education magyar 1930/31.)", to 1928/29 from 1928/29 főiskolákon külföldi a hallgatók 19 1926/27 főiskolákon 61 general emigratingmost (medicine, engineering) worth there,if not professions liberal itwas law, the of sake the for history), art or biology marine as (such field specific a in studying of because educationfinance and ofculture. the of sphere the into spending more channel to opportunity an providing Hungary, of investments O revised. be should Trianon great theTreaty of that powers toconvince order the superioritycountries theneighboringover in and education of development the in scholarship. heavily invested state Hungarian the Klebelsberg, Kunó Minister of politics educational the to Thanks education. higher Hungarian in students late the By chapter. previous the in argued already was as universities, foreign in enroll to reasons most the had Jews that certain is it numerusexiles, clausus of number the as simply students émigré of number the take not must we Although

We must remember that the only Hungarian Noble Hungarian only the that remember must We Data for the years concerned in concerned years the for Data 28/29)", 28/29)", honosságú hallgatók a külföldi főiskolákon 1929/30 főiskolákon külföldi a hallgatók honosságú Table It was especially true for Italian universities, that un that universities, Italian for true especially was It Academic year Academic – Magyar Statisztikai Évkönyvek (Hungarian Statistical Yearbooks) Statistical (Hungarian Évkönyvek Statisztikai Magyar

1930 1929 1928 expanding the neighboring countries at the expense of Hungary of expense the at countries neighboring the expanding 62

2

: Hungarian émigré students before and after the amendment of the numerus clausus numerus the of amendment the after and before émigréstudents Hungarian : On the one hand Klebelsberg argued Klebelsberg hand one the On - - - 1931 1930 1929 - ő 1928/29 től

te te hn, h sm Tet o Tinn etitd h military the restricted Trianon of Treaty same the hand, other the n Magyar Statisztikai Évkönyvek (Hungarian Statistical Yearbooks) Statistical (Hungarian Évkönyvek Statisztikai Magyar

-

g Hnain iies tdig n ihr dcto ara fo 12/7 to 1926/27 from abroad education higher in studying citizens (Hungarian ig the

Hungarian Statistical Yearbooks Statistical Hungarian Numberof - ő 1930/31 től

abroad (first semester) abroad Magyar Statisztikai Évkönyvek (Hungarian Statistical Yearbooks) Statistical (Hungarian Évkönyvek Statisztikai Magyar Hungarian students students Hungarian - laureate who brought off the research for which being awarded awarded being which for research the off brought who laureate 1887 1773 1882 - g (ugra ci (Hungarian ig. 27

- - tól 1931/32 tól

20s there wer there 20s that Hungary must demonstrate her cultural her demonstrate must Hungary that

: less one had a reason to study there, study to reason a had one less tizens studying in higher education abroad abroad education higher in studying tizens "A magyar honosságú hallgatók a külföldi külföldi a hallgatók honosságú magyar "A - ig (Hungarian citizens studying in higher in studying citizens (Hungarian ig

Number of Hungarian students in students NumberofHungarian 37 (1929): 272. (1929): 37 e more than enough places for for places enough than more e Italy (first semester) Italy(first – 287 215 213

was a mistake and mistake a was "A magyar honosságú honosságú magyar "A

39 (1931): 285. (1931): 39

61

;

"A 40 CEU eTD Collection 66 65 64 Hungarian of History 63 Committee students”. Jewish “Hungarian feesfor exam and tuition wavethe Italianto universities instructed Gentile, Giovanni Mussolini” titled article An Italy. in refugees clausus numerus the of influx the of beginning the 1925 year academic the before Italy regarding data Statis Hungarian the of statistics Jewish. were them of majority the observation community’s Jewish Florentine the to According students. foreign hundred three fo education higher Italian in study to foreigners qualified for tuition free offer to decided government Mussolini’s 1923 In universities. Italian in enrolled Germany. and Austria after students migrant Hungarian shorter specific research tripsand courses. Klebelsberg famous Hungary’s granted degree Italian an than well, as internationally evaluated positively more was it easier, market labor Hungarian the in integration made German degree a therefore system, university German the to close was education higher Hungarian Italian an of advantages the to proportional not were country foreign a in living a earning and language foreign a in studying thus university, Italian an in enrolling by up easily could one

"Köszönet Mussolininek (Thanks to Mussolini)" to (Thanks Mussolininek "Köszönet Ledeen, Michael 132. Ibid., Beáta Szlavikovszki, "Fejezetek a magyar a "Fejezetek Szlavikovszki, Beáta e drn te newr eid tl bcm te hr ms otn hsn c chosen often most third the became Italy period interwar the during Yet

to the to in Egyenlőség "The Evolution of Italian Fascist Italian Antisemitism", of Evolution "The enroll in a Hungarian university. This was the case because the difficulties taken difficulties the because case the was This university. Hungarian a in enroll 66 - Office of Israelites of Hungary of Israelites of Office Italian Cultural Relations between 1880 and 1945.)" and 1880 between Relations Italian Cultural

ao Saoci hn rsnig h activity the presenting when Szabolcsi Lajos

in December 1923 reported that the Mussolini government’s minister, minister, government’s Mussolini the that reported 1923 December in

65

tical Office about Hungarians studying abroad does not specify specify not does abroad studying Hungarians about Office tical It is not known how many of them were Hungarians, since the since Hungarians, were them of many how known not is It - olasz kulturális kapcsolatokról 1880 kapcsolatokról kulturális olasz - , grant usually did not graduate in Italy, but went for for went but Italy, in graduate not did usually grant 63 Egyenlőség

28 Teeoe non Therefore .

in 1929, interpreted the law again as if it had had it if as again law the interpreted 1929, in , - Vol. 42. No. No. 48., 42. Vol. 26. Nevertheless, 1923 was clearly seen as as seen clearly was 1923 Nevertheless, 26.

5.

64

to er, hc atatd w to two attracted which years, two r eoe 93 ny e Hungarians few only 1923 Before

, , 1 38 - eih tdns n scholars and students Jewish - December 139. – f the of 1945 között. (Chapters from the the from (Chapters között. 1945

degree. Due to history, to Due degree.

1 Central , 1923. , , 2. tdn Aid Student “Thanks to “Thanks

ountry by by ountry CEU eTD Collection 43. dopoguerra. Jewish 68 Central the of activity in1929.) Hungary the act the on on Report Hungary. Szabolcsi of Israelites of Lajos Office the to by Committee Aid Studant (Report működéséről. Évi 1929. Irodájának Országos 67 of collection the included students prospective with correspondence and abroad studying but already students from information fundraising, to restricted not was activity Committee’s The of tradition Jewish the emigration, m in set quickly was student philanthropy of wave a with immediately clausus numerus reading if all of first press, denominational have asItaly just important been afactorchoosingas in therelatively costs. law well. while level, national the on introduced were students foreign for fees tuition halved 1926 in and foreigners, for fees tuition the discounted universities numerous students, foreign attract to order In borders. the beyond influence expansio and culture the Italian namely politics, Italian of aim further a served aims these of Both system. educational the of leaders the of concerns major were body student the of internationalization (well Gentile, Giovanni Education, th After Public philosopher). of Minister the by introduced the gr Szabolcsi, Lajos of enthusiasm the Nevertheless, Jews. only invite to intend not did Gentile and Mussolini probably and Hungarians, about specifically not general, in foreigners about was law Jews. Hungarian for only relevant been

Francesca Pelini and Ilaria Pavan, Pavan, Ilaria and Pelini Francesca "

Szabolcsi Lajos jelentése a Központi Központi a jelentése Lajos Szabolcsi 68 eatestrefugees, numerus of protector claususunderstandable. the is

utemr, 93 a te opeesv rfr o te tla euainl system educational Italian the of reform comprehensive the saw 1923 Furthermore, ugra Jw cud olw h deve the follow could Jews Hungarian o Jw wo et ugr de o h nmrs luu, h lc o atsmts must antisemitism of lack the clausus, numerus the to due Hungary left who Jews For (The Double Purge. The University of Pisa and and Pisa of University The Purge. Double (The " , 1929 , .

s eom h itrainl rsie f tla hge euain n the and education higher Italian of prestige international the reform is

a opa przoe LUiest d Ps e e eg rzil tr razziali leggi le e Pisa di L’Università epurazione. doppia La otion, the otion, Zsidó Diákbizottság működéséről. Jelentés a Magyarországi Izraeliták Izraeliták Magyarországi a Jelentés működéséről. Diákbizottság Zsidó 67

This interpretation was slightly misleading, because the because misleading, slightly was interpretation This Central Committee for Student Aid Student for Committee Central Egyenlőség 29

t lopments of Italian policy through their their through policy Italian of lopments he Racial Laws Between War and Post and War Between Laws Racial he

the application procedure was simplified as simplified was procedure application the Sne ugra Jwy ece t the to reacted Jewry Hungarian Since . ivities of the Office of Israelites of of Israelites of Office the of ivities

was established. was - nw a a as known - War Period.) War ger e guerra a of n , CEU eTD Collection 72 Jewry) 71 2 1923): 1, Italy)" in exiles the of savior Jaffe, (Elena megmentője bujdosók olasz Jaffe, student)" Jewish Hungarian a for abroad town university 70 69 studying as it a abroadinformation. source whoread useful of considering Jews among it for demand a probably was there 1940, and 1925 between times three German. in exams take to students letting professors in even manifested Italians, of kindness and courtesy the is Italy in studying of aspect highlighted most theHowever, Rome. and Florence,Padua Milan, in canteens student of lack the as such refugees, clausus numerus the by faced were which well, as difficulties other detailed abolished, be should This was and husband Italian her with the from employment. finding in them helped and accommodation Ele hand, other generous the a on on and philanthropist hand, one the on communities and Jewish there Italian employment the finding from of support financial difficulties the on reporting well, as Italy from students peregrin of possibilities the about opinion public Jewish Hungarian informing in and refugees clausus numerus the of support the in indeed role essential culture.” and work life, 1940 in written memoir his in remarked the of founders requirin

Ibid. me diák zsidó magyar egy kerül "Mibe Lajos, Szabolcsi Pál Bethlen (Ed.), (Ed.), Bethlen Pál Almanach , 3. ed (Budapest, (Budapest, ed 3. ,

h aedet f h nmrs luu i 12 dd o sgiiaty in significantly not did 1928 in clausus numerus the of amendment The ifrain Te dtr n he of Chief in editor The information. g – Amnc f ugra Jewry” Hungarian of “Almanach 3.

, written with the purpose of convincing public opinion that the numerus clausus clausus numerus the that opinion public convincing of purpose the with written , Két Committee Numerus clausus. A magyar zsidóság almanachja (Numerus clausus. Almanach of Hungarian Hungarian of Almanach clausus. (Numerus almanachja zsidóság magyar A clausus. Numerus

emberöltő (Two generations) emberöltő 1940), 145. 1940), 69

The Committee and Szabolcsi’s Jewish weekly, Jewish Szabolcsi’s and Committee The a etuisi ognzr f ugra Jws prgiain He peregrination. Jewish Hungarian of organizer enthusiastic an ,

gélhetése a külföldi egyetemi városokban (How much does it cost to live in a a in live to itcost does (How much városokban egyetemi külföldi a gélhetése most active in the intervention on behalf of her compatriots. her of behalf on intervention the in active most - 42: “we saved a whole Hungarian Jewish gener Jewish Hungarian whole a saved “we 42: a af, h spotd h suet wt money, with students the supported who Jaffe, na , 328. , ln af a aHnainld iigi Padua in living lady Hungarian a was Jaffe Elena , 30

, Egyenlőség Egyenlőség

ation. 70

vol. 44, No. 31 (August 1, 1925): 8. 1925): 1, (August 31 No. 44, vol. , Lajos Szabolcsi, was one of the the of one was Szabolcsi, Lajos ,

s e er from learn we As

72 ,

Egyenlőség Egyenlőség ic ti bo ws published was book this Since

Egyenlőség vol.42, No. 48 (December 48 No. vol.42,

ulse ltes of letters published Egyenlőség lec the fluence , played an played ation for for ation

"Elena "Elena

and 71

CEU eTD Collection Yearbooks) hi 75 Yearbooks) to 1932/33) from 1930/31 abroad highereducation 1930/31. to 74 1929/30 from Yearboo abroad education higher 73 bewill prepared. in exiles clausus numerus the of prosopography full the until Hungary to returned who those were who and Belgium or Switzerland France, preferred who nine), (ninety Germany in Hungarians of number forty and hundred (two ho Italy, In chancellor. (seventy quarter twenty decre Germany in students Hungarian of number the that show data Quantitative power. of seizure Nazi the to due Italy for Germany Italypresence hund in withtwo 1931 of year academic The 1932. after only demonstrated is effect this However, students. émigré of number the in decrease the to led have 1929 of crisis economic the that expect argued would One Jewish. not was majority as the that mean not does this above, and Italy in specifically or generally either students Hungarian émigré of number

hr dcto ara fo 1932/32 from abroad education gher " " " A magyar honosságú hallgatók a külföldi főiskolákon 1930/31 külföldi főiskolákon a hallgatók magyarA honosságú mga hnsáú alaó a üfli ősoáo 1929/30 főiskolákon külföldi a hallgatók honosságú magyar A mga hnsáú alaó a üfli ősoáo 1931/32 főiskolákon külföldi a hallgatók honosságú magyar A 75 - ks) 40 (1932), (1932), 293. ks)40

n nutv hptei i ta atr 93 ueos ugra Jws suet left students Jewish Hungarian numerous 1933 after that is hypothesis intuitive An ae i te 90 Hnain tdns peec i Iay oeht erae de o a to due decreased somewhat Italy in presence students’ Hungarian 1930s the in Later four between the two semesters of the academic year 1932 year academic the of semesters two the between four we cannot identify identify cannot we

42 (1934): 321. (1934): 42 318. (1933): 41 - 1933 made the economic situation of Hungar of situation economic the made 1933 -

five) left Germany exactly around January 1933, when Hitler became became Hitler when 1933, January around exactly Germany left five) wever, there were no more students in the second than in the first semesterfirst the in thansecond the in students more no were there wever,

- two). Although in the next academic year we see further decrease in the the in decrease further see we year academic next the in Although two).

who

red and ninety

chose Italy in 1933 in Italy chose

o 1933/34)" to ased from one hundred and ninety and hundred one from ased " , - Magyar eight) and increase in Italy (two hundred and hundred (two Italy in increase and eight) - seven individuals enrolled. individuals seven " - 31 . , 2 culy a a ek f ugra students’ Hungarian of peak a saw actually 32

Magyar Statisztikai Évkönyvek (Hungarian Statistical Statistical (Hungarian Évkönyvek Statisztikai Magyar Magyar Statisztikai Évkönyvek (Hungarian Statistical Statistical (Hungarian Évkönyvek Statisztikai Magyar

Statisztikai Évkönyvek (Hungarian Statistical Statistical (Hungarian Évkönyvek Statisztikai - 1934 over Germany over 1934 - től 1932/33 től - - ó 1931/32 tól ő 1933/34 től ian families so difficult that it could it that difficult so families ian all - ig (Hungarian citizens enrolled in enrolled citizens ig(Hungarian the - - - ig (Hungarian citizens studying in in studying citizens (Hungarian ig ig (Hungarian citizens enrolled in in enrolled citizens (Hungarian ig 1933.

target countries concerned countries target - 73

five to one hundred and hundred one to five 74 to continue studies and studies continue to

Thus, more than one than more Thus,

eighty - , CEU eTD Collection 78 Hunga at Students egyetemekre.” olasz az fiait küldte sűrűn elég óta törvény clausus numerus a amely is, zsidóságot magyarországi a érinti érzékenyen 77 Univ theat Italian Students Jewish guerre. due le tra italiane università nelle stranieri citizens. Italian to only granted professional 76 e clausus numerus the on later university, Italian frequented most the was Padua of University the 1920s the in While eighty cleararguing “itis percent, that at abroad studying Hungarians among Jews of proportion the estimated He known. always not was students enrolled of religion the universities foreign of data the from that remarked Kovács weread can that: article his to introduction his In clausus. numerus the of “results” the of overview his publish to clausus, numerus the of supporter vehement a statistician, Hungarian antisemitic Kovács, Alajos legislation in1938 fore influx the to stop final the However, country. permanent the in the competitors foreign many to so of settling lead not should universities the of internationalization the that demanded doctors, as Italy in work to pharmacists. citizens or foreign veterinarians for difficult it made which 1935 of law new

Ibid., 898. Ibid., A oaz omnnk z az az kormánynak olasz „Az hs a (oa Dce Lw o 184/19 No. Law Decree (Royal law This ign (including Hungarian) Jewish Jewish Hungarian) (including ign An interesting dynamics of Hungarian peregrination can be observed within Italy as well. as Italy within observed be can peregrination Hungarian of dynamics interesting An ueu cass a. hrfr i mgt e mte o itrs hw ay es from Jews many how interest of matter Hungary were a present a be might it the Therefore after law. universities Italian clausus to numerus sons its sent often it since well, as Jewry Hungarian hit go Italian the of decision The int The

associations for the practice of these professions, and membership in these organizations was normally was organizations these in membership and professions, these of practice the for associations Alajos Kovács, " Kovács, Alajos r rian and Foreign Universities.)" Foreign and rian dcin of oduction

, which meant, which adrastic inthe number ingeneral decrease offoreigners xiles discovered more and more universities as the years passed. In the the In passed. years the as universities more and more discovered xiles

Magyarországi zsidó hallgatók a hazai és külföldi főiskolákon. főiskolákon. külföldi és hazai a hallgatók zsidó Magyarországi

elhatározása, hogy a külföldi zsidókat eltiltotta az olasz egyetemek látogatásától, látogatásától, egyetemek olasz az eltiltotta zsidókat külföldi a hogy elhatározása, inr, " Signori, ersities between The Two Wars.)" Two The between ersities h anti the 76

A t Italian universities.t Italian prnl, y h md 1930 mid the by pparently, - Una peregrinatio academica in età contemporanea: gli studenti ebrei ebrei studenti gli contemporanea: età in academica peregrinatio Una vernment to ban foreign Jews from universities will hardly will universities from Jews foreign ban to vernment Jewish from the names and thenames common anyway.” knowledge is from 5 f ac 5 13) prescribed 1935) 5, March of 35 tdns curd ih t with occurred students : 897. (An Academic Peregrination In Contem In Peregrination Academic (An eilto i Italy in legislation

32

77

, , 157 – - 158. Iain rfsinl associations professional Italian s

a uiie a an as utilized was

e nrdcin f antisemitic of introduction he

membership in the respective respective the in membership porary Age: The Foreign Foreign The Age: porary (Hungarian Jewish Jewish (Hungarian

apropos by by apropos .

78

of CEU eTD Collection towns university the in abroad)" live to student Jewish Hungarian a for live to cost it does much (How városokban egyetemi 80 Hungarian of 79 financial difficult very a into got Padua of University the 1925 by since backlashes, have might Padua to influx disproportionate the that soon discovered was It Italy. within peregrination of dynamics the shaped factors granted for taken most the only Not Catania. or Palermo Naples, for North the leave to decided students some Therefore cities. Southern of between than cheaper was b could this Hungary, Italyand Southern Italy Northern and Hungary between travelling although Thus, cities. Italian of standards living the in differences significant were there France), Switzerland, was de typical Italy the among live While to country countries. cheapest the unambiguously different of towns university different in student a maintaining inter of reasons the reconstruct can we opinion, public Jewish Hungarian informing in role major a Padua. from primacy the on took Bologna 1930s

Szlavikovszki, Szlavikovszki, h dt in data The - nvriy oiiy n Italy. in mobility university Table 3: 3: Table , Egyenlőség

- Italian cultural relations between 1880 1945.) and 1880 between relations cultural Italian

the table is based on the following report: report: following the on based is table the Florence Bologna Palermo Modena Catania Naples "Fejezetek a magyar a "Fejezetek Padua Milan Living standard in Italian university town university Italian in standard Living City

Vol. Vol.

44,

No. 31 ( 31

- August 1, olasz kulturális kapcsolatokról 1880 kapcsolatokról kulturális olasz accommodation Egyenlőség Monthly 100 000 100 000 150 000 150 000 100 000 100 80 000 80 000 80 000 80 1925): 8. 1925): e counterbalanced by the generally lower living standard living generally lower the counterbalancedbye

informed its readers on the comparative costs of of costs comparative the on readers its informed 33

79

Studying the reports of reports the Studying "M s (in Hungarian crowns) Hungarian s(in " b krl g mga dá mgleée külföldi a megélhetése diák magyar egy kerül ibe , 134. , Daily food Daily 25 000 25 000 25 000 25 000 25 000 25 000 25 000 25 000 25

– 1945 között. között. 1945

situation due to the presence of presence the to due situation

stinations (Germany, Austria, Austria, (Germany, stinations 80 Egyenlőség (Chapters from the history history the from (Chapters

which had which

the CEU eTD Collection 85 84 to Italy)" come to preparing 83 1925. 82 ( 81 Hungarian from benefit to meant were who those Italy Northern in students Hungarian of majority vast the that out pointed Affairs, István by 1928 in written report interesting An 1930s. and 1920s the during clerks Hungarian by times several acknowledged more spread regulation feesfor oftuition foreigners. consciously should o exiles withdrawal the provoke to not Italy, clausus of universities the among proportionately numerus of community the therefore Egyenlőség 1925. by hundred five than more reached it general, in students foreign of number the Regarding persons. numeru then and report, left Padua for withfour Sicily friendshad toocrowded. Padua become because detaile Fenyves published. of issue same the university. one in concentrated through youth Jewish Hungarian the of behalf on Mazzoni Guido Professor Therefore fee. tuition reduced for or free for studying students foreign of hundreds August 22, 22, August

Ten out of the nineteen Italian universities werein North universities Italian outthe of nineteen Ten Ibid. "A numerus clausus hatodik éve előtt (Before the sixth year of the numerus clausus)" numerus the of year sixth the (Before előtt éve hatodik clausus numerus "A András Fenyves, " Fenyves, András Béla Herczog, Herczog, Béla ): 12. ):

h peodrne f es mn Hnain irn suet i Iay was Italy in students migrant Hungarian among Jews of preponderance The 1923 In

83 1925.): 2. 1925.):

hrfr a ugra Jws mdcl tdn, éa eco, et a article an a sent Herczog, Béla student, medical Jewish Hungarian a Therefore o nom i pes ta i Pda hr wr aray o mn frin students, foreign many too already were there Padua in that peers, his inform to N mnük áub! z tláa ézl dáohz Lts o g t Pda T te students the To Padua! to go not (Let’s diákokhoz készülő Itáliába Az Páduába! menjünk "Ne - 94 ee Hnain eih tdns ee nold n au acrig o a to according Padua in enrolled were students Jewish Hungarian seven 1924 Íg

y éltünk Szicíliában (This is how we lived in Sicily)" in lived we how is (This Szicíliában éltünk y Egyenlőség , Egyenlőség s clausus exiles leaving Germany arrived in groups of twenty and thirty thirty and twenty of groups in arrived Germany leaving exiles clausus s

d the beauty of living and studying in Sicily, mentioning that he had had he that mentioning Sicily, in studying and living of beauty the d

81 n ril o Adá Fnvs mdcl tdn i Ctna was Catania, in student medical Fenyves, András of article an

Maybe to further emphasize the importance of this message, in message, this of importance the emphasize further to Maybe

őe, ugra osli Mln o h iityo Foreign of Ministry the to Milan, in consul Hungarian Pőzel, Vol. Vol. Italian Egyenlősé 44, No.( 36 44, 84

omte fr h Frin eih Students Jewish Foreign the for Committee g 34

September 5, September5, ern Italy. ern - o ae ue ht o al f hm il be will them of all not that sure make to

Italian friendship. I present this report in detail in report this present I friendship. Italian

1925.) , Egyenlőség : 2.

,

Egyenlőség Vol. Vol. 44, 44, 82

No. f the favorable the f

Vol. Vol.

34 ( 34 85

August 22, 22, August ee not were 44, 44,

No. asked

34 to CEU eTD Collection K Affairs, Ministry ofForeign 1928., April 15, 86 immediate the in Although nation”. the to “loyalty of terms in decent was students Hungarian employment Ho whilestudying. part find to eager were they Therefore organizations. Jewish from and families their from support meager with only provided were difficulties, financial had them of Most students. the of when deta interesting administered mentioned he Additionally, data students. enrolling of type the uses he since universities, the from Hungarians on data the for asked he presumably but information, his of sources the identify not did Pőzel individual. t of religion the ascertain to possible not was it cases some in although Jewish, was majority vast the and faculties medical in enrolled universities Italian Northern at students Hungarian feesthe tuition ofthose in1924 enrolled waived universities the of Most knowledge. Italian their improve to time have to order in exams student these towards universities Italian the of detailed he hospitality on Later outset. the from clausus numerus the to Italy in students Hungarian studies. their pursue to emigrants Jewish many lear higher of institutions Italian Northern universities, German and Czech Austrian, Besides increase. to started Italy in arriving students Hungarian of number the clausus” went Hungarians yearItaly. history ofHungarian the peregrination of tofascist fo

István Pőzel, " Pőzel, István r its valuable prosopographical data which provides a detailed cross detailed a provides which data prosopographical valuable its r őe sil n h sa the in still Pőzel few a only War Great the to previously that noting by report his introduced Pőzel h ms srkn rmr md b Pzl s ht h bhvo o tee oty Jewish mostly these of behavior the that is Pőzel by made remark striking most The Milánói Magyar Királyi Főkonzulátus levele. (Letter of the Hunga the of (Letter levele. Főkonzulátus Királyi Magyar Milánói

to study in Italy, however, after the “collapse and especially after the numerus the after especially and “collapse the after however, Italy, in study to

me letter commented on the data he attached to it. The majority of of majority The it. to attached he data the on commented letter me

w difficult it was, we of reports was,knowfrom it the w difficult - 60 - 25 and halved the tuition fees for those enrolling fees the25 and tuition halved for later. - 1928. 20. I/6. item: Italy, Hungarian Nati item: Hungarian I/6. 20. Italy, 1928. 35

86

hs Pzl once te rsne of presence the connected Pőzel Thus, . tdns ee loe t postpone to allowed were Students s.

ils on the financial circumstances financial the on ils rian Royal Consulate of Milan.)" of Consulate Royal rian - section of one academic academic one of section ning were chosen by by chosen were ning onal Archives. onal Egyenlőség

.

- time time he

, CEU eTD Collection 88 Office. Cartographical inState the Hungarian produced of purposes and Trianon of the Treaty the of for creator a as partly France on revenge take to order in partly francs, million ten of value the 87 of universities the whereas Genoa, Modena, and Florence Pisa, of universities the did nor religion, thirty and (eighty students Hungarian of eighteen) and hundred of faculty the while universit The Pőzel, not. did for engineering data this provided faculty medical the Milan of University Royal the at instance, for respect: this in polices different had universities same religion. the of faculties students’ the on data with him provided universities the all not that was reason The Jewish. was majority the that statement the prosopography his forty which of out Hungarians, address, students’ the on andtwo hundred three andreligion. listed birth, faculty enrollment He parents’ of place of names, data available the all adding university each at Hungarians of list universi Italian in enrolled students of summer 1926. the in government Hungarian the of behalf on Minister Foreign Walkó Lajos by the about Szabolcsi Lajos of report quoted earlier the From attitude. patriotic its for Affairs Foreign Students” Hungarian of “Circle Padu The loyally. behaved colonies student the on later the consulate, the required of which intervention politics Hungarian about opinions certain expressed Turin and Milan in the aftermathof

" In 1925 two Hungarian citizens were arrested in the Netherlands for having manufactured false French francs to to francs French false manufactured having for Netherlands the in arrested were citizens Hungarian two 1925 In Report by Lajos Szabolcsi on the activity ofth theon activity Szabolcsi Lajos byReport Student Aid Committee Aid Student 88

In terms of data, Pőzel provided to this letter a table displaying the number of Hungarian of number the displaying table a letter this to provided Pőzel data, of terms In

Turin, and Pavia did. Nevertheless, Pőzel reasonably assumed a preponderance of Jews of preponderance a assumed reasonably Pőzel Nevertheless, did. Pavia and Turin, numerus clausus and the franc counterfeit scandal of 1925 of scandal counterfeitfranc the and clausus numerus reets ognztos A te netgtos eeld te as bn nts were notes bank false the revealed, investigations the As organizations. irredentist

’s activity we can reconstruct tha reconstruct can we activity ’s

- four were indicated as “Israelites”, thus he could not support with support not could he thus “Israelites”, as indicated were four

even received a special commendation from the Ministry of of Ministry the from commendation special a received even e o Pda n Blga acutn fr h mjrt (one majority the for accounting Bologna, and Padua of ies ties in the academic year 1927 year academic the in ties e Central Student AidCommittee" Student Central e

36

t this commendation was expressed expressed was commendation this t - eight respectively) did not record record not did respectively) eight - 28, faculty by faculty and the the and faculty by faculty 28, neetnl, vn different even Interestingly, .

87

some of the students the of some a - based based CEU eTD Collection 1927/28) to 91 1925/26 from Yearbooks) abroad education higher 90 happen twenty Turin in Hungarians, fourteen 89 Gyula individuals): other (among come to chapters the in followed be will life whose individuals twenty the neglected he Consequently, Italy. Hungarianwell. state university as students ofRome’s Northern in not was it because report i an also was Rome of University the Additionally, clausus. numerus the of exiles the not and Hungarians Catholic typically attracted institutions letter two the Obviously, Universities. Gregorian the and Lateran the of students theology and w students Hungarian sending 1883 as early as from partnership official maintained Naples Zoologica”of “Stazione the as such universities, Italian expla be can difference the probably however, former, the than number lower a indicate to statistics latter the expect Yearbooks Statistical Hungarian (Központi Office Statistical Central Hungarian The 1920. in of terms countries these to annexed territories in the from came who citizens Yugoslavian and Czechoslovak Hungarians about was list Pőzel’s that all, thirty and hundred two are there different, the in year academic same religion, indicated which universities those demonstrate one withmaximum fullylists”, “Jewish exception. of lists the since students, Hungarian among

Ibid. At the medical faculty in Milan five out of six Hungarians were Jewish, at the medical faculty in faculty medical the at Jewish, were Hungarians six of out five Milan in faculty medical the At A ayr oosg hallgató honosságú magyar "A

ed to be Jewish. be to ed The official stat official The unn t te rspgahcl aa rvdd y őe’ lte, it letter, Pőzel’s by provided data prosopographical the to Turning

36 (1928): 278. (1928): 36

ined with the official statistics’ counting Hungarians enrolled in Southern in enrolled Hungarians counting statistics’ official the with ined istics of Hungarians enrolled in Italian higher education provided for the the for provided education higher Italian in enrolled Hungarians of istics

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- three out of twenty of out three ,

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CEU eTD Collection policies fascist controversial Italiantowards for implications theatti Jewry with the and antisemitism and fascism Italian between relationship t migration, students. Hungarian attracting Egyenlőség emphasized characteri was movement clausus. numerus the of age the in considerably increased Italy from expulsion foreign as a Jew. father his and wife his both 1938 In family. “For 1927 in Padua in studying was Lukács Imre family. Italian his with living dentist a as 1944 in even Bologna in him find we and 1939 t in dentist a became he Later Sándor György War. World Second even the during engineers as Italy in lived them of both Milan, in engineering studied Ney György and the in and Bologna of University the of archives the in found documents the of basis the Lukács,on Imre and Sándor,György Ney, Fogel,György inr wo upr fascism” support who eigners umn up, Summing . As a result, by the 1930s the University of Bologna took over Padua’s primacy in primacy Padua’s over took Bologna of University the 1930s the by result, a As . ) e et hpe move chapter next he , in addition by an inter an byaddition in , h sgiiac o Italy of significance the e b a rpneac o Jw ( Jews of preponderance a by zed he same city. He was exempted from the Italian anti Italian the from exempted was He city. same he

aig ad l ti aot h dnmc of dynamics the about this all said Having s

- . Later he converted and married into a respected fascist fascist respected a into married and converted he Later . university mobility in Italy, promoted by students’ reports in reports students’ by promoted Italy, in mobility university h fcs o h Iain esetv, ulnn te debated the outlining perspective, Italian the to focus the

- 1928, where he was the founder of a student group of of group student a of founder the was he where 1928, 38 - in as a target country of Hungarian peregrination peregrination Hungarian of country target a as w

tude towards as foreign well. Jews - Central State Archives of Rome. Gyula Fogel Gyula Rome. of Archives State Central as a itree o hs eaf o rvn his prevent to behalf his on intervened law

studying medicine in Bologna at th at Bologna in medicine studying This Hungarian academic migratory academic Hungarian This s oh non both as ugra Jewish Hungarian - es n Jews and Jews - Jewish laws in laws Jewish

is time. is CEU eTD Collection 1938 was solely not consequencean German development internal influence the butof of aswell. compa a not was antisemitism that argue I Germany. Nazi with interests of community the to linked development p was fascism Italian whether question the pose to scholars compels Reich Third Nazi the of ally an as War World Second the inthe academicJews sphere. foreign towards attitude fascist of manifestation the to chapter next the in on move can we So previous fascism during simultaneously applied were policies focuses section second The simultaneously. implemented even occasionally were policies controversial rangin history its throughout Jews towards policy possible every practiced but policy, Jewish comprehensive a possess not did fascism Italian regime.For fascist the of policies Jewish multiple the explaining Italyposes thequestion why fascist receptive immigration.for a environment provided their inter and Italy towards peregrination provoked dynamics the and Italy for period interwar the in Hungary left students III. Fascist Italy as Targeta Country of JewishPeregrination tible with antisemitism. The sudden The antisemitism. with tible

The relation of Italian fascism with antisemi with fascism Italian of relation The Jewish Hungarian of hundreds why chapters previous the in analyzed having After The kinship of Italian fascism and German Nazism and the involvement of fascist Italy inItaly fascist of involvement the and Nazism German and fascism Italian of kinship The on the relationship of fascism and Italian Jewry, presenting how the contr the how presenting Jewry, Italian and fascism of relationship the on III. 1. The Develop III. ie u non qua sine g from neutrality through benevolence and favoring Zionism to antisemitism. Such antisemitism. to Zionism favoring and benevolence through neutrality from g

of Italian fascism, however the fascist doctrine and the regime was was regime the and doctrine fascist the however fascism, Italian of

redetermined to turn antisemitic or whether this was a contingent a was this whether or antisemitic turn to redetermined ment of Antisemitism within Italian Fascism within Italian Antisemitism of ment “Voltefaccia” “Voltefaccia” 39 - nvriy irto isd Iay ti chapter this Italy, inside migration university

tism is (“turnabout”) of the fascist system in system fascist the of (“turnabout”)

treated in detail in the first section, first the in detail in treated ly

to the antisemitic turn in 1938. in turn antisemitic the to of the numerus clausus clausus numerus the of

adictory Jewish Jewish adictory

CEU eTD Collection 95 LawsRacial the to Emancipation 94 48. 1978), University Press, Oxford Michaelis, Universi Hebrew Jewry, Contemporary of Institute Harman Avraham Antisemitism, Se (Eds.) 93 2002). 92 the British Mandate. shif he this, fulfill not did Zionists anti its for Zionism favored Mussolini well. as Zionism for sympathy expressed publicly Mussolini’s by encouraged was th At schools). public on influence Catholic of increase the by (provoked schools Jewish of founding the and environment, social the of nationalism heated (italianit pre the consciousness period revivalofJewish this sawfascism, the time at the same r yearsthe of fourteen Michaelis,referred“honeymoon toastheir period”by Meir crimesb can it offascism, fascist original system the from different regime a was Italy in Jews persecuted that regime the and Italian argumentation, (de on

Robert Meir Michaelis, Meir Emilio y u t Gra influence German to due ly Michael fascist

. is o al te mcbe eainhp f tla Jws cmuiis ih h regime, the with communities Jewish Italian of relationship amicable the all, of First the of turn antisemitic and racist the that holding Historians

-

go el Proa n Robert and Pergola Della rgio Wistrich, Wistrich, While this narrative appears to be rather apologetic and handy for those downplaying the the downplaying those for handy and apologetic rather be to appears narrative this While à W lbrl g i wih eih ulc pno rie ietfcto wt Ita with identification raised opinion public Jewish which in age liberal WWI Gentile, Gentile, Mussolini and the Jews: German Jews: the and Mussolini ) to the level of a religious duty. religious a of level the to ) del izzazione Ledeen, Ledeen, Fascism "The Current Debate over Fas over Debate Current "The "Fascism "Fascism Te vlto o Iain acs Antisemitism" Fascist Italian of Evolution "The

egime (1922 egime fascism o: storia e interpretazione (Fascism: (Fascism: interpretazione e storia o:

acso a termed as fascismo)

and the Jews of Italy" Jewsof the and e supported withafewreasonablearguments.

(New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010). Macmillan, Palgrave York: (New -

rts fnto. fe cnldn b te 90 ta te general the that 1930s the by concluding After function. British

due to its turning antisemitic turning its to due

- Wistrich (Jerusalem: Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of of Study the for Center International Sassoon Vidal (Jerusalem: Wistrich ted his support to the Revisionist Zionists who fought against fought who Zionists Revisionist the to support his ted 1936). pa aot poes f “de of process a about speak - Italian Relations and the Jewish Question in Italy, 1922 Italy, in Question Jewish the and Relations Italian

cist Racial Policy" Racial cist While the integration of Italianduring continued theof Jewry integration While 95 , in ,

Such a renaissance of Judaism was an effect of the of effect an was Judaism of renaissance a Such

Fascist antisemitism and the Italian Je the and antisemitism Fascist y mlo Gentile Emilio by 40

itr ad I and History , in , 93 under Nazi pressure Nazi under e same time the Jewish renaissance Jewish the time same e

Fascist Fascist 5. ,

lasted for quite a long time, the first quitealasted the for time, long ; . Cristina Bettin, Bettin, Cristina nterpretation) 92 A

- ntisemitism and the Italian Jews Italian the and ntisemitism fascist A ty of Jerusalem, 1995), 50; Meir Meir 50; 1995), Jerusalem, of ty Italian crig o hs ie of line this to ccording

zto of ization 94 ws fascist

when compared to (Roma , 13. , It lost its essence, its lost alian Jews from from Jews alian

- - 1945 regime was was regime Bari: Laterza, Laterza, Bari: fascism

(Oxford: (Oxford: ly ly ” , CEU eTD Collection 98 full co and 1946) Aires, (Buenos God” to Talks Rakover “Yosl text Yiddish teaching”) his and personality his Mussolin (“Mussolini, of author Kolitz, Archivio Zvi item, was Civitavecchia 70th of graduate Jews), (Foreign Stranieri Ebrei di A16 Stato dello Centrale Sicurezza, Pubblica Direzione dell’Interno, Ministero 1934, Interior.", of Ministry the in Security Public of Department the with latter the of correspondence and Council, 97 Jews Italian 96 the At identity. Italian of marker a became Catholicism anticlericalism, of instead establishment Italysiècle lower middle middle and class for discontent. fact Ju others). (among Church Catholic result a was Italy of unification the outset, the from anticlerical was not did leadership, potential diffusersItalian of cultureEast. inthe Middle wit state Jewish future the provided Civitavecchia. of school nautical the in Zionists Revisionist Lithuanian and Czechoslovak, Polish German, Italian training financedof government the the 1934 and 1938 gove Italian the of support financial the with and patronage the under the and 1926 in established Rhodes of Academy Rabbinical the Both communities. Jewish the with partnerships Mediterra building the through in influence Italian expanding in particular in Zionists Italian on counted

Wistrich, Wistrich, Simonetta Della Seta, Seta, Della Simonetta Crepnec o te soito o Iain eiins Zoit wt te rsdn o te atcl Scho Nautical the of President the with Zionists Revisionist Italian of Association the of "Correspondence daism - length feature film feature length

it was anticlericalism rather than antisemitism t antisemitism than rather anticlericalism was it It is i is It but colonialism, British against weapon a as Zionism on counted only not Mussolini T

he and did not secularize it as it secularize not did and "Fascism and the Jews the Italy" of and "Fascism , 40. , Lateran Concordat Lateran mportant to note that the strengthening of Italian nationalism Italian of strengthening the that note to mportant

“Hill 24 Doesn’t Answer” Doesn’t “Hill24 Roma. necessarily "Italian Zionism Confronts Fascist and the Racial Laws" Racial the and Fascist Confronts Zionism "Italian

; Della Seta, Seta, Della

of 1929 broke the anticlerical tradition of the nation the of tradition anticlerical the broke 1929 of lead to a to lead

T "Italian Zionism Confronts Fascism and the Racial Laws" Racial the and Fascism Confronts Zionism "Italian h professional sailors and in exchange provided herself with herself provided exchange in and sailors professional h , 14. ,

eeoe tla ntoait dd not did nationalists Italian herefore occurred in the case of numerous European nationalisms. nationalisms. European numerous of case the in occurred Federation of Sephardic Jews Sephardic of Federation

in

published in Tel Aviv in 1936, author of the influential religious religious influential the of author 1936, in Aviv Tel in published strengthening of antisemitism, since Italian nationalism Italian since antisemitism, of strengthening (1954). Fascist Fascist 41

A

ntisemitism and the Italian Jews, Italian the and ntisemitism hat i’s Hebrew biography biography Hebrew i’s

provide 98

- producer and co and producer d

a functional equivalent in fin in equivalent functional a

of a long struggle long a of founded in 1929 functioned 1929 in founded rnment. , in , 97 “Mussolini ishiato vetorato” vetorato” ishiato “Mussolini Fascist

With this support Italy support this With as an aim of aim an as ae on take - writer 96 13

Later on, between Lateron, A - 18. ntisemitism and the and ntisemitism

of the first Israeli Israeli first the of

- ahlc anti Catholic state. With its With state. , 44. ,

against the against the

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CEU eTD Collection Mussolini) with (Conversations Mussolini con 100 elections. 99 th 1936, July in side Franco’s on War Civil Spanish the in involvement the narrative a such In Germany. as interest of community same the of part Italy made which fascism of history international the of events groundbreaking the of significance interviews, Mussolini” of volume Ludwig’s Emil in (“stupidaggine”) “nonsense” it Mussolini, For disassociating expressed sympathystill publicists Nazi themselvesracism. for party, from theNazi Arbeiterpartei Deutsche cumbersome rather was Germany Hitler’s and Italy out that the regime abandoned anticlericalism,Italy. which wasintegrationof Jewish in thekey deb the sideof other onthe scholars time, At thesame fascism.benefittedfrom leadership denominational Jewish the that fact the to point justifiably antisemitism and fascism 1930 in Nevertheless the persecution. for achievement of period the in Jews identify to easy subsequently it made and freedom religious violated obviously regulation This Judaism). with refused who annual (those contribute dues with Communities Jewish the sim in manifested a themselves, demanding in succeeded communities Jewish the also time same

h NDP o oe ude ad ee sas n th in seats seven and hundred one won NSDAP The Michaelis, Michaelis, The rise of Nazism did not immediately change Italian fascism, since cooperation between between cooperation since fascism, Italian change immediatelynot did Nazism of rise The Historians insisting on the independence of Italian fascism and antisemitism em antisemitism and fascismItalian of independence the on insisting Historians

. 100 "The Current Debate over Fascist Racial Policy", Racial Fascist over Debate Current "The

was a “Nordic heresy” of true fascism and he dismissed it two years later as as later years two it dismissed he and fascism true of heresy” “Nordic a was

communities’ leadership, and scholars arguing for the independence of Italian of independence the for arguing scholars and leadership, communities’ . Jews were obliged to belong to the territorially competent community and to to and community competent territorially the to belong to obliged were Jews . ntcal sces n etme 1930, September in success noticeable )

oc Laws Rocco

(Milano: Mondadori, 2000). Mondadori, (Milano:

f 1930 of 42 Rihtg u o fv hnrd n seventy and hundred five of out Reichstag e to do so had to compile a file to officially break up filebreak up toofficially compile a to dosohad to

. After the NSDAP’s ( NSDAP’s the After . - e establishment of the Berlin the of establishment e 1 hc etbihd the established which 31

52. ; Benito Mussolini and Emil Ludwig, Emil and Mussolini Benito

(Originally published in 1932.) in (Originallypublished 99

usln ad edn Italian leading and Mussolini Nationalsozialistische Nationalsozialistische “ ilar arrangement for for arrangement ilar ovrain with Conversations ate justifiably point ate justifiablypoint - 1 hs en an meant this 31 no o Italian of Union - Rome Axis in Axis Rome - seven in the the in seven phasize the the phasize

Colloqui Colloqui

CEU eTD Collection 104 2006). Press, 103 (Roma ed 3. 102 Einaudi,1961). 101 conspira belief inanJewish “international a in transformed easily was which community Jewish international the of power the in belief convincing, is antisemitism than Mussolini in m a wasGermanophobia that statement Wistrich’s While declarations. his a book, antisemitism. and fascism of connection the over debate the activated of development logical dictatorship a as 1938 of legislation antisemitic the and Holocaust, fascism. of new a introduced 1961 empire inEthiopia. colonial a of building the years: those in enterprise major Italy’s is framework explanatory this in Berlin the stabilize to readiness and Europe Central in expansion Germany’s prevent to failure his acknowledged having after rivalries aside put to willingness legisla antisemitic the framework this In turn. antisemitic the explains which Italy on influence Nazi increasing ever events of chain a as explained be can 1938 March in Anschluss the and year same the of October ntisemitism

Wistrich, Wistrich, Michele Sarfatti, Sarfatti, Michele Collotti, Enzo Renzo De Felice, Felice, De Renzo Te es n usln’ Italy” Mussolini’s in Jews “The The Mussolini’s main characteristic was indeed his inner ambiguity and deliberate duplicity in duplicity deliberate and ambiguity inner his indeed wascharacteristic main Mussolini’s - "Fascism and the Jews the Italy", of and "Fascism

Bari: Laterza, 2008), 3. 2008), Laterza, Bari:

. publication of of publication

e eie interpreted Felice De The fiftieth anniversary in 1988 of the antisemitic legislation’s implementation re implementation legislation’s antisemitic the of 1988 in anniversary fiftieth The challengingimage his leadera benevolent misled asby Hitler. Il Fascismo e gli Ebrei: le leggi ra leggi le Ebrei: gli e Fascismo Il The Jews in Mussolini’s Italy: From Equality to Persecution to Equality From Italy: Mussolini’s in Jews The Storia degli ebrei italiani sotto il fascismo (History of the Italian Jews under Fascism) under Jews Italian the of (History fascismo il sotto italiani ebrei degli Storia tion is interpreted as a sign given by Mussolini to Hitler to indicate his his indicate to Hitler to Mussolini by given sign a as interpreted is tion

stream in historio in stream

“History of the Italian Jews under under Jews Italian the of “History

h hsoy f Italian of history the

16 , –

17. also graphy, antithetical to the to antithetical graphy, cy”, the most commoncy”, basis ofmodern most antisemitism. the zziali in zziali

104 argue 43

the very basis of his pro his of basis very the

Italia (Fascism and the Jews: T Jews: the and (Fascism Italia d

o a autonomo an for fascism Fascism - Rome Axis. What is ov is What Axis. Rome

(Madison: University of Wisconsin Wisconsin of University (Madison: narrative of the Nazification the of narrative s peue o h Italian the to prelude a as ” 102 s genesis us by Renzo De F De Renzo by

- Zionist choices was hiswas choices Zionist ore authentic sentiment authentic ore Michele Sarfatti Sarfatti Michele 103 he he

Racial L Racial

f Mussolini’s of Mussolini’s aws in Italy) in aws elice erlooked

(Torino: (Torino: in his in 101

in - ,

CEU eTD Collection http://archivio.camera.it/patrimonio/archivio_della_camera_regia_1848_1943/are01o/documento/CD0000007126. 2014., April 22, Access: decree 107 106 105 a became Italians among consciousness” “racial raising that indicates law this Ethiopians. and Italians between legislation against an people. allegedly inferior war a propaganda,as racist Italianwith media in justified attackwas The ideology. fascist coreof Italy and Empire Roman ancient the of renovation the as both conquest by tha admit to have we regime, his on influence German increased rapprochement such that state can we While Ethiopia. against aggression her after arena international the in suffered Italy sanctions economic was himself. pro the of head the onwards 1936 from since party, his in Mussolini on (1935 War Ethiopian strengthene was which totalitarization, progressive to inclination its to due creed fascist the in inherent sense certain a in was antisemitism that maintains also he Nevertheless, th of causes main the pro Party) Fascist Fascista/National Nazionale (Partito PNF’s the of pressure

Michaelis, Felice, De Renzo ... 9 pie 97 n 80 ul snin pr rpot didl cnuae r ctaii sdii (Roya sudditi e cittadini tra coniugale d’indole rapporti i per sanzioni sulle 880 n. 1937, aprile 19 R.D.L. f - a o 1t Arl 97 n 80 n h rpias o cnua rltosis ewe ctzn ad subjects and citizens between relationships conjugal for reprisals the On 880 n. 1937, April 19th of law or Mussolini was driven to become polit become to driven was Mussolini the and alliance German the strengthening of necessity perceived the defines Felice De It is essential that the antisemitic laws of 1938 were not the first pieces of racist racist of pieces first the not were 1938 of laws antisemitic the that essential is It

her her during fascism, but were preceded by the by precededwere but fascism, during "The Current Debate over Fascist Racial Policy" Racial Fascist over Debate Current "The t the aggression against Ethiopia was an Italian initiative. The building of an empire an of building The initiative. Italian an was Ethiopia against aggression the t 106 “vittoria mutilata” “vittoria

Storia degli ebrei italiani sotto il fascismo sotto italiani ebrei degli Storia

- 36). Michaelis, claims that De Felice exaggerated the pro the exaggerated Felice De that claims Michaelis, 36). debate. the of side other the on scholars to similarly turn, antisemitic e

107 (“mutilated victory”) in the First World War World First the in victory”) (“mutilated

While racism should not be confounded with antisemitism, with confounded be not should racism While ically pro ically 44

, , 82. (Torino: Einaudi, 2008), 243 2008), Einaudi, (Torino: law of 19 of law - German in 1936 due to the isolation and isolation the to due 1936 in German

th

April 1937 prohibiting marriages prohibiting 1937 April

as a “compensation” for for “compensation” a as - German extremist wing extremist German - 244. - German faction as faction German major concern for for concern major - , German pressure German

d after the Italo the after d

belonged to the the to belonged 105 - l ,

CEU eTD Collection 108 eng the Ethiopia, against aggression her afterBerlin the wa Why Italy. in introduced was discrimination antisemitic no years two another for Still, Hitler. to aversion his overcome to him helped development new This belief. same the for 1936 in all for and once Zionism and of interests the promote would it thought He Palestine. in Jews Italian in life Jewish reviving helped in Zionists helped and Mediterranean the in institutions Jewish he organizing why is This life. his throughout consistently professed he beliefs on was This Jewry. world of alliance international the of existence) the in also (thus, him. betrayed had Jewry Zionists that concluding of instead Mussolini Lattes, and Orvieto of failure the From Ethiopia). against aggression Italy’s for sanctions the of (part Italy against blockade economic the end to League the and government c to Geneva and Paris London, to Lattes, Dante and Orvieto Angelo Zionism, Italian of spokesmen authoritative most two the sent Mussolini Zionists. with disappointment Mussolini’s to led that consequences its for as racism of cultivation the for much toanti opposition Jewish of lack the by demonstrated is contemporaries of eyes the in antisemitism from distant Counc Grand Fascist the of decision the of matter a only was insiders or outsiders racial as Jews of identification the Therefore power. in those of competence the was race” “Italian the in membership of definition the that and regime the

Ledeen, Indeed, the Italo the Indeed, The international isolation of Italy of The ofthe international followingthesanctions isolation "The Evolution of Italian Fascist Antisemitism", Fascist Italian of Evolution "The - Rome Axis’s establishment in1936? Axis’s Rome - Blackracism. -

108

Ethiopian War is crucial in the evolution of fascist antisemitism n antisemitism fascist of evolution the in crucial is War Ethiopian had little influence in international politics, came to believe that world that believe to came politics, international in influence little had

Such a conviction demonstrates that Mussolini believed in the power the in believed Mussolini that demonstrates conviction a Such s antisemitic legislation introduced after the Anschluss and not right not and Anschluss the after introduced legislation antisemitic s

agement in the Spanish Civil War on Franco’s side (July side Franco’s on War Civil Spanish the in agement 45

13. il. How much anti much How il.

Italy. However, he turned against Jews against turned he However, Italy. onvince Zionist leaders, the British the leaders, Zionist onvince - Black racism seemed to be to seemed racism Black League of Nations of League o the of e

due to ot so ot CEU eTD Collection Antisemitism:R 109 German the of amalgam an as antisemitism elite) the in and intelligentsia the in visibility to due war fascist militancy. revitalize to needed was enemy an but positively, very confrontation and war evaluated outset achieved be can mobilization constant enemy, an fighting of vision a with support society’s secure to need regimes totalitarian detail analyzesin totalitarianism. of development the namely fascism, for function essential another fulfilled antisemitism time same the At 1936. in Jews the against turned had Duce the Fascist the that add to necessary is it that argue I However, alliance. the deepen to decision Mussolini’s Third Reich asally. an I andrivalriesthat proveaside put Italyto of decided Council Grand Fascist the Soon Empire. German enlarged an of establishment the preventing in failure a became Anschluss the Neverthe system. Treaty Peace Versailles the of of revision the issue support the not did In Italy Austria, border. her on Austria with unified Germany Great a have to interest Italy’s interest Fascist the of fundament Rome the of establishment following the and 1936)

Francesco Germinario, Germinario, Francesco against Ethiopia, against

h Iain nieii lgsain f 98 s nepee a a in ie t Hte for Hitler to given sign a as interpreted is 1938 of legislation antisemitic Italian The Grand Council’s decision to use antisemitism for this function was conceivable because conceivable was function this for antisemitism use to decision Council’s Grand immediately, racial racial

Jews were tobeJews used for perfectscapegoats just the Project and Totalitarian I Totalitarian and Project

spiral that forced Mussolini to shape his dictatorship as antisemitic, because antisemitic, as dictatorship his shape to Mussolini forced that spiral

as the only somewhat “Significant Other” (not numerically though, only only though, numerically (not Other” “Significant somewhat only the as u t te Italian the to due acso atsmtso poet rzil e ideo e razziale progetto antisemitismo: e Fascismo

fait accompli fait - Nazi

omnt o destiny of community

ideology) only if identifying internal enemies internal identifying if only in March 1938. It was time for Mussolini to accept his accept to Mussolini for time was It 1938. March in - emn ofit vr eta Erp. t a against was It Europe. Central over conflict German - Italian alliance as well, and in this sense accepts the the accepts sense this in and well, as alliance Italian

46 (Roma

- Bari: Laterza, 2009), 58 2009), Laterza, Bari: - I cud o tr it a into turn not could It . Germinario . eln xs Otbr 96 cetd the created 1936) (October Axis Berlin taly was ready to cooperate with the with cooperate ready was to taly this purpose this

recognizes the function of of function the recognizes logia totalitaria (Fascism and and (Fascism totalitaria logia –

65. Germinario Francesco . 109

after the end after theof the

Fascism from the from Fascism community of of community less, less, and and

CEU eTD Collection 111 110 the basis for antisemitism. fascist pro and philosemitic of basis the provided lobby, Jewish international an of existence the in belief the prejudice, same The people. homogenizing and totalitarianism up building of aspirations with to road the on fascism of development inner this thus, totalitarization, stream for was useful theregime. themost of result a was racism of Spiritual degree Nazism. some maintain still to willingness his marks racism spiritual racism. Nazi from and other each from distinguishable of for “exem antisemitic thepurposesJewish the legislation,institution of thus Jews fascist regarding not of possibility the maintained racism” “spiritual Yet spirit”. “Jewish possessing onlythose Arian the to belonged Italians all not Therefore well. as spirit the in manifested was characteristic,arace realizing corporal totalitarianHowever, racewas revolution. but only the not Arian the regenerated fascism that claimed theory Evola’s called so The schools. Italian toNa kept relation racism in which differences the detail in analyzes he Nevertheless fascism”. of “Nazification of notion

Ibid., 77 Ibid., 99 Ibid., - Zionist fascist policies in the “honeymoon perio “honeymoon the in policies fascist Zionist h to te shos f aim booia rcs ad national and racism biological racism, of schools other two The mid the in characterized was racism Italian Summing up, fascism had the potential to turn antisemitic because of being a dic a being of because antisemitic turn to potential the had fascism up, Summing – – 81. 110.

the militant spirituality of fascism. of spiritualitymilitant the “spiritual racism” “spiritual

zi racezi theory.

represented by Julis Evola won the regime’s support. regime’s the won Evola Julis by represented 47

- d” of fascism and Jewry, but Jewry, and fascism of d” 0 b a etd eae ewe different between debate heated a by 30s 111 110 -

Ro

Therefore Mussolini’s preference for preference Mussolini’s Therefore Jews were excluded by virtue of theirof virtue by excluded were Jews man race which had the mission of mission the had which race man

independence from from independence - ptions”. aim r hardly are racism also - Roman race, Roman

provided tatorship tatorship CEU eTD Collection XII. 1990), Press, Nebraska 114 is version’s title Italian the Italian, onlyin later and first English in published 113 112 anti and liberalism “a was fascism definition, Grand’s De Using it. anyone tooppose notpredestinate did being Jewish fascism, to the essence of I intertwined.was beingJewish forof Mussolini Shewrote a long theDuce. thefirst time. hagiographicbiographyof newspaper fascist official the of editor both Mini the Finance Jung in Guido positions as such prestigious regime, consolidated most held them of some movement), early the of martyrs were and held, was meeting founding the where averageseenItalians. aslike just potentiallyconvertible people tofascism comingMussolini’s topower). 1 in unification the (from age liberal the during integration quick a to way their paving the during unification Italy’s for enthusiastically live to Jews Roman forced State Papal The Italy. of unification the after Vatican the of influence meager the to due isolated (19 anti Catholic born and noticeable hardly was antisemitism modern Italy, in phenomenon was movement fascist the when Indeed,

Alexander De Grand, Grand, De Alexander inItaly only1870. unified to wasRome annexed Margherita Sarfatti, Sarfatti, Margherita Jews were not only among the founding fathers of fascism wereamong (Cesare Jews founding fathers of notonly the antisemitism”. of free country European only “the as Italy to refer to liked Mussolini Retrospectively, Evola and ot and Evola Retrospectively, - socialism, the core of its ideology was radical nationalism radical was ideology its of core the socialism, The Life of Benito Mussolini Benito of Life The Italian Fascism. Its Origins and Development. and Origins Its Fascism. Italian

III. 2. The Fascist Regime and Italian Jews Italian and Regime 2. The Fascist III.

in ghettos even in the mid the in even ghettos in

112 t was not the case before 1938. Since antisemitism did not belongnot did antisemitism Sincecase beforethe 1938. not was t

Therefore in the time of the fascist movement’s birth Jews were birthJews movement’s fascist of time the Therefore inthe her fascist ideologues strived to prove that anti that prove to strived ideologues fascist her doctrine of bourgeois resurgence whose essence was anti was essence whose resurgence bourgeois of doctrine

“Popolo d’Italia” “Popolo Duilio Sinigaglia, Gino Bolaffi and Bruno Modolfo Modolfo Bruno and Bolaffi Gino Sinigaglia, Duilio

(New 48

Risorgimento York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1925). Stokes, A. Frederick York: - 19 19 tr (1932 ster th - , 2. ed (Lincoln and London: University of University London: (Lincoln 2. ed , and

2, nieiim a a isolated an was antisemitism 22), century, no wonder that Jews fought Jews that wonder no century,

(“Italy’s People”) and the mistress the and People”) (“Italy’s

Dux and thus and - . 5. ageia afti was Sarfatti Margherita 35).

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CEU eTD Collection 116 115 to suspect fascists 1926. H education). primary in education religious Catholic obligatory of the introduction towards the government notably (most Mussolini’s Vatican of gestures reconciliatory increasing the to due 1926 being of certificate the possessing Jews fiftythe in participants and hundred two the instance (for fascism vandal investigated attacksnever never were and antisemites oppressed inthe fascist party. anti that out points fascism, Italian in antisemitism of continuity a of view the supports me the among shawls) prayer and books political different unified rebellion prayer synagogues, of gates (smashing vandalism antisemitic of perpetrators This were There streams. War. World First the in Italy of victory mutilated fascisms evaluation ofmodernity. Italian Furthermore, anticlericalism. s another possessed historical fascism its to due not did nationalism Italian above, argued as antisemitism, modern with hand in hand often go nationalism radical and socialism anti liberal, t

De Sarfatti, alitarianism, inevitably put Jews in a delicate situation as members of a minority. Therefore minority. a of members as situation delicate a in Jews put inevitably alitarianism, Felice, Felice, 116 ez D Feli De Renzo time same the At The double The

, since the starting point was a rebellion against the liberal the against rebellion a was point starting the since , The Jews in Mussolini’s Italy Mussolini’s in Jews The - Storia degli ebrei italian ebrei degli Storia socialist, and Italian nationalist Jews were att were Jews nationalist Italian and socialist, owever, Mussolini consciously built up a policy leading to a compromise in in compromise a to leading policy a up built consciously Mussolini owever,

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dual loyalty. The ambition to homogenize the population, cha population, the homogenize to ambition The loyalty. dual

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especially in the beginning the in especially ubstantial feature which distanced it from antisemitism: the positive the antisemitism: from it distanced which feature ubstantial

i sotto il fascismo i sotto , 2006, 46. 2006, , ), the community leadership was distrustful between 1922 and 1922 between distrustful was leadership community the ),

br o te acs top. ihl Srat, who Sarfatti, Michele troops. fascist the of mbers , 49 2008,

78 – – 101.

there was not one fascism, but different but fascism, one not was there racted to it. While anti While it. to racted

establishment blamed for the the for blamed establishment - liberalism, anti liberalism, racterizing - 115 Jewish

- CEU eTD Collection 119 1924. fascist since ofphysiology, professor Foà, Carlo and (1925 Rome of University the of rector 1921, since fascist philosophy, P of Member economy, 118 1922 117 th created he newspaper the which in article unsigned an in published he Committee, year Palestinian same the in 1928, In benevolence. his of limitations M Seta. As Ugo Ojetti, writeroftheart critic, and member Della appoint to refused earlier days few a just had he that mention not did He nominee. a was members Jewish no been had there his anti Mussolini’s for excluded deliberately appointed. was nominees Jewish the of none yet on, 1929 in inauguration academy’s the from Mussolini membership. the from chance by missing Jew that argued Capristo Annalisa government. the by appointed were who members, the to allowance annual high including state, the by funded generously was academy 1 the founded Mussolini academies. of role dominant the by characterized the to appointed was scholar Jewish duringperiod”.“honeymoon the anti 926

ussolini refusedussolini Seta’s Della appointmentprecisely Dellawas because Setaa Jew. Capristo, Capristo, Annalisa Capristo, " Capristo, Annalisa Among the excellent Jewish scholars who were suggested to Mussolini were Mussolini to suggested were who scholars Jewish excellent the Among - “Conversations with Mussolini” with “Conversations - eih upcos n crepnig attitu corresponding and suspicions Jewish 1945

for the sake of centralizing and controlling more effectively the field of culture. This This culture. of field the effectively more controlling and centralizing of sake the for hl nmru Jw w Jews numerous While In fact, Mussolini even in his philosemitic and pro and philosemitic his in even Mussolini fact, In , Ed. by Joshua Zimmerman Ed.by Joshua 118 "The Exclusion of Jews from Italian Academies", Jewsof Italian Exclusion from "The

As early as in 1929 anti 1929 in as early As The Exclusion of Jews from Italian Academies" Italian from Jews of Exclusion The rimn, acs sne 93 n Ctoi fo 13; iri Dl eci, pr Vecchio, Del Giorgio 1932; from Catholic and 1923 since fascist arliament,

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appointed yet, however Alessandro Della Seta archeologist Seta Della Alessandro however yet, appointed Accademia d’Italia Accademia in 1932. The Duce stated that it was only by chance that that chance by only was it that stated Duce The 1932. in - fascist émigrés in Par in émigrés fascist ge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 81 2005), Press, University ge:Cambridge - Jewish prejudice. Emil Ludwig raised the question in question the raised Ludwig Emil prejudice. Jewish 117 50

d xeln Jws shlr wr sgetd to suggested were scholars Jewish Excellent

es existed always in the fascist regime, even even regime, fascist the in always existed es

82.

Accademia d’Italia . Italian cultural sphere was traditionally was sphere cultural Italian . - , in , Zionist period took care to clarify the clarify to care took period Zionist - 27); Federigo Enriques scholar of geometry; geometry; of scholar Enriques Federigo 27); is held that Jewish candidates were candidates Jewish that held is Jews in Italy under Fascist and Nazi Rule, Rule, Nazi and Fascist under Italy in Jews Gino Arias, p Arias, Gino Accademia d’Italia Accademia , “Il Popolo di Roma” di Popolo “Il

ish scholars were not were scholars ish – revealed diary, inhis 95.

rofessor of political political of rofessor 119

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Ibid., 11. Ibid., Ledeen, Fausto Coen, Fausto The Racial L Racial The Nonetheless, ut ie hr wr fsit n atfsit es tee ee niacs Zionists antifascist were there Jews, antifascist and fascist were there like Just God "The Evolution of Italian Fascist Antisemitism" Fascist Italian of Evolution "The

- forsaken Southern Italian village during his exile. his during village Italian Southern forsaken Italiani ed ebrei: come eravamo : le leggi razzial leggi le eravamo : come ebrei: ed Italiani

, was also exiled to the South as a result of this trial and the novel was inspired by his experiences experiences his by inspired was novel the and trial this of result a as South the to exiled also was , aws of 1938) of aws often

adzi Iain osl n M in consul Italian Barduzzi, emphasized. emphasized.

(Genova: Marietti, 1988), 17. 1988), Marietti, (Genova: -

fascist organization organization fascist

ntify Jews collectively as anti as collectively Jews ntify Neverthe - belonging to the Italian race, the possibility of Jews’ Jews’ of possibility the race, Italian the to belonging less, until the publication of the thepublication of until the less, - f 51 ascis 122 , 8 ,

isii e libe e Giustizia

– After the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War Civil Spanish the of outbreak the After 9. m

Carlo Levi, the author of the famous novel novel famous the of author the Levi, Carlo (Mussolini’s article concerned was written a propos propos a written was concerned article (Mussolini’s

n as i te Italian the in also and arseille, i del 1938 (Italians and Jews: T Jews: and (Italians 1938 del i scists among the Zionists”, an opinionZionists”,an the among scists swer. Mussolini instructed his Jewish Jewish his instructed Mussolini swer. - fascists, when the trial of seventeen seventeen of trial the when fascists,

rt to wrote rt à , out of which eleven were were eleven which of out

121 th “Manifest of Race”“Manifest of Dc i 1929 in Duce e

In 1934 even the even 1934 In political his is his Who émigré émigré “Christ “Christ and W 120 e

CEU eTD Collection 125 124 Stanislawski 123 possible while Zionists, foreign if all of first expansionism, Italian in allies as treated were Zionists Italy. fascist dual potential a of their suspected were forthey merits, fascist recognized were Jews While other. each contradicting Zionism and Jewry towards more paid unconsciously merits attention tothe goodsince thantothe bad theformer ones,wer signals patriotic ancestors’ their and their with armed Jews many J Berlin against hostility no was the there that Jewry reassured continuously andMussolini 1930s the throughout 1934, of campaign press antisemitic as such signals, shock and surprised Italianfascism their alienated from them identity. only anti first were 1980s, the fifty in them of and many with made Bettin hundred Cristina of interviews one only 1938 and 1926 between instance, (for compatible. were Israel Eretz to attachment Zionist strong and “Italianism” that maintained Zionists Revisionist Italian Zionism. of streams other to belonging opponents their by shared ews in their quality of being Jewish, but only against certain Jews as antifascists. Therefore Therefore antifascists. as Jews certain against only but Jewish, being of quality their in ews

Bettin, Bettin, Laws", Racial the and Fascism Zionism Confronts "Italian Seta, Della David Ben Gurion dubbed Vladimir Jabotinsky, the founder of Revisionist Zionism “Vladimir Hitler”. Hitler”. “Vladimir Zionism Revisionist of founder the Jabotinsky, Vladimir dubbed Gurion Ben David afterwards became Zionists. They arrived at a strong identification with Eretz Israel because Eretz with identification strong a at arrived They Zionists. became afterwards Italian Jews were expected to remain rather Italians than Jews. These controversies made it made controversies These Jews. than Italians rather remain to expected were Jews Italian Apart from the few anti few the from Apart Concluding, Italian Jews from Emancipation to the Racial Laws Racial to the Emancipation Jews from Italian for Italian and foreign Jews to adhere to fascism. For despite the continuous presence of of presence continuous the despite For fascism. to adhere to Jews foreign and Italian for "Introduction", Italian d y h atsmtc un n 98 Dsie h ovos rmntr bad premonitory obvious the Despite 1938. in turn antisemitic the by ed 124

in Vladimir Jabotinsky inVladimir

At fascism was characterized by the simultaneous application of policies of application simultaneous the by characterized was fascism

the same time those few Jews who made aliyah in the fascist periodfascist the in aliyah made who Jews few those time same the

- fascist Zionists and non Zionist anti Zionist non and Zionists fascist : The Five. The : 52 125

, 129. ,

(Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2005), XII. 2005), Press, CornellUniversity (Ithaca: loyalty instead of an exclusive loyalty to loyalty exclusive an of instead loyalty

44.

123

- e easier tobelieve.e easier Leone Carpi, the leader of leader the Carpi, Leone fascists, Italian Jewry was Jewry Italian fascists, - one), according to the the to according one), - oe xs n 1936, in Axis Rome - fascists and fascists

Michael Michael CEU eTD Collection and thereafter turn of tothe integration foreign, stud includingHungarian Jewish exiles, clausus numerus the of story the for sphere important most the education, higher Italy, in life Jewish especially contemporary ifcomparedGermanyor Central to Europe. for circumstances favorable provided fascism antisemitism, potential In the n the In ext chapter we turn to the manifestation of all these controversies in the sphere of sphere the in controversies these all of manifestation the to turn we chapter ext

53

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CEU eTD Collection 1945. al worktopic. the basic of a considered be has to after1933, 1989). Lavino, 130 129 128 127 1987). 1938) leggi le eravamo : come ebrei: Ideology Totalitarian ideologia e razziale progetto antisemitismo: e Fascismo Fascism) 126 reform Italyintegration in as treated are students Jewish foreign chara universities, of history the in engaged specifically works fromconsideration.Apart into taken not is 1938 and between1923 benevolence fromeven neutrali fascist from benefitted who Jews foreign of presence the analysis his in However, Mussolini. by suppressed never was party fascist the of wing antisemitic the that and outset the countries. home their over Italy fascist chose who Jews those of story the narrating in engage not does Jews, Italian of history a not and Italy in Jews of history a is it that suggests title its although work, Sarfatti’s history a essentially is it but Jews, foreign of presence the Felice to refers De Renzo by fascism during history Jewish Italian on work comprehensive most The scholarly voluminous a has 1938 literature, in legislation antisemitic introducing of suddenness not IV. FascistI

Cristina Sarfatti, De Nazario Sauro Onofri, Sauro Nazario See first of all all of first See . ; f of history Jewish the of cters Felice, Felice, Susan Zuccotti, Zuccotti, Susan Ser , (The Precarious Refuge. The Exiles in Italy in Exiles The Refuge. (ThePrecarious

While the problem of relations between fascism and antisemitism and the suddenness or suddenness the and antisemitism and fascism between relations of problem the While The most significant achievement of fascist Italy in the field of education, the Gentile Gentile the education, of field the in Italy fascist of achievement significant most The ; Michele Sarfatti, Sarfatti, Michele ; excellently

gio Della Pergola and Robert and Robert Pergola gioDella Bettin, Bettin, 126 The Jews in Mussolini’s Italy Mussolini’s in Jews The Storia degli Storia

fascist hospitality towards foreign Jews has so far remained somewhat marginal somewhat remained far so has Jews foreign towards hospitality fascist If not concentrating on students, Klaus Voigt’s monograph on the German Jewish refugees in Italy in refugees Jewish German the on monograph Voigt’s Klaus students, on concentrating not If talianHigher Educationand Italian Jews from Emancipation to th Emancipation Jews from Italian Renzo De Feli De Renzo ) ; 129

reflect Michael Ledeen, "Th Ledeen, Michael h Iain ad h Hlcut Persecut Holocaust. the and Italians The

128

and inOnofri’s Bologna. local on history Ebrei e fascismo a Bologna a fascismo e Ebrei ebrei italiani sotto il fascismo, 2008 il fascismo, italiani sotto ebrei

h Jw i Msoiis tl: rm qaiy o Persecution to Equality From Italy: Mussolini’s in Jews The Sarfat

s fascist ambiguity towards Jews. From an Itali an From Jews. towards ambiguity fascist s

razzial ce, ce,

ti argues convincingly that fascism violated religious equality fromequality religious violated fascism that convincingly argues ti Storia degli ebrei italiani sotto il fascismo il sotto italiani ebrei degli Storia dl 98 Iain ad es Ti I W Is This Jews: and (Italians 1938 del i Wistrich (eds.), (eds.), Wistrich .

e Evolution of Italian Fascist Antisemitism", Fascist Italian of Evolution e ascist

from 1933 to 1945 1933to from

(Jews and Fascism in Bologna) in Fascism and (Jews

e Racial Laws Racial e tl ol i C in only Italy Fascist Antisemitism and the Italian Italian the and Antisemitism Fascist 54 Klaus Voigt, Voigt, Klaus totalitaria

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Foreign Jewish Students o, ece Survival. Rescue, ion,

(Fascism and Antisemitism: Racial P Racial Antisemitism: and (Fascism .

.) Vols. 1 .)Vols. Il rifugio precario: gli esuli in Italia dal 1933dal Italia in esuli gli precario: rifugio Il 130 rist

- ina Bettin’s book on Jewish Jewish on book Bettin’s ina 2.

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History of the Italian Jews under under Jews Italian the of History

(Firenze: La Nuova Italia, 1996). Italia, La(Firenze: Nuova of Italian Jews. Italian of W

( an Jewish perspective, it it perspective, Jewish an Crespellano: Crespellano: e

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; Francesco Germinario, Germinario, Francesco ; Fausto Coen, Fausto Jews .

Editrice Grafica Grafica Editrice

127

Italiani ed Italiani roject and roject Michele ty and ty w of aws i z ed

. CEU eTD Collection 133 132 131 gov Gentile power. great a into Italy of transformation the namely fascism, of aim the expressed it much st to antisemitic hostility allowed be would they where country a for Jews European Central bod student the internationalize to efforts say to not is It universities. anti and clausus; numerus a with obsession widespread a by characterized was sphere academic Romanian and Polish law; clausus numerus antisemitic the implemented Hungary years same very the in since Jews, European Central East for important especially was This universities. provided contrary, the on but Jews, harm not only not did innovations Gentile’s education, higher of level the on which schools, 1922. November Lupi Dario and t 1921 as early as declared Mussolini 22. beg already had which schools to influence Catholic of return the confirmed reform to brought it since calamity, a was

Giulio Palermo, GiulioPalermo, Ledeen, Sarfatti, Michele ernment that public education is a central vehicle of increasing a state’s power and therefore and power state’s a increasing of vehicle central a is education public that ernment Benito Mussolini called Mussolini Benito –

"The Evolution of Italian Fascist Antisemitism" Fascist Italian of Evolution "The similarly to his Hungarian colleague, Kunó Klebelsberg Kunó colleague, Hungarian his to similarly IV.1. Fascist Efforts to I Efforts to Fascist IV.1.

exposed Jewish children to a strong Catholic proselytizing. Catholic strong a to children Jewish exposed , L’ Universitá dei baroni. (The baroni. dei Universitá L’

131 The Jews in Mussolini’s Italy: From Equality to Persecution to Equality From Italy: Mussolini’s in Jews The nesceay f ulc Instruction Public of Undersecretary

. Gentile in 1923 went further and introduced obligatory religious education i education religious obligatory introduced and further went 1923 in Gentile

foreign

that Gentile intended to attract specifically Jews to Italy, but that his his that but Italy, to Jews specifically attract to intended Gentile that - eih ot wt fvrbe icmtne t suy in study to circumstances favorable with youth Jewish eih ilne a o te gna n emn n Austrian and German in agenda the on was violence Jewish

the Gentile reform “the most fascist reform”, demonstrating how how demonstrating reform”, fascist most “the reform Gentile the an

end of secularity in public primary education. Gentile’s education. primary public in secularity of end nternationalize Italian Universities Italian nternationalize y of Italian universities met an existing demand of East of demand existing an met universities Italian of y University of Barons.) of University hat Catholicism could be used for national expansion expansion national for used be could Catholicism hat 55 , 4. ,

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CEU eTD Collection 2. 1925): (August 22, 34 136 1926 for 1 scolastico dell’anno Roma di studi degli università 135 Italy) ( 134 a for maintained was Italy in level. unprecedented an to rose Italy in students Jewish of number the foreigners, thousand a than more of influx the to due the of president the Mazzoni, 1923. in university Italian an in enrolling foreigners to offered years, two for waver returnItalian totheir home wouldspreadof countries, civilization. theseeds fo that emphasized and Sorbonne the of body student international year1926 academic the inauguratingspeech his in Rome, of by also but instructions, minister’s de the by only not demonstrated is prestige international oftheirmost important most other the from Since universities of deprivation the in resulting authoritarianism was reform apply.the of characteristic to foreigners encourage to universities instructed C abroad. influence Italian expanding contrary, the On foreigners. education. of quality the increase to and de to aimed he Therefore quality. low too a of and Italy in students and universities many too were there that found Gentile politics. of concern major a be must The Jewish school: trail of light.” Directions and and Directions light.” of trail school: Jewish The Claudia clarations of academics. For instance, Giorgio del Vecchio, rector of the Sapienza University Sapienza the of rector Vecchio, del Giorgio instance, For academics. of clarations "A numerus clausus hatodik éve előtt (Before the Sixth Year of the Numerus Clausus)" Numerus the of Year Sixth the (Before előtt éve hatodik clausus numerus "A " icro e Po. iri dl eci (Discours Vecchio del Giorgio Prof. del Discorso . "

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Archivio Storico dell’Università degli studi di Roma “LaSapienza”. Roma di studi degli dell’Università Storico Archivio

136

there was an effort to effort an was there As mentioned earlier, in Hungary the rumor that tuition was for free for was tuition that rumor the Hungary in earlier, mentioned As long time. This misunderstanding by Lajos Szabolcsi found its way way its found Szabolcsi Lajos by misunderstanding This time. long

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, reported in 1925, in reported ,

Annuario della regia regia della Annuario olitics of Fascist Fascist of olitics

Vol. 44, No. No. 44, Vol. As Guido As Sapienza” Sapienza”

CEU eTD Collection Wars.)Two The UniversitiesBetween Italian guerre. due le tra italiane 138 137 M Italian the when 1930s, the for demonstrable especially is Italy in foreigners among Hungary) and Poland Romania, all of (first countries these from students states. Bal the and Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, were period interwar the in students migrant Wars” World two the between Universities Italian the at Italy fascist to influx student Jewish foreign on study fundamental her in out points Signori Elisa Furthermore, on gesture a was background religious and ethnic to regards with neutrality from different something as interpreted be can a had Bologna, of University the of Archives the prove to needed of quality the increasing simultaneously Gentile’s Despite applications. of enjoyedItaly advantages in istrue. numerus the on historiography Hungarian to pplication was accepted. pplication was accepted.

Felice, Felice, Elisa Signori, Signori, Elisa forty 138 As mentioned earlier, fascist Italy’s hospitability towards foreign Jewish migrant students students migrant Jewish foreign towards hospitabilityItaly’s fascist earlier, mentioned As n is It - Storia degli ebrei italiani sotto il fascismo sotto italiani ebrei degli Storia

six Most of Most .

Hungarian Jewish students, whose documents I reviewed during my research in the in research my during reviewed I documents whose students, Jewish Hungarian Renzo De Felice suggests that suggests Felice De Renzo oteworthy, that internationalization was a m a was internationalization that oteworthy, “An "Una peregrinatio academica in età contemporanea: gli studenti ebrei stranieri n stranieri ebrei studenti gli contemporanea: età in academica peregrinatio "Una their high school high their

these countries were marked by academic antisemitism. The preponderance of preponderance The antisemitism. academic by marked were countries these

the the Academic Peregrination in Contemporary Age: The Foreign Jewish Students Jewish Foreign The Age: Contemporary in Peregrination Academic (An Academic Peregrination In Contemporary Age: The Foreign Jewish Students at the at Students Jewish Foreign The Age: Contemporary In Peregrination Academic (An part of Mussolini intended to win the the win to intended Mussolini of part

graduation to graduation

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, the the 2008, 2008, already the partial tuition waver introduced in 1926 in introduced waver tuition partial the already clausus. Nevertheless, the fact the Nevertheless, clausus. very 57

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bad grades in their maturity exams maturity their in grades bad

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CEU eTD Collection Warstwo the between 1919 Students Bolognese The 140 1943) (1919 guerre 139 theGUFgroupswithin nationalby headed through the trustees. even had students Foreign Italy. in places multiple visit students foreign activities sport above included programs These important. particularly were GUF w as students the of time free the all fill to tried GUF the totalitarianism, to aspiring regime a by above from levels. all on them for courses languageItalian organized studente” dello (“Casa dormitories cheap in stay to right the all of first membership, GUF to connected advantages of number a from benefitted they how highconcern thisintegration a was demonstrates students foreign the integrating in GUF the of involvement The life. student to will pre in precedent no had regime regime’s experim t facilitating fascists the in role essential an had GUF) as abbreviated background became basiscomparable ofthe ofstudents onthe same data. type of the consequently yearbooks, their in students the about tables statistical include to universities

Simona Salustri, Salustri, Simona Elisa Signori "Prefazione (Preface)", in Simona Salustri: Salustri: Simona in (Preface)", "Prefazione Signori Elisa

(Bologna: CLUEB, 2009), VII. 2009), (Bologna:CLUEB, . On the other hand, it was a narrow, albeit state albeit narrow, a was it hand, other the On . Foreign students could enroll in the GUF of their university from 1927. From this year From this university on, from their 1927. theGUF in Foreign of couldenroll students Italia each of Unions Student Fascist The ent” according to Elisa Signori. C Signori. Elisa to according ent” sustainability. - 1943) (The New Guard New (The 1943) he organization of student life. The GUF was a privileged “laboratory of the fascist the of “laboratory privileged a was GUF The life. student of organization he ell. Understandably, for foreign students even the leisure activities organized by the by organized activities leisure the even students foreign for Understandably, ell. La nuova guardia: gli universitari bolog universitari gli guardia: nuova La

The amount of state support spent on student organ student on spent support state of amount The

- [newspaper title] [newspaper fascist Italy. fascist for the regime.for onquering - 1943) 139

: The Bolognese Academics Academics Bolognese The : 58

The GUF The , 122 , indoctrination of the students, thus making them making thus students, the of indoctrination

La nuova guardia. Gli universitari bolognesi tra le due due le tra bolognesi universitari Gli guardia. nuova La nesi tra le due guerre (1919 guerre due le tra nesi ), to attend the student canteens, and the GUF the and canteens, student the attend to ), uiest (rpi nvriai Fascisti, Universitari (Gruppi university n – the the 123.

140 youth is always essential for securing a securing for essential always is youth

- implemented initiatives, student for field supported

Being youth organizations controlled organizations youth Being

between the Two Wars, 1919 Wars, Two the between

the political leadership’s political the their own representation representation own their - 1943) izations by the fascist fascist the by izations

("The New Guard": Guard": New ("The

,

trips to make to trips - CEU eTD Collection Bologna) of University (The Bologna di nell’Università Bologna)", of University the of students Jewish foreign the and laws racial The remembrance. and Silence 1938. (Bologna, Bologna di Università 142 Bologna of University the at 141 s as Judaism identifying campaign press Jew Italian and started already had Italy to Germany not demands should specific present Jews intention, opposite the demonstrated canteen kosher a and integration their Muggia community, ide ambiguous was attitude community’s Jewish Bolognese (“Salvation”), against 1935. Germanin antisemitism up itsstanding and for inBologna canteen a theestablishment kosher of particularly in for role its among foreignstudents prese the in part taking organizations the to delivered were issues (these abroad spread be to propaganda propagating it. suppl a as then publication, another to attached pamphlet a as first Guard”), New (“The

Gian Paolo Brizzi, Brizzi, Paolo Gian Gian Paolo Brizzi, Brizzi, Paolo Gian a of the kosher canteen kosher the of a a uv Guardia Nuova La ofdrto nentoa e étudiants des international Conféderation salsig a Establishing Italy in future their in students Jewish of confidence the nurtured Bologna of GUF The 1933 from published GUF Bolognese The

m ight have thought that the key to key the that thought have ight Vasco Finzi, Finzi, Vasco eti seii fct o fascism. of facets specific certain

founded by eighty by founded Bologna 1938: Silence and Remembering: The Racia The Remembering: and Silence 1938: Bologna , Ed. by Domenico Mirri and Stefano Arieti (Bol Stefano and Mirri Domenico Ed. by , "Bologna, 1938. Il silenzio e la memoria. Le leggi razziali e gli studenti ebrei stran ebrei studenti gli e razziali leggi Le memoria. la e silenzio Il 1938. "Bologna, , , 19. kosher kosher

. We must remember that in 1934 the influx of Jewish refugees from refugees Jewish of influx the 1934 in that remember must We . a seil dtos n eea frin agae explaining languages foreign several in editions special had I . n

h cmuiys rsdn, tii Muggia Attilio president, community’s the Although there was an enthusiastic protector of the project inside the inside project the of protector enthusiastic an was there Although eae C Negated La cattedra negata: dal giuramento di fedeltà al fascismo alle leggi razziali razziali leggi alle fascismo al fedeltà di giuramento dal negata: cattedra La nt in Italy. nt in

ate ws ntae b te ins Suet Union Student Zionist the by initiated was canteen - nine Jewish students of the University of Bologna in 1934. The 1934. in Bologna Universityof the of students Jewish nine hair. hair.

omething intertwined with anti with intertwined omething rm h Ot o L of Oath the From

authorities’ benevolence towa benevolence authorities’

59 and to GUF based abroad) and to be distributed distributed be to and abroad) based GUF to and 141

its

h am f uh ulctos a both was publications such of aim The s expe s

tdn newspaper student

both oyalty to Fascism to the the to Fascism to oyalty ogna: CLUEB, 2002), 63 2002), CLUEB, ogna: rienced earlier in that year a f a year that in earlier rienced l Laws and the Foreign Jewish Students Students Jewish Foreign the and Laws l oad ti association this towards - a aant h plan. the against was f ascism. In March 1934 March In ascism. L Noa Guardia” Nuova “La rds foreign Jews was Jews foreign rds – ail L Racial 64.

Techiyah aws at the the at aws ement of ement n the and ieri dell dell ieri ascist and 142

CEU eTD Collection della ofBologna). Community Jewish ofthe (Archives Bologna Storico di ebraica Comunità Archivio stranieri/Corrispondenza, studenti per casher Tehijà/Mensa Sionistico Universitario Gruppo 143 the of president Ravenna, the in alone not was anti membership. authoritie the that and life cultural Jewish than activity anyother in itselfinvolve not would association the that condition the the on canteen, kosher of and association student Zionist the of functioning the permitted authorities Bolognese ab happy was he that all at suggesting not tone, reserved most a in however result, of president the informed Muggia end the In additionally students, Jewish GermanHungarians and Romanian, Polish, of mainly memb the constituted that stressed, be should it For well. as accepted students the by differentiated C of training the finance to began government anti interpreted media ento Mussolini’s of intentions well more was leadership student Fascist The noteworthy. more the e libertà Giustizia anti of collectively blamed were Jews ivitavecchia

" Lettera di Attilio Muggia a N. Kohanovicz (Letter of A of (Letter Kohanovicz N. a Muggia Attilio di Lettera - acss o fae te oeta ssiin ter ciiy ol pooe n acs Iay He Italy. fascist in provoke could activity their suspicions potential the feared or fascists, Muggia’s the of support The

(Elek Hirschler, Imre Hirschler, Klein(Elek Klein) andErnő 143 a ws etoe i te rvos chapter previous the in mentioned was as ,

uga paety ihr upce tee oeg Zoit o big subversive being of Zionists foreign these suspected either apparently Muggia

worries could be strengthened by the police’s opposition to the kosher canteen. canteen. kosher the to opposition police’s the by strengthened be could worries

mem f tla eih edrhpt aesc ore. fwwes ae Felice later weeks few A worries. such have to leadership Jewish Italian ascist government, Revisionist Zionists were favored, and Zionist foreign Zionist and favored, were Zionists Revisionist government, ascist - bers, f

sit rebel ascist Union of Italian Jewish C Jewish Italian of Union Fascist Student Union Student Fascist

as was detailed in the previousas detailed chapter inthe was

rg, hc ws rl con truly was which urage, lion - f ascism even in mainstream media, after the trial of of trial the after media, mainstream in even ascism

s Jws cnprc, n h vr sm ya the year same very the in conspiracy, Jewish a as foreign Techiyah 60 s would be informed about any change in the the in change any about informed be would s

for the the for ttilio Muggia to N. Kahanow N. to Muggia ttilio

Revisionist Zionists in the nautical school of of school nautical the in Zionists Revisionist o mmunities , , and only three Italian, and students threejoined. only Nachum Zionist Student Union Student Zionist . Thus, different groups of Jews were were Jews of groups different Thus, . rvril n h 13s Wie f While 1930s. the in troversial , warned him in a letter that the that letter a in him warned ,

Kochanowicz, about a positive positive a about Kochanowicz, .

- rhp of ership informed regarding the the regarding informed icz)"

, October 19, 1934., 1934., 19, October , in Bologna is all is Bologna in Techiyah out it. The it. out ascist

three was was the

CEU eTD Collection 1938 Bologna in Students Jewish 145 ofBologna). Community Jewish ofthe (Archives Bologna di ebraica Comunità Hungarian U Gruppo vivid a indicate 144 Italy in refugees clausus numerus the of outlook the of ideological most fact, In Hungary. interwar in Zionism of weakness the of light surprisingItis not amongZionismfollowers association them.inthe any hadhardly suggeststhat was reinforcedagain. non re which opinions expressed GUF the of leaders Italian the also time same the at Wolman, Jew Polish Con la r detesting authorities. the of worries such combating in sufficientwas support GUF’s However,the apparently students. control of concern a rather was it whether or not, or up came subversion and anti for it oppose Techiyah up financing politically“undesirable elements”. end might community the otherwise needed, was prudency and issue, political delicate a extent t to least at was It issue. Jewish a as viewed solely be not should canteen the of issue

" Brizzi, Brizzi, Lettera di Felice Ravenna ad Attilio Muggia (Letter of Fe of (Letter Muggia Attilio ad Ravenna Felice di Lettera sense fédération internazionale des internazionale fédération One year later, in 1935 in yearlater, One controlling about concerned was police the that noting worth is it time same the At h mmesi o ol tre ugra suet i te oons Zoit student Zionist Bolognese the in students Hungarian three only of membership The niversitario Sionistico Tehijà/Mensa casher per studenti stranieri/Corrispondenza, Archivio Storico della Storico Archivio stranieri/Corrispondenza, studenti per casher Tehijà/Mensa Sionistico niversitario assured Jewish students that the opinion leaders of Fascist y Fascist of leaders opinion the that students Jewish assured , inthe sa I reto mosbl. tdni tair eri Blga 1938 Bologna a ebrei stranieri Studenti impossibile. rientro "Il , just like their Duce.like their just , acism on the occasion that t that occasion the on acism

- Jewish hostility. It is not known whether the suspicion of a link between Jews between link a of suspicion the whether known not is It hostility. Jewish me way as every youthcontrolled not waywas dictatorship,butdid every inthis initiative me as

IV. 2. Hungarian Jewish Student Life in Italy Life in Student Jewish Hungarian 2. IV.

- 1945.)"

145 “La Nuova Guardia” Nuova “La

The foreign Jews’ illusion that they would have a future in Italyin futureahave thatthey would illusion foreignJews’ The , 169 ,

ètudiants he topic of the international student conference student international the of topic he – 170.

was r was 61 144

lice Ravenna to Attilio Muggia)" Attilio to Ravenna lice acism

(n. 12, 1935) published 1935) 12, (n. . One of the articles was written by the by written was articles the of One - 45. 45.

(The Impossible Return. Foreign Foreign Return. Impossible (The outh labeled race theory as as theory race labeled outh

a number of articles of number a ling foreigners and and foreigners ling , November 4, 1934. 1934. 4, November , cons n the on accounts Congrès de de Congrès he same he CEU eTD Collection H the of story the above details even details, of 148 147 megme magyar a érzést és tulajdonságot nemes oltárár minden haza tapasztalatot, tudományt, elsajátított országokban nyugati hazafiak, a magyar vagyunk, akik magyarok mi hogy majd, bebizonyítani gondolkodásunkkal: őszinte fogunk, igyekezni 146 undesirable. politically being medical by and Milan),left degree in degreeexam Hungary (followed a another for state inRome Al doctor, Another subversive. as deemed activity, democratic social his to due him financing stopped family his since studies, for country cheapest the as Italy, choose to had Turin, in medicine in graduated universal to committed were but Zionism, self Jewish strong a have not did they time same the at nationalism, Hungarian Szabolcsi’s to adhere not did who leftists, committed some were the among that clear becomes it memoirs individual some from However, in bythe memorandum to writing IsraeliteThus, faith”. the of anti vehemently was He students. exiled Committee from are accounts the of most that remember must we However, 1926. in minister foreign the by praised explicitly were they which for patriotism,

This is the remark of his daughter, Anna Maria Hábermann, who helped the author of this thesis with sharing a lot lot a sharing with thesis this of author the helped who Hábermann, Maria Anna daughter, his of remark the is This Alasia, Teich Egyenlőség „Büszkék vagyunk arra, hogy magyarok vagyunk, hogy zsidók vagyunk. Ígérjük nektek Ígérjük vagyunk. zsidók hogy vagyunk, magyarok hogy arra, vagyunk „Büszkék ntője (Elena Jaffe, savior of the exiles in Italy)", Italy)", in exiles savior the of Jaffe, (Elena ntője n w wl ke o srvn t poe ih u hns togt ta w ae Hungarians, are we that the truth is ours. thoughts for triumph, will we honest and homeland the of altar our the to characteristic noble every and with experiences prove to striving wan who patriots, on Hungarian keep will we and striving,are we that you, to promise We Jewish. being of and Hungarians being of proud are We aálu é setlü é íy yzi ouk mr mék z igazság”. az miénk mert fogunk, győzni így és szenteljük és ajánljuk a Egyenlőség tu fo te dooia etuae f ao Saoci te ao poetr f the of protector major the Szabolcsi, Lajos of entourage ideological the from thus , , which that declared Un medico della Resistenza della medico Un adár Hábermann, although finding a job in Hungary with his Viennese Viennese his with Hungary in job a finding although Hábermann, adár Association of Hungarian Jewish Students Living in Italy in StudentsLiving HungarianJewish of Association

146 framed their thoughts in such a spirit. spirit. a such in thoughts their framed

students expressing their gratitude for the for gratitude expressingtheir students 148

It is noteworthy that although he was a principled leftist, principled a was he although that noteworthy is It

t to dedicate the knowledge learned at the Western universities, the universities, Western the at learned knowledge the dedicate to t . ,

and attached and - Zionist and a maintainer of the concept of “Hungarians of concept the of maintainer a and Zionist á emn fml t wih h ddctd eea bos n a and books several dedicated she which to family bermann s ielge. o isac, io Tih who Teich, Simon instance, For ideologies. ist Egyenlőség 62

DVD interview with the author. with the interview DVD -

identification either and were not interested in in interested not were and either identification Egyenlő

Vol. 42, No. 48 (December 1, 1923.): 2 (December 1923.): No. 1, 48 42, Vol. ség A

and from the the from and nice example of this framing is a is framing this of example nice Student Aid Committee Aid Student

Eea af, ls bujdosók olasz Jaffe, "Elena

migrant students there students migrant

, hogy mi igyekszünk és és igyekszünk mi hogy , Central Student Aid Student Central

of 1923 of , published, – 3. he was he

and and 147

CEU eTD Collection 1922 (Reserved) CR. Duce) (file): 19 Fascicolo the of Secretary (Special SPD. 15., szeptember 150 2004). Mursia, 149 2010). Kieselbach, Kieselbach, Tamás Hábermann, Maria Anna 2010); film: documentary Italycharacterizedof the studentsin thearrivalthe following inway: colorful Italy in refugees clausus numerus the focus to th In Jews. Italian of that as varied as just was exiles clausus numerus the of acce even was Lukács Fascismo al Aderenti Stranieri Studenti Universitario ( established was fascism of supporters foreign the for club student a Padua in that so, anti allowedItaly. tostudy in even that important, so was students international Having university. a in enrollment than more something achieve to wanted they unless harmed not were they yet fascist, Czechoslovakia. in activity Communist former her to due marry her to permission Ministry’s the receive not did who officer, sin police political the Italian by surveillance under been having of aware became she yet Communist, a was she since students, foreign the on imposed authorities fascist control the of facet curious a on light sheds Hunga with shared she life student the narrated which in memoir, detailed a wrote Bologna of graduate Klein, Dora Polish the student, Jewish another Yet surveillance. under were people suspicious politically where Italy, fascist in settle to allowed

Emilio Tassi, Tassi, Emilio Dora Klein, Klein, Dora At the same time, there were suppor were there time, same the At ii ey, eia stu medical Fenyő, Lili

the

iee e Vivere " Lettera di Emilio Tassi al Capo del Governo (Letter of Emilio Tassi to the Prime Minister) Prime the to Tassi Emilio of (Letter Governo del Capo al Tassi Emilio di Lettera

; 7 Lukács Dott. Emerico, Archivio Centrale dello Stato di Roma.di Stato dello ArchivioCentrale Emerico, Lukács 7 Dott. question how question Anna Maria Hábermann, Hábermann, Maria Anna

Róbert Kollár Róbert

orviee diari sopravvivere: pted by the Duce in audience in 1928. in audience in Duce the by pted

ce her arrival in Italy only when she tried to marry an Italian marine marine Italian an marry to tried she when only Italy in arrival her ce 149 and these students

Thus, the political police was aware of which students were students which of aware was police political the Thus,

dent Sándor Lázs, Sándor

Sasos rm h lf o Hnain tdns abroad” students Hungarian of life the from “Snapshots Il labirinto di carta. (The Labyrinth of Papers.) of Labyrinth (The carta. di labirinto Il n lrne i hr ot edbe con o te ie of life the on account readable most her in Florence, in 1936 o Holtak országa (A country of the dead) the of (A country országa Holtak and ters of fascism among the migrant students, so much so students, migrant the among fascism of ters lived - 95 T Lv ad o S To and Live (To 1945

Ildikó Tóth, Tóth, Ildikó 63

in Italy.in

) in eih tdns s el Hr story Her well. as students Jewish rian

Tamás könyve (The book of Tamás) of book (The könyve Tamás y h Hnain Jew Hungarian the by 150

Concluding, the political outlook political the Concluding, - 93. 0. ut (neoe 143, (envelope) Busta 80R. 19434. 1936 Diary urvive:

, documentary, (2011). documentary, ,

(Milano: Proedi Editore, Proedi (Milano:

e following, I move I following, e

- me Lukács. Imre - acss were fascists 1945)

(Budapest:

(Milano: (Milano: Nucleo " , 1938. 1938. , anti

-

CEU eTD Collection 152 main 151 Jewish patriotic the enough, Interestingly Jewish. are students foreign the all virtually compatri thesolidaritywith group strong continuouslyanddifficulties financial initially,Italian knowledge of deficiency homesickness, grave a by characterized is exiles the of life The well. as stressed tha folk, simple Italian of courtesy the Besides peerswell. as Italian their befriend and university the in quickly other each find Jews Hungarian of groups little different The Italian. any speak hardly studies their starting those that out turns it however yea two finished already has she since Italian, speaks girls the of One collective. a of behalf on Italy in students Jewish Hungarian life the on reporting is intention emphasized thre of story Hungarian patriotism. self Jewish both emphasizing entourage, Szabolcsi’s of spirit the in narrating of articles numerous in narrated life student migratory the of phenomena typical the mirrors account Her humor. of sense a Italywith in place their finding of difficulties the describe to on goes author the introduction sorrowful this After

Ibid., 18. Ibid., Fenyő, First of all, the aspect of chain migration is revealed from revealed is migration chain of aspect the all, of First go can We going destination. not are We a […] study. has to possible anywher nobody is it where anyone, university, a by is there expected if anywhere, is Nobody matter. not ro fifth The there. cheaper it’s because fourth, the of choice the is Catania Rome. arts. chooses of third city The the Florence, prefers (s)he abroad, go to forced being if because Florence, beca Padua, to goes One to make weare usforget that aloneinaforeign country. trying is everybody and child own her us considers friend our of mother the and families has us of each month one Within Snapshots ots. It turns out as well, that after a short while it becomes obvious to everyone, that everyone, to obvious becomes it while short a after that well, as out turns It ots.

grs h g t suy eiie o Florence. to medicine study to go who girls e

e. Wee. somewhere, arefrom where onlycoming studying. we are banned from , 5. , lls the dice on a map. Where does it fall? (S)he will go there. After all, it does it all, After there. go will (S)he fall? it does Where map. a on dice the lls

use a famous medical professor lectures there. The other goes to to goes other The there. lectures professor medical famous a use

Italian friends, within six weeks each of us knows Italian Italian knows us of weekseach six within friends, Italian Egyenlőség 64 o poesr ad nvriy diitaos is administrators university and professors of t

as well. well. 152 t h sm time same the At

“Snapshots” She belongs to the students students the to belongs She - consciousness and consciousness

which tells the tells which , the author’s author’s the , s n Padua, in rs 151

CEU eTD Collection Hungarian of history 154 153 a with Italyhigher study to levelofpreparedness in to 1920s early the of pioneers the follow and system educational Hungarian the Hungary. in teaching Italian the following Italian years The teaching. German and Latin obligatory as the Italian besides or subject French elective English, language, modern a teach to gymnasia scientific obliged XI.) (192 schools high the about law new the since 1924, in schools high numerous in introduced It learning of possibilities cultural Hungarian whichItalianlearning medical helped and them their studies in quickly. L learn to obligatory was it gymnasia Hungarian In career. medical a in interested those for all of first option good 1925 years academic the between faculty medical a at registered seventy Yearbooks, Statistical Hungarian makes arranges for invitation Seder aan dinner o by Passover. until community Jewish longin their makes Passover local the approach not do girls The politics. Hungarian the for argue Italians where conversations in Hungary defend characters

See the volumes of thevolumes See Beáta Szlavikovszki, Szlavikovszki, Beáta - ugra cnrc o finsi i 12 sw h frhr increa further the saw 1927 in friendship of contract Hungarian h atro agaei n ftefwapcso h xl n tl nwih Italian which in Italy in exile the of aspects few the of one is language of matter The them among students medical of preponderance the Italian, understanding or speaking without Italy to went students numerous that fact The - Italian Italian Hungarian Statistical Yearbooks Statistical Hungarian "Fejezetek a magyar a "Fejezetek prahn hle te ueu cass xls sne t xedd the extended it since exiles, clausus numerus the helped approaching atin cultural relations between 1880 and 1945.)" and 1880 between cultural relations

o egt years eight for la i Hnay Te ecig o teaching The Hungary. in alian 154 g for their families unbearable families their for g

Thus, the younger Jewish children could choose to study Italian inItalian study to choose could childrenyounger Jewish the Thus, - olasz kulturális kapcsolatokról 1880 kapcsolatokról kulturális olasz Italian. . Thus, high school graduates had a Latin knowledge knowledge Latin a had graduates school high Thus, . - or p four ld Florentine Jewish couple. ld Florentine Jewish

between 1926 and 1938. and between1926

65 ercent of Hungarian enrollments in Italy were were Italy in enrollments Hungarian of ercent

therefore one of the Hungarian peers peers Hungarian the of one therefore

Iain s n lcie ujc was subject elective an as Italian f , 111 ,

understandable - – 26 and 1937 and 26 112.

–

1945 között. (Chapters from the the from (Chapters között. 1945 se in the availability of of availability the in se absurdity of antisemitic of absurdity

. According to the the to According . - 38. 153

Italy was a was Italy 4: - CEU eTD Collection Egyenlőség 157 156 155 the was on count could they support only the since monthly, dollars fifteen themselves for secure could who Italy, to come should those only that students prospective Jewish Hungarian warned Florence the even year same the in fact, In emphasized that month. th for canteen a establish to striving were who Jews local the from all of first help and benevolence experiencing by satisfied most were Florence in living students Jewish Hungarian four the that read we memorandum, this published which students. mentioned th arguing away them sentpolitely most representatives community The everywhere. rejected were they however, studies, their continue and Italy in stay to them for possible it make to support meager a for ask of Some starvation. and misery suffering were Italia of attitude the that Jewish the by local that experienced students not the were communities Furthermore accounts. multiple in repeated

" Italy)" in exiles savior the of Jaffe, (Elena megmentője bujdosók Jaffe, olasz "Elena ils Langer, Miklós Zsidó diákok vándorútja (Wandering students)", Jewish of (Wandering vándorútja diákok Zsidó 156 Association of Hungarian Jewish Students Living in Italy in Living Students Jewish Hungarian of Association At the same time in an overview of the situation in Italy in the same i same the in Italy in situation the of overview an in time same the At are report Fenyő’s in detailed students Jewish Hungarian the of difficulties financial The The rumor, that the Italian communities support us financially, is not true. At least, the least, At community inNaples true. not is financially, us support communities Italian the that rumor, The 155

Vol. 44, No. 29 ( 29No. Vol. 44, w yas ae Mkó Lne, tdn o mdcn i Naples, in medicine of student Langer, Miklós later years Two Mrs. Elena Jaffe of Padua of Jaffe Elena Mrs.

: at they were overburdened wit overburdened were they at

A ayr sdsg ay Golusz nagy zsidóság magyar "A

particularly eager to support support to eager particularly July 18, 1925. July18,

n colleagues was most courteous; most was colleagues n has not evenhas not foreign Jewish sofar. student supported asingle

): 8. ): , engaged engaged ,

- based based h supporting their own poor. O poor. own their supporting h 66 -

in collecting donations for the Hungarian Jewish Hungarian the for donations collecting in eéy (h Get Exile Great (The regénye them turned to the local Jewish communities to communities Jewish local the to turned them

Italian Committee for Foreign Jewish Students Jewish Foreign for Committee Italian

Egyenlőség e foreign Jewish students by the end of the the of end the by students Jewish foreign e foreign Jewish stu Jewish foreign

however, Hungarian Jewish students Jewish Hungarian however,

Vol. 42, No. 48 (December 1, 1923): 10. 1923): No.1, (December 48 Vol.42,

of 1923 of - oe o Hnain Jewry)" Hungarian of novel . dents.

(quoted above) (quoted ssue of ssue nly one nly The memorandum The

nevertheless, , Egyenlőség

the earlier the 157

stated stated

,

CEU eTD Collection 159 158 fro fa class middle lower of children even T required. was Italian of knowledge proving even Not exam. gra school high being applicants’ that hypothesis myinitial thus thei in grades good achieve not did They pharmacy. or engineering oftheseshared.almost all students T This exiles. clausus numerus be to knew I whom students such chapter. fifth the in analyzed be will which 1938, after Italy sourcesreferrin the in chapter,or second analyzed the Pőzel, in consul of report the in either found I whom students such chose I period, interwar the of dossiers forty reviewed I well. as thesis student’ the usually and certificates, birth and certificates exam maturity foreigners, of waver tuition partial the receive to citizenship Hungarian of certificates thus administration, university document every contain which period, Hungarian archives thisuniversity presence. The of from thefilespreserves the fascist ofstudents living. partial herefore I will not draw quanti draw not will I herefore

Fascicoli degli degli Fascicoli clausus)" numerus the of year sixth the (Beforeéve előtt hatodik clausus numerus "A m families of artisans in the Hungarian countryside Hungarian the in artisans of families m The vast majority of them enrolled in the faculty of medicine, a few of them studied studied them of few a medicine, of faculty the in enrolled them of majority vast The h applicat the 158 h Uiest o Blga eevs seil mhss o is rmc regarding primacy its for emphasis special a deserves Bologna of University The uto wvr n i ws ital ipsil t fn em find to impossible virtually was it and waver tuition

studenti, ArchivioStor studenti, i n oiy a mrtcai, a nt verified. not was meritocratic, was policy on

that Italian universities grasped the most talented foreign students, thus students, foreign talented most graspedthe universities Italian that

tative conclusions. I will only outline some of the characteristics the of some outline only will I conclusions. tative duates was considered, not the grades achieved in the maturity the in achieved grades the not considered, was duates - ico dell’Università di Bologna. Bologna. di dell’Università ico i o te prxmtl tre ude Hnain student Hungarian hundred three approximately the of six

related to the individuals, mostly documents submitted for submitted documents mostly individuals, the to related m ilies were able to enroll to able were ilies 67

.

One of the students, Júlia Fischer, even Fischer, Júlia students, the of One

159 g to Hungarian Jewish presencein Jewish Hungarian gto hanks to the partial tuition waver waver tuition partial the to hanks

Thus, I reviewed the dossiers of dossiers the reviewed I Thus, , for many of the students came students the of many for ,

is not a representative sample. representative a not is paety ol te at of fact the only Apparently, lyet n tl t er a earn to Italy in ployment r maturity exam in Hungary, in exam maturity r .

s CEU eTD Collection Bologna. di dell’Università Archivio Storico 8146, dossiers), 162 information. furtherbackground somewith author the kindshare to Bárdos, Pál 1986); Könyvkiadó, never and America in studies his ceased Bárdos, Pál writer 161 Bologna. di dell’Università Archivio Storico 6625., dossiers), 160 typical. was 1931, in graduated he where 1927, in Bologna in enrolled and Pavia in continued Florence, in studies medical his started who Frankl, Miklós of career The universities. different three or two reasons, other or economic for studies their concluding in succeed not their did students of Some law. education clausus numerus the the despite through even children, mobility social achieve to eager were who families s Jewish from came people young these Thus artisans. and agents, commercial merchants, were fathers The education. higher in study to family their in generation first the were me by reviewed alone abroad compromising could lead situations. to living girl young a For study. to abroad to daughters their send to reluctant more were families un were Women waiters. or porters as work not could they men, unlike But, lessons. private teaching exiles. lo the partially explains This the on or support families’ their part of lack the by characterized of visa. purposes her administering the for Budapest in issued university, the to poverty” of “certificate a presented

A medical student medical A " Fshr ui. ose 6625." Dossier Julie. "Fischer Frankl Nicola. Nicola. Frankl Even less employment possibilities were open to women than to men. Girls could take on take could Girls men. to than women to open were possibilities employment less Even Since birth certificate birth Since erpeetd n ugra hge euain n wy hwvr t s lo re that true, also is it however way, any education higher Hungarian in derrepresented 162

Peregrination between dif between Peregrination ose 8146" Dossier to to

of Bologna of return to Europe. Europe. to return 160

At the same time, b time, same the At Frau Földes von Makó von Földes Frau , László Földes, Földes, László , Fclà i eiia Fcly f eiie, accl dgi stude degli Fascicoli Medicine), of (Faculty medicina di Facoltà , s included the fathers’ occupation, it can be seen that all the studentsthe all that seen be can it occupation, fathers’ the included s , Facoltà di medicina (Faculty of Medicine), Medicine), of (Faculty medicina di Facoltà , rprin fwmnaogte xlso h ueu clausus numerus the of exiles the among women of proportion w

- Student Aid Committee Aid Student time employment for students, therefore they needed to rely on on rely to needed they therefore students, for employment time oon i 13 ad ne and 1932 in Bologna Bárdos Pál, Pál, Bárdos ferent countries was not exceptional either. It was more was It either. exceptional not was countries ferent who became a literary literary a became who 161 z lő évtized első Az , vol 1, 4 vols (Budapest: (Budapest: vols 4 1, vol , esides the relatively l relatively the esides and most of those who did who those of most and 68

e continued ver . It was even more so in the case of girls. of case the in so more even was It .

(The First Decade) Decade) First (The character in the novels of his nephew, the the nephew, his of novels the in character

Syllabux, 2012). Syllabux, Fascicoli degli studenti (Students’ (Students’ studenti degli Fascicoli due to his decision to emigrate to to emigrate to decision his to due ow costs ow , did so after studies at studies after so did , ( Budapest: Budapest:

of living Italy was Italy living of

Pál Bárdos was so so was Bárdos Pál nti (Students’ (Students’ nti Szépirodalmi Szépirodalmi uch uch CEU eTD Collection Bologna. di dell’Università Storico Archivio 7550, dossiers), (Students’ studenti degli Fascicoli Medicine), of (Faculty medicina Stori Archivio 6659, dossiers), 165 Bologna. dell’Universitàdi ArchivioStorico 6769, Dossiers), (Students’ studenti degli Fascicoli 164 Bologna. dell’Universitàdi Archivio Storico dossiers),7641, 163 of families hardshi economic the for reason another possiblywas students socialmany backgroundclassof middle lower that the Bolognasuggests of students. the for hardship economic constant communit Jewish local the of incapacity or reluctance the and possibilities employment of lack the time same the At standards. living different the to due towns university rela the for and antisemitism academic of lack the for destination appropriate an was Italy antisemitism. academic Hungarian escaping only going, were they where of aware quite not initially people numeru of influx the that conclude and enrollingaImrethe case Hungarian university.This wasFunk inZsigmond of and Vámos. sn finallyItaly in some leftsucceeding simply of because time same the At family”. of “reasons to referred requesters the all almost however, reason, the indicate to necessary not was it which for permission, rector’s the for request a submit to needed on university, another for leaving For common. especially was Bologna and Padua between Bologna. to went Brno from and Brno for Padua left who Brüll, Bologna. for Padua th broke some However, then and of Padua language for Prague the left as who German did, Aczél with László university as instruction, a in begun studies Italy in finish to common

" " "Brüll Ladislao. Dossier 6769", 6769", Dossier Ladislao. "Brüll Aczél Ladislao. Dossier 7641”, Facoltà di medicina (Faculty of (Faculty medicina di Facoltà 7641”, Dossier Ladislao. Aczél uk mrc. ose 6659 Dossier Emerich. Funk Regarding the overall nature of the Hungarian Jewish students’ sojourn in Italy one can can one Italy in sojourn students’ Jewish Hungarian the of nature overall the Regarding iey o css tog prgiain a otn otne bten ifrn Italian different between continued often was peregrination though costs, low tively

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o elUiest d Blga " Bologna; di dell’Università co " Fclà i eiia Fcly f eiie, accl dgi stude degli Fascicoli Medicine), of (Faculty medicina di Facoltà ,

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áo Sgsod. ose 7550 Dossier Sigismondo. Vámos eaking into the Jewish quot Jewish eaking the into ed Medicine), Fascicoli degli studenti (Students’ (Students’ studenti degli Fascicoli Medicine),

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CEU eTD Collection Holocaust. students those of fate the in exiles created thenimb difficulties, economic Despite abroad. h nx catr pose chapter next The is Italy in 1938 when antisemitic legislation was introduced. Archival sources regarding regarding sources Archival introduced. was legislation antisemitic when 1938 in Italy

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se CEU eTD Collection Roma. di Stato Centraledello Archivio tasse, statistiche, ecc. studenti corsi, esami, statuti, regolamenti, leggi, II Divisione Education), Higher for Department (General 166 Italy, forty instance In for numerous students threemonths left months. these forwas three solved years,academic previous Italyin alreadyin foreignenrolled Jews with do to whatdecide,namely Ministry the to letters universities’ of flow the as questions, and contradictions of series a generated application its academia, in chaos generated rule new The 6. August on students Jewish foreign accepting from universities the all in universities the from Jews Itali both for calamity unexpected an was 1938 in legislation antisemitic of introduction the antisemitic, allies of theNazi Emp two these Hungary, and Italy to regard with history of part this from drawn be to conclusions a how us shows Jewry, Hungarian and Italian between in their to due destiny, their since Jews, foreign of expulsion the after Italy happened what ask to especiallyimportant It is War. World Second happened what wh under and Italy NumerusV. The Clausus R nd the Italian anti Italian the nd

"Ministero della pubblica istruzione (Ministry of Public Education), Direzione generale istruzione superiore superiore istruzione generale Direzione Education), Public of (Ministry istruzione pubblica della "Ministero level Although retrospectively one can look at Italian fascism as a regime a as fascism Italian at look can one retrospectively Although previous The an and foreign Jews. The first action taken against Jews was the expulsion of foreign of expulsion the was Jews against taken action first The Jews. foreign and an s (Division II f II (Division

of education of

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chapters have explained what brought Hungarian Jewish students to fascist to students Jewish Hungarian brought what explained have chapters or Legislation, regulations, statutes, exams, courses, statistics, fees, students) 1925 students) fees, statistics, courses, exams, statutes, regulations, Legislation, or circumstances they lived there. In this last chapter the question at stake at question the chapter last this In there. lived they circumstances ire withtheir twomarkedlydifferentire histories. Holocaust

after the turning point of Italian fascist history in 1938 an 1938 in history fascist Italian of point turning the after (September)

(August)

determined chances to survive the Holocaust. There are essential essential are There Holocaust. the survive to chances determined

efugees inItaly after 1938 , soon followed by the segregation of Italian J Italian of segregation the by followed soon , . Giuseppe Bottai, Minister of Nat of Minister Bottai, Giuseppe demonstrates. 71

much the difference between the Hungarian the between difference the much 166

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turning - 1945)", 1945)", is CEU eTD Collection riservati.) e generali Jew. Hungarian twenty and hundred D security, public Roma. di Stato for dello Centrale Archivio 61, (File) Fascicolo 14, (Envelope) department General Interior, of (Ministry 173 172 L Racial The Were. 171 Roma. di Stato ArchivioCentrale dello 345, (File) Fascicolo “Ebrei”. 480/R) (Reserved 480R. riservato Carteggio Duce) the of Secretary 170 169 Anti the and University “ th finish to allowed were students Jewish http://www.cdec.it/home2_2.asp?idtesto=589&idtesto1=565&son=1&figlio=558&level=7&stampa=1. CDEC Fondazione 168 1997), Riuniti, (Roma:Editori 167 Italianan citizen. as Pisa in living was Padua, in students foreign of club student fascist the of president former the the in residing Jews ImreLukács, that investigationto this know we respective(including Due citizens). localities non foreign of list exact the submit to prefectures the instructed Interior of Jews), foreign other the with withdrawn was citizenship who Jews (2985) thousand three almost declared:Israeliteare “we threeHungarians, of r Traubkatzwhich in well, as letter signedthe who friends, two behalfof on alsorequest this wrote the from degree, his until months remai the for stay to permission asked Traubkatz, Zoltán student, Jewish Hungarian 15 November of decree percent For the Defense of the Race in the Fascist School” School” Fascist the in Race the of Defense the For

Renzo De Felice, Felice, De Renzo ofMussolini. decision the personal whichdemanded requests special handle to established Aninstitution "Traubkatz Zoltán, Arányi János, Magvas László", September 11, 1938., Segreteria Particolare del Duce. (Specia Duce. del Particolare Segreteria 1938., 11, September László", Magvas János, Arányi Zoltán, "Traubkatz Fausto Coen, Coen, Fausto " Finzi, Roberto Pisa Regio Decreto Regio , Ministero dell’Interno, Direzione generale Pubblica sicurezza, Divisione Affari generali e riservati. riservati. e generali Affari Divisione sicurezza, Pubblica generale Direzione dell’Interno, Ministero ,

Meanwhile a census of Jews was conducted in August, including foreign Jews. Out of the of Out Jews. foreign including August, in conducted was Jews of census a Meanwhile of foreign students left Bologna. left students foreign of oa (Rome) Roma Italiani ed ebrei: come eravamo : le leggi razzial leggi le eravamo : come ebrei: ed Italiani L’Università italiana e le leggi antiebraiche (The Italian University and the Anti the and University Italian (The antiebraiche leggi le e italiana L’Università - aws of 1938) awsof Legge, 15 novembre 1938, No. 1779 (Royal Decree (Royal 1779 No. 1938, novembre 15 Legge, - 173 László Fascis Jews under Italian the of (History il fascismo sotto italiani ebrei degli Storia -

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Kovács, Hungarian Jewish doctor is on the list as well, mistakenly labeled as a German. German. a as labeled mistakenly well, as list the on is doctor Jewish Hungarian Kovács,

52. ht hy ee loe t sa i Iay o iih hi studies. their finish to Italy in stay to allowed were they that Mnseo elItro Drzoe eeae ubia iuez, iiin Affari Divisione sicurezza, Pubblica generale Direzione dell’Interno, Ministero , , 29. ,

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171

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eir studies by the racist law of Septembe of law racist the by studies eir had 167

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ivision for general and reserved issues) Busta Busta issues) reserved and general for ivision i del 1938 (Italian 1938 del i - Law Law

The same investigation reveals that seven seven that reveals investigation same The

(Jews) 1922 (Jews) 169 to leave Italy within six months six within Italy leave to of November 15, 1938, No. No. 1938, 15, November of

as early as September 11. He 11. September as early as - r 5: Royal Decree Law No. 1390 No. Law Decree Royal 5: r

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, Access: May 14, 2014., 2014., Access: , 14, May hc ws h nm o te rcs truh hc Jewish which through process the of name the was which s that numerous letters were not written by the individual individual the by written not were letters numerous that s nol.hu i - Jewish legislation and its application was the widespread the was application its and legislation Jewish h (ls relative’s) (close the pbihd n aur 1, 04 Acs: a 1, 2014, 14, May Access: 2014. 12, January on published , - 1437193. dating Fascist antisemitism and the Italian Jews Italian the and antisemitism Fascist 73

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CEU eTD Collection Fascicol 143, (envelope) SPD. 1938., 8, September Duce)", the of 176 she Padua, in foreigners for club student fascist a founded (he activities and sentiments fascist own her and husband’s the mention only not did She Tassi. Libia wife, Lukács’s Imre mentioned response that“you was stay can staycalm”,could family. he withhis thus Secretary’s The Italy. leave should he which in month the in exactly birth give to expected was argument list to turned he Thereafter remarked Duce their and Italians loved he that declaring after Secretary, the to Tortora from wrote who doctor, for expelling decree the if husbands their by left be should who children and women for mercy Mussolini’s on rely and marriage, and love of stories narrate to basis, emotional an argueon to allowed were Women ones. political displ or anyone beg to supposed not were men and arguments, of enumeration dry a than convincing more as considered tone, emotional extremely and begging a in composed oftenwere letters The society.Italian in accepted roles gender the by motivated also Jewish the of community. sphere the on relying without people local among socializing individual’s the Ca mixed marriageswith in living of fact very The veracity. authors’ the doubt to reason no have we marriages, their of story the and

" Lettera di Miklós Lukács alla Segreteria Particolare del Duce (Letter of Miklós Lukács to the Special Secretary Secretary Special the to Lukács Miklós of (Letter Duce del Particolare Segreteria alla Lukács Miklós di Lettera n ti dd o cnrdc hs rgn fr origin his contradict not did this and The decision of many couples that it was the woman to write to the Duce’s secretary wa secretary Duce’s the to write to woman the was it that couples many of decision The s cmaio, o mc dfeet wmns etr c letter woman’s a different much how comparison, a As

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o (file): 198. (file): 198. o

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Lukács Dott. Miklós, Archivio Centrale dello Stato di Roma. di Stato Centraledello Archivio Miklós, Lukács Dott. eign Jews Jews eign (Special Secretary of the Duce) CR. (Reserved) 1922 (Reserved) CR. Duce) the of Secretary (Special tholic Italians marks a level of integration, for it presupposes it forintegration, of levelItaliansa marks tholic ,

to the end of his letter, nam letter, his of end the to were 74 om Hungarian parents of the Jewish faith, he he faith, Jewish the of parents Hungarian om

implemented. F implemented.

family, reserving the most persuasive most the reserving family, ay personal sentiments, personal ay o r instance, Miklós Lukács, a Lukács, Miklós instance, r ould be, I quote the often often the quote I be, ould ely that his pregnant wife wife pregnant his that ely 176

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1943. 1943. 80R. Busta 80R. if not if s

CEU eTD Collection it R/197th 480 Busta Roma. di Stato Centraledello Duce/ del Particolare Secreteria 1938., 15, September di Stato dello Centrale 178 Archivio Emerico, Dott. Lukács 197 Roma. (file): Fascicolo 143, (envelope) Busta 80R. 19434. 177 Budapest in issued was excerpt This son. illegitimate an be to claiming certificate birth father’s his from excerpt an provided Lukács son his that arguing and merits fascist father his even exemption, his achieve man. Christian, of accusation family the of humiliation of sake the for mother, the ex an from either birth parents’ Italy inaswidespread inthe ThirdReichwell) (and Jews practice desperate of child. illegitimate an was father his since Jewish, entirely be not might husband sh end, the In homeland. her and husband her between choose to forced husband his if father continued She she tocome. felt She declared for hisexpulsion that her in club fascist female a founded

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n a efc Iain n fsit hrce. … I oe i wt al h dvto o a of devotion be separated from him. the all with him love to forced being of thought the at eyes my I to come tears the and love in wife faithful […] young character. fascist and Italian perfect a and h in discovered I because husband my with happy most been have I rite. Catholic with dispensation, Pope’s the with love, for him married I As if the Lukács the if As

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177 tra decreas

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" Dénes Bálint, András Fenyves, György Grünbaum, Klára Klein, László Münster. However, it is known about the the about known is it However, Münster. László Klein, Klára Grünbaum, György Fenyves, András Bálint, Dénes Beáta Szlavikovszki, Szlavikovszki, Beáta SPD. (Special Secretary of the Duce) CR. Duce) the of Secretary (Special SPD. Indice generale degli ebrei stranieri internati in Italia 1940 Italia in internati stranieri ebrei degli generale Indice ority w ority - 1943) y of Hungarian of y - o te aoiy f h nmrs luu eie 13 mre the marked 1938 exiles clausus numerus the of majority the For detailed not were examples two These Tassi familyanswerTassi “you the can that staycalm”. " in mixed marriages with non with marriages mixed in , as Fondazione CDEC Fondazione

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that the state violated the Lateran Concordat with the racial laws which which laws racial the with Concordat Lateran the violated state the that . Furthermore, the database of interned foreign Jews includes a lot of of lot a includes Jews foreign interned of database the Furthermore, . rei%5Fstranieri/. -

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situation than the two Lukács doctors, only few were Italian were few only doctors, Lukács two the than situation , 181 - olasz kulturális kapcsolatokról 1880 kapcsolatokról kulturális olasz (Reserved) 1922 (Reserved) -

Jewish Italians, in some cases as Italian citizens, could citizens, Italian as cases some in Italians, Jewish I found on found I

182

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CEU eTD Collection 183 importantis it YetHolocaust. the of tragedy the downplaying of appearance the avoid about time same speak the at to and difficult rates” “survival very is It Bulgaria. and Denmark besides say to so rates” “survival time, long eighty a for Germans and fascists by controlled territory the in exactly thus country, the th mostlyin lived ItalianJewry Although states. two the differentin be would Jewry of destiny the Yet Hungary. as empire, Nazi the to loyal as just was It army. Naz in FerramontiCalabria. Tarsia, in in was camp detention largest the fact, In free. set were Italy Southern in camps detention in th by persecuted were Italy Central and Northern in living Jews waryearsremaining the Forthe of two Salò. of Republicfascist the established who byGermans, from situation occupied was part Northern the worseand split Italy fall, Mussolini’s following a when, 1943 September in result could this paradoxically But 1943. and 1940 between Italy persecutions.Jewish author (additionally the for administer to difficult very was apparently which backgrounds, linguistic names regarding mistakes

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183

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e Northern and central part of centralpart and Northern e ) .

under the control of of control the under et anti uent ities ities - CEU eTD Collection July and 1944. between May 1940) and Hu 184 Zu which po partisans, the join to possibility the Jews provided occupiers German the to resistance strong a of presence very The Jews. foreign and Italian for and Hitler, and Mussolini of instead Allies Ital occupied civilians, German for southwards from territories escaping of possibility the created it hand other the on time, shorter W to time enough have not did regime indoctrinate officers, evengeneral alone own population. its the let the years, unsuccessful the of years chaotic the with legislat the after regime fascist the of years remaining the Since 1930s. the of half second the in fascism by developed was it although fascism, Italian in inherent sp antisemitic an in indoctrinated and educated been had Hungarians of generation whole a Thus, on.1920 fromstate the propagandabyantisemiticled officialbeen had Hungary in there that was o not were which choose could they possibilities to due was which stake, at Italyis in exiles clausus numerus some of survival The Holocaust. European the during Germany, Nazi of allies two these Hungary, yearone toJanuary (from 1944 1945). May than less in murdered Jews Hungarian of majority vast the was why and occupation German of

irit, which was a was which irit, hile it endangered the lives of civilians for a longer time than in countries in the frontline for a for frontline the in countries in than time longer a for civilians of lives the endangered it hile ngarian. 437 ngarian. Approximately six hundred thousand Hungarian Jews were victims of the Holocaust, thus every tenth victim was was victim tenth every thus Holocaust, the of victims were Jews Hungarian thousand hundred six Approximately ccotti in her groundbreaking work groundbreaking her in ccotti Between 1943 and 1945 a civil war was taking place i place taking was war civil a 1945 and 1943 Between h comparative the of part a on only is focus the Here Jews in Northern Italy were often imprisoned after September 1943 and deported. Susan Susan deported. and 1943 September after imprisoned often were Italy Northern in Jews ssibility did not exist inHungaryexist ssibilityanti weakness dueofthe didnot tothe

000 of them were deported from Hungary (enlarged by the First and Second Vienna Awards of 1938 1938 of Awards Vienna Second and First the by (enlarged Hungary from deported were themof 000 pen to Jews livi Jews to pen sine qua non qua sine

ng in Hungary. in ng

of the Horthy the of

on the on ian soldiers opting for the Badoglio the for opting soldiers ian 184 history of the of history

78 - An essential difference between the two regimes two the between difference essential An regime. At the same time antisemitism was antisemitism time same the At regime.

Italian Holocaust detaile Holocaust Italian istory of the Republic of Salò and Salò of Republic the of istory n Italy on to on Italy n v atsmtc un coincided turn antisemitic ive

- German resistance. - government and the the and government p of the world war. world the of p d the factors the d

not

CEU eTD Collection No. (Telegraph interno Ministero gabinetto, 31 interno Ministero ministri, dei consiglio del presidenza alla Budapest 188 Roma. di Stato ArchivioCentrale dello 3, (envelope) Busta Jews) foreign ebrei ed sranieri 1930 16 10, stranieri A categoria July Sicurezza, affairs)", Pubblica la political per general generale Direzione for dell’Interno, Department Ministero ACS, Ministry, 1944., Interior Race, for Ispectorate General the to Affairs 31 No. (Telegraph politici Affari generale direzione alla gabinetto, dell’interno 187 186 37 185 I Italy. in living Jews Hungarian of names the provide to Ministry Foreign Italian the required government The Italy. and concentration to deportedwere the Jews 437,000 when summer same the in thus July1944, in government Hungarian that Holocaust, Hungarian the for responsibility Hungarian downplaying at 2010s the in Itgo. especially“final should shatter solution” is Nazi two the that suggests ministries interior and foreign Italian the of correspondence inner the furthermore government, th and Salò of Ministry Foreign the between 1944 of correspondence astonishing An Sal of Republic the between governments Italianshown by many officers”. sentiments humanitarian and carelessness, casual disorder, general corruption, administrative of “mixture a to thanks countries occupied German most in than Italy in higher were survive the for responsible were Jews. 6,800 fascists of murder and/or deportation Italian and occupiers German the that minimize to not is eighty of survival the madewhich talian and between Hungariantalian Jews twostates. the

\ Wistrich, "Fascism Wistrich, " 100 Italian and 7000 foreign Jews. 7000 Italianand 100 1764 Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Department for general foreign affairs to the Italian embassy in Budapest, to the the to Budapest, in embassy Italian the affairsto foreign general for Department Affairs, Foreign Ministry of 1764 Zuccotti, Zuccotti, Tlsrso o 31 no "Telespresso Telespesso n. 31 n. Telespesso wud ie o on ot ht hr ws lo dfeec i te oiis f the of policies the in difference a also was there that out point to like would I h Iain ad h Hlcut Pers Holocaust. the and Italians The - 1956. 1956. \ 1764 Ministero degli Affari Esteri Direzione Esteri Affari degli Ministero 1764 (M

and the Jews of Italy", 16 Italy", of the and Jews \ 1301 dal Ministero degli Affari Esteri al Ispettoriato generale per la razza, razza, la per generale Ispettoriato al Esteri Affari degli Ministero dal 1301 inistry of Interior, General department for public security, category A16 Foreigners and and Foreigners A16 category security, public for department General Interior, of inistry 187 death camps, wanted to catch even the few Hungarian Jews still living in living still Jews Hungarian few the even catch to wanted camps, death

ae i Ags te ugra gvrmn pooe a ecag of exchange an proposed government Hungarian the August in Later

- allied governments had different answers to the question how far the far how question the to answers different had governments allied

Ibid., XVIII. Ibid., 186 - five percent of Jews under German occupation possible, which possible, Germanunderoccupation Jews of percentfive

– 17. 185

ò cto, ece Survival. Rescue, ecution,

and Hungary above all the above mentioned factors. mentioned above the all above Hungary and

According to R to According 79 ing to learn in light ofHungarian inlight political tolearn efforts ing

188

The onlyreasonably explanationassumable

generale Affari Generali. Alla Generali. Affari generale obert Wistrich, chances for a Jew to Jew a for chances Wistrich, obert

XV. , \ 1301 from the Ministry of Foreign of Ministry the from 1301

n h fl o 14 tee were there 1943 of fall the In

Legazione d’Italia a d’Italia Legazione e Hungarian e l M al inistero inistero

CEU eTD Collection 1930 Jews foreign and foreigners A18 category security, public the for department 1930 stranieri ebrei ed sranieri 16 A categoria Sicurezza, Pubblica la 190 189 Roma. di Stato Centraledello Archivio 1930 stranieri ebrei ed sranieri dep 16 General A Interior, categoria Sicurezza, Pubblica la per generale Direzione Interior the of council ministers, of council municipality the instance, For Italians. Catholic to married were municipalities, Italian Northern in living but hiding, not still were who Those survival. their for reason the was this and know, figh or Italy in hiding Jews Hungarian other still were there and preserved, are reports municipality these all not that out point to important is destination unknown for left had who Jews those list to fail s the explaining Jewish, originally was who notably Ghigi. fascist non a with marriage a in living their was common in had they what demonstrate, fates individual of examples following numerous the As persecution. of targets as them regard to not decision authorities’ the been have es of instead home, at live to dared still Jews some which for reason The Jews. all of arrest the ordered had 1943 December of decree a since them, arrest to not reason It fewer Salò of Republic municipalities the from reports collected authorities whoItaly. wereJews residing in Hungarian of fate the over control up give simply to want not did authorities Hungarian that is

Zuccotti, Zuccotti, These reports are preserved in the Central State Archives in Rome: Ministero dell’Interno, Direzione generale per generale Direzione dell’Interno, Ministero Rome: in Archives State Central the in preserved are reports These The reports The Hungarian the of consequence a As la esrsdn n Hungary. in residing Jews alian The Italians and the Holocaust. the Holocaust. and Italians The .

rmn fr ulc euiy ctgr A6 oeges n frin es Bsa evlp) 3, (envelope) Busta Jews) foreign and Foreigners A16 category security, public for artment However, concerned

- Jewish Italian, e Italian, Jewish

they listed every Hungarian citizen residing in the given municipality, given the in residing citizen Hungarian every listed

did not fulfill the request to exchange the exchange to request the fulfill not did Ministry, Ministry of Interior)" of Ministry Ministry, Persecution, Persecution, xcept for one student helped by his Bolognese rector, the the rector, Bolognese his by helped student one for xcept

fteepol a o yt enarse,teews a was there arrested, been yet not had people these If

pecific legal situation of each. of situation legal pecific inquiry about Hungarian Jews living in Italy, Italian Italy, in living Jews Hungarian about inquiry ting as partisans, about wh about partisans, as ting 80 Rescue, Survival. Rescue,

to discover who discover to - 1956. 1956. s

in 1943 in , August 21, 1944., Ministero dell’Interno, Ministero 1944., 21, August, , XVI. , Busta 3 (Ministry of Interior, Gener Interior, of (Ministry 3 Busta

- - were 1956, 3). envelope 1956, 44 escaping the Gestapo. It Gestapo. the escaping 44 om the authorities did not did authorities the om

caping or hiding, must must hiding, or caping

190 Hungarian Jews in the in Jews Hungarian se Jews se

The repo The - 1956. 1956.

for the even even the for (Ministry of of (Ministry rts d rts id

not 189 al

CEU eTD Collection memberofthe Roma. di Stato dello Centrale Archivio 1930 stranieri ebrei ed for sranieri department 16 General A Interior, categoria Sicurezza, Pubblica la per generale Direzione to Forlì 195 Roma. di Stato Archivio Centraledello 3, (envelope) Busta 1956. De General 1930 stranieri ebrei ed sranieri 16 Interior, A categoria Sicurezza, Pubblica la of per generale Direzione dell’Interno, Ministero Ministry the to Padua of Prefecture 194 Bologna. di dell’Università (Fac 193 Busta Jews) foreign 192 and Foreigners A16 category Roma.di Stato dello Archivio Centrale 3, (envelope) security, public Security) for department sranieri Public General 16 Interior, A for of categoria (Ministry Department Sicurezza, Pubblica General la Interior, per generale of Direzione dell’Interno, Ministry the to Turin of 191 technician dental Jewish Hungarian Italian their in working been arrestedGermanSecret by the Police. 1928) of report Pőzel’s Fogel Gyula engineer the of case the lived, surgeon. 1946 the in Bologna of University join to mountains the to left Gestapo, partisans. the to reported been having after and doctor, hospital a in working was he that Teich, Simon a Tur of

ets, are t Em Moreni. Emma to married dentist, Tei Prefettura repubblicana di Forlì al Ministero dell’Interno direz. Gen. Pubbl Sicurezza (Republican Prefecture of Prefecture (Republican Sicurezza Pubbl Gen. direz. dell’Interno Ministero al Forlì di repubblicana Prefettura " Prefettura repubblicana di Torino al Ministero al Torino di repubblicana Prefettura Prefettura repubblicana di Padova al Ministero dell’Interno direzione denerale della polizia (Republican (Republican polizia della denerale direzione dell’Interno Ministero al Padova di repubblicana Prefettura Lettera di Giovanni Füller al rettore (Letter rettore al Füller Giovanni di Lettera ly f eiie, accl dgi tdni Suet’ oses, 67 ülr ivni Acii Storico Archivio Giovanni, Füller 9607 dossiers), (Students’ studenti degli Fascicoli Medicine), of ulty chAlasia, (Ministry of Interior, General department for public security, category A16 Foreigners and foreign Jews) Jews) foreign and Foreigners A16 category security, public for department General Interior, of (Ministry . in informed the Ministry Ministry the informed in

the Ministry of Interior, General Department for Public Security) Public for Department General Interior, of Ministry the yry Mátrai György As me li ws utemr eepe fo te anti the from exempted furthermore was Klein Imre

192 a counter a

Z oh f hm uvvd h wr a i i acrand y lte o Fle t the to Füller of letter a by ascertained is it as war, the survived them of Both i Un medico della Resistenza della medico Un onist Student Union “Techiyah”.) Union Student onist profession in the autumn of 1944 in Forlì, both of them married to a Catholic Catholic a to married them of both Forlì, in 1944 of autumn the in profession - example for the danger in which foreign Jews without a non a without Jews foreign which in danger the for example

,

can be can dco and doctor a

ulc euiy ctgr A6 oeges n frin es Bsa evlp) 3, (envelope) Busta Jews) foreign and Foreigners A16 category security, public

193 cited. T cited. that only one Hungarian Jew was residing in Turin, János Füller János Turin, in residing was Jew Hungarian one only that

(This Imre Klein is not the same person as the Bolognese student who was who student Bolognese the as person same the not is Klein Imre (This and the following fate o fate following the and , .

191

ázó Aczél László gaut o Pda n Ir Klein Imre and Padua of graduate a he municipality of Padua reported Padua of municipality he

of János Füller to the rector)" the to Füller János of t h sm tm w ko fo te uoigah of autobiography the from know we time same the At

194 dell’Interno direz. Gen. Pubbl Sicurezza (Republican Prefecture Prefecture (Republican Sicurezza Pubbl Gen. direz. dell’Interno

Unfortunately destiny is unknown. hislater mnind n h scn catr s suet in student a as chapter second the in (mentioned 81

in Turin in

, atet o Pbi Security) Public for partment gaut o Bologna, of graduate a under a false name name false a under f Teich, who became a famous plastic famous a became who Teich, f , August 12, 1944., Ministero dell’Interno, Ministero 1944., 12, August , , October 4, 1946., Facoltà di medicina di Facoltà 1946., 4, October , - eih laws. Jewish , coe 2, 1944 27, October d be srnei 1930 stranieri ebrei ed

that ,

,

(

195 Fogel had already had Fogel dentist mentioned in the the in mentioned Tullio Salvi) Salvi) Tullio etme 5 1944. 5, September - 1956. 1956. - n ret the Trieste In Jewish spouse Jewish ,

(Ministry of of (Ministry , Ministero ., ee still were

- 1956. as a as - , , CEU eTD Collection sphere) economic (Students studenti degli Fascicoli the in and 200 public Bologna. dell’Universitàdi Archivio Storico Sandor Giorgio, 8829, dossiers), (Students’ the in 199 actions Jews’ http://www.1000ev.hu/index.php?a=3¶m=8098. of restriction 198 an Roma. di Stato Centraledello Archivio 1930 Foreigners A16 stranieri category ebrei security, ed public sranieri for department 16 General A Interior, categoria Sicurezza, Pubblica la per generale Direzione Interior of Ministry the to Bologna of Prefecture Busta Jews) foreign 197 and Foreigners A16 category Roma.di Stato dello Archivio Centrale 3, security, (envelope) public for department General 1 Interior, A of categoria (Ministry Sicurezza, Pubblica la per generale Direzione dell’Interno, Security) Public for Department General Interior, of Ministry the to Trieste of Prefecture 196 1942. studies. his cease not could and Bologna in enrolled was Kemény w who Ghigi, Alessandro Bologneserector, to themen) Jewish Hungarian fateof the was (which 1942 in army Hungarian the servicein labor forced avoiding in success his owed indeed He reveal. university the to letters his as Bologna, pension. his administering of purposes the for degree Bologna. in age Ke and Sándor law. discriminatory this to subjected not were marriage, this to previously Christianity to converted if marriages, Christian in living Jews which to according (1939:IV), Italy since Jewish, considered not report. the in were listed children the and wives, Kemény Gyula university, the at Sándor) Salgó), István and Bernáth (László doctors Jewish Hungarian two Bologna chapter, fourth

" " " rftua eubiaa i oon a Mnseo elItro iein dnrl dla oii (Republican polizia della denerale direzione dell’Interno Ministero al Bologna di repubblicana Prefettura rftua eubiaa i ret a Min al Trieste di repubblicana Prefettura 1939. évi IV. törvénycikk a zsidók közéleti és gazdasági térfoglalásának korlátozásáról (1939:IV. (1939:IV. korlátozásáról térfoglalásának gazdasági és közéleti zsidók a törvénycikk IV. évi 1939. Fascicol accl (ose) 22 Kmn Giulio Kemény 1262. (dossier) Fascicolo

N vrhls, tla atoiis i nt ohr o ed i t Hnay ae o. n the In on. later Hungary to him send to bother not did authorities Italian evertheless, were o (dossier) 8829. Sandor Giorgio Sandor 8829. (dossier) o

working in the autumn of 1944, of autumn the in working mény, it is ascertainable that they did survive the war. Sándor liv Sándor war. the survive did they that ascertainable is it mény, was living in a mixed marriage as well and still working in his profession. his in working still and well as marriage mixed a in living was

H e corresponded with the university as late as in 1969 to gain a certificate of his of certificate a gain to 1969 in as late as university the with corresponded e

'

dossiers) 1262. Kemény Giulio, Archivio Storico ArchivioStorico Kemény Giulio, 1262. dossiers)

.

Bernáth, Salgó and Sándor even had children from their Italian their from children had even Sándor and Salgó Bernáth, ok no con te ugra anti Hungarian the account into took " , "

Fclà i hmc industriale chimica di Facoltà , Facoltà di medicina (Faculty of Medicine), Fascicoli degli studenti studenti degli Fascicoli Medicine), of (Faculty medicina di Facoltà istero dell’Interno direzione denerale della polizia (Republican (Republican polizia della denerale direzione dell’Interno istero , General Department for Public Security) Public for Department General , rote a letter to the Hungarian Ministry of Defense that Hungarian Defense the of Ministryto lettera rote

furthermore 82 197

At the same time it was noted that Sándor wasSándor notedthat was it time same the At 199

yl Kemény Gyula

one

sair e eri tair 1930 stranieri ebrei ed sranieri 6 H u frin es Bsa evlp) 3, (envelope) Busta Jews) foreign d ngar 200

Fcly f nutil Chemistry) Industrial of (Faculty dell’Università di Bologna. di dell’Università

Kemény graduated in July in graduated Kemény " ian Jew was still studying still was Jew ian ,

ces My 16, May Access: ie ee i 17 in 1971 in even lived , and - July 20, 20, July eih a o 1939 of law Jewish , Ministero dell’Interno, dell’Interno, Ministero , 198 a dentist (György dentist a -

1956. 1956. ed until his old his until ed n h cs of case the In 1944., Ministero 1944., (Ministry of of (Ministry Law on Law

196 - 2014.,

1956.

the the In , CEU eTD Collection survived. whomthirty of only 204 203 Busta Security) Jews) 202 foreign Public and Foreigners for A16 category Roma.di Stato dello Archivio Centrale 3, Department (envelope) security, ebrei public for ed General department sranieri General 16 Interior, Interior, A of categoria (Ministry of Sicurezza, Pubblica Ministry la per the generale Direzione to dell’Interno, Alessandria of Prefecture 201 abroa Jews and arrested randomly be could Jews Italian when war, the during paradoxical remained policies Jewish Italian fascist Indeed, former citizens. (or German) German even not occupation, German the before authorities German the to Jews Holocaust. the of victims first the were Jews foreign countries after although hisfirst request(1933), lived inItalyfrom he 1927. easily not were thirty 1964, in Italy even citizen Italian an in not was Sándor spent György instance, For decades accepted. the of basis the on solely foreigners by citizenship was citizenship anti the in merits his to due 1951 in citizenship Italian wife his and he occupation German the During case husband’s Hungarian his accountin paragraphthistake into to Italianconvincingauthorities in succeeded Hábermann.She Aladár refugee, clausus numerus another of wife Catholic the Molli, De Rosa by to referred was reportas well. of 1928 Alessandria), (in 1944 in Salò of Republic re municipality

Notice of his daughter, Anna Maria Hábermann. Maria Anna ofhis daughter, Notice Fascicolo (dossier) 8 (dossier) Fascicolo For instance, from Vichy France during one night 12 night one during France Vichy from instance, For rftua eubiaa i lsadi a Mnseo d Ministero al Alessandria di repubblicana Prefettura The very fact of the non the of fact very The Hungariananti the paragraphof same The ot tee s lo rc o aohr ueu cass eue sil iig n the in living still refugee clausus numerus another of trace also is there ports get oo, ned osdrd s ooig anti honoring as considered indeed honor, great a 829. 829.

Sandor Giorgio Sandor

Zuccotti, Zuccotti,

.

- T deportation of these foreign citizens is significant, since in most in since significant, is citizens foreign these of deportation The Italians and the Holocaust. Persecution, Rescue, Survival. Rescue, Persecution, the Holocaust. and Italians The here .

fore Hábermann could work as a doctor in Busto Arsizio. Busto in doctor a as work could Hábermann fore

201

, György Ney, engineer, who was listed in Pőzel’s in listed was who engineer, Ney, György 800 foreign Jews were rounded up on July 16 July on up rounded were Jews foreign 800 83 - ell’Interno direzione denerale della polizia (Republican (Republican polizia della denerale direzione ell’Interno

Jewish law which j which law Jewish treat ed and - acs resistance. fascist i prias Hbran gained Hábermann partisans. hid d (in territories occupied by the the by occupied territories (in d 204 203

- tl dd o re not did Italy acs mrt. euss for Requests merits. fascist ustified Sándor’s exemptionustified Sándor’s 202 tair 1930 stranieri

ann Italian Gaining es foreign lease , 8. , - 17, 1942, out 1942, 17, - , Ministero Ministero , one years one

- 1956. CEU eTD Collection 169 army. Hunga even fact in citizenship, foreign 207 Italy unlike in scope, laws’ one. yellow a of instead 206 205 nu the surviving theHolocaust, l much a had they therefore laborers, forced as front the to sent likely most were 1938 after Hungary to returning students without front the to sent were they thus service, to conscripted were men Jewish occupation. German the than earlier began Holocaust Hungarian the Moreover, it. for presence German meager requesting come, to defeat German obvious an of shadow the in death to Jewry her of most send to ally German the was Hungary country, home Their families. Catholic in integrated were and Italians as lived practically they because of Republic the contrary, were Jews Christian most persecuted. on Hungary, In lot. a matter did Catholics of spouses being only occasionally or Catholic being neverth well, as neighbors neutral or empathetic and luck courage, needed they Thus, Jews. native as persecution avoid to chances and opportunities same the had they practically that s in contradicting of sake the for Germans, the from independent as policy of aspect one least at preserve to willingness a Nazis. officers Italianagainst occasionallywereby Italian protected army),

Zuccotti, Zuccotti, For instance, Christian Jewish men conscripted to labor service had the only advantage to wear a white armband armband white a wear to advantage only the had service labor to conscripted men Jewish Christian instance, For eottos ea erir s well as earlier began Deportations – 174. adlh L. Randolph eu cass a, wd oe r l te er o uiest suis o acs Italy’s fascist to studies university of years the all or some owed law, clausus merus These few Hungarian Jewish intellectual refugees continued to live and work in the the in work and live to continued refugees intellectual Jewish Hungarian few These Concluding, numerous Hungarian Jewish intellectual migrants, exiled from Hungary by by Hungary from exiled migrants, intellectual Jewish Hungarian numerous Concluding,

The Italians and the Holocaust. Persecution, Rescue, Survival. Rescue, Persecution, the Holocaust. and Italians The Salò, due to authorities’ reluctance to extradite them to Hungary or to deport them, them, deport to or Hungary to them extradite to reluctance authorities’ to due Salò, forced

Braham, Braham, In Hungary there was no authority to have possibility to exempt people from the anti the from people exempt to possibility have to authority no was there Hungary In

ao srie rm ugr’ v Hungary’s from service labor or in Germany. or A magyar holocaust magyar A

Hungary men needed ofthe tosurvive Jewish thebattles Easternfront. omething at least. As for foreign Jews living in Italian families, we see see we families, Italian in living Jews foreign for As least. at omething ower chance to survive the war than those remaining in Italy. in remaining those than war the survive to chance ower

, in the summer of 1941 when 16 16 when 1941 of summer the in , rian citizens) were sent to Kame to sent were citizens) rian

(The Hungarian Holocaust) Hungarian (The 84

206 rpr equipment proper

ery entry to the war, instead of military military of instead war, the to entry ery nec –

- 18 Podolsk and extradited to the German German the to extradited and Podolsk , vol 1. (Budapest: Gondolat, 1988), Gondolat, (Budapest: 1. vol , , 000 Jews (allegedly of uncertain or or uncertain of (allegedly Jews 000 . 207

hrfr ml Jewish male Therefore 205

the shortest time, in time, shortest the This had to do withdo tohad This eless their their eless Before - Jewish Jewish

CEU eTD Collection bywhich increased help thewillingness to thosevictimized threeevil these alliance, German the and war, the fascism, of tired was population the of most 1943 September t due was support This survival. their to contributing in factor essential another was Jews persecuted the for Italians of support The population. general the from gained support to and Catholicism t due Jewry, Hungarian of fate the Shoah thanthe of survival of chancecharacterizedhigherby was awhich Italian Jewrydestiny of in Their only not they that much so life whole them of few a For Jews. foreign towards receptivity te at ht y h tm o te emn cuain f oten n Cnrl tl in Italy Central and Northern of occupation German the of time the by that fact the o - between situation between their original and their chosen homelands made them live the live them made homelands chosen their and original their between situation between

te infcne uhrte atiue t cneso to conversion to attributed authorities significance the o began

their career there career their 85

,

studying in interwar Italy determined their determined Italy interwar in studying ,

but star ted

s. their families as well. as families their

CEU eTD Collection They education. higher in enroll application. successful a for sufficient were exams maturity Hungarian bad quite demonstrated, Bologna of University sam the of students Jewish my As basis. meritocratic a on applicants selecting with than body studenttheir internationalizing concernedwith more were universities Italian since drain,brain of contributed of tothe extermination threeof her citizens. quartersown Jewish which country a Hungary, in than Salò of Republic the in Shoah the survive to chance more had German Nazi them. among fascism of supporters were there thus Jews, Italian their Hungarian and theirItalian attitudes as towards patriotism just varied were fascism as thatof Hungary in frustrated aspirations intellectual their fulfill to place a found They paradoxical. was Italy in refugees clausus numerus the of destiny the Yet antisemitic. inherently not was fascism Italian only of the of part fact in is exiles clausus law clausus numerus the by education higher Hungarian refugees intellectual Jewish Italy the fascist to (1938), (1923) legislation reform antisemitic Gentile of the introduction of introduction the from half, a and decade a For period. Conclusion

h fsit onr’ rcpiiy vn oad Jw i nt paradox a not is Jews towards even receptivity country’s fascist The interwar the of peregrination academic of story paradoxical a investigated thesis The The peregrination towards Italy provoked by the numerus clausus was not a phenomenon a not was clausus numerus the by provoked Italy towards peregrination The the history ofuniversities. y, yet Hungarian Jews who managed to stay in Italy, even though foreign citizens, foreign though even Italy, in stay to managed who Jews Hungarian yet y,

–

in an allied country of the of country allied an in (amongst other Jewish exiles of other nationalities) nationalities) other of exiles Jewish other (amongst

were not the m the not were

history of interwar East Central European antisemitism European Central East interwar of history These students were apparently not predestined to to predestined not apparently were students These 86 ost excellent graduates of Hungarian secondary secondary Hungarian of graduates excellent ost

Horthy regime. Horthy

(1920) provided a shelter for Hungarian Hungarian for shelter a provided Both Hungary and Italy allied to allied Italy and Hungary Both . The migration of the numerus numerus the of migration The . In Italy they often displayed often they Italy In l fo Hungarian from ple

per

xld from exiled – se

that were were that because , , not , CEU eTD Collection Italy. ant European Central escaped who students Jewish foreign the all on study sh by students Jewish foreign of case special the analyzing by policy fascist over debate the to fascism; under Italianuniversities of internationalization the and confronting andopportunity for survival during forassimilation HungaryHolocaust Jewish the than did. clausu numerus the among phenomenon common the Hungarian, result Italy in settling Even dissimilation. though) naturalized were degrees quota Jewish upwards social education. mobility through higher children’s the securing War: World First the to previously classes middle Jewish characterized achieved. be could mobility social artisans and tradesmen study to abroad them send their in generation first the were they and university, Hungarian a in enroll to order in applicants Jewish of percent six top the to belong to needed have would they therefore Jewish were they education; ud be ould rvdn te is suy n h nmrs luu eie who exiles clausus numerus the on study first the providing

Peregrination leaving Hungary forever, could mean hs hss otiue t svrl eerh ils t te itr o euain by education of history the to fields: research several to contributed thesis This lowe developed the class middle r in a Hungarian university Hungarian a in t te tla sca evrnet a mxd arae ih non a with marriage mixed as environment, social Italian the to n

curious

n h ftr b a opeesv pooorpia ad oil historical social and prosopographical comprehensive a by future the in , identified higher education as the channel through whi through channel the as education higher identified ,

oncin betwe connection

families to families mdcn i ms cases) most in (medicine LaigHnayfr tl a no was Italy for Hungary Leaving . T hey , go to university to go and en en ed und o h sm srtg o asmlto which assimilation of strategy same the to turned

eventually

newr eta European Central interwar n h continuation the in 87

s refugees in Italy. Italy provided more more provided Italy Italy. in refugees s Tu, hi prns who parents, their Thus, .

. Yet their families made the sacrifice to sacrifice the made families their Yet . naturaliz or only temporarily, until or onlyuntil temporarily, ; and to the field of Jewish Studies Jewish of field the to and ; ing hs Iay Yt hs research this Yet Italy. chose of

a

foreign degree foreign assimilati t an expression of Jewish Jewish of expression an t cdmc antisemitism academic isemitism in fascist in isemitism ch their children’s children’s their ch n i nt o the to not if on, ee typically were

fitting - (few Italian (few Jew was a a was Jew Jewish

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François. 2000. Hungarian Jewish Rabbinical Seminary, 2013. Italy.) Fascist of Politics Educational the in of Trail School: Jewish ("Theoktatáspolitikájában. the Contemporary HebrewJewry, University of Jerusalem, 1995. for Center International Sassoon Jews, Italian the and of Institute Harman Avraham Antisemitism, of Study the Contemporary HebrewJewry, University for Center International Sassoon University of Torino: Einaudi, 1961. Italy). WeW Press, 2005. 1922 Rule, Nazi Budapest: Osiris, 2006. H (Social világháborúig Antisemitism: Racial Project and Totalitarian Ideology.) Laterza, 2002. United States, Laws) Egyesület, 2011. of N (Deprivation claususról. numerus a Tanulmányok of Concepsions Jew? Hungarian umerus Francesco. F Francesco. ilntevtlk klödn l mga diáksá magyar élő külföldön a Pillanatfelvételek

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