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Gold Nanoparticles: Assembly, Supramolecular Chemistry, Quantum-Size-Related Properties, and Applications Toward Biology, Catalysis, and Nanotechnology

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Gold Nanoparticles: Assembly, Supramolecular Chemistry, Quantum-Size-Related Properties, and Applications Toward Biology, Catalysis, and Nanotechnology Chem. Rev. 2004, 104, 293−346 293 Gold Nanoparticles: Assembly, Supramolecular Chemistry, Quantum-Size-Related Properties, and Applications toward Biology, Catalysis, and Nanotechnology Marie-Christine Daniel and Didier Astruc* Molecular Nanosciences and Catalysis Group, LCOO, UMR CNRS No. 5802, Universite´ Bordeaux I, 33405 Talence Cedex, France Received August 6, 2003 Contents 6.3. AuNP Sugar Sensors 323 6.4. Other AuNP Bioconjugates: Peptides, Lipids, 324 1. Historic Introduction 293 Enzymes, Drugs, and Viruses 2. General Background: Quantum Size Effect and 294 6.5. AuNP Biosynthesis 325 Single-Electron Transitions 7. Catalysis 325 3. Synthesis and Assembly 296 7.1. Catalysis of CO Oxidation 325 3.1. Citrate Reduction 296 7.2. Electrochemical Redox Catalysis of CO and 326 3.2. The Brust−Schiffrin Method: Two-Phase 296 CH3OH Oxidation and O2 Reduction Synthesis and Stabilization by Thiols 7.3. Catalysis of Hydrogenation of Unsaturated 326 3.3. Other Sulfur Ligands 297 Substrates 3.4. Other Ligands 298 7.4. Catalysis by Functional Thiolate-Stabilized 326 AuNPs 3.4.1. Phosphine, Phosphine Oxide, Amine, and 298 Carboxylate Ligands 7.5. Other Types of Catalysis 327 3.4.2. Isocyanide 298 8. Nonlinear Optics (NLO) 327 3.4.3. Acetone 298 9. Miscellaneous Applications 328 3.4.4. Iodine 298 10. Conclusion and Perspectives 329 3.5. Microemulsion, Reversed Micelles, 298 11. Acknowledgment 329 Surfactants, Membranes, and Polyelectrolytes 12. Abbreviations 329 3.6. Seeding Growth 298 13. References 330 3.7. Physical Methods: Photochemistry (UV, 298 Near-IR), Sonochemistry, Radiolysis, and 1. Historic Introduction Thermolysis Although gold is the subject of one of the most 3.8. Solubilization in Fluorous and Aqueous Media 299 ancient themes of investigation in science, its renais- 3.9. Characterization Techniques 300 sance now leads to an exponentially increasing 3.10. Bimetallic Nanoparticles 303 number of publications, especially in the context of 3.11. Polymers 304 emerging nanoscience and nanotechnology with nano- 3.12. Dendrimers 307 particles and self-assembled monolayers (SAMs). We 3.13. Surfaces, Films, Silica, and Other AuNP 308 will limit the present review to gold nanoparticles Materials (AuNPs), also called gold colloids. AuNPs are the 4. Physical Properties 312 most stable metal nanoparticles, and they present 4.1. The Surface Plasmon Band (SPB) 312 fascinating aspects such as their assembly of multiple 4.2. Fluorescence 314 types involving materials science, the behavior of the 4.3. Electrochemistry 315 individual particles, size-related electronic, magnetic 4.4. Electronic Properties Using Other Physical 315 and optical properties (quantum size effect), and their Methods applications to catalysis and biology. Their promises 5. Chemical, Supramolecular, and Recognition 317 are in these fields as well as in the bottom-up Properties approach of nanotechnology, and they will be key 5.1. Reactions of Thiolate-Stabilized AuNPs 317 materials and building block in the 21st century. Whereas the extraction of gold started in the 5th 5.2. Supramolecular Chemistry 318 millennium B.C. near Varna (Bulgaria) and reached 5.3. Molecular Recognition 319 10 tons per year in Egypt around 1200-1300 B.C. 5.3.1. Redox Recognition Using Functionalized 319 when the marvelous statue of Touthankamon was AuNPs as Exoreceptors constructed, it is probable that “soluble” gold ap- 5.3.2. Miscellaneous Recognition and Sensors 320 peared around the 5th or 4th century B.C. in Egypt 6. Biology 321 and China. In antiquity, materials were used in an 6.1. DNA−AuNPs Assemblies and Sensors 321 ecological sense for both aesthetic and curative 6.2. AuNP-Enhanced Immuno-Sensing 323 purposes. Colloidal gold was used to make ruby glass 10.1021/cr030698+ CCC: $48.50 © 2004 American Chemical Society Published on Web 12/20/2003 294 Chemical Reviews, 2004, Vol. 104, No. 1 Daniel and Astruc (vide infra), that “gold must be present in such a degree of communition that it is not visible to the human eye”. A colorant in glasses, “Purple of Cas- sius”, is a colloid resulting from the heterocoagulation of gold particles and tin dioxide, and it was popular in the 17th century.2b A complete treatise on colloidal gold was published in 1718 by Hans Heinrich Helcher.3 In this treatise, this philosopher and doctor stated that the use of boiled starch in its drinkable gold preparation noticeably enhanced its stability. These ideas were common in the 18th century, as indicated in a French dictionary, dated 1769,4 under the heading “or potable”, where it was said that “drinkable gold contained gold in its elementary form but under extreme sub-division suspended in a Marie-Christine Daniel was born in Vannes, France. She graduated from liquid”. In 1794, Mrs. Fuhlame reported in a book5 the University of Rennes (France). She is now finishing her Ph.D. on that she had dyed silk with colloidal gold. In 1818, exoreceptors at the Bordeaux 1 University in the research group of Professor Didier Astruc. Her doctoral research is concerned with the Jeremias Benjamin Richters suggested an explana- recognition of anions of biological interest using functionnalized gold tion for the differences in color shown by various nanoparticles and redox-active metallodendrimers. preparation of drinkable gold:6 pink or purple solu- tions contain gold in the finest degree of subdivision, whereas yellow solutions are found when the fine particles have aggregated. In 1857, Faraday reported the formation of deep- red solutions of colloidal gold by reduction of an - aqueous solution of chloroaurate (AuCl4 ) using phosphorus in CS2 (a two-phase system) in a well- known work. He investigated the optical properties of thin films prepared from dried colloidal solutions and observed reversible color changes of the films upon mechanical compression (from bluish-purple to green upon pressurizing).7 The term “colloid” (from the French, colle) was coined shortly thereafter by Graham, in 1861.8 Although the major use of gold colloids in medicine in the Middle Ages was perhaps Didier Astruc is Professor of Chemistry at the University Bordeaux I and for the diagnosis of syphilis, a method which re- has been a Senior Member of the Institut Universitaire de France since mained in use until the 20th century, the test is not 1995. He studied in Rennes (thesis with R. Dabard), and then did his completely reliable.9-11 postdoctoral research at MIT with R. R. Schrock. He is the author of Electron Transfer and Radical Processes in Transition-Metal Chemistry In the 20th century, various methods for the (VCH, 1995, prefaced by Henry Taube) and Chimie Organome´tallique preparation of gold colloids were reported and - (EDP Science, 2000; Spanish version in 2003). His research interests reviewed.11 17 In the past decade, gold colloids have are in organometallic chemistry at the interface with nanosciences, been the subject of a considerably increased number including sensing, catalysis, and molecular electronics. of books and reviews,15-44 especially after the break- 17,19,21 22,27 and for coloring ceramics, and these applications are throughs reported by Schmid and Brust et al. still continuing now. Perhaps the most famous ex- The subject is now so intensively investigated, due ample is the Lycurgus Cup that was manufactured to fundamental and applied aspects relevant to the in the 5th to 4th century B.C. It is ruby red in quantum size effect, that a majority of the references transmitted light and green in reflected light, due to reported in the present review article have appeared the presence of gold colloids. The reputation of soluble in the 21st century. Readers interested in nano- gold until the Middle Ages was to disclose fabulous particles in general can consult the excellent books curative powers for various diseases, such as heart cited in refs 15, 24, 28, 33, and 43. The book by 14 and venereal problems, dysentery, epilepsy, and Hayat, published in 1989, essentially deals with tumors, and for diagnosis of syphilis. This is well biological aspects and imaging of AuNPs. detailed in what is considered as the first book on colloidal gold, published by the philosopher and 2. General Background: Quantum Size Effect and medical doctor Francisci Antonii in 1618.1 This book Single-Electron Transitions includes considerable information on the formation Physicists predicted that nanoparticles in the of colloidal gold sols and their medical uses, including diameter range 1-10 nm (intermediate between the successful practical cases. In 1676, the German size of small molecules and that of bulk metal) would chemist Johann Kunckels published another book,2a display electronic structures, reflecting the electronic whose chapter 7 concerned “drinkable gold that band structure of the nanoparticles, owing to quan- contains metallic gold in a neutral, slightly pink tum-mechanical rules.29 The resulting physical prop- solution that exert curative properties for several erties are neither those of bulk metal nor those of diseases”. He concluded, well before Michael Faraday molecular compounds, but they strongly depend on Gold Nanoparticles Chemical Reviews, 2004, Vol. 104, No. 1 295 the particle size, interparticle distance, nature of the protecting organic shell, and shape of the nano- particles.27 The few “last metallic electrons” are used for tunneling processes between neighboring par- ticles, an effect that can be detected by impedance measurements that distinguish intra- and intermo- lecular processes. The quantum size effect is involved when the de Broglie wavelength of the valence electrons is of the same order as the size of the particle itself. Then, the particles behave electroni- cally as zero-dimensional quantum dots (or quantum boxes) relevant to quantum-mechanical rules. Freely mobile electrons are trapped in such metal boxes and show a characteristic collective oscillation frequency of the plasma resonance, giving rise to the so-called Figure 1. Differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) responses plasmon resonance band (PRB) observed near 530 for AuNP solutions measured at a Pt microelectrode; nm in the 5-20-nm-diameter range.
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