DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 218.613 CS 206 941 ,

AUTHOR Picard, Robert G. TITLE Democratic Socialisme\Toward a Fifth Theory ofthe. Press. PUB DATE Jul 82 NOTE 24p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for in Journalism (65th, Athens, OH, July 25-28,'1982).

EDRS MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS ; Developed Nations; *Economic Factors;

Freedom of Speech;**Government Role; 'Information , Sources; Journalism; *Newspapers; News Reporting; *Social Influences; *Theories . IDENTIFIERS *bemocratic ; Media,Ownership; *Media Role'

ABSTRACT. For more than 25 years, the "four theories" paradigm has been dominant in the study of the relationships among the press, society, and the state. Asserting that the major approaches to such tstudy are the libertarian, social responsibility, authoritarian', and /communist theOries, thit paradigm fails to account for economic and social pressures that have led to a decline in newspaper plurality. and opinions available in. Westerh,democratic societies. A new theory has recently emerged to fill this gap. Thetheory, which -arose from democratic socialist , holds that state intervention in the structure and operation of the press-should be encouraged to counteraceffects of private control, and to support. the role of the press in he democratic process by.promoting democratic controls 'as well as unit, communicator, and message I T-h- - ernative ownership and '; forms that would make the press public utilities to e used as tools by people to disseminate their aspixatiOns; ideas, and opinions. The theory is based on th'e bel/ef that of the press is1a right accorded citizens in a demOcracy.and not a privilege rederved only to those who own of control the media. The theory holds that ec nomic. and social pressures on the press must be eased if press f eedoM is to be preserved..(FL)

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DEMOCRATIC SOCIALISM: TOWARD A FIFTH THEORY OF THE PRESS

, By - o. Robert G. Picard Publications Editor

Freedom of Information Center ,Sthool of'Journalism University of Missourt

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY Robert G. Picard V

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."

Presented to the Qualitativestildies Division, ssoc Lion for Education in Journalism Annual. Convention, Athens, Ohio,, m y 1 82

9 . State intervention has reached a stage at whicha new formulation is required for the traditionalpress ethic based upon a total separation of powers betweeh authority sand media. We can no longer pretend that infbrmationor media enterprises areutterly'private enterprises existing at theconvergence point of,. 1 --Anthony'Smith

For a quarter century the dominant paradigm in the studyof, the

relationships between press, society andthe state-has been Four

. te- Theories of the Press',mihcka§Serts that the major 'approaches are .

:, . 1r / !: representeby the liberta*', sogial, responsibfliiy,;authorftanian and. . . ,

2- 0 A Sovi,et/Comlbunist- theories. : 1:. -,0 .,

'0 ,. . . .1m-the Westerii:democatic-world the,libertarian and 'social:respon-

. . sibility theof-les have 'been doMinant*,',but these approach have..increas- -, .. .. ,.

. ..4ingly come..Under.attack Sincethey have failed to account ibi- pressures

. . . , and controls, on st4e press that ha've_disrupted'the marketplacefor ideas

and-d4m4nished the appearance of diverse ideas and optnions.'Themajor

impetus for the criticismAas.been draiiiatiC newspaper:mortalityand

concentration of Ownership, particularly in Nordic and Europ'eannations

since the 1940s, that\have seriously impaired-the press' abilityto'

carry out its role aO political forum and educator. ,

A review. of such concentration in-the U.S. newspeaper.industry,and

0 :' of the, ci.sting literature on the development, led Patrick Parsonsto conclude tint the creation anti maintenance,of economies of scalein the

newspapeti industry are the primary4cause of the declineof daily news-

3 -papers and of competing newspapers. Parsons' work, which has received'

'l'ittle notice, showed thatnewspapers perate'in accordance with the.

primary functions, goals,and motivations of all industries ina capitalL'

ist free system. He (so concluded that whenfaced"with

3 - difficulties in;the marketplace, papers made changes not toserve the- ' community !letter but to make the papersmore salabler-efforts ultimately

, doomed-to failure, according to Lars Engwall, who hasargued that only by differentiating the content of audience ofcompeting newspaperscan 4 more than one survive ina given market. The Commissionof theEurbpean

Communities reached conclusionssimilar to Parsons,' in its individual .-- studies on pre'ss and concentration:.in EuropeannatiOns f -published in its Eyolut4onof CoRcenttationand.Competitidnries.- , , Mortality and cOncentration.canbe, Seen in all -iQdViries . in which' 4 , , -t ./1 individual enterprises 4 . . are subject to'the market:forcesof qe'.cap-: , , ...... , . . italist economic syspdm. . - . . A reaTity of that system 'isthat maximum

profits are` not -made in competition,witti otherenterprises,, but ih the absence of competition. Since newspapersare, withrare exception,

-making ventures--not pUblic information utilitiesr7itshould not 4 besurprising that capitalistic market 'strategies havebeen pursued that -- have spurred the decline of independentnewspapers.

.These developments have disrupted, the forum of ideasin such away that tire introduction "and debate of divergent opinions'and ideas have been significantly impaired. This has raisedconcern among pdlitical

scientists, sociologists,' journalists andothersinterested in the- . . 4 of newspapers to society 'and the political'process, 6 and has prompted them 'to retonsiderMiltop''s view'of the marketplaceof ideas and the self-correctingaspects of the market. Supportelh of the,- libertarian view of the market have long argued that'the marketmust be "free" if it-is to operate according tolthetheory. George Koether' typifies this view.when he says that "..,a 'market 'cannottrulybe a market unless it operates by the free choices. ofits consumers"and'

Az . zi. 1 4 1. producers.'If it is not free, it is7no longera matket.1,5Proponents of -) this view recoOniA that governmentcan,. interfere with freedom in the

market, but generally do not accept the idea thateconomic and social

pressures can be equally as devastating by removing free choicesfor

consumers and produders. Other libertarians, however, recognizethe

-,insuificiency of that position, although they donot accept the inter-

, vention of the state to correct the problems.

Since the commercial nature of communication makesit difficult to

bring new ideas onto the scene and has resultedin actions that control

- :the marketplace, iilbeiOMesnecessary to consider what has happened to

the marketplace since'it was desctibed:* andto take-Iction to

make the marketplace operatemore freely once again. It is no longer

enougirto/argue that thosewith viewpdints not carried in'readily

1 available media should seek out other.meda forthose views. With \'

subscriptions to a newspaper from another localitrunning as much as . $300 a year, news-magazine subscriptions reaching $50 a'yearand

subscriptions to journals of opinion and specialtymagazines costiflg

. between $12-25'per year, one could easily spend $1,000a year seeking

diversity, somethi9g well beyond the means of mostindividuals. And

libraries no longer offer the answer to the problemeither since

ment cutbacks hav_e_caused them to reduce periodicalsubscription's at-the

expense of serials with unorthodox viewpoinfS% A

Starting competing newspapers or periodicalswith-significant

' distribution Is also-ot/t of the question because ofthe costs of labor, 11 5

. --- , , , . distribution,. printing and ,.editorial materials. "Ina sprawling country . ,, , .I, like America, coverage in themass media is the only meansigrgaining-g°

11 J. , .

day in the court of public'opinion...A mimeographmachine pn't get the'

message across anymore," remindsone observer.6.,

Similar conditions exist-in the other WesterndemocraCies, leading Jean Schwoebel-of-Le Monde to observe that "freedom ofexpression is NA given only to people-whocan assemble formidable ."7

The libertarianand social'responsibility theories ofthepress have failed to account.or deal. with thedecline in democratic partici- O pation and pluralityof views available in the press, muchless the decline inn the number of new.spaper$.themselves. As a result, social

critics have been forcedto reevaluate the newspaper milieu inrecent years.

In response to these concerns, two distinct bodiesof thought have -emerged. The firstreflects the traditional liberal democraticview, joined together withthe capitalist, free-enterprise philosophyof economics. It holdsthat the problems of the pressare unfortunate, but argues that governmentmust still be prohibited from regulationor any other involvement in the industry if.anyfreedom is to be preserved.

The second viewis-more socially oriented, placing.greater significance on'preserving°.themarketplace of ideas and allowing governmentto take

. action aimed atpreserving and promoting the role of thepness in the

A "democraticprocess. It emerged out of - \ democratic socialistideology, which developed inWestern Europe-at the,turn of the'tentury,was absorbed into the of the SOcialDemocratic and Socialist parties andthbn was reVitalized and began sPr=eading.throughoutthe '. . . -.democratic wonfd Since.the ..- . a .. Second World War.

, : Like the social 4 resI)onsibility,theorythenew democratic socialist ., , . . . theory requires the ro media to_open avenues foiexPressipn ofdiverse.

. 11, J' a a ideas and opinions..But,it;qoes further than.the Socialresponsibility .. theory because it views the dangers of private control ofan institution

iMPor,tanito soCiety'as.so potentially damaging . , that they must be . .,ameliOrated by instituting -other-forms of ownership,,operationand._ management of media and state jr-Orvention in the economics ofthe press.

.41 Which of the two views is , accepted by any individual dependson the

perspectiie of the individual,say. Graham Murdock and Peter Gelding.

The key ques one of public intervention or not. The argument is unavoidab)ypolitical. On one hand the free flew of market forces isviewed 6S" the roost justifiable influence on the range andnature of.news"and views made available by the press. On theother hand such 'forcesare seen as a simple reflection of the distributionof power in society --a distribution which thepress therefore comes to, rep4gsent and thus to-reifforce..If this distribution of power.isseen as unjust, then'so a're its consequences,and public and state intervention ,inn- the affairs of -thepress becomes a necessary .course of action to rectify"such injustice.Which of these * , views seen corVect-dependson how'one reads the.history of the, press. .

Under the deMocratic socialist approach, the preis' purpose,losto

provide avenues for expressionof views by the public and to fuel -

, . political and social'i,debatenecessary for the continued development of

democratic governan,e In this system the state takesaction to ensure

the ability of citizens to'use,thepress and to preserve and promote

media plurality. Ultimateii, ownership'under such a system would be

'public an not-for-profit, lireugh foundations;non-prOfit ,

journalist-operated andother cellective organizations.

fr,

Democratic Socialist Theory.

Support forthe.state,interventionview has groin rapidly 'in

-Europe, especially during thelate 1960s.and'tne 1970t.. Many` fr -- , 4., )

cz

. . governments in the Ewopean and Nordic nations have been askedto and 9 agreed to take.action in support of a.diversepress.. These actions

include a wide variety of efforts, suchas limitations on ownership,

protective.legis)ationfAevelopment support, exemptionsfrom certain

. taxes and the granting of subsidies'whichare consistent with the

democratic socialist tory of the press.

The-theory deparlis rom the traditional four theories of the press

bec'ause it is basedon a socio- political theory, And philosophy thatihas

# received its strongest support sincr the . formulation of the four theor-

ies paradigm. The democratic socialist theory is'a theory for democratic

societies, but differs from the libertarian andsocial responsibility

theories because of Undamental, diff4fiences in the view of therole,of

'state vis-a-vis'ociety. In-traditional Arig1O-Amerieanpolitical sOciol-

ogy,' on which the libertarian and social responsibilitytheories are.

based, the.state is viewed as theenemy of the people and the word tie

itself had taken on a negative connotation.

In most of the Western democratic world,:and in much ofthe remain-.

der of the democratic world, the state ft viewedas a more respected

ft

institution, pursuing policies on behalf of itscitizens as an open tr democratit institution, and citizens and other institutions of society

are' generally supportive of that role. 'Asa result, the state-is not

viewed with as great suspicion. This is reflectedin the political and

'social institutions and programs of such societiesand in citizens'

attitudes toward the role of thepress. These'..views have developed to

the point they can be seen as a new theory of the press.

, This theory of the press has arisen concurrently withevolutionary -4 / . - . :changes in Western thought and political participationduring the latt . ° -

-

f I hal'f-cehtbry that haveled,to a reevaluation Iof the roles ofthe , t individual, the state and other institutionsin modern . A

hybriaLphilosophy has developedout of this reconsideration of .. , , ...... socio-political theories that reasserts' thedemocratic pa rticipation of

individuals spheres of life that affect them.

The 'major impetus for thi$ philosophyarose from the changing

%. A nature of the relationship between thestate and econOmics caused by the

maturation of industrial capitalistsociety. This relat anshirhas

, . indreasingly denied citizens theability to participate in economic

decisions, spurred development ofspecial groups andpower. :` elites and led to a declinein.opportunities to effettively voice

opinions, occurrences that have deniedcitizens the ability tafully

partiCipate in poltica,economic and social decision making.

..:[T]he separation of economicand political power no longer exists. Widespread narket failurehas given , in this century, to the'interventidniststate. ,Routinely,shap- ing, correcting,- supplementing andreplacing, the market mechanism, the interventionist stateis explicitIlicommitted to ths'task of economic decisionmaking. But the expansin of tate functions Mt not been- accompanied by acomparably expanded system afsppular participationin government. It , had, rather, the opposite effect:'paliticaldecisions have been displaced toan administrativeapparatus tat is depshed _ from popular control, " t. 10 two,politicil 'scientists recentlyobserved.

. ,

. This. in'the UnitediStates has mirroredearlier develop-

, - ments in the industrialized democraciesof Western Europe. There it

spprred consideratign of the emerging.philosophy that combined the right L.

of democratic participation inpolitical, econom* and socialspheres of

life into a philosophy calleddemocratic socialism,(termed economic.

^\idemocracy by those specificallyconcerned with its economic aspects kid

_ 4 9

- _ ti

by others who prefer to employ a description thatdoes,not include the

often misrepresented andmisunderstood word "socialist.").

This view, of democratic participation in all areas ofsociety arose e mainly out of the works of theorists and critics inthe'hi9hly industri-, . alized Western democratic nations and a few progressive,industrialized

socialist states in EasternEurope.

No single volume has'yet/Provided a comprehensive discussion ote

democratic socialist, ideology,or the role of the press in democratic A societies operating with such ideology, buta developing body of thought has begun to emerge during the past two decades; building06 the turn- of-Oe-ecentury works ofearly democratic socialists suchas Eddard , ternstein.11 Peter Gay noted the renewedinterest in democr;tic soda)- ism,in the 1950s and `44114.. exploNd the impact. of Bernsteinon its_ideology in tyfirstmajor Americarkstudy, which pointed out the ,difficultyof trying to bring about radical social changed by democraticmeans.1 , founder of ,,the Democratic Socialistsof America, hasibeen the most prolific writeron the subject intheUnited States and has produced several books that deal withaspeCts=bfthe philos- . ophy,13as has :,14 Journals such as Democracy,.TheDemocratic , . - left, Dissent and Socialist Revi'w have also carriedarticles that have

. contributed -to the emerging view of democracy in allspheres'of Society. The.most significant contributjoth have emerged from the workson economics by-Carole Pateman15 16 and Branko Horvat. A variety of other 4., 'writers have offered paradigms for putting .the economic theoryinto practice, with useful works being proddcdd by Jaroslav Vanek,17and Martin Carnoy and, Derek 18 Shearer. ,An introductiOn to thisaspect of was recently published in Journal ofCommunication

t

-10 4

-k i, f . . . Inquiry. ,y In if% Beverly James broadly andinclusivelydefined ecoliomic . ,N . N. democracy as . . ,x .. . . s. A A N 6 .. I e* ....one element in the vision of.a self-governing, self' -man- .aging society,a society in which the concept of democracyis extended to'embrade all spheres bf sociallife. Its fundamen-, tal aim is the construction ofa more equitable i'hrdemocrati society through the democratizationof the economic sphere. -r The same rationale thattsuppoftsthe of' supports the democratizationof economics: a human- istic belie-in the inherent rightsof all- people to intimate, effectirparticipation in major tiecisicins affectingtheir lives. 1 . This democratic. socialist view attempts to blend power elit, and ,

pluralisk political theory s with the 'class theory of society. Thjs,is ,, \ac6omplished Ely.pofnting out thedpbilitafing:effects Of powerlites

and- insfitUtinalized interestgroups on- the democratic, protest, white - at the same time drawing from the two hepries ideas and concepts that , . ' support clatsical democratic construt s--7yihich have 1 already been incorp- ,. .. . e-orated.with class theory in fdrmatiOn of basic democraticsocialist

20 . ideology. t ___...,- . 4,

Such an amalgamation of philosophicaland, ideological concepts into Va broadened ideology 'of democratic socialism'is fraughtwith apparent

contradictions, something ideologicalpurists sin-elite, pluralitt and

class theory Vamps hasten'to point-out:Their criticisms focuson the

fact that a pragmatic, activity orientedideology it created that does not Amatically adhere to . . some of the'rather rigid and, oftentimes,.

dated tenets of class, pltralist, elite and classical democratictheory.

..Democratic socialist theory attemptsto bridge the schism of pol-

. itical and social theory. in moderndemocratic societies caused by the

democ atic , which soughtto endow 'man-with equality, and the

indust ialTcapitatist revolutiot Whichmoved.away from..equality through 4.,

'the development and maintenance of distirict social ,classes, unknownin'

prior ages, based on capital and .

Tom BOttomore describes two stages of the democratic Movement that

aee useful in explaining the, the,goals of democratic social ism.,The

first was the revolution whichibrougtr about the concept Of liberal'

democracy, a partial democracy that seta competitiVe political system

in place that eorilpemented'the growing competitive market Atnomy of 4

. . developingcapitalism.The second stage, he4sseqed-, is-the extension . . t . , . . tro of democratic participati-o6to other areas oesocial '41ife.ti r . . , 1 A . , . 4 r C A weakness of is its )imited scope, which'/

' generally pefrilits th'edeMooracy to operate only in the political .arena I. - I . and.does not ,extend- demoeratic participation to such areasas the , . . , . (A economy or social .1 jfes in general : 'This is- the first stage'Ofdemocracy a , in Bottomore's model and adherents ,to,'such phOlosophy leek to halt e I , $ . (democraticdevelopment, here. They recognize that &',:iciety may jnfldence % I P. 6 3 '4 the state and. shduldbelabAo. alterit,,but rtjett the conoept.of the 1` .4*, t40 . ' ( t, 4 A .

4 state being all °whit). influence and ter society, even .jf 'the majrity: : . , . , . . --\,.. Of citizens 'wish it -ko dd so. . . m ? , . .,,- , mr ,, . . .N ' Democratit takea much, broader view of deriloCraCy, much

cloSer to the classical' doctrine which J.A. .Schdhipter, describedas a- . . movement that tries to constantly extend'Ahe area.within which the

. -., 1 . , . -,

. , 4. members df society govern by participating fullyinwthe governance of

thei r '1 ives .q-Thi s represent's the second pa ist df. BottoMore 's. paradigm.

finde democratic social.ism, societyseeks to provideAthe.abil'ity for the

: . , - second stage of the- derhocratic movement. to 'succeed-=the 'politi.61:-and 1-,

social dominance of the most numerous class, the,, and-the'. -',,.,

. - . . . traiasformtion of the market,eton6my into a socialist economy. , , i\ L / ti .4441, 2 ,.

Democratic socialists, however, are not statist ,in' theirapproach

t4-s6ciety and are critical of -centralized bureaucraticadministration

of economic, political and other aspects of social life asseen in most

-so- called socialist regimes in the world today. They are also critical

of the state capitalist societies found in Western nationsthat

pursue policies ;that promote centralization of decision making, bureau-

cratization and of society by the few. 9 . . \he difficulties posed by an overriding belief in thedemocratic

process and a belief that fundaMental_changes need tooccur in society

present a great "dilemma" to democratic socialists; Gay hasrightly

pointed out. This means that they are often forced-to choose between

4 following their principles, supporting the democraticprocess and

gaining their objectiies very, slowly, or rejecting principles, seizing

power and bringing apout immediate chinges.23 In the Western world,

democratit socialists have to data chosen principleover power and

continue,to work for change within existing dempdtatic political insti-

'tutions.

. In the past two decade's, social and political scientists in demo- . cvtic nations have begun to view the evolving tenets of, democratic

socialithil as a possible answer to governmental, economic and social

. pressures onthe press that control the content ofmessages carried and

- , reduce the opportunity for diverse opinions andwiews to be disseminat- e:. ed. As a result, many Western democratic societies have permittedtheir

governments to intervene in the marketplace of ideas by taking a'variety

of steps to maintain and, promote media 00message -plurality, to ensure

press accountability to-society; to provide public access to thepress

13 and to openavenues for the public and journalists toparticipate in management decisions.

This concertedintervention in the previously sacrosanctrealm ofa the press was madeunder the assumption that economic,political'and social forces have acted and developedto such a State -. that they have reduced the opportunityfor diverse ideas and opinions tobe introduced

into themarketplacea_resultthreatening the very. basis of democracy-- informed citizen.participation.

Mihailo Markovic hasalto argded the importance.of openingcommun- ication,lv removing constraintson ideas and opinions. oa `...The genuine general will of the peoplecan be formed only through open 'communication, free expression of opinions, and dialogue. critical 'It is blear then,that any monopoly over the masS media (either by bigbusiness, or the the state, or the churCh, or party) must bedismantled. Such a monopoly enallles a ruling elite to manipulate therest of the ulation, to create pop- artificial needs, toimpose its ideology, -and to construeits selfish particular general Ones. Therefqq as the the mass media mustbe-free and genuinely socialized.

Beverly James has laid the groundwork forexploring means of

democratizing the economicaspects of media,,arguing that self-manage- ment arlownership.a)kcrucial' to making the mediamore responsive to public needs.25 Sinceserious exploration of media fromthe.democratic socialist perspectivehas only recently begun, her work isuseful by pointing out the needsand possible directions o for future study. fi More recently; Jamesand Hanno Hardt a suggested economicdemocracyr at a framework-for redefining the nature of the press inWestern societ- ies. They argued thatglernments should strengthen weak newspapers and halt concentrationof ownership, and.that new types of ownershipof newspapers should be encouraged. 26

8 14 Vincent Mosco andAndrew Beeman have recently argued radical and neo-Marx ftheories andresearch on capitalist societies provide 'methodology for analyzing fhecommunication industry dialecticapyand that they can be used toprovideideas for democratizing communicatiOn' in Western nations.27

.Under the democratic socialist view, mediacan be truly democratic

only if they .., 4 are removed frgm theprivate sector, spared the effectsof economic competition,freed from restraints and pressures-- whatever the source--and inducedto provide the Capacity for citizensto communicate *effectively with other citizens. These condions inclutle therequire- ments of the traditional Western liberal view of press freeiom,i.e., the absence of government restraintsor undue interference Withcommun- ication of opinion and viewpoints. But the democratic socialist model combines thesenegative characteristics, i:e.the absence of 'governmental.restraint and interference, withpositive liberty characteristics, i.e.,action beingpkeh to promote conditionsthat "will allow a(ireeexchange of ideas among all citizens. Thisrepresents anew direction incommunication theory, resulting fromdevelopment of the concept of 28 positive pressfreedom. uln the realm of communication, democratic socialiStssattempt to ,combine their IN'ld politicalideology with the communicationth)Nory of society. The lliter theory introduced in the United States inthe , 1920s by the "ChicagoSchool," led by theorists suchas Charles Horton,,, Cooley and JohnDewey, who postulated that the rise ofmass demoI cratic politics was madepossible El communication mediathat intricately linkedlocal communitiees to larger societyas awhole.29 , Morel'recently, that theory has receivedrenewed consideration by

members of-the "FrankfurtSchool," made up of critical theorists suchas Leo Lowenthal, Theodor Adorno and 'argen.Habermas,who argued that , , communication Media indeed played a significant rolein the rise of 'politics and public discourse, but that in recentyears communication media have been the caus.e.,of the decline of suchmass politics and

discourse ,because of economic and other constraints placedon them that

have eroded theprospects of media being used to create a trulydemo-( cratic society.3°

This problem was recently addressed by Ed McLuskie,who noted the rising support for viewing

..democracy from accommunication point of view: thismeans that democracy is understoodas a form of politics animated'by and through general publicdiscourseo politics whereby public discussion and debateare free to make a diffetence:-A ,necessarycondition for therealization of sucha poliliCs ig that neither society:, as a multttUde of private interests,nor the state, as theagency for public policy, systematically subordinates general publicdiscourse.

To achieve S'uch.a condition would require changing theemphasis of communication from the use of media for one-way, "down"communication o from elites, economic interests, etc., to a two-waysystem based on what could be called 'citizen-communicators" and "citizen- receivers- communicators."

Commercial communi>ion media,and even state-operatedand controlled media, based on one-way information floware inimical to the'

interests of democracybecause they inhibit two -way information flow,a basic necessity for the development and maintenanceof democratic societies. Withot Vie effective ability for citizens andgroups to use media to freely voice theft ideas, opinions andconcerns, democratic societies cannot survive or further democratic developmentbecause econoMir, political and,c14ss elites are afforded theopportunity to . control information and thus' - shape and direct MT-ceptionsand opinions of the masse's is'ways which reduce diversity of ideas,tolerance of . 1

.01 alternate opinions and democratic participation in all aspectsof

society. '

The modern of individual political freedomand participation in the governante of ,^ society is only three centuriesold and hasnever , remained a static,programCfor democracy, but has beencontinuously adapted in the,environments in which it has opefated.Democratic socialistsbelil in the importate of indi44dualliberty a6 that such liberty 4mst.not be unduly limited by any institutionsof society. This ideology, however, departs Al7 from the traditionalAnglo-American concepts of liberty in that it maintains that individualliberty must be protect- ed not only from state encroachment but also fromthe encroachment of

other individuals and theeconomic and other institutions 1 of society: The press is an important aspect of this individualliberty and must not be fetteredif individuals are to have theopportunity to seek high degrees of self O actualization and participationin society. Ljub- omir Tadic points out.the integral role media haveto play in democratic : .

An essential need of theworkers' movement, therefore'is , which the rigorously appliesto itself as -well, in theform of self-criticism.In that sense; the role of the public, the widest political,democracy, and freedom of of initiatih,assemy and the press becomes second nature in socialist society.

4, Since media are viewedas a crucial institution of , society, pro-

widing.information-and a forum for dOate,it ts understandable that , democratizing the media should be a major gbal for democraticsocieties.

The importance ofa truly free Tress,has been recognized since the-- .

earliest days of socialist thought. h4self acknowledged 'the . importance of a free and vigorous presses

A free press is everywhere theopen eye,of the national, spirit, the embodied confidence of the people initself, the verbal that ties the individual to the stateand the-

world, the incorporated culture which transforms material , struggles into ,spiritual struggles and idealizesthe crude,

materialized form. It is the heedless confeSsiona people . before itself, and confession,as is known, has liberating power. It is the spiritual mirror in which the people observe themselves, and self-observation is the first conditionof wisdom. It is the spirit of the state whichcan be carried into ever hut, cheaper than material gas. It is versatile, 0 the most modern and all knowing. It is the ideal world which always originates in the reel world andflows into it again, giving life, as an ever richer spirit,

be observed. But he also recognized that sucha free press was not

without problems. "Bear in-mind," Marx.said, "thatthe advantages of

'cantot be enjoyed without toleration,of its ipcon- , Neniences. Thereare no roses without thorns. V_

The democratic socialist theory of thepress hat been drawn from

suggestions for improving the press that have been offeredby ea wide

variety of ;individuals with a wide range of ideologicalbackgrounds. It

incorporates libertarian, liberal and socialist viewsof press freedom

and reirementsbf the prdss in democratic societyto form its !Mil-

osophy and define its requirements.;

It As a distinctly different view of the /press thanthat offered by

: other theories of thepress. Under the democratic socialist theory the

press are not an instrument for private owners--as theyare under

libertarian, social responsibility and authoritariantheories--or of the

government--as they are under the Sbviet/communist theory oftherpress. . 41.

Instead, under democratic socialist theory, media'are viewegeas insiru-

ment of the people, public utilities through which theiraspirations,

ideas and criticisms of the state and societymay be disseminated. This view' presuppOses that in democracies freedom of thepress is a

right of the people', not a privilege provided solelyto those who on or

control the means of conveying information. ,freedomof the press is

viewed as an extension Of the righof free expression,'Trovidirigthe

ability to express vi'ews fully without restraints beingimposed by any

elite. In the early stages of most democratic societies,the major enemy

to such liberty is viewed as government, which has exercisedconsider-

able restraint of the press in thepas Not surprisingly, when social

and political philosopherssuch as Thomas Hobbes andJohn Locke posited

their views on democratic society, theysaw government as' an inherent 1.

threat and supported the ideas of negative liberty, particularlyin

relation to the process of expression.

Proponents of positive press freedom actionsnow view Western

society after more than two centuries ofdemocratictradition and see

new and ,rising dangers to the democratic process that areevery bit as

threatening as an unsympathetic-state. Rousseau argued thatsociety may

enter,areas of liberty from which it normally separates itself in order,

to promo.te:breater societal interests. Supporters of positive press

freedom extend this argument to say-that the statemust step in to

A adjust the structures and economic systemS of privately-owned 'media,

even if it requires Compelling them to act against their wishes, to $

ensure the means by which the democraticprocess of individual expres-

sion can operate.

The democratic socialist view of'press freedom attemptsto take

into account the variety of limitations possibleon liberty and seeks to

reduce them--whatever their source. ThR expanded view of pressfreedom

under the democratic socialist theory of thepress attempts to ensur

4

(.4) A. 4, citizen equality in voicing opinionsand viewpoints and in effortsto playa significant part in the decisionsof a democratic society. At its highestlevel of development, the democraticsocialist theory would removemediafrom private owneship (optingfor some form of societal,or .non- profit operation), would ensure publicaccess, news- room autonomy and democracy and mediaplurality and would shieldthe pres's from economic,governmental and social restraintsthat, act to reduce the diversity of ideas 34 and opinionsavailable. The fear of governmentpressure and control diminishing freedomof expi*ession isnot without basis, but neither is-fear of diminished freedom of expression causedby economic 4 pressures Ad controls.Pro- ponents of democratic t socialism believe that the effeCtsof diminished freedom of expression fromeither of these causes is equallydamaging and reduces the ability of citizensto seek self.determinition through the democraticprocesS.

Toit by idly arguing that government should not interferein the press in order topreserve press freedom, whjle,economics;pressure gmps and newspaperowners-ditively destroy the basiCrequirements of press freedom iscounterproductive and leads toa' continuing loss ° of' press freedom. Of all tht institutionsof society, only governmenthas the ability.tostep into. the iNech:apd halt the loss oipress freedom. Amore critical evaluationof demOcratic socialist dforts,how- ever, requires one to point outthat proponents currently acceptpr et systems basedonprivate ownership,operaiedfor the a purpose of acquir- . . 7 ing profit, although democraticsocialist eventually hope toremove media from 3 private hands. Despitethe apgirently democratic.arguments for present tate interventionin the marketplace oideas', suchaid

20 if) cannot be whollypraised and accepted by democratic socialistssince it does not strike atthe heart of the issue-.-private ownershipof an essential institutionof society. At best, current stateintervention is a vehicle by which media plurality can bepreserved and a tempoi-ary

means of sustainingsome press freedom. This once again:typifies the 4 dilemma democraticsocialists face because' of tileir ideologyof evolu: tion4py, r herthan , change indemocratic societies. AS

How'one'vfewsthe.efforts to implement the democraticsocialist . 11 theory of the presss.inherently wrapped up in the questidnsof polit- ical and socialideology. If one believes in an Unfetteredfree enter- prise system and thatonly government can truly threaten pressfreedom, the democratic'sdcialisgtheory 4-A will be vieweelitt asevere restraint 115n and inferferefirce#in the marketplace. If one is asupporter'of even the social*esPonsibilitytheory, the democratic socialist alternativewill a be unpalatablesince it puts even less faith in,the ideathat truth will ultimately triumphin thetommercial marketplace df ideas.An uncompromising socialistwill fikewise disapprove of such effortssince . they accepta middle ground pot reqdiring mediato be immediacaely

wrested from privatehands.

The:middlecourse selected by the proponents . of democratic social- . .isMOsanot surprising,h.owever, tinceithe 3. view deVeloped and'was first implemented in nations pursuing statecapitalism and "responsible"

competitive strategies::The blending of ideologies into thenew theory can be viewedas a step in the direction of popularitccess to,and control of the media, a'development thatmay lead to true democratic' ownership and operationof the means of dis,seminating informationand. opfiiion in the-lUture. 0

.1a to 0

. -,.:- ,NOTES , , . .-,.t,,.....

. . 1.Anthony :Smith,"StateIntery MapalMent of the Press," . in J. Curran, ed.; The BritisWIL s:' A1;10i-fest° .,(': MacMillian,,

. . 1978), p.-72.' 17V, ..,', ,;* , .

2. Fred Siebert, T. Peterson, 'and W. *SchraMm,'FOur Theories of the Press

(Urbana Ill - University of IllinclskPre4,': 1 ,,, 4 .. I .: kt. 3. Patrick Parsons, "Economics of the Newspaper. 'IndUsrV1 A Marxian Analysis" (M:A.,Thesis, California State.Untvirn-O; Northridge, 1978). .. - 4. Lars Engwall, ".Newspaper Concentration:- qAie for theories. of4'. ," Scandinavian Economic History Revl,e0j9 (Fal11981),pp. -145-154.

ao a 0 5.. George Koether, " and Free Press," Freedom of Information Center Report no. 31 (July 1960), p. 1. e,

6. Hazel Henderson, "Access to the Media: A Problem in Democracy", Co9umbia Journalism Review (Spring 1969) p.

, 1.

7.' Jean -Schwoebel, "The Miracle 'Lei Monde Wrought-Columbia Journal ism 'Review (Summer 1970), v. p.-9.

8. Graham. Murdock and Peter Golding,'"The StructLA, OWnership and Control of the Press; 1914-76," in G.Boyce,"et. °61 (ea.) Newspaper History (Beverly Hills,Calif.: SagePublicAions, 1978), p. 148.

4 9. Since the early 1960s, and especia'lly,in the-early '1970s, elarge . emmberof government commissions have studied the economicproblems of the press and recommended actions on its behalf. Most stidiesare unavailable in English, but can be acquired in the language of thew., nation in which they originated.

10. Thomas Fergpson and Joel Rogers, "OlJgopoly,in thelIdea Market," The Nation 233 (Octbber 3, 1981), p. 303.

11. , Evolutionary Socialism, trans. Edith C. Harvey (New York: Schocken Books, 1961).

12. Peter Gay, The Dilemma of Democratic SOcArrisM (New York: Colombia Universityirress, 1952). ,

13.EspeciallyisefulareTowarda (New York-:- MacMillian, 1958), The Twilight of (New York: Simon arid. Schuster, 1976) and Decade of DeasiowThe Griffis of the American System (New York: Simon and Schuster.; 1980).

.14. Set Steady Work: Essays in the Politics of Democ -raticRadicalism, 1953-66 .(New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1966); 'P.,Howe, ed., Twenty-Five Years of Dissent (New York: Methuen, 1979)-,-The Radical Imagination: An Anthology from Dissent Magazine '(New York: New American Library, 3967); Beyond the (Npw-York: McCall .Publishing

44 1970); and.I. Howe and A. .Harrington, eds., The Seventies: Problems and Proposals (New York: Harper and Ro0,1972).

15. Carole Pfteman Participation and Democratic.Theory (Cambridge:- Cambridge University Press, 1970). ... 16. Branko Horvat, Milhailo Markovic and Rudi Supek, edsl, Self'4overning Socialism,,2 vols. (White Plains, N.Y.: International Arts and Sciences Press, 1975).

Hyp.JarosTav Vanek, The Participatory Economy: An Evolutionary othesis tnd a Strategy for Development (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University press, 1971) and Self Managemenit:'Economic Liberation of Man (Baltimore: Penguin, 1975).

fs. Mar -tin Carnoy.and Dei.ek Shearer, : The Challenge of the 1980s (White'Plains, N.Y..: NE. Sharpe, 1980).

19. Beverly James,qconomic Democracy and Restructuring the Press," Journal of Communication Inquiry 6 (Winter 1981), p. 121, -/

20. A discussion of the general natures of the three major ;approaches -- pluralist,. elite anj clas --are found in Robert Alford, "Paradigms of Relations Between Statand Society," in L. Lindberg, ed.,. Stress and Contradictions in Modern a ism (Lexidgton,'Mass.: 'Lexington Books, 1976). ..,

. . \ ,21. Tom Bottomore, Political Sociology (New York: Ha and Row, 1974.j... i 6, 22. J.A. Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy, 5th ed. (London: Allen and Unwin, 1976):

23. Gay, 1952/

24. Mihailo Markovic, "Philosophical-Foundations of the Idea of Self-Management," p. 331, in Horvat, et. al; eds., Self-Governing .Socialism, 1975.

25. James, 1981. ....01.

26. tiro Hard and Beverly James, "Newspapers and Western Democracies: ToOards. a Part$cipatory Model, of the Press:" A paper presented to the National Conference of the Society of EdUcaidrs and Scholars, University of/Illinois, Champaign- Urbana, October 1-2,,1981. 'et ' ic 27'v,Vincent Tosco and Andrew Herman, "Radical SociaA Theory and the Communications Revolution," pp. 58-84, in Emile G. McAnany, Jorge Schnitman and Noreene Janus, eds., Communicati9n,and Social Structure

. . New York: Pracer, 1981). -v .

28. Robert G. Picard, "ProMoting Democracy: Development-of the Theory of Positive Press Freedgm." A paper presented to the National Conference of the Society of Educators and Scholars, University of Illinois, Champaign-Urbana, October 1-2, 1981.

141 29: , The Public and Its.PrOblems (Denver:.Swallow Press, 1916).40 Democracy and Education iNew'YoK:Zree.Press, 1922Y. See also CWarles Horton Cooley, Social Organization (New York: C. Scribner.'s

Sons, 1909). _

4 - 30. For a general. discussion of the 's view of medic, See NichoTas Petryszak,'"The Frankfurt tchool"s Theory of Manipulation,;' Journal. of Communication 27ASummer 1977), pp, 33-40. for a more 'specific view of communication and society,, see Jurgen Habermas, Communication sand the Evolution of Society (86%ton: Beacon Press, 1978). See also Jurgen Haberm8, StrukturWandel der Offentlichkeit (Neuwied: . HerMan Luchterhand Verlag, 1962). An 'English synopsis, trans. by Sara and Frank Lennox, is "The Public Sphere; An EncycliVediaArtide (1964)" New German Critique 3 (Fall 1974), pp.. 49-55, 1 31. Ed McLuskie, "Systematic ConstraintS on Prospects for a Democratic Society: Basic Considerations from. the Communication Theory,of Society.". A paper presented to the National ConfeKence of the Society xyfEducators and Scho.lars, University of Illinois, Champaign- Urbana, October 1-2, 1981, .

. 32. L3ubomin Tadic, "Order and Freedom," p. 414, in Horvat, et. al, eds., Self-Governing Socialism, 1975. ,

33., Karl Marx, Rheinische Zeitung no. 135 (May 15, 1842).

34. Robert G. Picard, "The Democratic Socialist of Press '-'-\.Freedom Needs," Jovial of Communication Inquiry (forthcoming),,

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