Transpersonal he International Journal of Studies

Volume 30(1-2), 2011

Editor’s Introduction—Glenn Hartelius Mindfulness-Based Substance Abuse Treatment for Incarcerated Youth: A Mixed-Method Pilot Study—Sam Himelstein The Cognitive Neuroscience of Consciousness, Mysticism and Psi—Les Lancaster Rethinking Prayer and Health Research: An Exploratory Inquiry on Prayer’s Psychological Dimension—Adrian Andreescu The Indigenous Healing Tradition in Calabria, Italy Stanley Krippner, Michael Bova, Ashwin Budden, & Roberto Gallante Why Altered States Are Not Enough: A Perspective from Buddhism—Igor Berkhin & Glenn Hartelius On a Physical Scientific Approach to Transpersonal Psychology—Alan Haas

SPECIAL TOPIC: Ecopsychology Introduction to Special Topic Section—Mark A. Schroll & Glenn Hartelius Connectedness and Environmental Behavior: Sense of Interconnectedness and Pro-Environmental Behavior—Robert E. Hoot & Harris Friedman The Deep Ecology Movement: Origins, Development, and Future Prospects (Toward a Transpersonal Ecosophy)—Alan Drengson, Bill Devall, & Mark A. Schroll RESPONSE: Reflections on the Need for a More Complete History of the Deep Ecology Movement and Related Disciplines—Michael E. Zimmerman Clearing Up Rollo May’s Views of Transpersonal Psychology and Acknowledging May as an Early Supporter of Ecopsychology—Mark A. Schroll, John Rowan, & Oliver Robinson

Ecopsychology, Transpersonal Psychology, and Nonduality—John V. Davis

Jung at the Foot of Mount Kailash: A Transpersonal Synthesis of Depth Psychology, Tibetan Tantra, and the Sacred Mythic Imagery of East and West—Judson Davis

Yamato Kotoba: The Language of the Flesh—Yukari Kunisue & Judy Schavrien

Modern Materialism Through the Lens of Indo-Tibetan Buddhism—Alan Pope

Book Review: Singing to the Plants—John Harrison

he International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Volume 30(1-2), 2011

Table of Contents Editors’ Introduction—Glenn Hartelius iii Mindfulness-Based Substance Abuse Treatment for Incarcerated Youth: A Mixed-Method Pilot Study—Sam Himelstein 1 The Cognitive Neuroscience of Consciousness, Mysticism and Psi—Les Lancaster 11 Rethinking Prayer and Health Research: An Exploratory Inquiry on Prayer’s Psychological Dimension—Adrian Andreescu 23 The Indigenous Healing Tradition in Calabria, Italy Stanley Krippner, Michael Bova, Ashwin Budden, Roberto Gallante 48 Why Altered States Are Not Enough: A Perspective from Buddhism Igor Berkhin & Glenn Hartelius 63 On a Physical Scientific Approach to Transpersonal Psychology—Alan Haas 69 SPECIAL TOPIC: Ecopsychology Introduction to Special Topic Section—Mark A. Schroll & Glenn Hartelius 82 Connectedness and Environmental Behavior: Sense of Interconnectedness and

Pro-Environmental Behavior—Robert E. Hoot & Harris Friedman 89 The Deep Ecology Movement: Origins, Development, and Future Prospects (Toward a Transpersonal Ecosophy)—Alan Drengson, Bill Devall, & Mark A. Schroll 101 RESPONSE: Reflections on the Need for a More Complete History of the Deep Ecology Movement and Related Disciplines—Michael E. Zimmerman 118 Clearing Up Rollo May’s Views of Transpersonal Psychology and Acknowledging May as an Early Supporter of Ecopsychology

Mark A. Schroll, John Rowan, & Oliver Robinson 120

Ecopsychology, Transpersonal Psychology, and Nonduality—John V. Davis 137 Jung at the Foot of Mount Kailash: A Transpersonal Synthesis of Depth Psychology,

Tibetan Tantra, and the Sacred Mythic Imagery of East and West—Judson Davis 148 Yamato Kotoba: The Language of the Flesh— Yukari Kunisue & Judy Schavrien 165 Modern Materialism Through the Lens of Indo-Tibetan Buddhism—Alan Pope 171 Book Review: Singing to the Plants—John Harrison 178

International Journal of Transpersonal Studies  The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Volume 30, Issues 1-2, 2011

Editor Publisher Glenn Hartelius Floraglades Foundation, Incorporated Senior Editor 1270 Tom Coker Road Harris Friedman LaBelle, FL 33935 Coordinating Editor © 2010 by Floraglades Foundation, Inc. Les Lancaster All Rights Reserved Assistant Editors ISSN (Print) 1321-0122 Maureen Harrahy ISSN (Electronic) 1942-3241 Courtenay Crouch Board of Editors Honorary Editor Manuel Almendro (Spain) Stanley Krippner Rosemarie Anderson (USA) Editors Emeriti Liora Birnbaum (Israel) Don Diespecker Laura Boggio Gilot (Italy) Philippe Gross Jacek Brewczynski (USA) Douglas A. MacDonald Søren Brier (Denmark) Sam Shapiro Elias Capriles (Venezuela) Michael Daniels (UK) Guest Special Topic Editor John Davis (USA) Mark A. Schroll Wlodzislaw Duch (Poland) Associate Managing Editors James Fadiman (USA) Jessica Bockler Jorge N. Ferrer (Spain/USA) Charles Flores Joachim Galuska (Germany) Cheryl Fracasso David Y. F. Ho (Hong Kong, China) Adam Rock Daniel Holland (USA) Rochelle Suri Chad Johnson (USA) Associate Circulation Editor Bruno G. Just (Australia) Adrian Andreescu Sean Kelly (USA) Jeffrey Kuentzel (USA) Editorial Assistant S. K. Kiran Kumar (India) Lila Hartelius Charles Laughlin (Canada/USA) Student Interns Olga Louchakova (USA) Dini Bintari Vladimir Maykov (Russia) Gonzalo Brito Axel A. Randrup (Denmark) Liz Caine Vitor Rodriguez (Portugal) Rashmi Chidanand Brent Dean Robbins (USA) Timothy Edwards Mario Simöes (Portugal) Daniel Pinedo Charles Tart (USA) Nadia Santiago Rosanna Vitale (Canada) Sergei Slavoutski John Welwood (USA) ii International Journal of Transpersonal Studies

Editors’ Introduction

his special double-issue on ecopsychology relatively easy. The harder task is to explain why these falls on the 30th anniversary issue of the processes lead to qualities of experience. This is another International Journal of Transpersonal Studies. The way of saying, How is it that there “someone” who Tjournal, which was founded as the Australian Journal of experiences brain states as “their” experience? A computer Transpersonal Psychology in 1981 by Don Diespecker, has can run by itself for weeks on end, but so far as anyone developed from a typewritten collection of inspirational knows, there is no phenomenality involved: there is no articles, poetry, and bibliographical summaries to a peer- someone who is having an experience. Experience only reviewed journal with an online circulation of more happens if someone comes along to engage with the than 15,000 unique visitors per year (also distributed computer through the screen and keyboard. The brain on-demand in hard copy). This is cause for celebration, may be much more than a computer, but even if one as it is further evidence of the growing success of the only considers its computational functions, who is the transpersonal field. one reading the screen and having an experience? How is The first general article, entitled Mindfulness- this someone related to the neural circuitry of the brain? Based Substance Abuse Treatment for Incarcerated Youth, For Lancaster, the answer to this question is not going to reports on a mixed-method pilot study conducted by Sam be found in neuroscience. He turns instead to mysticism, Himelstein. Although it is preliminary, the importance of and specifically to the ideas of the Kabbalah. Then this work is that it is one of the few pieces of empirical he weaves neuroscientific fact together with mystical evidence that mindfulness-based interventions can be thought, suggesting that kabbalistic ideas are not only effective with adolescents, and may be the first paper compatible with neuroscience, but that they can extend demonstrating meaningful benefit of such treatment understanding beyond empirical science into the domain approaches with youth who have substance abuse issues. of consciousness itself. This is part of a trend toward research on therapeutic The next two papers deal with ways in which applications of mindfulness with specific populations— work in the domain of consciousness can affect physical one that begins to provide empirical evidence for health. Adrian Andreescu, Associate Circulation Editor transpersonal psychology’s position that certain time- of this journal, offers a beginning sketch of how profound honored alternate states of consciousness can be of great healing may happen. Healing is not mere clinical recovery benefit. from symptoms, but the experience of regaining health. Les Lancaster, an outstanding transpersonal He draws on copious amounts of research to suggest that scholar who also has strong backgrounds in neuroscience, three factors that may be of key importance in eliciting consciousness studies, and the Jewish mystical writings healing: worldview, intentional normative dissociation of the Kabbalah, follows with a paper on The Cognitive (IND) and psychosomatic plasticity-proneness (PPP). Neuroscience of Consciousness, Mysticism and Psi. Worldview represent’s a patient’s concepts of reality— Lancaster delves into the heart of the hard problem ideas that may enhance or limit his or her ability to of consciousness (Chalmers, 1996): phenomenality. participate in a healing process. For example, patients Explaining the computational processes of the brain is who believe in divine healing are at times able to

International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 30(1-2), International2011, pp. iii-iv Journal of Transpersonal Studies iii experience otherwise inexplicable, seemingly miraculous psychology, one that challenges the assumptions of recoveries; such an experience would likely not be much of its scholarship. If for no other reason, this fresh available to a person who rejects the possibility of divine perspective is good reason to consider his suggestions healing. Because worldview has such power, and because carefully. severe illness often challenges a person’s worldview, the narrative that one creates for themself around illness may Glenn Hartelius have an impact on their chances of finding healing. Editor A second factor, IND, refers to intentional use of normative dissociation: the ability to enter a state of total attention and become fully absorbed in an object of attention. If a person who has cultivated IND, consciously or unconsciously, sets healing as their object, this capacity to set aside sense data and focus completely on such a goal might be a valuable asset. Similarly, some individuals are better than others at expressing psychoemotional content in bodily ways (PPP). Again, high PPP might correlate with the ability to turn envisioned health into bodily health. Andreescu then suggests that prayer is a modality in which all three of these factors are brought together. This inquiry offers a view of healing that might be used to inform future empirical research. The topic of healing continues in the next paper, which is an exploration of traditional healing practices in Calabria, Italy. Authors Stanley Krippner, Michael Bova, Ashwin Budden, and Roberto Gallante spent time travelling through this region interviewing individuals and collecting stories and information regarding the pre- scientific healing practices still practiced by some in this region. After this comes a paper by Igor Berkhin and Glenn Hartelius, entitled, Altered States Are Not Enough. This paper grew from a response to Judson Davis’ paper, presented at the International Transpersonal Association conference in Moscow, Russia, in 2009. Berkhin delivered a strong rebuttal to Davis, representing the way in which tradition-based spirituality often receives attempts at integral scholarship. While this journal welcomes integral work, Berkhin raised some points that should be given serious consideration within transpersonal scholarship. In this paper, he collaborates with the editor in contrasting traditional Buddhist thought with what are sometimes superficial assumptions within transpersonal psychology. The final paper, by Alan Haas, offers a strikingly different, pragmatic approach to transpersonal psychology: a physical scientific approach. For Haas, simple principles of physics, chemistry, and electromagnetism may be as useful or even more helpful than esoteric theories in working to understand transpersonal phenomena. Haas offers an original and unusual approach to transpersonal iv International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Mindfulness-Based Substance Abuse Treatment for Incarcerated Youth: A Mixed Method Pilot Study

Sam Himelstein Engaging the Moment, LLC The Mind Body Awareness Program Oakland, CA, USA

The current study investigated the effects of an 8-week mindfulness-based substance use intervention on self-reported impulsiveness, perceived drug risk, and healthy self-regulation in a sample of 60 incarcerated youth. Forty-eight participants completed questionnaires pre and post intervention. Additionally, 16 participants from two of the final 8-week cohorts were interviewed in focus groups about their experience of the program immediately following its completion. A mixed-method embedded model was used, in which qualitative data was used in support of quantitative data. Paired t-tests revealed a significant decrease (p < .01) in impulsiveness and a significant increase (p < .05) in perceived risk of drug use from pretest to posttest. No significant differences were found on self- reported self-regulation. Focus group interviews conducted immediately following the intervention revealed three major themes: receptivity to the program in general, appreciation of the facilitator teaching style, and learning about drugs. Clinical implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Keywords: mindfulness-based intervention, MBSR, substance abuse, juvenile offenders, incarcerated youth, self-regulation, transpersonal psychology

ver the last thirty years research on mindfulness- broader issue of crime and delinquency and therefore based interventions have shown promising merits further attention. results for diverse populations including chronic Mindfulness meditation practices emphasize Opain patients (Kabat-Zinn, 1982), adolescent psychiatric nonjudgmental awareness and acceptance of present moment outpatients (Biegel, Brown, Shapiro, & Schubert, 2009), experience (Kabat-Zinn, 1990; 2003). Medi-tation-based and correctional populations (Himelstein, Hastings, programs have been shown to improve psychological well- Shapiro, & Heery, in press; Samuelson, Carmody, Kabat- being and reduce recidivism (for a review see Hawkins, 2003; Zinn, & Bratt, 2007). One population that may benefit Himelstein, 2011). Given mindfulness-based interventions’ from the increased self-management abilities acquired initial, albeit pilot efficacy with correctional populations through mindfulness practice (Baer, 2003) is incarcerated and because research suggests that impulsivity—an adolescents who struggle with issues of substance use. inversely correlated construct to mindfulness (Baer, 2003; In 2008, there were over 340,000 juvenile Kabat-Zinn, 1990)—is associated with higher recidivism arrests for drug abuse violations, violation of liquor and delinquency rates within incarcerated youth laws, drunkenness, and driving under the influence in populations (Vitacco, Nuemann, Robertson, & Durrant, the United States (Puzzanchera, 2009). The problem 2002), a mindfulness-based substance abuse intervention of incarceration among youth is indeed significant. was chosen as the focus of this pilot study. Furthermore, Approximately 96,000 juvenile offenders in the United mindfulness-based intervention research is beginning to States were incarcerated in 2003 (Snyder & Sickmund, burgeon with adolescent psychiatric (e.g., Biegel et al., 2006). Williams, Tuthill, and Lio (2008) suggested that 2009) and youth correctional populations (Himelstein approximately 10-12% of youth offenders re-offend into et al., in press), however none emphasize the treatment of adulthood and other researchers have suggested this substance use disorders. Therefore, there is a relevant need percentage to be upwards of 25% (Snyder & Sickmund, for contributing such new and innovative research to the 2006). Nonetheless, juvenile offending seems to fuel the literature.

Mindfulness-BasedInternational Journal Substance of Transpersonal Abuse TreatmentStudies, 30(1-2), International2011, pp. 1-10 Journal of Transpersonal Studies  A final intention in publishing this pilot study is five men’s prisons. Results showed statistically significant to contribute to the field of transformative justice-based reductions (p = .0001), 9.2% for women and 7% for transpersonal psychology. Hartelius, Caplan, and Rardin men, on Cook and Medley Hostility scales at all prison (2007) suggested that transformative transpersonal sites. Increased scores from pretest to posttest (p = .006), psychology is the application of aspects of transpersonal 8.3% for women and 3.8% for men, on the Rosenberg psychology (e.g., spiritual practices, meditative practices) Self-esteem Scales were found at all program sites. The to pragmatic and socially aware causes. It was necessary most dramatic reduction was found on the Profile of to position the intervention understudy here as a Mood States Scale, which dropped approximately 38% contribution to the field of transformative transpersonal for women and 29% in men (p = .0001). psychology and not simply another manualized Samuelson et al. (2007) reported several intervention just using cognitive mindfulness practices modifications of the program that allowed it tobe isolated from a larger context. A goal of this treatment implemented in a correctional setting. For example, some is to emphasize holistic treatment practices, which prisons allotted a private room designated for MBSR include, alongside competent curriculum content, an practice alone, while others designated large open spaces advanced training and knowledge of creating authentic concurrently being used by other inmates. Courses were relationships with the target population. sometimes compressed from the original 8-week length, Below is a brief review of the state of the research to 6-week programs with shorter sessions. The intensive on mindfulness in adult correctional and substance retreat was never allowed at any prison site. Still, the abuse populations, along with findings from the MBSR intervention proved to have a high completion current research on mindfulness with correctional and rate of 69%, suggesting feasibility within correctional psychiatric youth populations. Next, an overview of the populations. mindfulness-based substance use treatment intervention MBSR with adolescents. To date, very few is presented. Finally, pilot data from an initial study of the empirical studies have investigated the effect of MBSR current mindfulness-based substance use intervention is with adolescent populations. Two feasibility studies were presented and discussed. found assessing the impact of MBSR with adolescent Literature Review: populations (Sibinga et al., 2008; Wall, 2005). Sibinga Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction et al. (2008) explored the feasibility of the MBSR in Relevant Applications intervention with 11 HIV-infected African American he majority of the empirical research on mindfulness adolescents. Given the pilot nature of the study, only Tin different populations has used mindfulness- brief interviews were conducted. Results showed that the based stress reduction (MBSR; Kabat-Zinn, 1990). MBSR intervention was feasible with HIV-infected youth Briefly, MBSR is an 8-week intervention where given positive participant feedback after the completion participants meet once a week for approximately two of the course (Sibinga et al., 2008). In another pilot study and a half hours and one day-long retreat. Skills taught investigating an MBSR-like intervention with adolescents, include focusing on the breath in sitting meditation, Wall (2005) combined Tai Chi practices and MBSR with the body scan meditation while lying down, and Hatha middle school aged adolescents in a Boston area public yoga postures. Mindfulness-based stress reduction has school. Qualitative feedback from participants suggested a long history of research and has shown consistency improved sleep, well-being, relaxation, and reduced in reductions of stress and increased psychological well- reactivity, even though participants were not committed being in different populations for the last 30 years. to continuing mindfulness classes. Regardless, the results Although documented research is not plentiful, there is further support preliminary evidence that MBSR and also literature dedicated to both correctional (Samuelson other mindfulness-based interventions may be feasible et al., 2007) and adolescent populations (Biegel et al., treatments for adolescent populations. 2009). In contrast to the two pilot studies above, one MBSR in corrections. Samuelson et al. (2007) randomized clinical trial was found that employed implemented the MBSR program in six Massachusetts MBSR with adolescent psychiatric outpatients (Biegel prisons from 1992 to 1996. The MBSR program was et al., 2009). Biegel et al. randomly assigned 102 administered to 1, 350 inmates in one women’s prison and adolescent psychiatric outpatients to either MBSR or a

 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Himelstein waitlist-controlled group. The MBSR intervention was approaches for incorporating mindfulness with diverse modified to fit adolescent needs in two ways. First, at and specific populations have also arisen. The Mind Body home mindfulness practice time was reduced from 45 Awareness (MBA) Project, a non-profit based in the San minutes to 20-35 minutes, and, second, presentations Francisco Bay Area that teaches mindfulness practices to and discussion topics during classes focused primarily on incarcerated youth, developed a 10-module mindfulness issues related to adolescence. Participants ranged in age intervention tailored specifically to the needs of extremely from 14-18 and were primarily female. Study measures high-risk and incarcerated adolescents. This intervention, were obtained at pretest, posttest, and 3-month follow- like MBSR, incorporates formal mindfulness meditation up. The 10-item Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10), the and informal mindfulness exercises, didactic training, State and Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), the 10-item and group process. It differs from MBSR in that group Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (SES), and six of the nine discussions and exercises are specific to the issues that subscales of the Hopkins Symptom Checklist 90 Revised incarcerated youth consistently face, such as poverty, (SCL-90-R) served as self-report measures at all three substance use and abuse, and community violence, assessment points. and that much more emphasis is place on the group Approximately 60% of the participants from facilitator to therapeutically engage and create authentic the intent to treat sample completed pretest and posttest relationships with the participants (for an in-depth review assessment points. Results revealed that, relative to of the curriculum, see Himelstein, 2009). controls, MBSR participants showed significant decreases Preliminary research suggests that the MBA over time in state and trait anxiety (p < .05), perceived program can be feasibly implemented with high-risk and stress (p < .05), and four of the six psychopathology incarcerated youth. Himelstein et al. (in press) found indicators assessed by the SCL-90-R (p < .05). Self-esteem that 60% of participants completed the MBA program also significantly increased within participants receiving and that self-reported stress reduced while self-reported the MBSR intervention (p < .05). Relative to controls, self-regulation increased from pretest to posttest. MBSR participants showed significant improvements Furthermore, in a qualitative study investigating the in Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) scores over MBA Project, Himelstein, Hastings, Shapiro, & Heery, time from pretest to posttest and pretest to follow-up (p (in press) found that most youth who participated in the < .0001). program were open and accepting of its mission and the Mindfulness-Based Interventions techniques they learned. After being semi-structurally for Specific Populations interviewed about their personal experience of the Mindfulness-based relapse prevention. As a program, participants discussed feeling an increase in result of research efficacy with the MBSR program, other the ability to self-regulate. For example one participant similar and innovative mindfulness-based interventions stated: have been created and researched. Mindfulness-based I don’t know if you remember when I first came relapse prevention (MBRP; Bowen, Chawla, & Marlatt, here, I was hella hot [angry], and umm, we did the 2011) is an 8-week mindfulness program incorporating breathing, and I still felt mad, but then as I started elements of MBSR and relapse prevention. It is similar doing more breathing, I started breathing in my to MBSR in that formal meditation, yoga, and informal room, just a lot of breathing, and the exercises you mindfulness are practiced in a group setting, and differs taught me with the stomach, the chest, those really in that it was specifically developed for people suffering helped…I still would have it [anger] but it wouldn’t from addiction. In their primary pilot randomized clinical be as strong…Like if it was a 10, it would go down trial, Bowen et al. (2009) found that participants in the to a solid five or four. (Himelstein et al., in press) MBRP group had significantly less days of alcohol use throughout the intervention than those in the treatment- A Mindfulness-Based Substance Use Intervention as-usual control condition. Furthermore, MBRP had a for Incarcerated Youth: A New Paradigm 65% attendance rate throughout its program suggesting Because of the accruing evidence that its feasibility. mindfulness-based interventions can be helpful to both The mind body awareness project. Alongside substance abuse and incarcerated adolescent populations, new and innovative approaches such as MBRP, other the intention was to develop a specific program targeting

Mindfulness-Based Substance Abuse Treatment International Journal of Transpersonal Studies  substance abusing incarcerated and high-risk adolescents. present moment experience), experiential group activities Working in support from organizations such as the MBA (including mindfulness practice), group discussion, and Project and reviewing the curriculum and literature from didactic training. An emphasis is placed on new and other programs like MBRP, a curriculum was developed diverse learning modalities. Therefore, the agenda of the with the goal of implementing a mindfulness-based major elements of each group follows a different format substance use intervention for high-risk and incarcerated in each session (i.e., the mindful check-in is presented adolescents that was culturally sensitive, relevant to their at the start of the group in one group and at other time experience, and that retained their interest (Himelstein & points in other groups). Saul, 2011). Briefly, this mindfulness-based substance use Two major components encapsulate this intervention is a group-based therapeutic treatment that curriculum: drug education and the development of self- incorporates formal and informal mindfulness practices, awareness. Drug education activities include learning didactic drug education, experiential exercises, and group drug categories and the impact of mixing certain drugs, discussions into each module. Given the sensitivity and debating about the positive and negative aspects of drug advanced training needed to provide therapeutic services use, and how drugs impact the brain and body. These to high-risk and incarcerated adolescents, the role of the activities and didactic trainings are always used as a group facilitator is of utmost importance in delivering this platform to unpack personal experience and develop self- curriculum. This role includes specific qualities that must awareness. be present within each facilitator to ensure feasibility. Self-awareness activities include role-playing, Qualities of group facilitators. Three major emotional awareness and regulation, empathy building, qualities must be explicitly practiced and brought and informal and formal mindfulness practice. Informal forth into awareness by facilitators of this mindfulness- mindfulness practice is infused throughout the inter- based substance use intervention. First, each facilitator vention through brief, guided moments of awareness must be committed to authenticity. That is, facilitators (e.g., the mindful check-in) and cognitive techniques must be committed to honesty while working with this that produce meta-cognitive states. Formal mindfulness population. This includes being comfortable with oneself practices include mindfulness meditations in each of the and not attempting to behave or speak in such a way eight groups. that is not their natural method. Inauthenticity will only Methods hinder rapport with group participants. his study investigated the feasibility and preliminary Second, facilitators must have an intention to Teffects of a mindfulness-based substance use create an authentic relationship with group participants. intervention with incarcerated adolescents. Three central This is an intervention in which the level of depth and research questions guided this pilot study: group cohesion will directly depend on the participants’ 1) Can a mindfulness-based substance use inter- trust of the group facilitator. Curiosity of participants’ vention feasibly be implemented with incar- personal lives and skillful self-disclosure are used to cerated adolescents? develop authentic relationships. 2) What is the effect of a mindfulness-based Third, facilitators should not hold a stance of substance use intervention on impulsiveness, trying to “change” participants. That is, this intervention self-regulation, and perceived risk of illegal holds true to the existential truth (Bugental, 1965, 1987, substances with a group of incarcerated youth? 1990) that change is a choice of the client and that 3) How was the program viewed and received by attempting to force a client to change only backfires and participating youth? hinders rapport. Thus, the major intention is to provide a safe therapeutic environment where authenticity and These central research questions influenced an human connections can occur. embedded mixed methods (Creswell & Plano-Clark, The curriculum. The mindfulness-based 2011) research design, in which quantitative pretest substance use intervention of this study (Himelstein & and posttest data were collected from a treatment group Saul, 2011) is an 8-week, one session per week, program only and supplemented with qualitative focus groups to in which sessions last for 1.5 hours. Each session includes examine trends that might be related to participation a mindful check-in (i.e., centering oneself, then discussing in the treatment intervention. Creswell and Plano-

 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Himelstein Clark suggested that supplemental, embedded data can detention camp, a detention camp housing youth be collected and analyzed at any point throughout the for a period of 6-9 months. Because of institutional research process and that such data is weighted secondary limitations, a more advanced research design involving to the primary data. In this study, primary importance a control group and random assignment were not set was placed upon program completion rate and self-report up. Groups were conducted once a week for 1.5 hours’ dependent measures of impulsiveness, self-regulation, and duration, with groups being facilitated on Tuesdays and perceived risk of drug use, while secondary importance Wednesdays of each week. For each 8-week treatment was placed upon focus group interviews with participants group, 8-12 participants were recruited. Two treatment about their view of the program. groups were concurrently facilitated (one on Tuesday The following directional hypotheses were and the other on Wednesday of each week) in an effort undertaken for this study: to serve more youth at the juvenile detention camp. Six cohorts received the treatment intervention over a period 1) A mindfulness-based substance use intervention of approximately 7 months. Two of the final cohorts would be feasibly implemented with incarcerated volunteered to be semi-structurally interviewed in a adolescents. focus group format immediately following completion 2) Impulsiveness, as measured by the Teen Conflict of the program. Survey Impulsiveness scale (Bosworth & Quantitative Data Collection Espelage, 1995) will significantly decrease from Three pencil and paper self-report measures were pretest to posttest. administered to participants before and after completion 3) Perceived health risk of using substances, as of each 8-week cycle. The entire self-report measure measured by the Monitoring the Future packet took approximately 15 minutes to complete. questionnaire (Johnston, O’Malley, & Bachman, Perceived risk of drug use. Perceived risk of 1991) will significantly increase from pretest to drug use was measured by the Monitoring the Future posttest. questionnaire (MTF) (Johnston et al., 1991). The 4) Self-regulation, as measured by the Healthy Self- Monitoring the Future questionnaire is a four-item Regulation questionnaire (West, 2008) will scale ranging from 1-4 (1 = no risk; 4 = great risk). A significantly increase from pretest to posttest. score of “99” is given if youth are unfamiliar with the Participants inquired upon substance. The Monitoring the Future Juvenile male inmates incarcerated in a questionnaire was validated with 12-16 year-olds and juvenile detention camp in Northern California inquires about alcohol, cigarette, marijuana, and cocaine were eligible to participate in this study. Participants use. were referred to the mindfulness-based substance use Impulsiveness. Impulsiveness was measured intervention by order from the courts and probation by the Teen Conflict Survey Impulsiveness scale (TCS) camp staff. This study underwent a full review in the (Bosworth & Espelage, 1995). This is a four-item scale Institute of Transpersonal Psychology’s research ethics ranging from 1-5 (1 = never; 5 = always). This scale was committee. Informed consent was obtained from the validated with middle school students and inquires about presiding juvenile court judge and assent by each of personal self-control. the participants themselves. At the start of each 8- Self-regulation. Self-regulation was measured by week cycle, demographic data was obtained within the Healthy Self-Regulation (HSR) scale (West, 2008). each self-report questionnaire packet. Age, ethnicity, This is a 12-item scale with three reversed score items. and gender, among other demographic variables, were Each item ranges on a 6-point likert scale from 1 (almost assessed. Participants ranged in age from 15-18 (M always) to 6 (almost never). The Healthy Self-Regulation = 16.3) and identified ethnically as Latino n( = 32), scale was validated in a sample of high-school youth and African-American (n = 6), Mixed-Ethnicity (n = 4), inquires about pro-social self-regulatory capacity. Filipino (n = 3), Tongan (n = 2), and Indian (n = 1). Qualitative Data Collection Procedure uring the last two 8-week periods of data collection, Mindfulness-based substance use intervention groups Dtwo cohorts (one from each 8-week cycle) were conducted in the program room at the juvenile volunteered to be interviewed about their experience

Mindfulness-Based Substance Abuse Treatment International Journal of Transpersonal Studies  with the program in a focus group format. Following the (one-tailed). Despite trends in psychologically enhancing eighth and final class, participants were semi-structurally directions, there were no significant differences between interviewed for approximately 20 minutes. Questions pretest and posttest self-regulation scores, t(47) = -1.090, that guided the semi-structured interviews included: p > .05 (one-tailed). Table 1 summarizes these results. Qualitative Results What was your overall experience of this program? Qualitative data analysis consisted of thematic What made this program different, if anything, from content analysis as outlined by Braun and Clarke (2006). other programs at this camp? In this six-step method, each focus group was first Was this program helpful or not helpful in any way? transcribed verbatim in order to enhance familiarity with Why? the data. Second, initial codes were designated across both What was your favorite class and why? focus groups. Third, codes were collated into potential What was your least favorite class and why? themes. Fourth, the themes were reviewed to check if Is there anything else you might like to add about they were in conjunction with their coded extracts and your experience? If so, what? the entire data set. Fifth, a thematic map was generated, Participants were encouraged to answer every question and sixth, the themes were named and written. but not mandated. The microphone was passed around As a result of the thematic content analysis, the circle and if anyone wished to not answer, they would three themes were identified that were associated with be passed over with a chance to answer the question later the personal experience of participants of the focus if they changed their mind. groups. These included: receptivity to the program in Results general, appreciation of facilitation style, and learning Quantitative Results about drugs. Of the intent-to-treat sample of N = 60, 12 Receptivity to the program in general. participants dropped out of the study due to getting This theme was defined by a general receptiveness to released from the juvenile detention camp. Thus, the the program. Participants discussed having a positive final sample was N = 48, with an 80% completion rate. experience with specific aspects of the program and being Given the pilot nature of this study, results from all open to learning course content. When asked about what cohorts were collapsed into one large data set for each stood out in the program most, one participant stated: dependent measure and paired t-tests were conducted to I liked the mindfulness emotional activity where we measure any significant differences in mean scores from shared about ourselves. That helped a lot, like, get an pretest to posttest. understanding of what people go through. It could There was a significant decrease in impulsiveness be a problem with drugs, it could be reasons for at t(47) = 2.849, p < .01 (one-tailed) and a significant their actions. The expression of feelings, emotions, increase in perceived drug risk at t(47) = -1.746, p > .05

Table 1. Differences in Mean Scores Pre- and Post-Intervention Pre-Intervention Post-Intervention

Measure M SD M SD t (47) Teen Conflict Survey (TCS) 9.93 2.83 8.72 2.44 2.849**

Monitoring the Future (MTF) 13.10 2.89 14.02 2.84 -1.746*

Healthy Self-Regulation (HSR) 46.66 8.28 48.70 7.86 -1.090

*p. < .05 **p. < .01

 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Himelstein experiences in a positive manner. Participants discussed could help. [Deep emotions] could be behind being interested in learning about drugs and appreciating [psychologically, the use of] drugs and alcohol. And the different multi-media through which course content that’s why that was my favorite activity. was taught. One participant stated: Another participant discussed his receptivity to the group My view of this class was, learning. It was a learning discussions undertaken in each class: experience. I learned new things. Like, we learned I like this program because a lot of the times when about how the nerve cells, how they don’t connect we’re having conversations, it’s better than in section and all that, how all that pleasure gets transported. time [down time in their dorms] when we’re by Basically I just learned. I soaked a lot of stuff you had ourselves or like not in a program and having a to teach us. conversation. Like, in here, it’s just way better. We Another participant, when asked about what aspects of have conversations and it’s hella fun, but, in other the course, if any, he liked, disclosed: programs we don’t get a chance to do that. I like this program a lot. We get a lot of time to conversate and What was that one slide show? The one about the express ourselves. brain and all that? I liked that one because, umm, I don’t know. For some reason, I got to focus really Appreciation of facilitation style. Many of the hard when we were doing that class. There was participants expressed some form of appreciation for the something about it, I think it’s the way you taught methods in which the groups were facilitated. They often it, I can’t really explain it. The way you ran it was… commented on the styles of the facilitators directly or in interesting. I liked it a lot. relation to how the participants related to the class. One participant stated, when asked if he would like to add Discussion anything else to the end of the focus group: his study supports previous research (e.g., Biegel et al., I think this is a good program. We learn a lot about T2009; Bowen et al., 2009; Himelstein et al., in press) drugs and you guys ain’t telling us, “don’t go drink demonstrating that mindfulness-based interventions are or don’t go smoke,” you feel me? We can express feasible treatments for adolescent and substance using ourselves and not get a consequence because it’s populations. Results confirmed the first hypothesis that confidential in here. the mindfulness-based substance use intervention would be feasible with a group of incarcerated adolescents. Only Another participant discussed this intervention in relation 12 participants could not complete the intervention due to other programs at the camp: to being released from the juvenile detention camp, I think this program stands out more than other leaving 80% of our intent to treat group completing the programs because we just keep it real [honest] in program. This rate is comparable and extends beyond to here. The other programs, it’s just basically showing the retention rate of Biegel et al. (2009; approximately up…in other programs, it’s just showing up and I 60%), Samuelson et al. (2007; 69%), and Bowen et al. just want to get it over with. But here we get to keep (2009; 65%). Furthermore, the qualitative data suggests it real. that participants were receptive to the course content Another participant discussed appreciating how the in general. This reveals additional evidence toward the content and activities were aligned with his interests: feasibility of this intervention. The results also confirmed the second and The fun part about it is that we’re doing things that third hypotheses: that impulsiveness would significantly we like to do. It’s not only just you guys coming in decrease from pretest to posttest and that perceived here [and forcing an activity]. You guys want to know risk of drug use would significantly increase from what’s interesting to us, you guys want the program pretest to posttest. The qualitative data also revealed to be interesting to us, so I like coming. a theme entitled “learning about drugs.” This theme Learning about drugs. Learning about drugs was described as participants having positive learning was defined as participants discussing their learning experiences about drugs. It could be that the positive

Mindfulness-Based Substance Abuse Treatment International Journal of Transpersonal Studies  learning environments (i.e., in which therapists were evidence-based “epidemic” (i.e., the push to attribute not trying to coerce adolescents into stopping substance manualized interventions’ efficacy on the content of the using behaviors, but rather focusing on creating a safe, manual alone with no regard to the facilitators), some therapeutic, and receptive learning environment) left important training qualities can be lost. This is why the participants of this study more open to the idea advanced training and supervision is needed in order to that drugs can be harmful, and thus, perceived risk of effectively implement the mindfulness-based substance drug used significantly increased. The fourth hypothesis use intervention studied in this article. was not confirmed: self-regulation did not significantly Limitations and Future Research change from pretest to posttest, although trends were in Although this study shows promising results, a psychologically enhancing direction. some limitations are worth consideration. First, no The feasibility of the intervention understudy control group was used to validate the results from the should be considered within the context of the juvenile treatment group. Given the pilot nature of the study detention camp setting. As noted above, an initial intent- (i.e., limited resources) and institutional limitations (i.e., to-treat sample of 60 participants were recruited, but 12 gatekeepers in the juvenile detention facility did not deem were not able to complete the intervention. Although a control group feasible because of the nature of how the this represents an attrition rate of 20%, this should not camp is governed), a control group could not be set up. undermine the feasibility of the intervention. Oftentimes, Because of this, the significant differences that did occur participants would get released from the juvenile detention might be due to some factor other than participating in camp part-way through the program. Requesting that the treatment intervention. Future research should aim such participants complete the intervention for the to conduct randomized clinical trials in order to decrease sake of research would be inappropriate and inhumane. threats to internal validity. Nevertheless, the mindfulness-based substance use Second, only two focus groups assented to being intervention understudy here is indicated to be a positive interviewed about their experience with the treatment program that high-risk and incarcerated adolescents may intervention. If for example, all six cohorts were be open to and can learn from. This suggests feasibility interviewed, there would have been more data and the given that literature on therapies with high-risk and themes that were identified might have varied more. incarcerated adolescents highlights this population’s Finally, it is unclear which aspect of the overt resistance to treatment (Baer & Peterson, 2002; treatment intervention was most helpful in this research. Ginsburg, Mann, Rotgers, & Weekes, 2002). That is, the mechanisms of change in the intervention Transformative Transpersonal Psychology are not clear and should be isolated and studied in future One of the goals for this study was to explicitly position research. For example, was it the mindfulness meditation this research and intervention within the framework of training that was most helpful? Or was it the group transformative-based transpersonal psychology. Given context? Or the group facilitator? Future research should that mindfulness is derived from spiritual traditions aim to investigate such mechanisms of change. This (most notably Buddhism), it is important for readers to was a motivation for pushing another study (currently understand that mindfulness interventions stripped of in the data collection phase) through the institutional dogma and spiritual doctrine (such as the intervention review board that is investigating the isolated effects in this study) are not facilitated in isolation from the of mindfulness meditation in incarcerated adolescent context of the intervention facilitators. The training substance users. and qualities of the facilitators is of utmost importance Conclusion in helping incarcerated adolescents (e.g., Himelstein lthough there are limitations to this study, the results & Saul, 2011) derive meaning and impact from their Asuggest that the mindfulness-based substance use experiences. Pioneers in the fields of humanistic and intervention understudy is a promising intervention for transpersonal psychology have always emphasized incarcerated substance using adolescents. Importantly, therapist qualities that include authenticity and positive decreased impulsiveness that can result from such a regard (e.g., Carl Rogers), present moment self-awareness program might enable higher psychological functioning (e.g., Fritz Pearls), and love (e.g., Abraham Maslow), in incarcerated youth. Thus, staff at juvenile detention and it is essential to understand that with the rise of the facilities, policy makers, and mindfulness intervention

 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Himelstein experts may consider mindfulness interventions as Bugental, J. F. T. (1990). Psychotherapy isn’t what you another possibility for primary or adjunctive treatment think: Bring the psychotherapeutic engagement into the with incarcerated and high-risk adolescents dealing with living moment. Phoenix, AZ: Zeig. issues of substance abuse and dependence. Randomized Creswell, J. H., & Plano-Clark, V. L. (2011). Designing clinical designs may assist in establishing mindfulness and conducting mixed methods research (2nd ed.). interventions as empirically validated treatments for Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. juvenile substance users. Continued research in the field Ginsburg, J. I. D., Mann, R. E., Rotgers, F., & Weekes, of mindfulness may reveal the operative mechanisms that J. R. (2002). Motivational interviewing with criminal facilitate change within mindfulness-based interventions. justice populations. In W. R. Miller & S. Rollnick Despite that much research remains to be conducted, it (Eds.). Motivational interviewing: Preparing people for is exciting that four decades of empirical research with change (pp. 333-347). New York, NY: Guilford Press. mindfulness programs suggest that they are feasible Hartelius, G., Caplan, M., & Rardin, M. A. (2007). treatment approaches in such diverse populations and for Transpersonal psychology: Defining the past, numerous issues. divining the future. The Humanistic Psychologist, 35(2), 135-160. References Hawkins, M. A. (2003). Section I: Theory and review: Baer, J. S., & Peterson, P. L. (2002). Motivational Effectiveness of the transcendental meditation interviewing with adolescents and young adults. program in criminal rehabilitation and substance In W. R. Miller & S. Rollnick (Eds.). Motivational abuse recovery: A review of the research [Special interviewing: Preparing people for change (pp. 320- issue]. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 36, 47-65. 333). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Himelstein, S. (2009). A mixed methods study of a Baer, R. A. (2003). Mindfulness training as a clinical inter- mindfulness-based intervention on incarcerated youth. vention: A conceptual and empirical review. Clinical (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Proquest. Psychology: Science and Practice, 10(2), 124-143. (3390411) Biegel, G. M., Brown, K. W., Shapiro, S. L., & Schubert, Himelstein, S. (2011). Meditation research: The state of C. M. (2009). Mindfulness-based stress reduction for the art in correctional settings. International Journal the treatment of adolescent psychiatric outpatients: of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, A randomized clinical trial. Journal of Consulting and 55(4), 646-661. Clinical Psychology, 77(5), 855-866. Himelstein, S., Hastings, A., Shapiro, S., & Heery, M. (in Bosworth, K., & Espelage, G. (1995). Teen conflict survey. press). A qualitative investigation on the impact of Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Center for a mindfulness-based intervention with incarcerated Adolescent Studies. adolescents. Child and Adolescent Mental Health. Bowen, S., Chawla, N., Collins, S., Witkiewwitz, K., Hsu, Himelstein, S., Hastings, A., Shapiro, S., & Heery, M. (in S., Grow, J., ... Marlatt, A. G. (2009). Mindfulness- press). Mindfulness training for self-regulation and based relapse prevention for substance use disorders: stress with incarcerated youth: A pilot study. Probation. A pilot efficacy trial.Substance Abuse, 30, 205-305. Himelstein, S., & Saul, S. (2011). Mindfulness-based Bowen, S., Chawla, N., & Marlatt, A. G. (2011). substance abuse treatment for high-risk and incarcerated Mindfulness-based relapse prevention for addictive adolescents: A drug and alcohol self-awareness program. behaviors: A clinician’s guide. New York, NY: Manuscript in preparation. Guildford Press. Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., & Bachman, J. G. Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis (1991). Drug use among American high school seniors, in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, college students, and young adults, 1975-1990. 3(2), 77-101. Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse. Bugental, J. F. T. (1965). The search for authenticity. New Kabat-Zinn, J. (1982). An outpatient program in York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. behavioral medicine for chronic pain patients Bugental, J. F. T. (1987). The art of the psychotherapist: based on the practice of mindfulness meditation: How to develop the skills that take psychotherapy beyond Theoretical considerations and preliminary results. science. New York, NY: Norton. General Hospital Psychiatry, 4(1), 33-47.

Mindfulness-Based Substance Abuse Treatment International Journal of Transpersonal Studies  Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full catastrophe living: Using the would like to thank Stephen Saul, M.A., for his efforts wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain, and in helping to prepare this manuscript. This research illness. New York, NY: Dell. was in part supported by a grant from the Homestead Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions Foundation. All correspondence should be made directly in context: Past, present, and future. Clinical to the author at: [email protected] Psychology: Science and Practice, 10(2), 144-156. Puzzanchera, C. (2009). Juvenile arrests 2008 (Report No. About the Journal NCJ 228479). Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies is a Samuelson, M., Carmody, J., Kabat-Zinn, J., & Bratt, peer-reviewed academic journal in print since 1981. It is M. A. (2007). Mindfulness-based stress reduction published by Floraglades Foundation, and serves as the in Massachusetts correctional facilities. The Prison official publication of the International Transpersonal Journal, 87(2), 254-268. Association. The journal is available online at www. transpersonalstudies.org, and in print through www. Sibinga, E. M., Stewart, M., Magyari, T., Welsh, C. K., lulu.com (search for IJTS). Hutton, N., & Ellen, J. M. (2008). Mindfulness- based stress reduction for HIV-infected youth: A pilot study. Explore, 4(1), 36-37. Snyder, H. N., & Sickmund, M. (2006). Juvenile offenders and victims: 2006 national report. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Vitacco, M. J., Nuemann, C. S., Robertson, A. A., & Durrant, S. L. (2002). Contributions of impulsivity and callousness in the assessment of adjudicated male adolescents: A prospective study. Journal of Personality Assessment, 78(1), 87-103. Wall, R. B. (2005). Tai chi and mindfulness-based stress reduction in a Boston public middle school. Journal of Pediatric Health Care, 19(4), 230-237. West, A. M. (2008). Mindfulness and well-being in adolescence: An exploration of four mindfulness measures with an adolescent sample. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B. Science and Engineering, 69(5), 3283. Williams, K. R., Tuthill, L., & Lio, S. (2008). A portrait of juvenile offending in the United States. In R. D. Hodge, N. G. Guerra, & P. Boxer (Eds.). Treating the juvenile offender (pp. 15-33). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

About the Author

Sam Himelstein, PhD, is director of Engaging The Moment, LLC, and research director of the Mind Body Awareness Project. He works with high-risk and incarcerated adolescents in individual, family, and group psychotherapy in the San Francisco Bay Area. He 10 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Himelstein The Cognitive Neuroscience of Consciousness, Mysticism and Psi

Les Lancaster Liverpool John Moores University Liverpool, UK

The greatest contemporary challenge in the arena of cognitive neuroscience concerns the relation between consciousness and the brain. Over recent years the focus of work in this area has switched from the analysis of diverse spatial regions of the brain to that of the timing of neural events. It appears that two conditions are necessary in order for neural events to become correlated with conscious experience. First, the firing of assemblies of neurones must achieve a degree of coherence, and, second, reflexive (i.e. top-down, or re- entrant) neural pathways must be activated. It does not, of course, follow that such neural activity causes consciousness; it may be, for example, that the neural activity formats the brain to interact with consciousness. The latter possibility is suggested by analysis of mystical texts suggesting that coherence and reflexivity constitute the conditions for the influx of “spirit.” Kabbalistic sources, for example, describe a hierarchy of “brains” in the human and divine realms through which the principles of coherence and reflexivity operate. Whilst the ontological assumptions of such a scheme place it beyond the realm of psychology, parallels with the picture deriving from the contemporary cognitive neuroscience of consciousness are striking.

Keywords: Kabbalah, Zohar, mysticism, emanation, isomorphism, cognitive neuroscience, reflexivity, binding mechanisms, feed-forward, re-entrant connections, recurrent processing, phenomenality, consciousness

The Principle of Isomorphism into the whole body, and waters all those plants, as wo principles that are central to the Neo- it is written: “And a river went out of Eden to water Platonism that became incorporated in the the garden….” (Genesis 2:10). (Zohar 3:288a, 289b; teachings of the Kabbalah1—emanation and extracts from Idra Zuta Kadisha) Tisomorphism2—are treated somewhat cryptically in the Emanation is the modus of creation whereby the following passages: unknowable essence of God becomes expressed through The highest wisdom that is concealed in the head of a series of stages, like light poured into a succession the Holy Ancient One is called the supernal brain, of containers. Isomorphism is the doctrine that lower the hidden brain, the brain that is tranquil and silent; structures in the emanative hierarchy correspond to and no-one knows it other than He Himself…. When higher ones. In the above extract, the “brain” of the the white brilliance is formed in the light, it distils its “Small Face” is isomorphic with the “brain” of the essence into this brain, which is illumined; and there “Holy Ancient One” (elsewhere referred to as the “Large emanates from this precious influence another brain Face”), both “brains” being symbolic components of which expands and shines into 32 paths. the Godhead. Furthermore, in this kabbalistic scheme, The light of wisdom expands in its 32 directions both of these “brains” are, in turn, isomorphic with emanating from the light that is in the concealed the human brain, which may be understood as a lower brain. There is hewn from wisdom a light that streams emanation of the higher brains. As Shokek (2001) put forth and proceeds to water the garden. It enters into it, God and man are isomorphic in that they “share the the head of the “Small Face,” and forms a certain same structure and are logically equivalent” (p. 6). The other brain. And from there it is extended and flows isomorphism here becomes evident in the notion of the

CognitiveInternational Neuroscience Journal of Transpersonal of Mysticism Studies, 30, 2011,International pp. 11-22 Journal of Transpersonal Studies 11 “32 paths,” which may be identified with the spinal cord recognize a higher ontological realm, why should it be and its associated 31 pairs of spinal nerves “emanating,” isomorphic with the lower, physical domain? as it were, from the brain (Lancaster, 2005). Leaving aside the ontological question, there The anthropomorphism in the extract is are grounds for recognizing a basis for isomorphism clearly not to be taken literally; the core injunction in the natural realm. Noting that there are significant against images of God is paramount for the author of parallels between quantum phenomena and the nature the Zohar and other works of Jewish mysticism that of consciousness, Hunt (2001) argued that this reflects explore concepts portrayed as anatomical features of the the “parsimony of nature”: “the most parsimonious divine. Nevertheless, the isomorphism is critical for both way forward here is to posit an emergentist solution, in speculative and practical aspects of Kabbalah. Speculation which consciousness appears in the universe as the most about higher things is centered on understanding of the hierarchically complex system we know, or possibly could correspondence with ontologically lower things: “From know, and which re-creates, on its new emergent level, the “I” of flesh and blood you may learn about the “I” of principles first manifested on quantum and nonlinear the Holy One, blessed be He,” runs a Jewish midrashic systems levels” (p. 36). text.3 As Wolfson (2005) poetically put it, “God, world, Consciousness is the central enigma here. In and human are intertwined in a reciprocal mirroring” my view, the parsimony to which Hunt referred may (p. 32). Being “in the image of God” (Genesis 1:27) is, extend beyond this parallel with quantum systems to for the kabbalist, not merely a statement of the dignity embrace phenomena associated with mysticism and of being human, but becomes a key to knowing God parapsychology. Kelly (2007) has emphasised that an through grasping the essence of one’s being. And this understanding of psi phenomena depends on a broad same correspondence underpins practices whereby sweep over areas including mysticism, dreaming, and mystics aspire both to receive an influx from higher genius. The core psychology of anomalous experience regions and to ascend to those regions. Central to these may be one and the same across these varied expressions approaches is the Torah, understood in Judaism not as of consciousness. And, critically, these expressions are by simply a book, but as the organic axis of communion no means the trivia of human life; they represent the very between God and man. Hence, there are three parties to dignity of being human. Ignoring the deep question that this isomorphic chain: “God, Torah and man share the unifies them on the grounds that science is not yet able same structure, and this is the reason why the scholar to accommodate it is not only to make a false god of is able to ascend on high” (Idel, 2005, p. 141). As Idel science but also to turn one’s back on the most inspiring continued, this “chain of anthropomorphic entities… and transformative aspects of human experience. descends from the divine and enables return there.” As the next section should demonstrate, the Of what relevance might such mystical musings understanding of consciousness that comes from be to the more scientific quest to understand the brain’s contemporary cognitive neuroscience reveals significant role in relation to anomalous experience? One school parallels with ideas found in spiritual and mystical of thought would have matters religious or mystical in traditions. For cognitive neuroscience the concepts one domain and matters physical in another; religion that find parallels in mystical writings, namely and science as two nonoverlapping magisteria (Gould, reflexivity and binding, indicate something about the 2001). I do not share this view, and it is the principle of mechanisms involved in neural systems correlating with isomorphism that leads me to open a different perspective consciousness, but fail to answer fundamental questions here. Let me clarify at the outset that I am aware of the about the essence of consciousness (i.e., phenomenality). difficulties; the kind of mysticism with which I have There is simply an act of faith which assumes that opened posits ontologically separate domains. At best, advancing the understanding of mechanism will bring one might regard its notion of “higher” brains as quaint, insight into the question as to why any neural activity poetic, or even as having some meaning psychologically should relate to phenomenality. The mystical approach —symbolising different levels of the psyche, for example. extends the principles of reflexivity and binding through However, the seemingly dualist worldview that it purveys the additional notion of isomorphism. My argument is cannot, by definition, sit easily with the worldview simply that the parallels to be examined suggest a rationale of science.4 Moreover, even if one deems it useful to for further examining the principle of isomorphism for

12 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Lancaster the insight it may bring to fundamental questions as yet 1. Feed-forward connections bring information from unanswered in discussions of consciousness. Perhaps the sensory receptors into the brain and through this exploration may offer a model of the mind that can a hierarchical system that functions primarily to effectively incorporate data from parapsychology. detect the presence of feature elements in the sensory So… how does the light get in? 5 array. In the case of vision, for example, nerve fibers Contemporary originating in the retina, travel via the thalamus Neuroscience of Consciousness into the visual regions of the cerebral cortex. The iven the putative relations between areas such as feed-forward system continues from the first visual consciousness, mysticism, and psi phenomena, it G area of the cortex (V1) through a succession of areas follows that the understanding of any one of these areas (V2, V3, V4, etc), each specialized for detection may be advanced through scholarship and research in the of differing aspects of the input. The feed-forward other areas. Each area is associated with certain strengths system runs via two streams towards ‘higher’ regions and weaknesses: The study of psi is strong on data but, of the cortex. The term ‘higher’ in this context is for many, somewhat weak on theory. Mysticism brings applied to a region that includes considerable non- rich formulations of the nature of mind and of reality, sensory activity. ‘Lower’ regions are driven mainly by predicated not only on core texts and/or experiences but sensory input; whereas the activity of ‘higher’ areas also on a strong commentarial tradition. The key claims involves memory and other cognitive functions. associated with mysticism may, however, be weak in terms of empirical assessment. The area best captured in 2. Horizontal connections are found between neurons the term “consciousness studies” is strong in its empirical at the same level in the hierarchy. They function to approach but weak in its philosophical coherence. This sharpen responses via inhibitory interconnections. In weakness concerns not only its invariable adherence to the visual system, for example, such lateral inhibition a neuro-physicalist (Lancaster, 2004) worldview, which can increase levels of contrast, thereby facilitating can be challenging to many, but also its commitment object recognition at higher levels in the system. to representationalism, which has all the hallmarks of 3. Re-entrant connections consist of fibers originating a dogma devoid of real support (see recent discussion in higher areas that project back onto the feed- in Gauld, 2007). My claim is that integrating these forward activity at lower regions. The termrecurrent areas broadly allows one to cancel out some of the more processing refers to the influence of re-entrant extreme of the weaknesses associated with each, and pathways on the feed-forward system. The presence to build new explanatory models through a kind of of re-entrant pathways enables the brain to operate as triangulation process (see especially Lancaster, 2004, for a dynamic, interactive system. Re-entrant pathways a fuller treatment of the issues). are extensive, with, for example, a larger number Let me assert my bias at the outset: The domain of fibers heading from the cortex to the thalamus of neuroscience is not going to reveal how the light gets than in the opposite (feed-forward) direction. Re- in! Of course, many would immediately deny any such entrant fibers are found down to the level of receptor notion as a need for “the light to get in,”holding instead neurones. It has been demonstrated that recurrent that the activity of certain brain structures or temporal processing functions to modulate the responses of patterns of neural activity simply is consciousness, or that the feed-forward system. such activity gives rise to consciousness as an emergent property. Here is not the place to debate the alternatives; A growing body of evidence suggests that I simply want to explore the core brain processes that consciousness is dependent on recurrent processing have been well documented as critical correlates of (Dehaene, Changeaux, Naccache, Sackur, & Sergent, consciousness. As mentioned above, there are two such 2006; Edelman & Tononi, 2000; Lamme, 2003, 2004, core processes: neural reflexivity and binding. 2006). The evidence largely comes from studies of the Reflexivitiy timing of events in the brain’s perceptual systems, The immense complexity in the brain’s systems using, for example, trans-cranial magnetic stimulation may be simplified by recognizing three forms of to interfere with neural activity in discrete brain areas connection: at specific times (Pascual-Leone & Walsh, 2001), and

Cognitive Neuroscience of Mysticism International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 13 from studying paradigms such as backward masking (e.g., in the brain mechanisms involved with the dimensions Supèr, Spekreijse, & Lamme, 2001) and the attentional of intentionality and accessibility. This form of processing blink (e.g., Sergent, Baillet, & Dehaene, 2005). Thus, does not, however, account for the fundamental for example, it is not possible to differentiate between dimension of phenomenality. masked (i.e., not consciously perceived), and unmasked Binding Mechanisms (consciously perceived) stimuli in terms of the specific Many have stressed the importance for brain regions that are activated (Dehaene et al., 2001). understanding the neural correlate of consciousness of Rather, the explanation of masking is to be found in the binding problem (Crick & Koch, 1990; Treisman & terms of a mismatch between feed-forward and re- Schmidt, 1982; Treisman, 1996). The problem concerns entrant data. According to this explanation, by the time how the brain registers that certain neural responses re-entrant activity related to the original stimulus reaches should be linked with others in order to establish the V1, the activity in V1 is being driven by the mask and presence of whole objects in the world. If I am looking is no longer related to the original stimulus. Dehaene et at a pen lying on my desk, the feed-forward visual sweep al. concluded that the data “are consistent with theories will detect a host of features in the sensory array. The that relate conscious perception to the top-down [i.e., question is, on what basis can the brain determine that recurrent] amplification of sensory information through a subset of these features (e.g., those relating to the pen) synchronous co-activation of distant regions” (p. 757). belong together? These conclusions about the role of recurrent The emphasis on recurrent processing leads to activity are further supported by research into a straightforward answer, namely that the feed-forward neurological conditions in which residual cognitive sweep does not itself establish the presence of objects. functioning can be sustained in the absence of conscious Recognition of objects requires the contribution of awareness. One such condition, blindsight, describes a recurrent processing. It is likely that the feed-forward condition in patients following extensive damage to V1 system simply detects the presence of basic features in over one half of the brain. In brief, these patients have the visual input. On the basis of these features, higher no visual awareness of material presented in the affected cortical regions connected with the memory store areas of the visual field, but are nevertheless able to make become activated, with those structures (memory traces, successful guesses about a number of features of the visual or schemata) sharing the greatest number of features with content (Weiskrantz, 1986). Available evidence suggests the sensory analysis becoming the most highly activated. that this deficit inaccess consciousness (Block, 1995, 2005) The re-entrant system then modulates the responses in blindsight is due to the failure of recurrent processing of the feed-forward system in an attempt to establish (Gonzalez Andino, Menendez, Khateb, Landis, & Pegna, whether or not the most activated schemata can match 2009; Lamme, 2001). The condition would seem to be the current input. Again, considerable research underpins caused by the failure of the re-entrant pathway to V1 to the summary view of Enns and di Lollo (2000) that the intersect with the feed-forward stream. There can be no perceptual system, ‘actively searches for a match between interaction in V1 on account of the simple fact that V1 is a descending code, representing a perceptual hypothesis, not functioning. and an ongoing pattern of low-level activity. When such Lamme (2006) succinctly captured the a match occurs, the neural ensemble is ‘“locked’ onto essence of this principle of reflexivity in his assertion the stimulus” (p. 348). The stages hypothesized as being that, “RP [recurrent processing] is the key neural involved in the perceptual process are represented in ingredient of consciousness. We could even define Figure 1. consciousness as recurrent processing” (p. 499). While Models of this kind have replaced those favored agreeing that recurrent processing is the key neural some 30 years ago that stressed only the spatial aspects ingredient that correlates with the immediate sense of of brain organization. Previously, the search was for access consciousness, I would refrain from defining increasing evidence of localization of function, with consciousness in this way. As argued more fully elsewhere consciousness being seen as merely the most complex (Lancaster, 2004), a definition of consciousness requires in a hierarchy of functions. Over recent years, however, a recognition of different dimensions of consciousness. there has been a major shift towards greater emphasis on Recurrent processing appears to be the key ingredient the temporal dimension of cerebral processing.

14 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Lancaster As first proposed by von der Malsburg (1981), has been proposed as the basis of consciousness (see, for it is the temporal dimension of neural signals that example, Kriegel, 2007).6 underpins the binding of neurons into functional Introspectively, one of the hallmarks of groups. Much research has demonstrated that phase consciousness seems to be its unity; there is a oneness across synchrony in the gamma band (40Hz approx) is all the diverse features of awareness at any given time. established between neurons, and groups of neurons that It should come as no surprise, then, to find unification, are functioning together at a given time (for reviews and signalled by neural coherence, as the brain feature most overviews, see Engel & Singer, 2001; Revonsuo, 1999; related to consciousness. As von der Malsburg (1997) Singer, 1999, 2000). Such neural phase synchrony, or put it, coherence, is viewed by many as a necessary condition for we experience mind states of different degrees consciousness. of consciousness, and … the difference is made The relation between neural coherence and by the difference in the degree of coherence, or consciousness is unlikely to be monolithic, however. order … between different parts of the brain. Let It has been demonstrated, for example, that levels of us, then, describe a state of highest consciousness coherence in neural firing actually increase during as one characterized by global order among all the anaesthesia (Vanderwolf, 2000). It is necessary to different active processes… . A globally coupled distinguish binding in the feedforward pathway alone, state could be one in which all the different [parts] which is unlikely to be the correlate of consciousness, are phase-locked to each other. (pp. 196-197) from binding which unifies feedforward and recurrent processing. It is this latter which appears to underlie the Bearing in mind the earlier discussion of the key brain’s relation to consciousness. It is this form of binding role of neural reflexivity in relation to consciousness, which, for example, would be involved in the unification von der Malsburg’s assertion must be qualified across different orders of cognitive representation that with the proviso that the global coupling entails

MEMORY

2. Activate memory schemata accessed from schemata sharing specific memory (maybe several features with input alternatives) re-entrant system e.g.

3. Compare schemata accessed with input model

neuronal input model “pen” “spoon” Does schema match input? yes no feedforward system 4. perceive input-schema match 5. Mismatch from phase 1 1 Analysis of input by derives modulation of sensory sensory analyzers go to 1 analyzers in attempt to fit (feature detectors) accessed schema sensory input (e.g., slightly obscured pen)

Figure 1. A psycho-physiological model of stages in perception (based on Lancaster, 2004)

Cognitive Neuroscience of Mysticism International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 15 interactions between feedforward and re-entrant activity and their integration in a neuronal input model) neural pathways. brings about “higher” activity (memory readout), which Reflexivity and binding in mystical language acts back on the “lower” activity, bringing consciousness n this section I shall explore some parallels between of the perceptual object. Stated in this crude form, Ithe above key principles of brain function related however, the analogy may be less than convincing. A to consciousness and ideas central to various mystical deeper analysis is required to support the substance of systems. I shall draw specifically on the Kabbalah, the analogy. but, as I have indicated elsewhere (Lancaster, 2004), One may start by noting that the parallel the key ideas have found expression in diverse mystical extends into the means whereby recurrent processing is traditions. I believe a strong case can be made that effected. As discussed above, this seems to depend on the the two core principles of brain function related to binding mechanisms achieving phase synchrony among consciousness have been anticipated in the mystical neurons. Analogously, at the cosmic level, awakening of traditions. The question is: What inferences does the higher influx depends upon unification of the lower one draw from the parallels? Putting it simply, if the “limbs”: “Whenever all the parts of the body are brought parallels are accepted as in some sense significant, then together in a single bond enjoying pleasure and delight there would seem to be three alternative ways to explain from the head, above and below…, then he becomes a them: (1) They may be attributable to chance (which I flowing river going out of the real Eden” (Zohar I:247b). doubt); (2) to the mystics having uncannily accurate The “flowing river” from “Eden” is another symbol of insight into brain function (which I also doubt); or (3) the influx from the higher level.8 Indeed, the theme of to the mystics’ grasp of principles finding expression sexual intercourse, whereby the disparate parts are bound at different levels in the “created” hierarchy—due to together par excellence, is a favored image in the Zohar’s the isomorphism I discussed earlier. It is this latter discourse. Unification below brings about a celestial alternative which will be further explored in the final uniting that eventuates in an outpouring that nourishes section of the chapter. those “below.” As Scholem (1941/1961) noted, the essential Indeed, practices directed at unification are idea of the impulse from below stimulating that from central to the goals of Kabbalah. A description of one of above—as portrayed in the following excerpt—is central these practices in the Zohar strikes a resonant chord with to the Zohar’s narrative: von der Malsburg’s reference to “globally coupled” states quoted above: Come and see. Through the impulse from below is awakened an impulse above, and through the “One”—to unify everything from there upwards as impulse from above there is awakened a yet higher one; to raise the will to bind everything in a single impulse, until the impulse reaches the place where bond; to raise the will in fear and love higher and the lamp is to be lit and it is lit ... and all the worlds higher as far as En-Sof [the limitless essence of God]. receive blessing from it. (Zohar 1:244a) And not to let the will stray from all the levels and limbs but let it ascend with them all to make them Activity at the lower ontic level is “magically reflected” at adhere to each other, so that all shall be one bond the higher level (Scholem, 1941/1961, p. 233). If the lower with En-Sof. This is the practice of unification of impulse is acceptable, then the response is “blessing,” Rab Hamnuna the Venerable, who learnt it from that is, “light from the supernal lamp,” or “oil emerging his father, who had it from his master, and so on, from The Holy Ancient One” (p. 233). There are many till it came from the mouth of Elijah. (Zohar 2: metaphors to describe this influx from the higher level. 216b) All of them may be best understood in modern terms as concerned with the arising and flow of consciousness.7 Further examination of the concepts of “lower” and The picture emerging from cognitive neuro­ “higher” in the respective contexts will inform the science parallels this more cosmic picture. As discussed comparison. Superficially, of course, the neuroscientific above, intentionality and access consciousness seems and the kabbalistic versions appear highly disparate. What to be dependent on recurrent processing. The impulse can brain regions and functions possibly have in common from below (detection of elemental features in sensory with supposed mystical planes of reality? However, a

16 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Lancaster deeper grasp of the kabbalistic symbolism indicates that So Where Exactly is the Top? the “earthly” (lower) and “heavenly’”(higher) spheres elly (2007) raised this question in his discussion include features that do bring them into alignment with Kof interactive models of processing of the kind their proposed neurocognitive counterparts. considered here. In his terminology, “recurrent activity” The lower level is in touch with the earth—it is replaced by “top-down interactions” which generate is the level of human worldly activity. This parallels “projective activity”; but the principles are the same as the “lower” brain regions whose activity is driven by those in the model of perception I described earlier. “So the “impulse from below,” that is, from the energy of far so good,” he remarked, “but where exactly is the ‘top,’ the physical world impinging on sensory receptors. the ultimate source of this projective activity?” (p. 41). The “higher” regions, in neurocognitive terms, are The “top” for the kabbalistic tradition is clearly those areas responsible for the memory readout which beyond the “top” as conceived by cognitive neuroscience, guides the perceptual process. The parallel here is to the principally because the former imputes ontological psychological role assigned in kabbalistic thought to the status to that which is “higher”: “For kabbalists, the sphere of Hokhmah (Wisdom), the highest emanation mirror is a medium that renders appearances real and in the kabbalistic hierarchy attainable by the human reality apparent, and hence the likeness between image mind. Dov Baer, the Maggid of Mezeritch (1704–1742), and what is imaged is a matter of ontic resemblance applied the term kadmut ha-sekhel (variously translated and not simply optic reflexivity” (Wolfson, 2005, p. as “preconscious” or “unconscious”) to this sphere 33).13 The above quote from the Zohar concerning the (see Hurwitz, 1968; Matt, 1995; Scholem, 1975). The “impulse from below” and that from above assumes a Maggid is alluding to the higher level of (preconscious) hierarchical series of reflexive levels, with the “light” thought that functions to format (conscious) thoughts (which I conceive of as phenomenality, the essence of in the human mind: consciousness) emerging only from the highest level. These levels are further conceptualized in terms of the In the vessel which a craftsman makes, you find anthropomorphic images of “brains” within the “Small” that wisdom exists in a concealed fashion. So too and “Large Faces” of the Godhead, mentioned earlier. with thought, for thought requires a preconscious Thus, Moses de León, reputed to be the editor of the [kadmut ha-sekhel] which is above the thought Zohar, wrote that, “the worlds… exist in gradations, one that thinks…. Hence we find it written (Job 28:12) atop the other… until they all ascend to the secret of that “Wisdom comes from nothing”9 (Maggid of the awesome faces whence the light emerges” (cited in Mezeritch, Or ha-Emet 15b, as cited in Scholem, Wolfson, 2005, p. 34). 1975, p. 355). This reflexive scheme is illustrated in Figure The higher level in both the neurocognitive model and 2, in which I concatenate the material deriving in kabbalistic thought depicts the preconscious as the from cognitive neuroscience and Kabbalah. What is “concealed” inner process of thought.10 In Zoharic known of the workings of the physical brain regarding symbolism, this level is that of the thought that precedes consciousness occupies the two lower levels of the figure; expansion into articulation.11 Similarly, in the neuro- the kabbalistic teachings regarding the “brains” in the cognitive model, the preconscious activation of matching Godhead, the upper two levels. Between these I have memory schemata is clearly a kind of thinking that included the Active Intellect, the term employed by the occurs prior to the meaning which accompanies a match medieval kabbalists (following the lead of Maimonides, between sensory input and memory readout. Indeed, foremost of the Jewish philosophers) to depict the level the linguistic analogy—illustrated in the footnote—is of mind intermediary between God and human. The apt, for the match of memory readout to sensory input figure intentionally depicts the isomorphism between involves one’s repertoire of language. The structuring of brain mechanisms related to consciousness and the the memory schemata accessed during the preconscious kabbalistic scheme whereby the “highest” levels in the search is essentially linguistic.12 For the adult at least, created hierarchy are activated. As stated in the Zohar knowing depends on the ability to name, and the (1:70b) in the name of Rabbi Hizkiyah: “The upper meaning of the match achieved is bound up with the world depends upon the lower, and the lower upon the potential to name the object perceived. upper.”

Cognitive Neuroscience of Mysticism International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 17 Wisdom / “Source of blessing” “Brain” of the “Large Face” CONSCIOUSNESS “Brains” of Godhead re-entrant system

“Brain” of the “Small Face”

“Active Intellect” Higher unconscious

“Higher” processing areas feedforward system Human brain

“Lower” processing areas

Input from world

Figure 2. An extended view of reflexivity and consciousness

In the figure I have designated theActive Intellect mentioned earlier, the notion of “higher brains” is at as the “higher unconscious,” the term Assagioli used to best only a metaphorical designation. The principles depict that sphere from whence the highest intuitions that escape the trappings of medieval imagery may be and inspirations derive (Firman & Gila, 2002). The succinctly stated as: higher unconscious is also active in relation to psychic 1. The essence of consciousness (phenomenality) is experience. That some such sphere of mind may be the drawn from the top of a hierarchy of isomorphic, realm through which psychic phenomena operate is not a resonant processes; and new insight. The critical considerations concern, first, the evidence upon which one may assert the existence of such 2. While successive levels in the hierarchy, that a sphere, and, second, the extent to which operational is, levels of mind, interact with their neighbors dynamics can be grasped. The claim I am making here is above and below, they also operate in ways that that these considerations are met, to at least a level that are distinctive. bears further exploration, by the isomorphic principles In relation to point 2, the Active Intellect, or higher depicted in Figure 2. In other words, given the two unconscious, may be viewed as interacting with the observations that neuroscience has not as yet found any human brain in the same reflexive way as operates solution to the hard problem of consciousness, and that within the brain’s perceptual systems. At the same known features of brain processes related to consciousness time, it has its own, distinctive sphere of operation accord with the functional principles conveyed in the which includes archetypal complexes, inspiration, and psi relevant mystical literature, then serious consideration phenomena. Its status in the medieval scheme as part- of the approach to consciousness found in the mystical divine and part-human carried the implication that it tradition may be warranted. partakes of sensibilities not carried through the bodily This is not to imply that all details of the senses. In kabbalistic thinking, for example, the Active mystical scheme should be treated at face value. As Intellect is identified as the collective mind through such

18 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Lancaster designations as the “Assembly of Israel,” the “Torah,” the Dehaene, S., Naccache, L., Cohen, L., le Bihan, D., “Holy Spirit,” and so on. Mangin, J-F, Poline, J-B, Rivière, D. (2001). Cerebral In the previous section I emphasized the mechanisms of word masking and unconscious preconsciousness of “higher” activity, in both cognitive, repetition priming. Nature Neuroscience, 4, 752- and kabbalistic, schemes. Just as upward activation in the 758. brain preconsciously activates memories and associations Edelman, G. M. & Tononi, G. (2000). Reentry and pertaining to the individual’s prior experience relating to the dynamic core: neural correlates of conscious the current sensory array, so the feedforward system may experience. In T. Metzinger (ed.), Neural Correlates be viewed as activating collective resonances in the higher of Consciousness: Empirical and Conceptual Questions. unconscious/Active Intellect. Yet higher feedforward Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. resonances open the portal of phenomenality. The final Engel, A. K. & Singer, W. (2001). Temporal binding and effect is that personal and collective projections enter the neural correlates of sensory awareness. Trends in the narrative mind of mundane consciousness via the Cognitive Sciences, 5, 16-25. downward re-entry system. Evidence suggesting that Enns, J. T. & di Lollo, V. (2000). What’s new in visual psi phenomena depend on preconscious processing (e.g., masking? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 345-352. precognitive habituation, ganzfeld studies, etc.) imply Firman, J. & Gila, A. (2002). Psychosynthesis: A psychology that psi arises through stimuli primarily activating higher of the spirit. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. levels in the hierarchy, with lower levels becoming active Gauld, A. (2007). Memory. In E. F. Kelly, E. W. Kelly, only through subsequent recurrent processing.14 A. Crabtree, A. Gauld, M. Grosso, & B. Greyson In closing, I will emphasize the issue of the (Eds.), Irreducible mind: Toward a psychology for the scale brought to bear when attempting to understand psi 21stcentury (pp. 34-35). Lanham, MD: Rowman & phenomena. Whatever the details of the systems through Littlefield. which psi phenomena may become incorporated into Giller P. (2001). Reading the Zohar: The sacred text of the interactions with the world, that these systems relate Kabbalah. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. to humanity’s highest aspirations, as well as the root of Gonzalez Andino, S. L., Grave de Peralta Menendez, consciousness, seems correct to me. The scheme I have R., Khateb, A., Landis, T, & Pegna, A. J. (2009). presented here has the merit of integrating all levels from Electrophysiological correlates of affective blindsight. that of the discrete elements of concrete perception to that NeuroImage, 44(2), 581-589. of the human role in sustaining the divine (Lancaster, Gould, S. J. (2001). Rocks of ages: Science and religion in 2008). While Occam’s razor might compel one to eschew the fullness of Life. London, UK: Jonathan Cape. “higher brains” and the like, the parsimony in having Hunt, H. (2001). Some perils of quantum consciousness. a single, twin-pronged principle of operation—that of Journal of Consciousness Studies, 8, 35-45. reflexivity / binding—does pass muster. Hurwitz (1968). Psychological aspects in early Hasidic literature (H. Nagel, trans.). In J. Hillman (Ed.), References Timeless documents of the soul. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press. Block, N. (1995). On a confusion about a function of Idel, M. (2005). Enchanted chains: Techniques and rituals consciousness. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 18, in Jewish Mysticism. Los Angeles, CA: Cherub 227-287. Press. Block, N. (2005). Two neural correlates of consciousness. James, W. (1960). The varieties of religious experience. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9, 46-52. London, UK: Fontana. (Original work published Crick, F. H. C. & Koch, C. (1990). Towards a 1902) neurobiological theory of consciousness. Seminars Kelly, E. F. (2007). Toward a psychology for the 21st in the Neurosciences, 2, 263-275. Century. In E. F. Kelly, E. Williams Kelly, A. Dehaene, S., Changeaux, J-P, Naccache, L., Sackur, J., Crabtree, A. Gauld, M. Grosso, & B. Greyson, & Sergent, C. (2006). Conscious, preconscious, and Irreducible mind: Toward a psychology for the 21st subliminal processing: a testable taxonomy. Trends Century (pp. 577-643). Lanham, MD: Rowman & in Cognitive Sciences, 10, 204-211. Littlefield.

Cognitive Neuroscience of Mysticism International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 19 Kriegel, U. (2007). A cross-order integration hypothesis Scholem, G. (1975). Devarim be-Go. Tel Aviv, Israel: Am for the neural correlate of consciousness. Consciousness Oved. (Hebrew) and Cognition, 16, 897-912. Sergent, C., Baillet, S., & Dehaene, S. (2005) Timing of Lacan, J. (1977). Écrits: A selection. (A. Sheridan, Trans.). the brain events underlying access to consciousness London, UK: Tavistock. (Original work published during the attentional blink. Nature Neuroscience, 8, 1966) 1391–1400. Lamme, V. A. F. (2001). Blindsight: The role of Shokek, S. (2001). Kabbalah and the art of being. New feedforward and feedback corticocortical connec- York, NY: Routledge. tions. Acta Psychologica, 107, 209-228. Singer, W. (1999). Neuronal synchrony: A versatile code Lamme, V. A. F. (2003). Why visual attention and for the definition of relations? Neuron, 24, 49-65. awareness are different. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, Singer, W. (2000). Phenomenal awareness and 7, 12-18. consciousness from a neurobiological perspective. In Lamme, V. A. F. (2004) Separate neural definitions of T. Metzinger (Ed.), Neural correlates of consciousness: visual consciousness and visual attention; a case for Empirical and conceptual questions (pp. 121-137). phenomenal awareness. Neural Networks. 17, 861-872. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Lamme, V. A. F. (2006). Towards a true neural stance Supèr, H., Spekreijse, H., & Lamme, V. A. F. (2001). on consciousness. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10, Two distinct modes of sensory processing observed 494-501. in monkey primary visual cortex (V1). Nature Lancaster, B. L. (2004). Approaches to consciousness: The Neuroscience, 4, 304-310. marriage of science and mysticism. Basingstoke, UK: Treisman, A. M. (1996). The binding problem. Current Palgrave Macmillan. Opinions in Neurobiology, 6, 171–178. Lancaster, B. L. (2005). The essence of Kabbalah. London, Treisman, A. M., & Schmidt, H. (1982). Illusory UK: Arcturus. conjunctions in the perception of objects. Cognitive Lancaster, B. L. (2008). Engaging with the mind of Psychology, 14, 107–141. God: The participatory path of Jewish mysticism. In Vanderwolf, C. H. (2000). Are neocortical gamma J. Ferrer & J. Sherman (Eds.), The participatory turn: waves related to consciousness? Brain Research, 855, Spirituality, mysticism, religious studies (pp. 173-195). 217–224. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. von der Malsburg, C. (1981). The correlation theory Levine, J. (1983). Materialism and qualia: The explana­ of brain function. Internal report 81-82, MPI tory gap. Pacific Philosophical Review, 64, 354-61. Biophysical Chemistry. Reprinted in E. Domany, Magid, S. (2002). Origin and overcoming the beginning: J. L. van Hemmen, & K. Schulten (Eds.), Models Zimzum as a trope of reading in post-Lurianic of neural networks II (chap. 2, pp. 95-119). Berlin, Kabbala. In A. Cohen & S. Magid (Eds.), Beginning Germany: Springer (1994). again: Toward a hermeneutic of Jewish texts. New von der Malsburg, C. (1997). The coherence definition York, NY: Seven Bridges Press. of consciousness. In M. Ito, Y. Miyashita & Matt, D. (1995). Ayin: The concept of nothingness in E. T. Rolls (Eds.), Cognition, computation, and Jewish mysticism. In L. Fine (Ed.), Essential Papers on consciousness. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Kabbalah. New York, NY: New York University Press. Press. Pascual-Leone, A., & Walsh, V. (2001). Fast Weiskrantz, L. (1986). Blindsight: A case study and backprojections from the motion to the primary implications. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. visual area necessary for visual awareness. Science Whyte, L. L. (1962). The unconscious before Freud. 292, 510–512. London, UK: Tavistock. Revonsuo, A. (1999). Binding and the phenomenal Wolfson, E. (2005). Language, eros, being: Kabbalistic unity of consciousness. Consciousness and Cognition, hermeneutics and poetic imagination. New York, 8, 173-185. NY: Fordham University Press. Scholem, G. (1961). Major trends in Jewish mysticism. New York: Schocken Books. (Original work published 1941)

20 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Lancaster Notes representations, a first-order representation of an external stimulus and a higher-order 1. The Zohar is universally recognized as the most representation of that first-order representation; influential text of Jewish mysticism. It first circulated once the two representations are unified, they form in the 13th century, leading most scholars to date a single representational state with two parts, one its authorship to this period. Within the orthodox directed at the other and the other directed at the Jewish tradition it is generally seen as recording stimulus” (Kriegel, 2007, p. 899). I would accord mystical speculations from an earlier period, and is the “neuronal input model” in Figure 1 the status ascribed to a second-century author, Rabbi Shimon of first-order representation, and the schemata bar Yochai. accessed from memory, the status of second-order 2. As the previous note indicates, dating the origins representation. of kabbalistic teachings is controversial. Many 7. A number of modern scholars use the term would hold that core ideas such as emanation “consciousness” or “awareness” in attempting to and isomorphism are intrinsic to the biblical text, render into contemporary language the Zohar’s and that Kabbalah is some kind of ur-tradition. symbolic language. See, for example, Giller (2001), Whatever the truth of such claims may be, there can Magid (2002), Matt (1995). be no doubt that the medieval authors who shaped 8. It is difficult in a short treatment of kabbalistic the mainstream kabbalistic framework which is imagery to substantiate fully my claims about the prevalent to this day were influenced by Greek ideas, intended meanings in passages such as this. Indeed, especially as formulated by Islamic philosophers. concealment of meaning is one of the hallmarks of 3. Genesis Rabbah 90:1; Leviticus Rabbah 24:9. The quote the medieval Kabbalah. I have explored this issue at is given in the name of Rabbi Levi. The term Midrash greater length in Lancaster (2005). refers to a corpus of Jewish literature, dating from 9. This verse from the book of Job is often translated as the second to the twelfth centuries C.E., and still “From where may wisdom be found?” The Hebrew of the utmost importance to the practice of Judaism translated as “from where,” if taken more literally, today. The style of Midrash is largely homiletical, and means “from nothingness.” The mystics emphasized frequently draws on word play to derive a teaching this latter meaning since it accords with their from a scriptural passage. understanding that the sphere of Wisdom may be 4. I say “seemingly” since Kabbalah holds that all such accessed only through annulment of the everyday “levels” are ultimately expressions of the one true sense of “I”; “Transformation comes about only by reality, that of the divine. Its worldview is thus that passing through nothingness,” wrote The Maggid of idealism or neutral monism, not dualism. (as cited in Matt, 1995, p. 87). 5. The reference is, of course, to Leonard Cohen’s An­ 10. The point may be misunderstood on account of them from his 1992 Album, The Future (“There is a confusion over the appropriate direction in the spatial crack, a crack in everything/That’s how the light gets metaphor applied to notions of consciousness. Freud in”). I hesitate to corrupt the poetry by spelling out a famously viewed the unconscious as “lower”—the meaning in the context of my chapter. Suffice it to say portion of an iceberg under water, the basement that physicalism has, to my mind, not satisfactorily of a house, and so on. However, as Whyte (1962) bridged the explanatory gap (Levine, 1983). As pointed out, the unconscious might be thought of I argue in Lancaster (2004), the core dimension as “higher” than the conscious sphere on account of consciousness, namely that of phenomenality, of its importance for “higher” creative and spiritual has not been satisfactorily explained in any abilities. It is unfortunate that one is compelled contemporary physicalist treatment of consciousness. to understand these psychic ideas through spatial An extra something—a “More,” as the later James metaphor, since it is easy to confuse the metaphor (1902/1960) would have put it—is needed for a with the meaning. There is no spatiality in the complete understanding of consciousness. psyche. 6. “Conscious states arise from the integration, or Kabbalistically, “higher” means closer to unification, of what are initially two distinct the divine. But the parallel with neuro-cognitive

Cognitive Neuroscience of Mysticism International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 21 terminology arises by virtue of the critical idea that damaged individuals), V1 sustains the re-entrant the terms “higher” and “closer to the divine” mean activity. Conscious perception would incorporate that the process comes earlier in the generation of the psi activity arriving through re-entrance, but mental content. This is essentially the meaning of the percipient would have limited ability to reflect Dov Baer’s term kadmut ha-sekhel, which is why on the source of the activity. it should be translated as preconscious rather than unconscious. About the Author 11. Language lies at the core of kabbalistic speculation. The dynamic relationship between God and man is Les Lancaster, PhD, is Professor of Transpersonal largely understood in linguistic terms. The Zohar Psychology at Liverpool John Moores University, frequently illustrates its paradigm of emanation Honorary Research Fellow in the Centre for Jewish by using the image of an initial spark of a thought Studies at Manchester University, and part of progressing through stages until it is finally expressed the Adjunct Research Faculty at the Institute of in speech. The following is a typical example: Transpersonal Psychology, California. He is a past Chair of the Transpersonal Psychology Section of the Come and see! Thought is the beginning of all. British Psychological Society, and currently President of It is within, secret and unknowable. When it the International Transpersonal Association. At LJMU extends, it reaches the place where spirit dwells he co-founded the Consciousness and Transpersonal and is then called Understanding, which is not Psychology Research Unit, through which postgraduate so concealed as the preceding even though it is programmes in these areas ran for some 15 years. In still secret. This spirit expands and produces a addition to various journal articles, Les’ published works Voice comprising fire, water, and air, namely include Mind Brain and Human Potential, winner of a north, south, and east…. When you examine the Science and Medical Network Best Book Award, The levels, you find that Thought, Understanding, Essence of Kabbalah, and Approaches to Consciousness: Voice, and speech are all one, and that thought the Marriage of Science and Mysticism. In addition to his is the beginning of all—there is no separation. work in cognitive neuroscience, Les has made extensive Rather all is one and connected as a unity, for studies of religious mysticism, focusing for over thirty it is actualized thought united with its source years on the Kabbalah, and runs international workshops in nothingness. And will never be disunited. and courses on Kabbalistic Psychology. (Zohar I: 246b) 12. The central insight of Lacan (e.g., 1977) that the About the Journal Unconscious is structured like a language, applies here. The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies is a 13. It is worth noting in passing that isomorphism as peer-reviewed academic journal in print since 1981. It is presented in Kabbalah is conceptually distinct published by Floraglades Foundation, and serves as the from cognitivism’s representationalism, inasmuch official publication of the International Transpersonal Association. The journal is available online at www. as the latter entails an arbitrary relation between transpersonalstudies.org, and in print through www. the representation and that represented. Kabbalah lulu.com (search for IJTS). asserts that the “mirror” that relates two entities (such as God and human) entails an identity of substance. Indeed, it is axiomatic that such identity is critical for any knowledge; man can know God and God can know man only because they share an essential nature. As Wolfson (2005) remarked, this axiom implies ultimately that there is no non-divine reality 14. The situation would be analogous to that in blind­ sight, except that in the case of psi (i.e., in non-brain-

22 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Lancaster Rethinking Prayer and Health Research: An Exploratory Inquiry on Prayer’s Psychological Dimension

Adrian Andreescu Independent Researcher Pucioasa, Romania

A brief literature review of cancer survival trials is employed by the author to raise questions on their design and to bring speculatively into discussion concepts such as “worldview”, “intentional normative dissociation”, and “psychosomatic plasticity-proneness”. Using prayer’s psychological dimension as a way to unite such elements opens new fertile perspectives on the academic study of prayer and health. In this context, it is suggested that a consistent interdisciplinary research agenda is required in order to understand those biopsychosocial factors interconnected within the process and outcome of prayer before attempting to decipher the big answers laying dormant probably within the transpersonal and spiritual layers of human experience.

Keywords: prayer, worldview, intentional normative dissociation, psychosomatic plasticity-proneness, cancer survival, spirituality and health, subjectivity, embodiment, biopsychosocial, spiritual capital, transpersonal capital

he last 20 years have been challenging for renal cell, melanoma, and similar cancers). Due to the those researchers asking the question, “Can complexity of processes and cascading events that take psychological interventions promote survival place in the lives of cancer patients, it is currently very inT cancer?” Starting with two promising experiments difficult to attribute causal influence in medical outcomes (Fawzy et al., 1993; Spiegel et al., 1989) interpreted to any specific psychological intervention when so many widely as encouraging the possibility that psychological variables are implicated. Until consistent progress will intervention might promote cancer survival, today be made in this regard (e.g., Gorin, 2010), some of the the academic literature presents a different picture. claims linking psychological states and health outcomes A collection of recent studies failed to replicate earlier might be critically labeled as “Unproven Medicine” positive results (Cunningham et al., 1998; Edelman et al., (Coyne & Tennen, 2010; Coyne, Tennen, & Ranchor, 1999; Goodwin et al., 2001, Kissane et al., 2007), while 2010). meta-analyses and associated commentaries (e.g., Chida The above-mentioned situation encourages et al., 2008; Coyne, Stefanek, & Palmer, 2007; Coyne et attention to the methods used to investigate such an al., 2009; Kraemer, Kuchler, & Spiegel, 2009) signaled intricate subject (Cunningham, 2005; Stephen et the need for more rigorous methodological standards al., 2007), especially the reasons why psychological in this research area. Though some published papers therapies have not robustly addressed the potential outline promising avenues of research (e.g., Andersen et “psychogenicity” of some cancer types; this notion al., 2008; Cunningham et al., 2000; Cunningham & refers to the ability of a psychological intervention Watson, 2004; Kissane, 2009; Lengacher et al., 2008; to elicit significant and permanent changes on key Lutgendorf, Sood & Antoni, 2010), from a physiological psychosocial factors that are demonstrably linked with standpoint, Greer (1999) has drawn attention to the biological variables known to determine favorable claim that it is highly improbable for psychological biomedical outcomes (Temoshok, 2002). Assuming processes to play a significant role in the course of that one’s psycho-emotional life could often play a most cancers. Still, psychological interventions might consistent role in the regulation of many hormonal and contribute theoretically to homeostatic control in those neurological events in the body, a major difficulty—one cancers where hormonal and immunological factors may that particularly concerns psychoneuroimmunology be important (e.g., in breast, gynecological, and prostate, researchers—is the identification of the key ingredients RethinkingInternational Prayer Journal and of HealthTranspersonal Research Studies, 30(1-2), International2011, pp. 23-47 Journal of Transpersonal Studies 23 and conditions that activate those pathways related to Abraham Maslow once stated, “If we want to know how health-disease outcomes (Kiecolt-Glaser, 2009; Miller, fast a human being can run, then it is of no use to average Chen, & Cole, 2009; Walker et al., 2005). For example, out the speed of the population; it is far better to collect in order to exceed the medical prognosis regarding one’s Olympic gold medal winners and see how well they can cancer survival expectations, that patient would need to do” (as cited in Hoffman, 1988, p. 185). Healing cancer is change by psycho-emotional means his or her current a matter of the extraordinary. If psychological and social homeostatic equilibrium, equilibrium already corrupted life is viewed as a sort of “game” within a Bourdieusian by the advanced cancer which has by that time adapted framework of athletic competitions (Calhoun, 2003, p. successfully to the internal milieu of its host (Cunning- 275), then taking on the work of attempting to positively ham, 1999). This complex but presumably achievable task influence cancer survival expectations with the assistance might require some fundamentally different approaches of certain psychological interventions implies an than those employed by conventional psychotherapeutic Olympic-level effort: putting oneself on the line, being interventions. It should be taken into account that self- passionately engaged in a struggle with one’s own limits, preservation of humans as a species could be a major and being aware of the larger picture while remaining reason for which in daily life an individual cannot deeply committed to valuable personal goals. usually influence, significantly and with ease, his or her If this sports parallel remains credible, some own physiology to the point of radically altering the questions will need to be debated in the academic forum. existing homeostatic equilibrium (as in that stance, even Among them: a short lasting inability from one’s part to consciously Would it be possible to consider as a suitable control this process would induce instantly severe health trial-participant any cancer patient that has been problems upon one’s body). immersed most of his or her life in a variety of Changing Magnification and Perspective mundane activities, rarely related to systematic n order to find relevant answers to key questions culture-bound rituals of healing? Ipertaining to cancer survival, it is necessary to take into consideration the degree of detail and complexity Would it be ethical to provide specific and intensive required by this particular topic of inquiry within the training only to some cancer patients? general context of cancer research (Mukherjee, 2010), an Would it be in any way acceptable to put implicit operation corresponding metaphorically to a significant pressure on the trial participants, as improvements change of a microscope’s magnification factor. Changing in their long-term health status would depend magnification and perspective could reveal a different presumably on their personal implication in the level of detail that implicitly will ask for customized training process (though such a supposition has not approaches and adequate research tools. Hypothetically, been previously clinically validated)? there might be some discrete and insufficiently understood factors that, within specific individual and After taking these aspects into consideration, a social constraints, could interact synergically in order to potential clinically significant result that might emerge activate or accelerate some body healing processes. following a specific training program should deserve To take a relevant analogy (Reich, 2009), the to be considered as comparable with the performance situation of the person seeking healing from cancer of breaking a world sports record, with the time and might be comparable to that of that of a professional effort dedicated to achieving such a goal playing a basketball player, whose success depends on both “nature large contribution in the outcome. Such an approach and nurture”: as much on natural endowment (e.g., to cancer survival research shares not only similarities height, efficient use of oxygen) as on abilities developed with sports (e.g., it might be hard but not impossible to during years of training (e.g., speed of running, precision duplicate high levels of performance) but also significant of throws). Recovering from such a serious illness is a feat differences. For example, there is the challenge of that requires maximizing all resources, and that tests the assessing participants’ ability to follow successfully limits of human capabilities, just as world-class sports an intensive training program within a very limited events do. Research in this area thus needs to do more than timeframe (added to the general challenging context simply look for norms within health-care-as-usual. As of one’s health status) and the problematic matter (not

24 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Andreescu detailed in this article) of designing and validating what Vellenga, 2008). Also, curing (clinical recovery from is “adequate” content for such training activity. disease) is not considered a synonym for healing (how Hypothesis and Terminology regained health is subjectively experienced by the former n light of the perspective described above, I suggest patient). As objective measures alone often cannot record Ithat it is improbable for current trials designed to adequately the emotional and social costs of a disease, the examine the effects of psychotherapeutic interventions ruptured lives unable to cope with the pain and with the on cancer survival to fully succeed or to go beyond memories of a possibly forever lost health, healing should statistically significant results. I recognize that any type be seen as a fundamental aspect of human well-being of intensive training might be a very challenging or even and a necessary part of an authentic state of health. So, an almost impossible task for those patients with a low “healing” is here preferred to “curing” because no curing level of stamina due to the progression of cancer. Still, is complete without healing, and healing might precede assuming that some patients would be willing to join curing. such a training program, I propose three key elements It is also important to note that three terms that should be relevant to the health progress of any repeatedly mentioned in this paper (religion, spirituality participant to psycho-oncology trials or possible even and transpersonal) have different meanings despite their to other trials exploring mind-body connection: one’s significant overlaps. Though it would be acceptable to worldview, intentional normative dissociation (IND), conceptualize religion at the level of an organized socio- and psychosomatic plasticity-proneness (PPP). cultural system and spirituality at the level of individuals’ I hypothesize that these factors might signifi- personal quests for meaning and fulfillment (Koenig, cantly impact the final results of such a trial especially McCullough, & Larson, 2001), the examination of if they operate together in using Christian prayer as a these terms within a transpersonal framework might be vehicle of the intervention. Although such an approach relevant (Hartelius, Caplan, & Rardin, 2007; Pappas & appears to be accessible only to patients acknowledging Friedman, 2007) if salient questions pertaining to the their Christian beliefs, future research could probably transpersonal experiences in which the sense of identity find constructive ways to incorporate its core content extends beyond the individual to encompass wider into those trials designed to explore the potential health aspects of life and cosmos are to be addressed (e.g., how benefits associated with a variety of spiritual paths (e.g., can we bridge the divide between the consensual world of Carlson & Speca, 2011; Didonna, 2009). religiosity and the uniquely private world of spirituality The concepts detailed to some extent in the that relates to what might be viewed as the sacred?). present paper will certainly have diminished relevance While the analysis of these broader concepts and their if they are not related to a larger theoretical framework substantive and functional distinctions is beyond the (e.g., Atkinson, 2010; Bottero, 2010; Burkitt, 2002; purpose of this article, the extensive academic literature Dillon, 2001; Gerrans, 2005; Harvey, 2010; Hilgers, provided at references may offer readers various definitions 2009; Ignatow, 2009; Kontos & Naglie, 2009; Lizardo, and details suitable for their particular interests (e.g., 2004; Lo & Stacey, 2008; Pickel, 2005; Vaisey, 2009) psychology, sociology, anthropology, theology). that explores from different angles notions such as Worldview habitus (i.e., the social world incarnated in individuals patient’s worldview could be loosely defined as a through a set of internalized structures or assumptions, Aset of beliefs and assumptions that describe reality often taken for granted and engaged upon without any and define the boundaries of what possibly can be done great deal of prior reflection) and tacit knowledge (i.e., towards healing by the patient himself or herself with knowledge not consciously articulated by a person but and without additional support (medical, spiritual, etc.). which significantly regulates one’s activities). Underused until now as a construct within the mainstream In the context of this article, while acknowledging psychological literature (Johnson, Hill, & Cohen 2011; that the definition of terms such as “illness” and Koltko-Rivera, 2004), worldview encourages attention “disease” is rather fluid (e.g., Craffert, 2011), illness towards the way patients perceive disease and healing, refers to the way in which people experience a disease according to their cultural and social frameworks or any biophysiological state that is an object of inquiry (Good, 1994; Hughner & Kleine, 2004). Taking into for the current medical science (e.g., Kleinman, 1988; consideration the recent academic literature exploring Rethinking Prayer and Health Research International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 25 from different perspectives the placebo phenomena (e.g., between personality traits and culture in shaping Ader et al., 2010; Benedetti, 2008; Benedetti, Carlino, & human lives (e.g., Hofstede & McCrae, 2004), and of Pollo, 2011; Colloca & Miller, 2011a, 2011b; Enck et al., the processes through which the dominant cultural mo 2011; Finniss et al., 2010; Flaten et al., 2011; Harrington, dels have instilled to varying degrees in humans many 2008, 2011; Hyland, 2011; Jonas, 2011; Kaptchuk, implicit assumptions regarding healing and illness (e.g., 2011; Kihlstrom, 2008; Kirsch, 2008; Kohls et al., 2011; Achterberg, Dombrowe, & Krippner, 2007; Garro, Linde, Fässler, & Meissner, 2011; Meissner, 2011; Miller 2003; Koss-Chioino, 2006). As illness experience is & Brody, 2011; Moerman, 2002; Mora, Nestoriuc, & mapped onto a symbolic space created by the models Rief, 2011; Myers, 2010; Price et al., 2008; Raz, 2008; and metaphors of the medical system (Kirmayer, Thompson et al., 2009; Vase et al., 2011; Vits et al., 2011; 2004), the patient’s perceptions and representations Walach, 2011), it appears that the culture-constructed give rise to multiple levels of interpretations that may lenses through which one learns how to interpret the reinforce each other, giving experience profound depth, world often influences to various extents many medical or may contradict each other, leading the patient into conditions otherwise rooted in objective reality. ambivalence (e.g., Watson-Gegeo & Gegeo, 2011), Though patients are free-willed and autonomous illuminating often the workings of the everyday persons, their attribute as relational beings (Gergen, symbolic violence (Bourdieu, 2002) embedded in the 2000) could shape their personal convictions about modes of action and structures of cognition belonging healing to such a point that they essentially could be to dominant social agents. viewed as mere outgrowths of social processes. However, Sick people often became patients with terrible culture seems to be embodied by human beings in ways suddenness, so personal narratives of illness experience that are distinct from those encountered in everyday are ways of linking body, self, and society (e.g., Bury, experience as objectified cultural forms (Lizardo, in 2001; Feder-Alford, 2006; van de Berg & Trujillo, 2009). press) and narrative remains the conventional form of It might be that these narratives represent one’s efforts to organizing experience and defining identity through the regain the ability to respond effectively to given challenges interpretation and reinterpretation of life events (e.g., gaining increased self-efficacy (Bandura, 1994) by Bruner, 1987, 2008; Hyvärinen et al., 2010; McAdams, understanding and modifying some of the perceived toxic Josselson & Lieblich, 2006; McLean, Pasupathi, & Pals, beliefs. Still, due to the convergent pressure of external 2007; Ochs, 2009; Sirota, 2010; Swinton et al., 2011; and internal forces that can make the patient reluctant Whitsitt, 2010). It could be said that as humans, we to engage confidently with the outside world, questions live in and we are shaped by the stories of our culture should be raised on how these narratives are impacted or, as one researcher noted, “we lead our lives as stories, by the cultural customs in oncology wards (e.g., Broom and our identity is constructed both by stories we tell & Adams, 2010; Carr, 2010; Mulcahy, Parry, & Glover, ourselves and others about ourselves and the master 2010; Speraw, 2009), by the religious function of modern narratives that consciously or unconsciously serve as medicine (Wardlaw, 2011), by the inadequate theorizing models to us” (Rimmon-Kenan, 2002, p. 11). The stories of health and illness (e.g., Conrad & Barker, 2010; that are told in being lived and lived in being told (Carr, Murray, 2004; Stam, 2000), by the moral dimensions of 1986) contribute to the way a person comes to define the stigma (e.g., Jackson, 2005; Yang et al., 2007), or by the limits and possibilities of the world “as it is,” including extent to which health professionals consciously provide one’s potential ability to influence psychologically the “narrative care” to their patients (e.g., Coulehan, 2003; evolution of a disease such as cancer. Frank, 2007; Henoch & Danielson, 2009; Kirmayer, Stories do not appear in a vacuum but within 2003; Löyttyniemi, 2005; Mattingly & Lawlor, 2001). the framework of a culture that is dynamic and never As both literature and psychology involve not only a still, and that represents “what we make of the world, conception of language and what it does (Jones, 2007; materially, intellectually and spiritually” (Gorringe, Wear & Jones, 2010), but also adopt as one of their 2004, p. 3). An interdisciplinary examination is thus goals the better understanding of individual and social required for an authentic understanding of the extent to behavior (e.g., Contarello, 2008; Moghaddam, 2004, which meaning is shaped by the nature of our individual 2006), realist fictional works about illness (e.g., Moore, human bodies (e.g., Johnson, 2007), of the interaction 1998) are often able to provide imaginative access to 26 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Andreescu lived events, deserving to be explored in depth within a state of consciousness that is not induced organically, suitable academic context (e.g., Ratekin, 2007; Schaff & does not occur as part of a psychiatric disorder, and Shapiro, 2006). involves the alteration or separation of what are usually Maintaining psychological well-being during experienced as integrated mental processes lasting a serious illness is both challenging and difficult for the limited amount of time. Most dissociative experiences patient (Folkman & Greer, 2000; Lepore & Revenson, are not pathological and allow the individual to 2007), so the illness narratives of cancer survivors should disengage from the tension of their present situation, the stimulate further exploration of their worldview and of key ingredient being absorption (Tellengen & Atkinson, the related inner resources one could use to create order 1974); this construct is seen as involving a state of “total and coherence in the face of a threatening disease (e.g., attention,” of complete engagement in experiencing and Broom, 2009; Cantrell & Conte, 2009; Coulehan, 2011; modeling the attentional object. Considered as positive Drew, 2007; Frank, 1995, 2003; Killoran, Schlitz, & dissociative experiences (Pica & Beere, 1995), they Lewis, 2002; Little et al., 1998; Radley, 2002; Richins, occur during a non-traumatic event when perception 1994; Röing et al., 2009; Sarenmalm et al., 2009; of an individual narrows during an intense situation of Schilder et al., 2004; Willig, 2009). It would not be personal relevance and blocks out the background. unreasonable to hypothesize that, most often unspoken While the ubiquity of non-pathological and taken for granted, one’s worldview might be shaped dissociation in the life of human beings seems to be by key factors such as subjectivity (e.g., Biehl, Good, & an accepted fact (e.g., Alvarado, 2005; Budden, 2003; Kleinman, 2007; Crapanzano, 2006; Csordas, 2008; Butler, 2004; de Ruiter, Elzinga, & Phaf, 2006; Hunt et Jahn & Dunne, 1997; Layton, 2008; Ortner, 2005; al., 2002; Krippner, 1999; Seligman & Kirmayer, 2008; Willig, 2000; Zahavi, 2005) and self identity (e.g., Hall, Somer, 2006), the mechanisms and functions hidden 2007; Manzi, Vignoles, & Regalia, 2010; Maslow, 1976; behind the surface of this phenomenon are not clearly Quinn, 2006; Schwartz, Luyckx, & Vignoles, 2011; van identified. Keeping in mind normative dissociation’s Huyssteen & Wiebe, 2011; Vignoles, Chryssochoou, & complexity and its underestimated importance for one’s Breakwell, 2000; Zahavi, 2009), themselves embedded daily life—even when it is just about the pursuit of in a silent web of social constraints and inter-subjective recreational enjoyment (Butler, 2006), it seems possible creation (e.g., Baerveldt & Voestermans, 2005; Cohen to suggest (without clinical evidence) the existence of a & Barrett, 2008; Csordas, 2004; Gillespie & Cornish, normative dissociative experience that is intentionally, if 2009; Hollan, 2000; Jenkins, 2001; Kabele, 2010; often unconsciously, cultivated: IND. Laughlin & Throop, 2009; Martin, 2000; Moore & If ordinary, normative dissociative events that Kosut, 2010; Nolan et al., 2008; Pachucki, Pendergrass, most people experience could be defined as brief, usually & Lamont, 2007; Slocum-Bradley, 2009; Strauss, 2006; uncontrolled, and superficial (in terms of the depth and Vaisey & Lizardo, 2010). stability of attention focus), the participants in search Intentional Normative Dissociation of deeper personal transformation deliberately train second possible factor in healing is what I will refer themselves to partake in IND activities that eventually Ato as intentional normative disociation (IND). lead to significant identity transformations, reflected also As dissociation theorists have noted (Bernstein & into one’s experience of the external world. Although I Putnam, 1986; Ludwig, 1983; Putnam, 1989), disso- am aware of the ‘‘Singlestate Fallacy,” briefly defined as ciative experiences fall along a continuum ranging from “the erroneous assumption that all worthwhile abilities everyday events involving absorption—especially in daily reside in our normal, awake mindbody state’’ (Roberts, recreational activities (e.g., listening to music, reading 2006, p. 105), IND may be relatively unrelated to the novels, watching movies, daydreaming)—to the extreme known spectrum of altered states of consciousness. The and relatively rare conditions belonging to pathology IND process shares similarities with the institutionalized (e.g., disorders of memory and identity). Current forms of trance (Bartocci & Dein, 2005; Castillo, 1995; academic literature (e.g., Butler, 2004) considers that Krippner, 2009; Vaitl et al., 2005) only to the extent that non-pathological dissociation known also as normative it requires a conscious practice of controlling attention in dissociation (both terms indicating the presence of order to disengage oneself to the desired degree from the normal dissociative processes) implies a change in the surrounding environment. Rethinking Prayer and Health Research International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 27 As here defined, IND is usually accompanied by thus playing a significant role in the incorporation of an increase in the cognitive and emotional functioning, the social body into the physical body (Kleinman & inducing positive consequences on one’s consensus Kleinman, 1994). consciousness—a general label for the state in which Prayer Brings Together one spends most of the time, an active, semi-arbitrary Worldview, IND, and PPP in Promoting Health construction shaped fundamentally by the culture he act of prayer is usually understood as one’s way of one is raised in (Tart, 2001). One’s habitual state of Tcommunicating with a divine power and, while the consciousness might be consistently influenced by the activities involved in it vary widely, it can be considered as collective assumptions and cultural values of the society perhaps one of the most remarkable culturally-mediated ones lives in, thus allowing the dissociation to become forms of normative dissociation and a ubiquitous a central element in some types of healing processes religious phenomenon. Due to its intentional dimension performed mostly in certain areas of the world (Cardeña and its large acceptance in various cultures as part of & Cousins, 2010; Cardeña & Krippner, 2010; Chapin, social narratives across an extended period of time 2008; Schumaker, 1995; Seligman, 2010; Winkelman, (Crook, 2007; Geertz, 2008; Janssen & Bänziger, 2003; 2004). Such a concept, if empirically verifiable, might be Levine, 2008; McCullough & Larson, 1999; Neyrey, of help in clarifying the relation between dissociation, 2001), the sustained practice of prayer might be able to cultural variability, and religion (e.g., Dorahy & Lewis, piece into a single whole the three previously discussed 2001). elements pertaining to healing: worldview, IND, Psychosomatic Plasticity Proneness and PPP. Often used by Christians as a way to build third dimension related to healing process, a personal relationship with God (Luhrmann, 2005), A psychosomatic plasticity proneness (PPP), investigating prayer’s place within the process through is proposed here as a way to conceptualize the which supernatural order is known and experienced by psychosomatic potential possessed to various degrees believers could offer a glimpse into the trained absorption by each human being and used, often in an implicit skills shared by those lay people manifesting significant manner, to turn personal psycho-emotional content spiritual and transpersonal experiences (Luhrmann, into a bodily reality. Psychosomatic is, of course, a term 2004). A recent hypothesis (Luhrmann, Nusbaum, widely accepted as referring to the inseparability and & Thisted, 2010, p. 67) proposed that “learning to interdependence of psychosocial and biologic aspects experience God depends on interpretation (the socially of human beings (Engel, 1977; Lipowski, 1984). If this taught and culturally variable cognitive categories that proposed construct is in some measure valid, it would identify the presence of God), practice (the subjective then follow that without the discrete mediation of PPP, and psychological consequences of the specific training psychosocial factors cannot contribute significantly specified by the religion: e.g., prayer), and proclivity (a to the progression of a disease or to the regaining of talent for and willingness to respond to practice).” health. In Christian scripture, the intentional practice If PPP’s existence as a catalyst can be validated of dissociation as a learned behavior is stated explicitly: empirically, future research may well show that it has “Therefore I tell you, whatever you ask for in prayer, a strong connection with transliminality, a perceptual- believe that you have received it, and it will be yours” personality construct referring to a hypersensitivity to (Mark 11:24). Framing this verse in relation to the psychological material originating in the unconscious, previously presented psychological elements might and/or the external environment (Thalbourne & Maltby, mean, for example, that for a meaningful prayer, one 2008). As with dissociation, PPP falls presumably along should dissociate oneself from the present condition a continuum, its impact ranging from discrete subjective of illness by seeing it as fragile and volatile against the and physiological changes (visible as the mild forms of general cultural conditioning and often against objective placebo and nocebo effects) to extreme physiological medical proofs. Simultaneously, one should live in the manifestations (e.g., Jawer, 2006; Seligman, 2005). I grateful habitual assumption of the wish fulfilled until suggest that PPP can perhaps be stimulated or inhibited relief is felt and a deep conviction in an active healing to a large extent by the complex and multi-layered process is installed, as one cannot longer yearn for interaction between one’s identity and social forces, something that has been already granted. It thus appears

28 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Andreescu that prayer, in order to be effective to a greater degree, involve a great deal of activity by the sailor; the task of requires a devoted believer. In this context, religious habitual dissociation from one’s illness while gratefully devotion might be understood as representing a believer assuming the sensory vividness of the desired health who is psychologically endowed with a high ability to state is a challenging task that may require an extensive become absorbed, to reach a flow state of energized and adjustment of one’s identity and lifestyle. According to habitual focus, being able to direct with ease its stream this perspective, God is not factored out of the healing, of attention towards internal, mental stimuli (making nor is God manipulated to do one’s will (e.g., Pretorius, more lively and natural the representation of fulfillment) 2007; Pretorius, 2009). While it is not the purpose of while simultaneously disconnecting themselves from this paper to engage in theological debates regarding those palpable evidences that at least temporarily deny the relationship between human beings and a Christian the possibility of one’s predictable healing. God, or any kind of divine power, it must be stated As one acts everyday according to a complex that a prayer-based approach is necessarily based on the system of references and justifications, each human presumption that God, however understood, will always being could be considered, psychologically speaking, a grant some form of healing to any believer who expresses believer in his or her own worldview. Within a cultural in his or her identity and spiritual practice a stable perspective (Ward, 2005), what might separate a devoted constellation of elements (some of which are tentatively believer from an individual without a strong religious explored in this article). and spiritual credo is whether his or her worldview is Various hypothesis involving God are for fundamentally shaped and reinforced both by a religious obvious reasons often impossible to test empirically; tradition and personal spiritual experience. In the case however, for experimental purposes it could be suggested of Christianity, this might require a familiarity with that a devoted believer is better at praying than a non- relevant Christian scripture and the conviction that God devoted believer, to the extent that one deliberately is permanently present in his or her life, thus providing uses the available personal freedom in order to choose a sense of existential security. If a devoted Christian not just to believe in a Divine Power but to transform believer accepts as truth the above mentioned scriptural that decision into a starting point for a profound and verse and decides to act according to it, then it might long-term engagement in the delicate construction of entail embodying the desired wellness by assumption, a healing-prone spiritual identity. Following this path, suspending disbelief to such extent that he or she is able one might be more likely to benefit from whatever as- to “imagine” his or her own health or, according to this yet scientifically unknown healing mechanism that word’s Latin roots, to “conceive” it within, to become may have given rise to traditional beliefs in divine pregnant with it. At a cognitive and emotional level, healing (e.g., Breslin & Lewis, 2008; Levin, 1996). this embodiment might happen through a sequence Anchored in the general assumption—with significant of epiphanies (McDonald, 2008) culminating with a moral ramifications—that health is a desirable state of radical ontological shift towards a spiritual identity. As being for any individual, prayer for health might have such identity is often defined by how the individual ego a higher level of congruence with one’s worldview and relates to and incorporates spirituality into its personal with the general support that a family or a community sense of self (MacDonald, 2009, p. 90), in the devoted could provide to a patient, in contrast with prayers for believer’s case a spiritual identity should fundamentally attaining other goals that might be more or less ethically rewrite one’s illness narrative and offer a release from and socially acceptable. psycho-emotional, internalized constraints that are non- All Prayers Are Not Equal in Faith conducive to healing. eyond understanding prayer as a way of fostering The psychological act of conceiving the desired Bconnectivity with the self, with others, and with the state of health is neither superficial nor easily duplicated. Divine (e.g., Ladd et al., 2007), at its very core it remains Still, it is an act as essential to a prayer for health as a petition (Capps, 1982) structured according to one’s physical conception is for giving birth to a child. Though worldview (Cadge & Daglian, 2008; Levine et al., 2009; locus of control is external in a God-centered worldview, Ridge et al., 2008). From a psychological perspective, following the metaphor of the sailboat aligning itself for the devoted believer, prayer might be a meaningful with the wind (Ellens, 2010), such alignment may path that will help reincorporate health into one’s life. Rethinking Prayer and Health Research International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 29 Still, to various degrees, prior to actually performing the essential performative dimension to any prayer act, but embodiment of health, the inner transformations related especially to one’s prayers for health. Praying implies a to the healing outcome could be cognitively processed by relationship of trust and dependency with a Divine power any believer as an alien, inaccessible experience of radical (Levin, 2009), a relationship manifested through the otherness. absence of anxiety, so that faith seen as worldview should The Christian Bible can be seen as the most be a deeply inhabited aspect of one’s life. If this very important religious book for a Christian believer, a difficult step that requires a trained ability to habitually book whose words are intended presumably to form dissociate in a normative way from the sensorial aspects and shape that person’s life. A Christian re-appropriates of a disease is successfully accomplished, then from the the biblical text by engaging its testimony and probably psychological point of view it will make redundant any by including those passages that they find relevant and expectation of gratification; in the assumed identity resonant with prior life experience into a very personal of the devoted believer, emotionally saturated with and profound psychological drama, eventually changing devotion and gratitude, health has already been restored their identity to various extents in the pursuit of healing at a subjective level and with persistent confidence will and fulfillment. Its statements and transformation stories grow objectively visible according to the strength of one’s repeatedly underline the idea that prayer is meaningless faith and the discretion of divine grace. and ineffective without faith (e.g., Mark 11:24, “Therefore It might not be an exaggeration to claim that any I tell you, all things whatever you pray and ask for, paradigmatic worldview of the 21st century is, globally believe that you have received them, and you shall have speaking, a scientific-prone one, the hegemonic influence them”; Mark 9:23, “Jesus said to him, ‘If you can believe, of the media shaping even the ambiguities of one’s all things are possible to him who believes.’”). Besides narrative. Implicitly, for research purposes, faith cannot the various interpretations that one might give to these be conceived as being a standardized and identically verses, faith could psychologically be assimilated with a shared component of most believers’ life. Beneath the vividly-experienced, healing-conducive worldview. seemingly naturalness of any type of worldview, be it To a certain extent, faith is “hermeneutical” religious, spiritual, or secular, lies an intricate web of (Brümmer, 2010; Schutte, 2011) and could be viewed as a constructed meanings, individual-specific elements specific adjusted filter, performing a radical interpretation blending fluidly with those that are socially-enforced of one’s human experience. This means much more than and perpetuated (Csordas & Lewton, 1998). While the just accepting at the cognitive level some type of religious rationalization of suffering has radically increased in convictions while at a closer look significant emotional the last decades (Davies, 2011; Youll & Meekosha, in ambivalences might await to surface. Religious faith press), the threat of a disease such as cancer could still appears to be for Fowler (1981) an “orientation of the restructure one’s worldview in a short period of time and total person” involving an “alignment of the will” and to a significant extent, for better or for worse. For this “a resting of the heart” compatible with “a vision of reason, some consideration should be given to the idea transcendent value and power, one ’s ultimate concern,” (Cavanagh, 1994) that the cancer counterpart to the faith serving “to give purpose and goal to one ’s hopes dictum “there are no atheists in foxholes” might be, “there and strivings, thoughts and actions” (p. 14). Though are no atheists in oncology and bone-marrow transplant such process of interpretation takes place according to a units.” In this context, if suitable help is given to patients heritage of religious metaphors and often activates even who are open to new therapeutic approaches, the radical some desirable role-taking conduct (e.g., Capps, 1982; inner transformations required for health embodiment Kuchan, 2011), one’s personal way of responding to might be achieved in cases where worldview, IND, and “transcendent value and power as perceived and grasped PPP are blended adequately. through the forms of the cumulative tradition” (Fowler, The Production of Healing Requires Capital 1981, p. 9) could go deeper into the cultural reality of n the last decade, a large number of researchers (e.g., some specific state of consciousness resonant with biblical IBerry, 2005; Chiu et al., 2004; de Jager Meezenbroek phenomena (Pilch, 2004; Craffert, 2010; Bowie, 2011). et al., in press; King & Koenig, 2009; Zwingmann, The power of one’s prayer-ritual language needs Klein, & Büssing, 2011; see also the field analysis on to reverberate and evoke one’s faith, thus granting an www.metanexus.net/tarp) advocated that a sustained

30 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Andreescu interdisciplinary effort must be made in order to this article sometimes share similarities with mystical identify and clarify the ambiguity of definitions and practices (e.g., Hunt, 2006; Daniels, 2003; Ellens, 2009), the inadequacy of measurements that make problematic making challenging the process of testing them within many discussions on spirituality. For example, according a secular setting. In this fluid context, what could be to a general sociological perspective on spirituality (e.g., seen as a “production of healing” through the mediation Flanagan, 2008; Knoblauch, 2008), this concept is of prayer may be fundamentally dependent upon and related to spiritual capital, a type of capital embodied in enhanced by one’s ability to transcend the dense rational the knowledge, abilities, and dispositions an individual and emotional ceiling derived from and enforced by the has amassed in the field of spirituality (Verter, 2003; normative cultural patterns of secular societies. Guest, 2007). Within this framework, it could be said Though the concept of transpersonal capital is that in the childhood period, the complex acquisition not novel within the academic literature and it relates of spiritual capital is probably influenced by the child- to the connection between the corporeal and the social rearing process through which culture gets internalized (Kleinman & Kleinman, 1994), I choose to loosely (Bloom, 2004; Quinn, 2005, 2010; Seymour, 2010; redefine it in a different manner and within a specific Sirota, 2010) and implicitly by the availability of psychological framework, hoping to make more clear emotional capital, a resource essential for the adequate the speculative network of arguments presented in psycho-social development of any individual (e.g., Reay, the paper. Assuming that one’s spiritual worldview 2004; Turner, 2010). is constructed with the help of brief but profound Later in life, depending on the development transpersonal experiences which provide penetrating, taking place in adolescence and emerging adulthood transforming insights into one’s identity, I suggest that (Barry et al., 2010; Dean, 2010; King & Roeser, 2009), acquiring transpersonal capital requires at a primary the initial stock of tacit knowledge one possesses could level a conscious individual effort to inhabit and suffer a complex process of cultural disempowerment maintain a credible spiritual worldview, found to be (Büssing et al., 2010), reducing one’s capacities to cope largely congruent with the person’s own mediated and meaningfully with illness, suffering, and death (Oman unmediated life experiences. & Thoresen, 2003). Such depreciation, related probably Building such congruence while living mostly in to individual secularization (Spickard, 2007; Wood, a secular environment could be compared to some extent 2009) and to the hidden expressions of the secular with the acquisition of a muscular physique (which body (Asad, 2011; Hirschkind, 2011), is a consequence cannot be done at second-hand, but entailing personal of various complex processes, a highly significant one costs and life choices). The formative transpersonal being the extent to which postmodern subjectivity is experiences resulting from daily spiritual practice shaped by media consumption (e.g., Marsh, 2006, 2007; are difficult to generate at will and although in many Meyer, 2009; Milford, 2010; Scharen, 2006; Turner, cases such life events are rare and eventually turn into 2008) more visibly through the particular relationship background memories, it might not be unusual for developed in recent times between the viewer and the the people who have them to consider themselves as TV (e.g., Winston, 2009; Ott, 2007a, 2007b). Though belonging to a so-called cognitive minority, defined religious involvement appears to be the product of both as “a group of people whose view of the world differs genetic and social-environmental influences (Bradshaw significantly from the one generally taken for granted in & Ellison, 2008), it may be that transliminality is more their society … a group formed around a body of deviant related to genetic factors while, especially in secular knowledge.” (Berger, 1963, p. 18). The upgrading of societies, a child inherits religious and spiritual capital brief transpersonal insights and peak experiences into mainly from family. enduring understandings and stable plateau experiences Researching transpersonal and spiritual aspects (Walsh, 2011, p. 121) is probably mediated to a large of human existence involves not just abstract theoretical extent by IND and it represents a fundamental part of endeavors but practical matters also, some of them related the embodiment process through which transpersonal to health issues (e.g., Ellens, 2009; Elmer, MacDonald, capital is gained. & Friedman, 2003; Louchakova & Warner, 2003). The Such a challenging endeavor of self-fashioning speculative perspectives on prayer for health proposed in leading to a robust spiritual worldview offers a new Rethinking Prayer and Health Research International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 31 relevance to one’s level of committed implication in science. A coordinated academic effort to identify and its own governance through the selection and usage of conceptualize the key psychosocial factors involved in appropriate technologies of the self, technologies seen the human healing process might provide in a decade a as forms of knowledge and strategies that make possible refined perspective and even some encouraging empirical the construction of one’s identity (e.g., Nielsen, in press), results (Ellens, 2009). The designs used in the various allowing “individuals to effect by their own means or empirical experiments of the last decades on prayer and with the help of others a certain number of operations on health (most recently reviewed in ap Siôn & Francis, their own bodies and souls, thoughts, conduct, and way 2009) might need substantial refinement, at least with of being, so as to transform themselves in order to attain regard to the “prayer” and “faith” concepts. Keeping a certain state of happiness, purity, wisdom, perfection, in mind that prayer practices might differ significantly or immortality” (Foucault, 1988, p. 18). within Christian communities, researchers involved As contemporary miraculous healings seem to in the academic study of such complex subject should imply enormously accelerated natural healing processes create new interdisciplinary methodologies, sensitive to (Nichols, 2002), a spiritual worldview might stimulate the intricate facets that prayer entails before claiming a not just existential and psychological wellbeing (Ellison, definitive answer regarding its impact on health and well- 1983; Ryff, 1995) but also those practices dependent of being. As different forms of religious praying are defined specific states of consciousness (Tart, 2001) and probably also by diverse cognitive features (e.g., Schjoedt et al., involved in gaining access to exceptional inner resources. 2009), a more accurate conceptual understanding of what Deepening the supposition, these resources might prayer is and how it might work within a biopsychosocial become physiologically active following transformations framework should be developed. Renewed sociological in the mechanisms of human plasticity, recent research interest in prayer research (Mason, 2011; Giordan, 2011) on epigenesis suggesting that sustained experiences suggests that prayer might be re-theorized as the most could be able to affect both brain structure and function fundamental religious act and conceived as a profoundly (e.g., Belsky & Pluess, 2009; Cole, 2009; Kitayama & social activity (even the so-called “private prayer”). Uskul, 2011; van IJzendoorn, Bakermans-Kranenburg, Though the research on the formation of & Ebstein, 2011; Masterpasqua, 2009; Park & Huang, identity and subjectivity in relation to health (e.g., 2010; Roberts & Jackson, 2008; Wessel, 2009). Whyte, 2009) should be integrated into the larger Conclusion framework of individual and collective worldviews, his speculative article should be viewed more like the researchers should not chase for an ever-increasing Ta minoritarian manifesto calling for increased complexity that will inevitably lead to the entrapment communication within and across diverse research within specification, in a futile effort to record the fields, a gentle provocation for a conceptual boldness fluid territory of human experience. The parallel with derived from cross fertilization of ideas and sources of sports intensive training suggested in the cancer survival empirical evidence with the aim of nurturing theoretical section of this article should be considered as useful integration and tangible applications. As such, exploring also in the empirical research on prayer and health. As the psychological dimension of prayer in health research humans, we enculture ourselves through the formative is not an attempt to find support for some kind of aspect of training and this deliberate and performative religious ideological agenda. Though prayer should practice will not only recontextualize implicitly prior not be crippled by the daunting task of exploring the experiences but it might also offer in time an accurate ineffable in a positivistic manner (Ellens, 2009), it also feedback on how to design suitable trial experiments. At should not be conceptualized a priori as just a one-way a time when secular societies are diving into a new age of transmission (a form of monologue with oneself) or as acute anxiety and “ecstasy deprivation” (Bourguignon, a communication without a verifiable closure (missing 2003), inner authenticity appears to become an essential some sort of evidence that God heard one’s prayer). part of a postsecular spirituality (van Aarde, 2009). For In order to gain a more elaborate understanding a potentially successful health embodiment, faith as of the prayer phenomenon, exploring in depth its role worldview—that sharp and habitual awareness of the in one’s healing process requires constructive scholarly “nearness” which empowers—would definitely require a conversations particularly within the boundaries of social lot of intense and persistent preparation, probably close

32 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Andreescu to the extent of those rites of passage explored usually in have only marginally explored the complex aspects ethnographies on spirituality (e.g., Turner, 2006). involved in those intensely intricate phenomena It is beyond the purpose of this paper to correlate associated with the field, so it will take some time to in detail its content to related areas of inquiry such as: crawl before walking. From such perspective, more substantial attention should be given to understanding religion, spirituality and health (e.g., Hefti, 2011; Hill those biopsychosocial factors interconnected within et al., 2000; Koenig, 2010; Koenig, McCullough, & the process and outcome of prayer before attempting Larson, 2001; Levin, 2010; Levin, Chatters, & Taylor, to decipher the big questions lying dormant within 2011; McCullough & Willoughby, 2009; Miller & transpersonal and spiritual layers of human experience. Thoresen, 2003; Lee & Newberg, 2005; Oman & In other words, extending the sailing metaphor, social Thoresen, 2002; Park, 2007; Stefanek, McDonald & science researchers should pay special attention to the Hess, 2005; Thoresen & Harris, 2002) way lived socio-cultural meanings are shaping the sailor’s gratitude (e.g., Emmons & McCullough, 2003; human development. Under the pressure of a persistent Lambert et al., 2009; McCullough, Kilpatrick, and implicit enculturation process, previously learned Emmons, & Larson, 2001; McCullough, Kimeldorf, and often unchallenged meanings are binding the & Cohen, 2008; Sheldon & Lyubomirsky, sailor firmly to the collectively sedimented assumptions 2007; Wood, Joseph, & Maltby, 2008; Polak & about the sailing experience. Inevitably, these meanings McCullough, 2006) will end up shrinking the sailor’s independent choices, leading to a predictable but possibly unsatisfactory intercessory prayer (e.g., Cadge, 2009; Dossey & chance of reaching the desired spiritual horizon and/or Hufford, 2005; Hodge, 2007; Masters & Spielmans, health outcome (Ellens, 2010). 2007; Schjoedt et al., 2011; Schlitz & Radin, 2007). Past medical and social science research has To minimize such limitations, the references failed to offer to the academic community the clinically provided by this article may help interested readers grasp significant results that would have supported beyond the current state of research in these promising areas. doubt the idea that prayer can improve to a large extent, in While the psychological process of praying for a relatively predictable manner, one’s physical and mental one’s health considered here lacks detailed explanations health. In such context, concluding that further trials of based on experimental data and thus might be this type of intervention should not be undertaken (using controversial in the larger communities, I hope that the resources available for the investigation of other the present article will at least increase awareness not questions pertaining to health care) might seem like a only of the immense potential that lies ahead, as yet reasonable idea to many researchers. Contrary to this unexplored, but also to the difficulties implied by a line of thought, the present article claims that stopping rigorous interdisciplinary research on human nature the research on prayer and health or even continuing it and experience (e.g., Ammerman, 2006; Belzen, 2009; while using conceptually unsuitable designs could delay Belzen & Hood, 2006; Bender, 2010; Cadge, Levitt, & valuable academic progress. Smilde, 2011; Chamberlain, 2000; Chibeni & Moreira- Pursuing emergent paths to new knowledge Almeida, 2007; Cromby, 2011; Crammer et al., 2011; on prayer and health issues should imply trying first to Cunningham, 2007; Davis, 2003; Edgell, in press; describe accurately one’s individual experiences confined Gergen, 2010; Goertzen, 2008; Henrich, Heine, & within the margins of an apparently mundane consensual Norenzayan, 2010; Hickey, 2010; Horneber et al., in press; trance and latter carefully identifying the possible Jones et al., 2009; Lengacher et al., 2003; Louchakova & healing-prone patterns. Such a complex task would Lucas, 2007; Newberg & Lee, 2005; Notterman, 2004; probably require a persistent, stimulating and unsettling Ray, 2004; Salsman et al., in press; Schroll, 2010; Slife search for new forms of theorizing about lived experience & Richardson, 2008; Stenner et al., 2011; Taves, 2009; (Good, 2010), but in time some of the laws that govern Walach, 2007a, 2007b; Walach & Reich, 2005; Walsh the ineffable will eventually become clearer and arguably & Vaughan, 1993; Valsiner, 2009). easier to integrate into the mainstream paradigms of the It should be generally recognized that past future academic endeavors (as they might be currently and present endeavors in the field of prayer and health beyond scientific understanding not by definition, but by Rethinking Prayer and Health Research International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 33 virtue of remaining at the frontier of that understanding). Barry, C. M., Nelson, L., Davarya, S., & Urry S. (2010). 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46 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Andreescu I am grateful to an anonymous reviewer and to those researchers that offered constructive criticism on earlier drafts of this paper. All responsibility for the article’s shortcomings belongs to me.

About the Author

Adrian Andreescu is a Romanian independent researcher, his primary academic interest focusing on the complex relationship between culture, subjectivity and health. Currently, Adrian is searching for suitable postgraduate opportunities that will allow him to study in interdisciplinary terms the issue of prayer and health. He serves as Associate Circulation Editor of IJTS and can be contacted at [email protected].

About the Journal

The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies is a peer-reviewed academic journal in print since 1981. It is published by Floraglades Foundation, and serves as the official publication of the International Transpersonal Association. The journal is available online at www. transpersonalstudies.org, and in print through www. lulu.com (search for IJTS).

Rethinking Prayer and Health Research International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 47 The Indigenous Healing Tradition in Calabria, Italy1 Stanley Krippner

Saybrook University Ashwin Budden San Francisco, CA, USA Roberto Gallante University of California Documentary Filmmaker San Diego, CA, USA Michael Bova Rome, Italy Consciousness Research and Training Project, Inc. Cortlandt Manor, NY, USA

In 2003, the four of us spent several weeks in Calabria, Italy. We interviewed local people about folk healing remedies, attended a Feast Day honoring St. Cosma and St. Damian, and paid two visits to the Shrine of Madonna dello Scoglio, where we interviewed its founder, Fratel Cosimo. In this essay, we have provided our impressions of Calabria and the ways in which its native people have developed indigenous practices and beliefs around medicine and healing. Although it is one of the poorest areas in Italy, Calabria is one of the richest in its folk traditions and alternative modes of healing. Combining personal experiences and theoretical knowledge, this paper aims at illuminating how these practices, though indigenous and primal, still continue to serve a meaningful and powerful purpose for the inhabitants of Calabria.

Keywords: complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), ethnomedicine, traditional medicine, folk medicine, evil eye, witchcraft, magic, Calabria

n April 1995, before it became the Center for Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is a Alternative and Complimentary Medicine, the broad domain of healing resources that encompasses Office of Alternative Medicine (OAM) of the United all health systems, modalities, and practices and IStates National Institutes of Health held a conference on their accompanying theories and beliefs, other than research methodology. The objective of the conference those intrinsic to the politically dominant health was to evaluate the need for research in the field of system of a particular society or culture in a given complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), which historical period. CAM includes all such practices they designed several working groups to address with and ideas self-defined by their users as preventing or consensus statements on a variety of essential topics. Given treating illness or promoting health and well being. that most of the world’s population uses and spends 60 Boundaries within CAM and between the CAM billion dollars a year on CAM, the OAM recognized the domain and the domain of the dominant system are demand for its study. Americans spend approximately 17 not always sharp or fixed. (O’Connor et al., 1997) billion dollars per year on CAM practices, many of which The panel’s second goal was to establish a list can be classified as traditional medicine, or ethnomedicine of parameters for obtaining thorough descriptions of (Freeman, 2004; World Health Organization, 2003). CAM systems. The list consisted of 13 categories first The OAM panel on definition and description conceptualized by Hufford (1995): accepted a dual charge: To establish a definition of the field of complementary and alternative medicine for the purposes 1. Lexicon: What are the specialized terms in the system? of identification and research, and to identify factors critical 2. Taxonomy: What classes of health and sickness to a thorough and unbiased description of CAM systems; does the system recognize and address? one that would support both quantitative and qualitative 3. Epistemology: How was the body of knowledge research. The panel defined CAM as follows: derived?

48 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies , 30(1-2), 2011, pp.Krippner, 48-62 Bova, Budden, & Gallante Beginning about 720 BCE, various city-states from 4. Theories: What are the key mechanisms understood Greece established rich and colorful colonies meriting to be? the name Magna Graecia (i.e., “Greater Greece,” a name 5. Goals for Interventions: What are the primary goals that conveyed the comparatively small size of the mother of the system? country). Magna Graecia was well reputed for the health 6. Outcome Measures: What constitutes a successful of its people, which was the result of proper territorial intervention? management and ecological balance. In those days, 7. Social Organization: Who uses and who practices Calabria was known for its fertile farmlands, as well as the system? its precious minerals and silks. Bronze tablets, unearthed 8. Specific Activities: What do the practitioners do? in 1732, described how the Greek colonists were obliged What do they use? to replace wind-swept or dead trees, and initiate land 9. Responsibilities: What are the responsibilities of the reclamation works. practitioners, patients, families, and community Roman occupation brought with it a disregard members? for traditional ways of life, tilled fields instead pastures, 10. Scope: How extensive are the system’s applications? and a diminishing population. Malaria casualties took 11. Analysis of Benefits and Barriers: What are the risks farmers away from their plots, and the uncultivated and costs of the system? land produced marshes that compounded the spread of 12. Views of Suffering and Death: How does the system malaria (Danubio, Piro, & Tagarelli, 1999). In time, Italy view suffering and death? became the center of the Roman Empire, which began 13. Comparison and Interaction with Dominant System: its conquest of Calabria in about 275 BCE, defeating What does this system provide that the dominant most of the Calabrian tribes within a few years. Many system does not? How does this system interact with of these tribes supported Hannibal during the Second the dominant system? Punic War, but when Hannibal withdrew from Italy, he A 14th category was provided for researchers, murdered his Calabrian allies to protect himself against listing critical procedures for formal investigations of facing them in battle should they defect to Rome. When CAM systems. As this article is a descriptive account of the threat of Hannibal and Carthage ended, the Roman Calabrian healers and healing practices, and not a formal conquest of Calabria was completed in 211 BCE. The assessment of their efficacy, we omit consideration of this mass deforestation initiated by the Romans marked the final guideline. first serious environmental challenge to the area. Such A Brief History of Calabria deforestation practices expanded marshy areas ideal for alabria is renowned for its Mediterranean climate mosquitoes, and consequently malaria. Cand history of conquest and settlement, reaching Goths and Visigoths invaded the area, sacked back to antiquity. This narrow strip of land in Southern towns, and destroyed much of Calabria’s Greek and Italy is located between the Tyrrhenian and Ionian Seas, Roman legacy. After the fall of Rome in the 4th century or the “toe” of Italy’s “boot.” Human presence in the CE, Byzantines dominated the area and named it area dates back to the Paleolithic Age (as determined by “Calabria” in the 7th century CE. Eastern Orthodox the graffito in Cosenza), and artifacts of Homo erectus monks came with the Byzantine rulers, establishing from about 700,000 years BCE. have been recovered monasteries and building shrines in the secluded in coastal areas. Researchers have discovered remnants mountains. Their rule lasted until the 11th century of the Copper Age and Bronze Age, often in caves, as CE and was followed by the Normans, who arrived well as from the Iron Age (e.g., tombs in Cassano Ionio). about 1050 CE, creating the Kingdom of the South. When the Neolithic replaced the Paleolithic age, hunters The Swabians conquered the Normans in 1194 and converted to farming and founded the first villages cultivated one of the most civilized nations in that part roughly 3500 BCE (Douglas, 1915/2001). of the world, the so-called “Kingdom of the Sun,” in Calabria prehistory ended with colonization which people of different religious persuasions (e.g., about 2000 BCE The term “Italy” was derived from King Islamic, Greek Orthodox) lived as peaceful neighbors. Italo of the Enotrians or Arcadians, the first colonizers, This kingdom was followed by others, specifically Anjou and the name eventually spread to the entire peninsula. in 1266 and Aragon in 1435, whose rulers created a

Indigenous Healing Tradition in Calabria, Italy International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 49 system of feudalism in Spain, which conquered the area the war, and the downfall of Fascism, Italy underwent a in 1503. Austrian domination began in 1707, followed dramatic transformation that erased many folk traditions by Bourbon rule in 1734. Under the title, “The Kingdom or modified them beyond recognition. This process was of the Two Sicilies,” the Bourbons exploited local natural not as noticeable in Calabria as it was elsewhere due to resources, especially what was left of the forests. both internal and external isolation (Orlando, 1998). This Even though they had lived in Italy for 12 is one reason why folk healing traditions have survived centuries, probably longer than in any other place in over the millennia. Europe, Jews suffered persecution at the hands of the Calabria represents what Keates (1915/2001) has Catholic Church. The move dated back to 1290 when a called a “savage Europe” that existed alongside its more Dominican friar accused the Jews of Apulia of putting a “civilized” equivalent, a place where the Renaissance and the Christian child to death in mockery of the crucifixion of Enlightenment were unknown. It has always been among Jesus Christ. Calabrian Jews put up strong resistance to the regions of Europe most resistant to the Europeanizing maltreatment, but organized Jewry virtually disappeared process (p. 7) and, later, to industrialization. Without the from southern Italy for several centuries after being production base that accompanies industrialization, many expelled from Calabria in 1541. Frederick II and his of the local agrarian based customs remained, including immediate line protected the Jews of Sicily from the folk health practices. Crusaders and fanatical church authorities. However, Keates (1915/2001) continued, “Lonely, intract- Spain controlled Sicily during the years when Ferdinand able, often impenetrably strange, sheltering the oddest and Isabella began the expulsion movement. Half of the of paradoxes, the weirdest of survivals and the darkest of Jewish population converted to Catholicism to prevent secrets, Calabria endures, sullenly defiant of our modern the loss of their property. Jewish communities slowly manias of system, connection, and universal openness” (p. regained equality and emancipation only to be persecuted 8). However, it was not so much that Calabria waged an again during the Fascist era in the 20th century. open or even covert revolution against Rome and its more Another instance of gross intolerance occurred contemporary rulers; its remoteness was responsible for under Spanish rule in 1571, whereby the Waldenses were neglect by the forces of modernization. massacred for their allegiance to the Protestant movement We encountered a somewhat different Calabria, in Europe. During the era of Islamic expansion, there as we stayed in the populated areas of the Locride (the were periodic forays by Muslims. Bourbon rule was topographical area that is claimed to have been influenced interrupted by French domination from 1805 to 1816, by the Greek city of Locroi Epizhyroi). Young adults and then resumed until Garibaldi unified Italy in the and families with children are leaving their ancestral middle of the 19th century. mountain villages for the coastal towns and cities to seek In the meantime, disastrous agricultural job opportunities and a modern lifestyle. The Calabria practices had transformed the pristine coastlands into that was once resistant to change now ensures that all of marshy and malarial swamps. Much of the population its children learn foreign languages in school, and many withdrew inland to avoid both malaria and pirate raids, of the children we met spoke or understood at least basic primarily by the Saracens and the Turks from 1100 to English. Computers are part of many households, and 1800. Chapels and churches constructed by Roman thus the world beyond the historical isolation is at their Catholic monks helped preserve Calabria’s culture. fingertips. Indeed, we suspect that the “savage culture” However, a major earthquake in 1783 destroyed many of described by Keates (1915/2001) is misleading, perhaps those buildings and cultural artifacts. held over from colonialist attitudes. In the early 19th century secret societies abound- Calabrian institutions and culture have been ed, working to help Garibaldi unify what is now Italy. deeply influenced by Roman Catholic traditions. For The efforts of Garibaldi and supporting subversive example, the 12th century Calabrian abbot Joachim of groups were confirmed by a plebiscite on October 21, Fiore first introduced the distinction between the Holy 1860 (Crawford, 1901). Spirit and Divine entity into Catholic theology (McGinn, The term “traditional southern Italy” refers to the 1985) and several folk healers in the area continue to provinces of Calabria, Abruzzi, Basilicata, Campagna, evoke the Holy Spirit. The alleged conversation between Molise, Puglia, and Sicily before World War II. After St. Peter and Jesus Christ in the olive grove is salient

50 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Krippner, Bova, Budden, & Gallante evidence for the commingling influences of native The OAM Framework belief and Catholicism, in which Christian figures are 1. Lexicon: What are the specialized terms in the system? substituted for folk characters. The key term in Calabrian popular medicine is malocchio, the “evil eye,” an illness brought about St. Peter: It takes too much time to collect all these either unintentionally or by malice (Simorto, 1990). small olives. Let’s make them the size of melons. In the former instance, it can result from simple envy Jesus Christ: Very well. But something awkward is or jealousy. In the latter instance, it can be evoked by bound to happen when you suggest improvements. attaccatura (attachment), fascino or legatura (binding), or After the olives were enlarged one of them fell fattura (fixing). The perpetrator of malocchio dominates on top of St. Peter’s head, ruining his new hat, provoking the victim’s body by one of these three mechanisms, laughter on the part of Jesus Christ. producing such maladies as “dryness,” which might This story is typical of “folk Catholicism,” take the form of barrenness, the inability to have or practiced in mountainous and rural areas; a syncretic bear children. Especially vulnerable to malocchio are mixture of some pre-Christian elements with a dose of “wet youth” (because “wetness” represents fertility, Roman Catholicism, still relatively resistant to much of and therefore opposes “dryness”), new brides, pregnant the official church doctrine. The church traditionally women, and even livestock, if they are the objects of allied with the elite political and economic classes, envy for someone who knows how to cast the “evil eye.” causing it to be viewed as a conspirator in the cultural It is believed that hunchbacks know how to cast and economic oppression of Calabrian peasants. Italy malocchio. Priests also posses this ability and may practice has been rife with anti-clericalism, in part because it upon losing their moral bearings. One practitioner of priests disapprove of such folk activities as non-religious malocchio confessed, “Every good thing I ever had was festivals, birth control, and premarital sex. Nevertheless, gained at the expense of a neighbor.” Calabrian folk healing has a Roman Catholic veneer Another term dates back to ancient times. Pliny (Ramage & Clay, 1987). the Elder wrote about women who could transform Folk Healing Practices in Calabria themselves into birds of prey, flying by night, looking n 1898, A. D. White wrote that medical science has for babies to slaughter. The Inquisitors, who prosecuted Ifrequently been blocked by belief in “supernatural women suspected of practicing witchcraft, promulgated agencies,” but that folk traditions have gradually given belief in this folkloric witch, and these women still way to Western biomedical science. However, there are appear in local folktales, referred to as streghe. These exceptions in remote locations such as the mountains of women have the power to give people malocchio, and Calabria. One can find, in this area and even in some are in turn highly feared. There are a few male streghe, nearby urban settings, a mosaic of rituals and remedies though either gender can transform themselves into that fall into the category of Calabrian “popular animals rather than birds. medicine” (or “folk medicine”). It survived, at least in There are a number of traditional folk terms for part, because biomedical practitioners were rare and special conditions. Il mal caduco, or the “falling sickness,” costly. However, in 1866 the government began to is dreaded but can be prevented by charms. Il male di fund physicians, sending one to every small town in the San Donato or epilepsy is felt to be due to supernatural newly unified nation. As a result, many popular medical causes, and can be controlled if the afflicted person practices have disappeared; those that have survived can carries iron nails or keys, or pictures of lunar crescents be described using the OAM framework (O’Connor et al., and frogs—practices that date back to pagan times. 1997). We have used the “ethnographic present” in these 2. Taxonomy: What classes of health and sickness does descriptions; some of them do not reflect contemporary the system recognize and address? beliefs and practices while others survive, primarily in In Calabrian popular medicine, folk healing, sorcery, isolated areas. Knowledge about folk medicine circulated witchcraft, magical spells, and religious causation overlap. without written texts, and therefore contains regional Not only did we derive this information from our review variations. Nevertheless, this account reflects Calabria of the literature, but from conversations with local inhabi- as a whole, with a particular emphasis on the areas we tants, and personal observation. Indeed these were the visited. three sources from which all of our data was obtained.

Indigenous Healing Tradition in Calabria, Italy International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 51 3. Epistemology: How was the body of knowledge John’s Eve (January 23rd), after which time the previous derived? practitioner stops using the procedure. Popular medicine in Calabria can be miraculous, Before the arrival of Western biomedicine, a medical, or magical. Miraculous healing defies natural number of causal mechanisms were advanced for common law; its effects are attributed to divine intervention, often ailments. For example, malaria was attributed to sorcery, mediated through the panoply of Roman Catholic saints the evil eye, evil spirits, eating putrefied vegetables, who have appeared over the centuries. Knowledge of consuming too many blackberries, or drinking stagnant magical practices has been disseminated throughout the water (Danubio, Piro, & Tagarelli, 1999). rural population rather than being limited to a secret The use of wire netting, beginning in 1899, group of practitioners. Our conversations with local was thought to be an effective mode for preventing informants suggested that self-medication is common, malaria. Calabrians, even physicians, initially suspected both for oneself and one’s family. that quinine was addictive (Douglas, 1915/2001). Such Folk practices in Calabria, and elsewhere, are practices are no longer used, and we found no evidence derived from local economies as well as from local modes for their presence in contemporary Calabria. of subsistence and production. Folk medicine relies on Although some illnesses, such as malocchio, are herbal and animal substances, some of which date back still treated by magical procedures, Calabrians now rely to Greek colonization. They are believed to work because on the modern medical model to explain the success of of the intrinsic power of the substance; no special rituals most herbal and animal substances. However, God, Jesus are required to summon these qualities. Christ, the Holy Spirit, Mary, and the saints are given On the other hand, magical medicine is a credit for ostensibly miraculous recoveries. Intercessory collection of rituals, spells, elixirs, and potions that prayer by the afflicted person, a friend, or family member resemble cookbook recipes. Their purported effectiveness initiates these healings. results from an established and sequential methodology Undergirding all of these conditions and practices that activates their latent properties. Both benevolent and is the notion of a “vital force,” resident to all Calabrian and malevolent practitioners employ magic, but in Calabria it southern Italian belief systems. They claim that this force is also the province of ordinary people. For the inhabitants can be strengthened or restored in miraculous healings. of Calabria, until fairly recently, life was a precarious It resides in medicinal plants and foods, and is available enterprise, full of dangers at every turn. Magic was one through magical rituals. It can also occur naturally, for of many protective strategies people relied upon to ensure example they believe that the vital force is transferred the survival of themselves and their family. Calabrian from a mother to her child during nursing (Binde, 1999). magical practices are a pastiche of Egyptian, Greek, and 5. Goals for Interventions: What are the primary goals Roman influences, and even contain a Roman Catholic of the system? component; some of them (such as malocchio) survive in The goal of interventions, whether by prayer or the Calabria today. administration of herbal remedies, is to restore the vital 4. Theories: What are the key mechanisms? force of the person who has fallen ill. The Calabrian universe is an interconnected whole; 6. Outcome Measures: What constitutes a successful tweaking one part of the fabric is likely to bring about intervention? changes in another part. For example, peasants often An intervention is considered successful if the vital force plant according to the phases of the moon. Calabrians has been restored completely or partially. Restoration of believe that the world is inhabited by a variety of local this force allows someone to return to work, participate in spirits as well as by angels, demons, and saints. These family life, or rejoin community activities. beings can be invoked to aid survival, but may also be 7. Social Organization: Who uses and who practices hazardous. Appeasing them with prayer and magic is the system? not seen as sorcery or witchcraft, but as common sense, Calabrian popular medicine is not a unified set of beliefs or protection. These practices are not limited to a small and practices. It has deep roots in the past, but is not a group of esoteric practitioners but are widely practiced. systematized extension of an ancient religion. Rather, it Recipes for protective formulae are typically passed on is an integral part of a rural peasant economic and social to younger family members on Christmas Eve or St. way of life, highly syncretized with folk Catholicism.

52 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Krippner, Bova, Budden, & Gallante In addition, there are some practitioners of ranged from applying witchcraft to overturn a sorcerer’s popular medicine, usually female, who have extensive spell to such practices as drinking wine infused with the knowledge of herbs and are able to treat minor illnesses embers dug out of a fire on St. Lorenzo’s night, using (with the exceptions of tuberculosis and malaria). Their herbal preparations (e.g., juice from bergamot oranges), knowledge is frequently combined with popular magic eating a preparation of viper’s head and wormwood, and Roman Catholicism. These female folk healers are and tying a variety of supposed curative agents (e.g., referred to as maghe while male practitioners are called toads, lizards, nuts) to the area around a patients’ spleen. maghi. The “fixers,” or practitioners of magic, are referred Historically, there were regional differences in popular to as fattuchhiere. Many of these practitioners are felt to practices; in the city of Reggio Calabria, it was common have inherited their gifts from their ancestors. Genetics to have sick people swallow three living bedbugs wrapped aside, it is a common practice for mothers to pass on in tissue paper. In Cassano allo Ionio and Bisignano, herbal recipes and other folkloric knowledge to their folk practitioners had their patients eat cobwebs, drink daughters. their own urine, swallow pulverized insects, or ingest a Some of the maghe, maghi, and fattucchiere preparation made from wine and baked rabbit’s blood. work in altered states of consciousness. This may involve People living in other areas took great stock in drinking “merging” with their patient’s condition. Practitioners their own saliva or masticating chunks of tobacco. may involve spirits, especially if they dabble in sorcery. Prayers were also used to counter malaria. In Consenza, While in an altered state, a folk healer may be asked to for example, Madonna della Febbre (i.e., “Mary of the find lost objects, stolen livestock, or determine if a client Fever”) was frequently petitioned (Genovese, 1924). has been “bewitched.” However, there is a considerable Treatment of malocchio runs a wide gamut. overlap of folk healing, sorcery, witchcraft, and religious People who accidentally feel resentment or jealousy can ritual. prevent the other person from succumbing to malocchio 8. Specific Activities: What do the practitioners do? by immediately blessing him or her. Another remedy is What do they use? to apply a mixture of water, salt, oil, wheat seeds, and Popular medicine is extremely dependent on herbal molten lead to a victim. Vulnerable people can take preparations. Its advocates hold that “only death can not preventative measures by wearing amulets, such as horns be cured by plants.” Especially popular are plants with made of red coral, phallic symbols (e.g., keys, roosters, an “anti-thermic” or diuretic effect, such as “embittering snakes, daggers, fish), a mano fica (a fist), or a mano plants” (e.g., bitter pomegranate roots, male fern, wild cornuta (a horned hand). Some of the amulets thought olive, oak and willow bark, lupine seeds, sea onions, to be most effective, are made from silver or tin, and ergot of rye, sabina, mustard, and Cajenna (Cayenne) contain cimaruta, the top of the rye plant. Some large pepper; De Giacomo, 1899). Popular medicine also amulets are shaped as trees with various other symbols utilizes animal parts; they believe that “nearly every (e.g., horns, suns, moons, fish, keys, Sacred Hearts) at animal has been discovered to possess some medicinal the tips of each branch. property” (Douglas, 1915/2001, p. 71). The use of amulets can be attributed to Roman The most popular herbal and animal medicinal times, in which women often wore bullae (small bags substances include chamomile tea (prescribed for cases filled with phallic-shaped objects) around their necks. of anxiety), swallows’ hearts, tortoise blood (believed to These evolved into brevi, small bags filled with rue and strengthen people’s spines) puppy dogs’ hearts (thought lavender, semi-precious stones, ashes taken from sacred to be especially effective for scrofula), undigested fish fires, flowers grown near churches, or images of saints. taken from the stomachs of larger fish (used for “sea Especially valuable components of brevi are stones filled fever,” sicknesses felt to be due to exposure to the sea), with iron-rich clay that rattle when shaken. Special brevi chamois blood (given to shepherds’ children to enable are filled withpietre della gravidanza (pregnancy stones), them to function at high altitudes), and snake blood pietre del sangre (red-spotted jasper that will stop a wound (thought to enhance glandular functioning; Douglas, from bleeding), and, for protection against sorcery and 1915/2001, pp. 70-71). witchcraft, brevi filled with pietre stellar (star stones— Over the years, the treatment of malaria by polyporic pebbles dotted with tiny star-like spots that popular medicine has included a variety of practices. They are sometimes carved into crosses and carried with the

Indigenous Healing Tradition in Calabria, Italy International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 53 image of a saint) or legno stregonia (holly twigs carved cough to breathe the fumes, and place a blanket into crosses). over his or her head so that the fumes do not escape. Rue is a popular medicinal herb, especially for Another remedy is to drink vino cotto (wine that has the treatment of colic, digestive problems, skin eruptions, not yet fermented). Vino cotto is commonly used in and even sorcery or witchcraft. cooking. 9. Responsibilities: What are the responsibilities of the d. For stomach aches, dry the stems of several cherries, practitioners, patients, families, and community members? boil them in water, and drink the brew once it cools Even though a sizable proportion of the community may down. practice popular medicine, there is a responsibility to e. For the treatment of bronchitis, saturate waxed paper perform it in a skilled manner. Family and community with olive oil, warm it by placing it near a fire, then solidarity is an important value, and this balance must apply the paper to one’s chest. Another treatment is not be put at risk by an intervention. to boil linen seeds and place them on one’s chest. 10. Scope: How extensive are the system’s applications? f. For second-degree burns, mix olive oil and plaster; Calabrian popular medicine is still practiced by people apply it to the burned area of the skin. Later, once living in rural areas, in the mountains, and by gypsies. the burned area scabs, substitute strono leaves for However, it generally focuses on health problems that are the olive oil and apply. transitory. During our stay in the small town of Roccella g. For treating high blood pressure, olive leaves can be Ionica, we conducted interviews with several of its crushed and mixed with water, then imbibed. inhabitants, inquiring about the “home remedies” they h. In the case of a headache, sliced potatoes can be employ. The resulting list provided us with contemporary applied to one’s head and held in place by a headband. examples of popular Calabrian medicine. If the headband is soaked in vinegar beforehand, the treatment is thought to be even more effective. a. If someone is the victim of malocchio, friends and Linen seeds can be substituted for potatoes. family members can address the condition with prayer. i. Chamomile tea is frequently used to calm someone Specialists are needed for more specific treatment. having an anxiety attack. Not much can be done to prevent malocchio, but its j. If a baby is constipated, the tip of an oregano stick diagnosis can be made with a special preparation: coated with human hair or parsley can be carefully Start with a cup of water. Add five pinches of salt, and inserted into his or her anus. five grains of incense. Add pieces of five palm leaves k. In the case of recurring dandruff, use soap made that have been blessed by a priest, five leafs from an from pig fat, soda, olive oil, and lemon skin. olive tree, and a few embers obtained by burning l. If a mother cannot nurse a baby, and if a substitute twigs from an ash tree. Drop five pinches of salt into is not available, almond milk is better than cow’s this concoction; if the salt turns black, the person in milk for the baby’s milk bottle. If the baby develops question is the victim of the “evil eye.” An alternative an intestinal disorder, a solution of water and leaves is to let three drops of olive oil fall into a cup of water; from a ruta plant is an effective remedy. if the drops separate, the person in question has m. When washing clothes, add embers from an ash tree malocchio. In both cases, the liquid solution must be to the water, even if the clothes are washed in the thrown away at a crossroads. river. This serves as a disinfectant. b. To treat small cuts in the skin, boil water, add salt, wait until the water is tepid, and then apply it to We were told that these remedies are passed the skin. If possible, soak the afflicted body part in down from person to person, usually from mother to the salty water for half an hour. Another treatment daughter, as most home practitioners are women. One is to substitute the section dividers from the reed informant remarked, “Everybody knows about these plant for the salt. If the cut occurred far from one’s treatments.” home while working or playing, urine can be applied 11. Analysis of Benefits and Barriers: What are the risks immediately. and costs of the system? c. To treat a recurring cough, put sugar into a foot- Prior to Italy’s introduction of free public medicine in warmer or a similar receptacle. Ask the person with the 1970s, folk medicine was the treatment of choice for

54 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Krippner, Bova, Budden, & Gallante those who could not afford Western biomedicine, or who Italian). It was also our intention to document gatherings lived in areas where physicians were rarely seen. Since of Rom (also Roma or Romani) who participate in the that time Western biomedicine has become the keystone festivities. The two holy physicians lived in the region of of healthcare, though Calabrese maintain their cultural Cilicia, Turkey in the 4th century CE, and some of their affinity for folk medicine, prayer, and the enactment of followers, most of them Byzantine monks, arrived in religious rituals for health and betterment. Older adults Calabria around 1000 CE. According to legend, however, still possess knowledge of folk remedies, and seem to be Cosma and Damian themselves once sailed to an area willing to use both traditional and Western modalities. near present-day Riace, coming ashore and instructing Of course, with respect to malocchio and a local shepherd to build a church. Another tells of how witchcraft, there are social risks and costs. As with many the physicians converted to Christianity, much to the societies, people are often reluctant to address such issues consternation of the Romans who depended upon their in the open, even though they may be commonly and healing ministrations. The physicians were urged to deeply believed. Suspicion of witchcraft or giving evil drop a few seeds before the statues of the Roman deities, eye can carry the price of social stigmatization or even promising them that this would save them from the ostracism. Given increasingly modern and “rational” wrath of temple authorities. Cosma and Damian refused attitudes toward these matters, dabbling in these arts and, as a result, were secretly beheaded in a distant field. may subject one to epithets like crazy, superstitious, According to the legend, their faith was so strong that or backward. Nevertheless, belief in malocchio and they picked up their heads with their hands, and walked witchcraft are still a powerful undercurrent, even in the several meters singing Christian hymns before they cities. Some will turn to the latter to solve various social expired. Thanks to stories of this nature, and subsequent and health related problems, but most tend to keep a claims of miraculous healings, they were canonized by respectful distance. the Vatican. 12. Views of Suffering and Death: How does the system The central ritual of the feast is the journey of the view suffering and death? statues of the physician saints, along with a procession An omnipresent “vital force” is felt to be a substance that of devotees, from Riace’s Church of San Nicola di can be lost or gained. Losses lead to illness, weakness, Bari to a smaller church (the Sanctuary of Cosma and or death. Gains can be evoked from external sources Damian approximately a quarter of a mile away). The that reinvigorate the body. When death occurs, there Church of San Nicola di Bari, where the statues of the is a “transcendence” in which a new body is created, doctor saints Cosma and Damian are housed, is ornately manifesting itself in a different type of “vital force.” festooned with vibrantly colored paper called paratu, on From the perspective of folk magic, suffering the church’s walls, arches, and ceiling. Parishioners and often results from sorcery or witchcraft. From the Roman devotees enter the church and approach the statues for Catholic perspective, suffering is part of the human blessings. Some brought their children whom they lifted condition, often representing God’s “test” of one’s faith. to touch the base adjoining the effigies. Others came 13. Comparison and Interaction with Dominant with ex votos, special devotional replicas of body parts, System: What does this system provide that the dominant made from wax or bread. These devotions represent the system does not provide? How does this system interact parts of the body either healed by the saints, or about with the dominant system? which those believers had prayed to them. There are several “dominant systems” in Calabria. A vendor told us that people requesting a healing There is Western biomedicine, the Roman Catholic often purchased a replica of the ailing body part. The Church, and such familial organizations as Mafia and wax effigy would be placed at the feet of the statue as Camorra (known in Calabria as ‘ndrangheta). The latter an offering. When we asked if there were any wax ex organizations originated to protect households against votos of phalluses, the salesman explained that they were greedy landlords. only made for witchcraft, primarily in coastal cities in The Feast Day of Saints Cosma and Damian the Locride, and that he did not have any. He did not e visited the town of Riace on September 25 remember seeing them, though in his youth, he knew of Wto participate in a three-day feast honoring the witchcraft practices. The lack of contact with witchcraft Saints Cosma and Damian (Cosimo and Damiano in or magical practices was typical in the area, although

Indigenous Healing Tradition in Calabria, Italy International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 55 a member of our group’s family also recalled hearing ‘Ndrangheta, or Calabrese mafia, in which the holder about this practice. Someone in our group commented of the stick is the capo, or mafia boss (English, 1993). In that perhaps there were no phalluses, because curing the setting of this feast, however, each man holding a sexual dysfunctions is beyond the purview of the saints. paranza was simply the head of his Rom clan. In any event, the man selling ex votos lamented that too One of the Rom explained that his clan few people were buying them and that it would likely be was from Gioia Tauro, a city on the western coast of his last year selling them at this feast. Calabria. He mentioned that there would normally be The statues remain in the Church of San Nicola many more participants from his group, but that many di Bari all year, except when they are transported to the of his compatriots stayed behind to mourn the death of Sanctuary of Saints Cosma and Damian for the duration a clan elder. Those that did come to Riace were festively of the feast. The Church of San Nicola di Bari is also engaged in the feast. Some were dressed in colorful known as Riace’s Matrix church or the Mother church. costumes, and many danced tarantellas and played The route between the church and the sanctuary was lined tarantella music on traditional instruments. with booths selling ex votos and other religious items. Three instruments that we identified were the During the closing ceremony they are returned tamburrello (a type of tambourine), the organetto (a to San Nicola di Bari. While attending a service at the traditional accordion), and the zampogna (an instrument church, several people placed ex voto offerings at the base very much like a bagpipe, with five pipes of uneven of the statues, and children were positioned at their feet, length and a double reed). or touched them, presumably for blessings or good luck. The tarantella has Greek origins, apparently A hand carried caravan later took the statues being related to the orgiastic rituals of Dionysus, the god through the town to their ordained sanctuary, a of wine. Tarantella was also a type of trance performance smaller church built and named in honor of the saints. used by women as an idiom of psychosocial distress. A The procession of the statues through Riace involved common folk belief about the tarantella is that it was dynamic participation by several thousand parishioners, induced by the bite of the spider Lycosa tarantual. More devotees of the cult of the saints from other towns, and recently, it has evolved into a folkloric dance. The Rom who played a visibly distinct and traditionally musicians are known to adapt to the dancers, adjusting the separate role in the feast. Parish priests, followed by tempo as it seemed appropriate. Most of the performers church members and volunteers, carried the caravan and are women, who dance ecstatically until, exhausted, led the procession, which was accompanied by a choir, they collapse (supposedly cured). This behavior could be brass band, and police. People attending the feast, but interpreted as a socially approved outlet for women whose not formal participants in the ceremony, self-expression and emotional expression is often muted Rom primarily convened near the sanctuary of by local customs. The dance is also popular among Rom, the saints. Since most of the Rom were already assembled whether or not it is attributed to a spider bite (English, closer to the destination point, they preceded the 2000). Customs related to this dance must have changed assembled procession. One of our photographs clearly throughout the course of history, as we saw as many men shows a group of Rom at the very head of the procession, dancing as women. followed by a line of police that separated them from the One of the authors (RG) returned to the Riace other members of the procession (priests, a choral group, feast the following year to further document the role and non-Romani community members, and visitors joining customs of Rom at the Riace feast. He interviewed church the procession). and community leaders as well as Roma participants and Scattered throughout the procession were men filmed the feast procession. Special attention was paid with large wooden staffs, or paranze (singular is paranza). to the Rom and Sinti (two divisions of the Romani) The paranza was used in a popular martial art of southern dancing the tarantella. Italy, especially in Sicily and Calabria, first seen in the Don Pino Strangio, a priest and church leader Middle Ages. The ancient name for the stick is paranza, in the province stated, “The spirituality of the Rom and but has evolved to become a sign of command, called the Sinti is simple, immediate as well as very intense. It is capo bastone, which can be roughly translated as “chief intense in the expression of the various languages and it cane” or “chief stick.” This name was transmitted to the is particularly expressed in some moments, among which

56 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Krippner, Bova, Budden, & Gallante dance is one of the most important. Through dance they Jacopo Arrigotti, an Italian musicologist, express the desire to unite with the divinity with their described Riace’s feast of Saints Cosimo and Damiano own body, with their own feelings, with their own being. as a rite divided into three phases: 1) waiting for the Here in Riace the Rom and the Sinti dance in front of procession, 2) outgoing procession, and 3) returning the statues of Cosimo and Damiano to symbolize their procession. Three main social groups take part at the rite: union with the divinity. 1) the local community, under the guide of the Church; In Galante’s short film,A Devotion with a Dance 2) pilgrims coming from the mountains of the hinterland; Step / Una devozione a passo di danza (Galante, 2007) he and 3) Roma communities, coming from all Calabrian summarized, “the remnants of two ancient cultures, one provinces. The unique symbol of the saints is then the farming and one gypsy, once again meet in the sacred pivot for at least three main ritual structures, which are space of devotion. The spirituality of the Roma people expressed in a variety of performative activities. Singing is simple, immediate and very intense in the expression is a priority in pilgrims’ ritual. The pilgrimage ends in of the various languages among which dance and music the main church, in front of the statues. Music-based are the most important. Through dance they express the performances are the very final act of the pilgrimage. desire to unite with the divinity, with their own bodies, The Roma community is characterized by their feelings, their own beings. . . . Dance in front of tarantella dancing. Secular dancing is viewed as a vehicle Saints Cosimo and Damiano is to symbolize their union for social meanings, but also as sacred dance in front of with the divinity. Their language is symbolic, made up the saints, which involves altered states of consciousness of gestures where the body language prevails over the (Arrigotti, 2003). verbalism of the prayers.” As well, members of the local community of Don Pino described some features of Rom and ethnic Italian Calabrese take on an ancient tradition Sinti devotion including the offering of their children using altered states of consciousness. Members of this to Cosimo and Damiano by raising them as an offering group use prayer and dream incubation (in Italian, to the statues of the saints. The children are dressed l’incubazio) to commune and communicate with the with the colors used to represent the Saints; blue is the saints for healing in the Matrix church the night before color representing devotion to Saint Damiano, who was their statues are removed for the procession to the chapel a chemist, and green is the devotional color for Saint where they will stay for three days. This follows a tradition Cosimo, who was a doctor. Those who get dressed in “in ancient Rome, at the temple dedicated to Castor and the Saints’ colors want either to release themselves from Pollux, the spot where physicians swore their ethical oath a vow or to ask Cosimo and Damiano for a blessing to Aesculapius, the sick often slept on the floor of the (Galante, 2007). sanctuary. The divinity would appear to them in a dream, Another feature of the Rom spirituality is either granting them a cure or indicating a healing path. expressed through the offering of locks of hair, especially With the affirmation of Christianity, in place of the for grace and the blessing for marriage or engagement pagan temple, a basilica was erected, dedicated to the (Galante, 2007). One Romani’s (Rom’s) invocation thaumaturgic Saints Cosma and Damiano; in turn, the revealed the emotional tensions and hope for her home’s ancient cult and its rites became somehow Christianized” safety that she brought to her prayer during the feast, (informant, Galante, 2007). “Oh St. Cosimo that I be able to pay you a visit every The doctor saints Cosma and Damian are year… first of all let my daughter walk…secondly, I ask considered to be protectors of the Rom community. that you grant me a great favour, you who have already Hence, Romani maintain profound reverence for them, granted me a great one… Oh St. Cosimo, it is a year that and passionately participate in the feast. On a wall of I do not place a pan on the burner (a custom of the Rom the sanctuary is a beautiful fresco of Zefferino, beatified when there is a death in the family)…To whomever is by the Roman Catholic Church to someday be the only responsible for the misfortune of my son, that within the canonized and sainted Rom. This permanent image of year they may pay the same price…Remember what they a holy Romani added fervor to their activities in the did to my house…that they never enjoy grandchildren, celebration. that they never enjoy children, that they never enjoy any On the day of the procession to the sanctuary, of their family ” (Galante, 2007). two members of our group had video cameras. We

Indigenous Healing Tradition in Calabria, Italy International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 57 separated several times, but always found each other. 73), and “the intense realism of their religion is what still Going off the main road we went up the side of a hill keeps it alive for the poor in spirit” (p. 74). Nevertheless, where several Rom were waiting. We followed an elderly Douglas felt that the land itself had healing properties. woman who spoke of a “short cut” to a local cemetery. He wrote, “A landscape so luminous, so resolutely One member of our group spoke in Italian to this Roma scornful of accessories hints at brave and simple forms of woman, noting that she “crossed” herself whenever our expression; it brings us to the ground where we belong; it colleague mentioned the saints. Despite the merchant’s medicines to the disease of introspection” (p. 333). earlier lamentation about poor sales that year, we observed Our experiences in Calabria, these many numerous ex votos being placed at the feet of the statues decades since Douglas’ writing, indicate that the same of the saints both while in the church and during the quaint picture of the land and its people cannot be procession. The ex votos were removed after just minutes painted. We found that Calabrians embraced ancient to accommodate more ex votos. rites and traditions but also were adaptive to embrace As the statues in the procession approached their the influx of modernization and social change. Locals destination, rambling past the multitude of ex voto booths we met were extremely hospitable and keen to inform on their way to the Sanctuary of Cosma and Damian, us about the more obscured aspects of their surviving the crowd appeared to be in a frenzy of excitation. Many traditions, and as well, many were informed about issues Rom played and danced tarantella in the piazza in front of their country and world. of the sanctuary. We worked our way into the crowded The Shrine of Madonna dello Scoglio church while the statues were still in front of the piazza. uring our 2003 sojourn through southern Italy, At last the statues entered the sanctuary Dwe paid two visits to the Madonna dello Scoglio backwards, allowing Cosma and Damian to face the shrine at Santa Domenica di Placanica in the hilly coastal processional crowd that accompanied them to it. The region of Eastern Calabria. We had heard of Fratel crowd pulsed with elation in a courtship of the sacred Cosimo, who leads a grass-roots spiritual community in and the profane, whereby tarantella music and dance the area, and who has gained an international reputation welcomed the statues of the saints to the church. Ex votos as a devout visionary. During our visits, we attended two continued to be placed on the statues and were taken off evening worship sessions and were able to meet Cosimo just as quickly. People continued to lift children up to and interview several members of his volunteer staff and the statues while several priests received confessions in as congregation. much “privacy” as a filled sanctuary can offer. Cosimo Fragomeni was born in 1950. From While this is an ancient rite of a Calabrese an early age, he was a dedicated Roman Catholic. As a village, there was certainly an international flavor to boy, he was frail and suffered frequent bouts of illness. the day. We met several African priests who were part Nevertheless, his faith endured as he continued a pious of the Church of Nicola di Bari, and who took part in life, punctuated with hermitic periods in the nearby hills. the procession. There were also a number of African At the age of 18, Cosimo reported four visions in which vendors selling wares along the procession route, as well the Virgin Mary, standing on a rock or scoglio, appeared as many Afghans, some of whom we met, living in the to him. During the first of these visions, in 1968, the town sanctuary. Madonna instructed him to build a shrine at its current In his book, Old Calabria, generally regarded as location “to bring people closer to God.” one of the finest travel books in the English language, Fratel Cosimo is thought by local informants to Norman Douglas (1915/2001) commented that “A be spiritual heir of San (Saint) Pio as Fratel Cosimo’s foreigner is at an unfortunate disadvantage; if he asks Marian visions started in 1968, only months before Padre questions, he will only get answers dictated by suspicion Pio died. Saint Pio, was a priest popularly known as Padre or a deliberate desire to mislead” (p. 72). At the same Pio from Campagna, another region of southern Italy time, Douglas felt that Calabrians were the “ideal prey who was acclaimed for his spiritual gifts that included for the quack physician; they will believe anything so stigmata, healings, prophecy, and bilocation. He died in long as it is strange and complicated” (p. 73). Insofar 1968 and was canonized in 2002 by the Vatican. as the clergy are concerned, Douglas added, “they can Several informants showed their affinity with keep people at a consistently low level of intelligence” (p. Saint Pio to members of our group when we were

58 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Krippner, Bova, Budden, & Gallante invited into their homes. One elderly woman wore a Masses are held from June to October, and we were gold pendant of Saint Pio; another elderly woman had informed that nearly 50,000 people attended a special a needlework portrait (approximately 4’ by 4’) of Saint Mass in May 2003. During the winter months, services Pio which she proudly hung over her bed. A woman in at the shrine begin at 3:00pm, and during the summer at her 30’s had an altar in her house devoted to Saint Pio. 4:30pm. The average service lasts about four hours and Shortly thereafter, Cosimo began building this shrine, involves singing, praying, recitation of the rosary, and which he named Madonna dello Scoglio (Madonna of testimonies, and concludes with a sermon and prayer the Rock), using funds from local donations. Cosimo also from Cosimo. began to lead prayer and devotional sessions for pilgrims During the early part of the service, Cosimo who placed their faith in his visionary experiences and holds private meetings with 100 individuals, 90 of messages. Cosimo had little formal education and no whom have scheduled an appointment by phone, and seminary training or even Bible study; however, he was the remaining 10 of whom are chosen by lottery at the admitted to the lay order of the Franciscan brothers and shrine. An ecclesiastical visitor attended during one of was given the title of “Fratel.” our visits, whom we were told came for another religious In the following years, the shrine grounds and ceremony in the neighborhood. By chance, we found facilities have been expanded to accommodate increasing out that the honored ecclesiastical guest was staying numbers of pilgrims. A foundation has been established at our hotel, which gave us an opportunity to tell him to channel donations into projects to expand the shrine. about Fratel Cosimo. They had a personal meeting the Most saliently we noticed the simplicity of the shrine’s day before the service, after which the guest expressed angular construction (made from concrete and sheet his conviction that Fratel Cosimo did indeed lead a metal), and the spartan nature of the pews, which were mystical life, which is why he came to the following plastic chairs arranged into linear rows, with gravel aisles. day’s service. Fratel Cosimo’s superiors in the Roman The focal point of the shrine is the Madonna dello Scoglio Catholic Church have forbidden him from conducting itself: a life-sized white marble statue of Mary set within formal “healing” sessions, but he is allowed to pray with a rock that is roughly 12 feet (about 3.6 meters) high. afflicted individuals. Here, supplicants come to pray and touch the sacred rock Indeed, Fratel Cosimo does not claim to be a through the metal fencing in which it is immured. “healer,” nor is healing the focus of his work. Rather, the A small chapel with a slender spire sits just to the core of his message, as relayed to us by several members side of the shrine. A highlight of this chapel is a stunning of his congregation, is that one must “open one’s heart painting of the Madonna that follows Fratel Cosimo’s to Christ,” which is best done through prayer. Of central description. Apparently, the artist had painted the body importance is the belief that spiritual growth is more of the Madonna according to the suggestions given him important than physical healing; if physical healing by Fratel Cosimo and was about to begin with the face, follows, it is a sign of the deeper “miracle” in one’s but he found himself unable to paint it. He claimed that heart. Regardless, many people come to Madonna dello he was blocked from further work. He put the painting Scoglio to seek help for physical ailments and relief from aside, but when he re-embarked with a new canvas he emotional distress. still could not depict the face. Discouraged after a third Suffering seems to be a prominent theme in attempt, he consulted Fratel Cosimo who replied, “Don’t Cosimo’s sermons as he contends that it is an important worry, the Madonna will think of it.” The following part of spiritual growth. He points out the suffering of morning Cosimo came back and found the painting Jesus and the sorrow of Mary, both of which brought completed. However, the artist denied having worked light to the world. He asks his followers to make changes on it during the previous evening, concluding that it was in their hearts through the endurance of their own Heaven’s work. In any event, the resulting painting is suffering. Often, he alludes to his own trials in God’s regarded as an object of special devotion. work, such as spending time with distressed pilgrims. We were told that Fratel Cosimo and a We noticed that Cosimo often shed tears as he led the community of about 60 volunteers preside over bi- congregation in prayer and reciting the rosary. weekly devotional services that attract anywhere from Another feature of this community is its un- several hundred to over one thousand pilgrims. Special dogmatic approach to belief and practice, a factor that

Indigenous Healing Tradition in Calabria, Italy International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 59 attracted criticism from Roman Catholic officials. Fratel celebrity, instead projecting pronounced meekness and Cosimo’s “doctrine” does attend to the conventional piety, one of sincerity of purpose in his dedication to the roles of Mary, Jesus, God the Father, and the Holy Spirit. Divine. However, as described by a member of the community, This type of relationship is suggestive of Mary is seen as an intermediary “who takes you by the Cosimo’s public role as a charismatic leader. Charles hand to God.” Another depiction of Mary was as the Lindholm (1992) has described charisma simply as “a “temple of God.” Congregants pointed out that Cosimo certain quality of an individual personality by virtue of is not dogmatic in his approach. Rather, he emphasizes which he or she is considered extraordinary and treated prayer as the primary vehicle for opening oneself to God as endowed with special power or at least specifically beyond ritual prescriptions. Although the ritual activities exceptional powers or qualities” (p. 289). The notion of at Madonna dello Scoglio are in accord with Roman charisma also embodies a sense of intensified emotion Catholic practice, they are much less formal.2 and excitement, the extreme case evidenced in the Some of our informants expressed their euphoric episodes we witnessed. Cosimo did not engage attraction to Cosimo and to his brand of simplicity. Their in any ecstatic or overtly manipulative behavior that we enthusiasm bespoke a kind of “getting down to the basics” noticed; however, he was certainly viewed by congregants devotion, something they found liberating. For example, as a truly exemplary person, blessed with divine powers. we chatted with a couple from Switzerland, “Hans” and In this regard, Cosimo does not resemble the “Bertha,” who frequently visited Madonna dello Scoglio. stereotypical charismatic leader. Rather, his charismatic Hans expressed his enthusiasm for worshipping at the properties emanate, arguably, from his embodiment shrine because in his daily life as a corporate executive, of central Catholic values and imagery. His personage he could not discuss his spiritual feelings and beliefs with also encompasses the metaphorical image of Mary his colleagues. For him, coming to the shine was like “the nurturing mother,” with whom he has a history of “breaking out of the cage of mundane everyday life.” visionary experiences. Some congregants told us about Moreover, his wife professed that she was a “tried and Cosimo’s reputed ability to bi-locate. These rumors, as true Protestant,” yet, for her, Fratel Cosimo’s message well as the many reported healings associated with the transcended the division between denominations despite shrine, add to his reputation as a vessel for the Divine. a Catholic bias. As a result, she now prefers to simply Although we found no adequate scientific or refer to herself as “a Christian.” clinical data supporting the healing phenomena, these Following Cosimo’s sermons, congregants stories are prevalent in the lore surrounding Fratel Cosimo typically lined up in procession, often with their children, and Madonna dello Scoglio. Many people that pray and to receive his blessings. At these times we noticed that consult privately with Cosimo appear to achieve some many congregants, mainly women, would beckon degree of emotional comfort and alleviation of distress. aloud for his attention, excitedly calling his name, Because psychological dispositions are concomitant in and sometimes waving their hands or scarves, eager to somatic states, the “lifting” of distress can have positive make eye contact with him or receive some gesture of physical affects, and vise versa. acknowledgment. Bertha told us that she has collected several cases Occasionally, we witnessed individuals collapse of healings attributed to the Madonna. Two of these on the ground, mildly convulsing. According to René involved severe medically diagnosed heart disease. One Laurentin (1988), the French theologian well known for case was a boy with a deformed spinal column. Another his expertise of visionary and supernatural phenomenon, was a woman whose mental condition had not responded these collapses are probably a sign of the “Holy Spirit’s” to 13 years of psychotherapy. One was a woman with work in those people, some of whom attest to experiences multiple sclerosis who is now able to walk.3 The final case of deep liberation. The phenomenon differs from mere was a personal friend of Bertha’s, a man who had been hysterical collapse, which can also occur. It was apparent injured in a fitness center. Allegedly, he made a complete that the majority of congregants adored Fratel Cosimo recovery following a visit to the shrine. and that many of them were deeply moved by this During the first of our two visits to the shrine, physical presence and proximity as well as by his public a member of our group “won” the lottery and was able messages. Cosimo, however, eschewed any sense of to meet privately with Fratel Cosimo. He talked with

60 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Krippner, Bova, Budden, & Gallante Cosimo about his daughter who was suffering from a and transformation. Cosimo and his message exemplify congenital disease, and also asked Cosimo to bless a these pillars of the human experience: that suffering is medal of St. Christopher. Our colleague was dealing important for spiritual growth, prayer is the vehicle for with his own health problems at the time and when he opening one’s heart, and transformation and healing are mentioned this, Cosimo gave him a personal blessing. the potential results of prayer. These are basic themes After the meeting, our colleague was tearful but in the lives of people amidst change, and Cosimo expressed a sentiment of deep relief. Six months later, his embodies them, possibly in ways not articulated in health problem had become more severe but eventually mainstream venues of religious practice. The fact that stabilized. His daughter’s condition steadily improved Roman Catholic authorities in the Vatican do not and she became pregnant after being told by her medical recognize Cosimo as a visionary has not impeded the specialists she would not be able to have children of her growth of the community. Rather, we got the sense that own because of ovarian failure due to chemotherapy. He the immediacy and relevance of interacting with Fratel also related that his niece had taken the St. Christopher’s Cosimo was a significant attraction for the congregants medal to her boyfriend’s father who was hospitalized for at the shrine. a terminal disease. Apparently, he began to feel better After both of our visits to Madonna dello Scoglio, after receiving the medal, and the nurses were surprised we were fortunate to be included in a small group of by his rebound. However, this improvement was only people who were invited to have a private audience with temporary. Cosimo. On one occasion, he blessed a crucifix worn The growing visibility and popularity of Fratel by a member of our group. He began to weep, saying Cosimo and his work at Madonna dello Scoglio can that he was aware that the owner of the crucifix endured be examined with respect to the broader issues of considerable suffering. On the other occasion, he was modernization and social change in Calabria. The region told that a member of our group visited and wrote about is one of the poorest in Italy, and has only recently folk healers and visionaries in various parts of the world. embraced modernization. We often heard complaints He asked, “Did you find that these people had anything from adults and elderly people in the small villages of in common?” Our colleague responded, “They all spoke the Calabrian interior, that young people were moving of the common bonds that unite humanity, despite their to coastal towns and cities marked by better jobs and different worship practices.” Fratel Cosimo immediately “more action.” We also learned that new immigrants were replied, “That is my belief as well.” arriving illegally in Calabria from Eastern Europe, Africa, Edward Lear, the humorist, was a notable and South Asia. These changes, among others, contribute visitor who adored Calabria. He wrote, “No sooner is the to the escalating uncertainties and anxieties about life, word uttered than a new world arises before the mind’s family, and community, and about the changing ideas eye—torrents, fastness, all the prodigality of mountain and practices that new populations entail. scenery—caves, brigands..., horrors and magnificence New religious movements often play a significant without end” (in Noland, 2001, p. 69). Our group found role in allowing people to find ways to cope with the communion with Lear’s comments, especially after changes that immigration catalyzes. The Madonna dello interviewing townspeople who still practice folkloric Scoglio is not a new religious movement, but may be best healing, participating in the Feast Day of Cosimo and seen as a Christian renewal, deeply rooted in traditional Damian, and spending two evenings with Fratel Cosimo. Catholic faith. On the one hand, it offers a strong Perhaps the land itself is the origin of the healing for and growing spiritual following that is reinvigorating which the folkloric remedies and religious rituals are community and communal networks in the face of the credited. fragmentation of traditional communal life. On the other References hand, belief, practice, and faith alone remain familiarly and intelligibly Catholic, yet also have been disassembled Arrigotti, J. (2003). Universita Degli Studi di Padova and recreated into a more simplified system in a resonant SEM The feast of the Saints Cosimo and Damiano and relevant form. in Riace. Musical performance and a changing rite One possible interpretation points to the within an intercultural tradition of Southern Italy. emphasis that Cosimo places on suffering, devotion, ATMI, CMS, SEM Annual Meeting, Miami.

Indigenous Healing Tradition in Calabria, Italy International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 61 Binde, P. (1999). Bodies of vital matter: Notions of life Lindholm, C. (1992). Charisma, crowd psychology, and force and transcendence in traditional Southern Italy. altered states of consciousness. Culture, Medicine Gothenburg, Sweden: University of Gothenburg. and Psychiatry, 16, 187-310. Crawford, F. M. (1901). Rulers of the South: Sicily, McGinn, B. (1985). The Calabrian Abbot: Joachim of Calabria, Malta (2 vols.). London, UK: Macmillan. Fiore in the history of Western thought. New York, Danubio, M. E., Piro, A., & Tagarelli, A. (1999). NY: Macmillan. Endogamy and inbreeding since the 17th century Noland, D. (2001, June). Lear—ing. Sky, pp. 63-69. in past malarial communities in the Province of (Original work published 1956) Cosenza (Calabria, Southern Italy). Annals of Human O’Connor, B. B., Calabrese, C., Cardena, E., Eisenberg, Biology, 26(5), 473-488. D., Fincher, J., Hufford, D. J., ... Zhang, X. (1997). De Giacomo, G. (1899). Il popolo di Calabria [The people Defining and describing complementary and of Calabria]. Trani, Italy: Ed. Vecchi. alternative medicine. Alternative Therapies in Health Douglas, N. (1915/2001). Old Calabria. London, UK: and Medicine, 3(2), 49-57. Phoenix Press. (Original work published 1915) Orlando, A. (1998). In Calabria. Soveria Manelli, Italy: English, S. (1993). Effects of mass emigration on the Arti Grafiche Rubbettino Editore. social ecology of Calabrese territory: Anthropological Ramage, C. T., & Clay, E. (1987). Ramage in south changes and psychopathological symptoms (in Italy. The nooks and highways of Italy: Wanderings in Italian). In V. Micco & P. You (Eds.), Boundary search of its ancient remains and modern superstitions. passages, ethnopsychiatry, and migrations (pp. 53-67). Chicago, IL: Academy Chicago. Naples, Italy: Liguori. Simorto, P. (1990). The evil eye and the horn. Rome, Italy: English, S. (2000). The rite, the part, and the belief: Laruffa Editore. Reflections on the Sacred One in the Calabrese White, A. D. (1898). Warfare of science with theology. collective imaginario (in Italian). In C. M. Helium, New York, NY: Appleton. S. Ferraro, & S. English, A long journey a year: World Health Organiation. (2003). Traditional medicine Between belief and pity in the Calabria of the Jubilee fact sheet updated by WHO. Alternative Therapies in (pp. 221-233). Catanzao, Italy: Instant Editions. Health and Medicine, 9(5), 21. Freeman, L. (2004). Mosby’s complementary & alternative medicine: A research-based approach. St. Louis, MO: Notes Mosby. Galante, R. (Producer), Galante, R. (Director). (2007). A 1. This investigation was supported by the Chair for Devotion with a Dance Step / Una devozione a passo di the Study of Consciousness, Saybrook Graduate danza [Short film] Production Company: Galante, School and Research Center, San Francisco, CA. Producer: Galante, Executive Producer: Galante, 2. Upon our return to the United States, a member of Director: Galante, Camera: Galante, Editor: our group found Fratel Cosimo listed on a website Galante, Author: Galante. titled, “Dangers of False Apparitions,” apparently Genovese, F. (1924). La malaria in La Provincia di put together by a devoted but conservative Roman Reggio Calabria [Malaria in the Province of Reggio Catholic “defender of the faith.” Calabria]. Florence, Italy: Ed. Vallecchi. 3. The woman left her wheelchair in a special room at Hufford, D. (1995). Cultural and social perspectives of the shrine that houses reminders of the previously alternative medicine: Background and assumptions. disabling conditions of worshippers. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 1(1), 53-61. Keates, J. (2001). Introduction. In N. Douglas, Old Calabria (pp. 7-13). London, UK: Phoenix Press. (Original work published 1915) Laurentin, R. (1988). Learning from Medjugorje: What is the truth? Gaithersburg, MD: Word Among Us Press.

62 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Krippner, Bova, Budden, & Gallante Why Altered States Are Not Enough: A Perspective from Buddhism

Igor Berkhin Glenn Hartelius International Dzogchen Community Institute of Transpersonal Psychology Donetsk, Ukraine Palo Alto, CA, USA

Transpersonal psychology has at times employed Buddhist terminology in ways that do not reflect distinctions that underlie these tightly defined terms. From a Buddhist perspective, attempts to equate Buddhist terms with language from other traditions are misdirected, and produce results that no longer represent Buddhism. For example, it is an error to translate certain Buddhist terms as referring to a shared universal consciousness; Buddhism explicitly rejects this idea. Nor is it appropriate to assume that the generic, cross-traditional altered state of nondual awareness postulated in some transpersonally-related circles is in any way related to nirvana or other advanced states described within Buddhism. Buddhist practices are focused on the achievement of particular knowledge and capacities, not the attainment of altered states.

Keywords: transpersonalism, altered states, Buddhism, Dzogchen, nonduality

Transpersonal psychology draws on many teacher located within a particular school of Buddhist Buddhist ideas, but it is troubling to note that many of teaching and practice. Even though this discourse is these references represented as authentically Buddhist are traditionally informed, its perspectives would likely meet in fact superficial or distorted representations of Buddhist with debate rather than consensus if presented within any theory. As a Buddhist practitioner of more than 20 years, given Buddhist sangha, or community. and now also a teacher of Buddhist methods within the Speaking from this very particular standpoint, International Dzogchen Community, the first author then, it is possible to say that one profound difference respectfully offers that if the transpersonal field wishes between Buddhism and transpersonal psychology is to present ancient knowledge in a modern context, it that the latter seems to have a strong emphasis on non- needs to take more care than it currently does in order ordinary states of consciousness and their transformative not to misrepresent that knowledge. This paper will effect on the psyche (e.g., Garcia-Romeau, 2010; Grof, outline some of the misconceptions of Buddhist thought Grob, Bravo, & Walsh, 2008; Maslow, 1969; Tart, 2008). within transpersonalism, a concern that has already been By contrast, in all Buddhist traditions of which I have raised within the field itself (Friedman, 2009, 2010). any knowledge, the cognitive aspect of mind is of utmost In addition, it will offer some traditionally informed importance. A state of consciousness, whether ordinary comments about several Buddhist concepts. or non-ordinary, can have a completely different value A frequently-encountered misconception with­ depending on what is cognized while one is in that state. in transpersonalism, one that is common to most of the Because of its emphasis on altered states rather than critiques offered here, is that Buddhism is a single, uniform cognitive content, transpersonal psychology frequently tradition that can be grasped and defined from outside. misinterprets Buddhist concepts and methods. Another related error is that its terms have simple, singular Because Buddhism focuses on the importance of definitions that can be equated with concepts from other precise and accurate cognitive content, Buddhist teachings very different traditions or with ideas propounded within are replete with distinctions, large and small. Important transpersonal psychology itself. In contrast with this teachers such as Nagarjuna or Padmasambhava paid great tendency to homogenize and universalize, this paper attention to explaining the errors in different categories presents the Buddhist views of a single practitioner and of Buddhist thought because correct understanding is

InternationalWhy Altered StatesJournal Are of TranspersonalNot Enough Studies, 30(1-2), 2011,International pp. 63-68 Journal of Transpersonal Studies 63 extremely subtle and intangible, and it is only through each time any individual performed an action, every gaining a deep understanding of the teachings that these person in the world would experience the exact same difficulties become clear. Yet this exposition of wrong results from that action, just as if they themselves had views is not carried out in order to denigrate the ideas of acted in that way. others, but in order to discover one’s own mistakes—errors Within Buddhism, that which is common or that tend to be typical for all humans regardless of whether shared among humans is not consciousness or mind or or not they claim to follow Buddhadharma (Namkhai spirit, but what is called karmic vision, which refers to Norbu, 1998; Namkhai Norbu & Clemente, 1999). the fact that despite having individual minds, humans Much of transpersonalism—like theosophy have shared perceptions of the sun, of mountains, music, before it, and very unlike Buddhism—apparently wishes voices, smells, and so on. It is true that within Buddhism to imagine that all great spiritual traditions lead to the there is a meditative experience referred to as all is same attainment (Wilber, 1975, 2000). Scholars within consciousness. This does not constitute an awakening to this community seem to feel free to make comparisons some universal mind, but instead represents a transient between diverse traditions after simply reading some state of a deluded mind. Even though some Buddhist papers and texts pertaining to those traditions and teachers use terms such as single mind or unique mind, perhaps practicing a few meditative techniques, without these refer to the fact that all phenomena manifesting having a thorough lineage-based training and grounding to our perceptions are contained within our own mind: in any of the paths that are considered. Evident differences there is no separation between the observing mind and are apparently ignored or explained as insignificant or the mind that is observed. Not even buddhas share as artifacts of cultural conditioning. Wisdom that has the same mind. Although dharmakaya is explained as been culturally conditioned may have value within the an enlightened mind that is the same for all buddhas, transpersonal world, but not so within Buddhism. sameness here means that its potential qualifications are From within Buddhism, it is the first author’s equal for all buddhas; it does not mean that there is one view that traditions cannot be reconciled, and that single dharmakaya that all buddhas share. attempts to do so create results that can no longer be In transpersonal circles the Buddhist term considered traditional. Such efforts at homogenizing alaya-vijnana (Sanskrit) is at times translated in a way spiritual paths must be clearly distinguished from that suggests a universal mind; however, this term what His Holiness the Dalai Lama is doing: he is not means ground-consciousness, and does not refer to working to reconcile different traditions, but to turn universal consciousness at all, but to a strictly individual the followers of different religions toward the common consciousness that stores all impressions and karmic human experience of compassion, thus pacifying the traces. Similarly, when a Dzogchen practitioner speaks aggressive tendencies of human minds. Nor can different about discovering the alaya (Tibetan, kun-gzhi), the spiritual traditions be equated. Starting with Buddha all-ground of all dharmas, dharmas should not be Shakyamuni himself, most important Buddhist teachers understood as objectively existing phenomena of the have said that Buddhadharma has very special and highly outer world, but as qualia, as events within individual important wisdom that other traditions do not have (a experience. number of Buddhist teachers have also acknowledged As an example of the difference between (some) that some realizations in other traditions are not that transpersonal and Buddhist notions of mind, consider radically different). the Christian and Vedic concepts of scripture. In these One of the most distinctive errors within the cultures there is the idea that all knowledge is contained transpersonal world is the effort to interpret the idea of in certain written texts. These texts are available to universal consciousness in Buddhist terms. The idea that everyone, so that anyone can extract reliable knowledge there is some subconscious or unconscious mind or spirit from this single common source. The transpersonal idea common to all beings, or at least all humans, is never of a shared subconscious or unconscious follows very found in Buddhist texts of any tradition, except in the much along this model, and can be used to explain why context where such an idea is explicitly refuted. Such a a person in a transpersonal state can discover knowledge concept contradicts the Buddhist principle of karma, that has no obvious physical source, or seems to come because if humans all share the same consciousness then from someone else’s mind even if that person is separated

64 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Berkhin & Hartelius in both space and time. The Buddhist concept of mind is the term seem to take the concept of non-duality as more consistent with the structure of the internet. While license to eschew careful distinctions, to uncritically at a superficial glance the worldwide web appears to be a meld together concepts that deserve precise definition single database accessible to all, it is in fact a network of and differentiation, and to conflate within a single separate data storage systems, and every single datum is theoretical ultimate a variety of states that may well store not on the internet as a whole but on some individual include certain transitory experiences of a deluded mind server or computer. Each datum can be transferred from (e.g., Blackstone, 2006, 2007; Krystal, 2003; Wilber, one storage site to another only if there is a specific 2000). connection between those two discrete sites that includes This latter point represents a foundational both a physical link and compatible software. In a contrast between Buddhism and transpersonal thought quite similar way, for Buddhism minds are individual; mentioned earlier, namely a difference in attitude toward karmic connections can be established through certain extra-ordinary states of mind. When an individual takes coincidences, and without such a connection no transfer LSD or goes into a flotation tank, it is quite possible of knowledge between persons is possible, whether to experience states of mind that are hardly accessible conscious, subconscious, or unconscious. in normal life. It is tempting and attractive to suggest Along the same line of thought is the recently- that these states are the same as those experienced by flourishing transpersonal term nonduality (Blackstone, adept practitioners of Indian yoga, Tibetan vajrayana, or 2006, 2007; Prendergast, Fenner, & Krystal, 2003). Chinese Taoism. Such claims seem reasonable in that the However, here again Buddhist thought demands careful basic potentiality of all humans ought to be more or less distinctions that appear to be largely absent from the same. Yet even if one were to grant equivalency to transpersonal thought. There are many different kinds these drug- or deprivation-induced non-ordinary states— of meditative and cognitive non-dual experiences—that unlikely if only because the number of possible states is, experiences that do not explicitly involve feeling that understood and described within Buddhism makes the subject and object are separate entities—and in Buddhism chances of such equivalency quite small—the meaning these various kinds of experience are delineated in of these induced states, in terms of the knowledge or careful and articulate terms. Some of these are no more capacity obtained, can be completely different. than transient states of what Buddhism would classify as For Buddhist thought, states of mind are not a deluded mind. Others, though of value, are far from objective realms that exist independently of an individual, the realization of nirvana. For example, an emptiness to be entered and accessed like some scriptural repository where the separation between subject and object is of knowledge. Rather, states of mind are events that neither felt nor thought is not yet the non-duality of are inseparable from their meanings, their results. So, dharmakaya. Similarly, the non-duality of absolute truth if two instances of the same state of mind have two and relative truth as explained in sutras must be wholly very different results, then saying that they were really distinguished from the non-duality of five wisdoms and the same state of mind is pointless. To illustrate this eight consciousnesses that is explained in higher tantras, difference, consider that from ancient times thousands and both of these are distinct from the non-duality of of individuals watched an apple fall from a tree, but only calm state and movement taught in Dzogchen. Light Newton discovered gravity. Because of its result, this for the Eyes of Contemplation (Tibetan, bSam-gtan event was profoundly different in meaning from any Mig-sgron) is an encyclopedic work from the 9th century watching of falling apples that came before. In Buddhist CE by Sangye Yeshi that presented the major Buddhist terms, it is meaningless to equate Newton’s experience traditions practiced in Tibet at that time; within this work with those of his predecessors. The event cannot somehow is a profound treatise on different kinds of non-duality in be abstracted from its result, and then categorized with both Indian and Chinese mahayana, in vajrayana higher other events that had superficial similarities, but very tantras, and in Dzogchen atiyoga. different results. An ecstatic drug-induced state of mind Thus, for Buddhism, the term non-duality is devoid of any increased knowledge or capacity has more used in a considerable number of discrete and precise in common with getting drunk and having sex with a ways, each of which must be understood within its stranger than it does with the attainments of spiritual own context. By contrast, some transpersonal uses of practitioners.

Why Altered States Are Not Enough International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 65 Even within spiritual practice, a particular event leaders of communities that cultivate powerful state- can result in different meanings. In Tibetan Buddhism shifting practices serve as a sobering challenge to the there is an important training that enables the practitioner position that extra-ordinary experiences are sufficient to understand how one event can give rise to completely to produce positive transformation. Separated from the different meanings. It refers, for example, to studying Buddha, no Buddhist meditative technique leads to the different kinds of so called “phylosophycal views” related state of a Buddha. to various Buddhist systems (Namkhai Norbu 1998; The difference between a Buddhist and a Namkhai Norbu & Clemente, 1999; see especially his transpersonal attitude toward non-ordinary states can quotations from the above-referenced 9th century work perhaps be illustrated with a consideration of how by Sangye Yeshi). The purpose of this training is to each relates to the phenomenon of dreaming. For teach discernment, to recognize that all the different transpersonalists, as for Jungians, the dream state seems possible meanings that arise from an event are limited, to be understood as one in which some deeper mind and how adherence to a particular meaning can block is communicating in a coded way with the rational a practitioner from moving forward on the path to real mind, revealing truths that might otherwise never knowledge that will result in liberation from suffering. be uncovered. Here again is a belief that information In general, Buddhism does not value special arising from some alternate state of mind is somehow states of mind as having transformative functions. Unlike superior to that which is available to cultivated waking transpersonal psychology, Buddhism does not believe awareness. that deep meditative experiences as such can make people To the Buddhist, the standard psychological into better, kinder, more tolerant humans. They can shift process of dream interpretation perpetuates unhelpful the focus of attention and change the circumstances of patterns of the mind, a problem that no insight thus one’s life, just as any other everyday event, but profound gleaned is likely to outweigh. Dream interpretation changes come about through meanings, not through takes place in waking consciousness, after the dream events. An extra-ordinary state can bring attention to has ended, in a dialectical process that mirrors the the fact that the world is not limited to material things, uncultivated waking mind. As soon as the mind has and thus prompt a re-evaluation of one’s life, but it can experienced something, it begins to tell itself what it as easily go by and leave no trace. has just experienced. For example, as soon as I taste Buddhist practice is thus designed to cultivate something very pleasant, I immediately start to explain meanings rather than events. These are facilitated by to myself that what I feel is pleasant. But this action factors such as moment-by-moment awareness of one’s of thinking is also an event, so now my mind has two condition, maintaining hold on particular knowledge, events to respond to, and so on in ever more complicated controlling intentions, and the impact from teachers or rhythms that draw me farther and farther from the supportive friends who are also on the path. Moreover, meaning that was embodied within the actual event. Buddhist practice is designed to cultivate very particular It is in just this way that dream interpretation, meanings. Buddhist meditative techniques alone can rather than illuminating messages from a deep inner be used in the service of quite different meanings. wisdom, actually draws the individual farther and For example, taken out of the context of compassion farther from the meaning that lived within the dream as (meaning), techniques that lead to deep levels of the dream. For the dream consists of meanings the mind consciousness (events) can be applied in the context of already has, meanings that are immediately projected as military training (new meaning) and serve in the creation visible dream events. If I can bring this understanding of highly efficient soldiers capable of setting aside their into the dream state, I can notice that all appearances normal human feelings and acting ruthlessly—a result within the dream are not different from my thought of wholly at odds with the Buddhist meaning. them. The meaning and the dream event are two aspects To the degree that transpersonal psychology of one and the same phenomenon, rather than an event trusts in the definitively transformative function of that then has to be be given meaning by thinking about transformative experiences per se, this seems a course it and explaining it within the waking mind. fraught with risk. The numerous financial and sexual Lucid dreamers work to stabilize dreams by scandals and instances of abuse of power associated with transferring the analytical mind into the dream state,

66 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Berkhin & Hartelius and thus enjoying all the illusory possibilities of the distinctions made within Buddhist teachings. It would dream state and the strong sensations that go with them. be unfortunate if the movement became associated with However entertaining this may be, from a Buddhist superficial understandings of the traditions that it seeks perspective such an approach is not fruitful, and such to emulate: if transpersonal Buddhism or yoga or Taoism a process is not what is meant by suggesting that the or shamanism came to signify shallow and popularized understanding of the nature of dreaming be brought reductions of those traditions, versions which allowed into the dream state. The goal of dream-yoga in Tibetan would-be students of spiritual work to have various sorts vajrayana, for example, is quite different than either lucid of transient experiences which were then inflated to dreaming or dream interpretation: through discovering equality with the attainments of long-term, traditionally the illusory nature of dreams, one obtains experiential trained spiritual practitioners. knowledge that there is no difference between mind and appearances (Namkhai Norbu, 2002). Appearances are References themselves mind. This knowledge is then transferred to the wakeful state, so that through the experiences Blackstone, J. (2006). Intersubjectivity and nonduality of perception, the processes of the mind itself can be in the psychotherapeutic relationship. Journal carefully observed. It is through this attentive waking of Transpersonal Psychology, 38(1), 25-40. practice, and not through the power of any sort of non- Blackstone, J. (2007). The empathic ground: Intersubjectivity ordinary states, that transformation occurs. and nonduality in the p s y c h o t h e r a p e u t i c If an individual has at least a minimal capacity process. Albany, NY: State University of New York to notice the arising of thoughts and emotions in the Press. mind, then change can begin. It is possible to notice, for Friedman, H. (2009). Xenophilia as a cultural trap: example, that if attention is kept continuously on any Bridging the gap between transpersonal psychology emotion that arises, that emotion will quickly disappear. and religious/spiritual traditions. International The emotion may appear again, but through direct Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 28(1), 107-111. observation it will disappear again. If the emotional Friedman, H. (2010). Is Buddhism a psychology? background is very strong, then the emotion may appear Comment on romanticism in “mindfulness in frequently—but with diligent application of observation, psychology.” The Humanist Psychologist, 38(2), 184- this background will subside and finally disappear. 189. The typical challenges to be overcome in applying this Garcia-Romeau, A. (2010). Self-transcendence as a method are: inability to directly notice one’s emotions, measurable transpersonal construct. Journal of being instead distracted by the flow of mental images Transpersonal Psychology, 42(1), 26-47. or bodily sensations produced by the emotion, and Grof, S., Grob, C., Bravo, G., and Walsh, R. (2008). inability to maintain attention directly on the emotion. Birthing the transpersonal. Journal of Transpersonal Every aspect of this process requires focus, attention, Psychology, 40(2), 155-177. discernment, and wakefulness, and is not in any way Krystal, S. (2003). A nondual approach to EMDR: reliant on extra-ordinary states of mind. From the Psychotherapy as satsang. In J. J. Prendergast, P. perspective of Buddhism, it is this sort of keen-minded Fenner, & S. Krystal (Eds.), The sacred mirror: process, carried out in the context of compassion that Nondual wisdom & psychotherapy (pp. 116-137). St. a Buddhist teacher and/or community holds, that leads Paul, MN: Paragon House. toward the extinction of suffering. Maslow, A. (1969). The farther reaches of human nature. It is gratifying to see the transpersonal Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 1(1), 1-9. community’s healthy interest in spirituality in general, Namkhai Norbu (1998). The precious vase: Instructions on and in Buddhism in particular. No doubt many the base of Santi Maha Sangha. Arcidosso, GR, Italy: transpersonalists have had very real and meaningful Shang Shung Edizioni. experiences. However, the ways in which certain Namkhai Norbu, & Clemente, A. (1999). The supreme Buddhist terminology has been misappropriated leads source, the Kunjed Gyalpo, the fundamental tantra to the suggestion that the field needs to follow up its of Dzogchen Semde. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion enthusiasm with more careful and detailed study of the Publications.

Why Altered States Are Not Enough International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 67 Namkhai Norbu. (2002). Dream Yoga and the Practice Glenn Hartelius, PhD, is Assistant Professor at the of Natural Light. Ithaca, New York, NY: Snow Lion Institute of Transpersonal Psychology in Palo Alto, Publications. CA, and secretary of the International Transpersonal Prendergast, J. J., Fenner, P., & Krystal, S. (2003). The Association. The focus of his research is in the areas sacred mirror: Nondual wisdom & psychotherapy. St. of transpersonal theory, somatic phenomenology, Paul, MN: Paragon House. participatory philosophy, and consciousness studies. He Tart, C. T. (2008). Accessing state-specific transpersonal teaches seminars internationally in Attention Dynamics®, knowledge: Inducing altered states. Journal of an attentional training program for the development Transpersonal Psychology, 40(2), 137-154. of focused and empathic meditative states. He may be Wilber, K. (1975). Psychologia perennis: The spectrum reached at [email protected]. of consciousness. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 7(2), 105-132. About the Journal Wilber, K. (2000). A brief history of everything. Boston, MA: Shambhala. The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies is a peer-reviewed academic journal in print since 1981. It is About the Authors published by Floraglades Foundation, and serves as the official publication of the International Transpersonal Association. The journal is available online at www. Igor Berkhin studied linguistics at Moscow State transpersonalstudies.org, and in print through www. University, and holds the equivalent of a Master’s degree lulu.com (search for IJTS). from Donetsk State University, where he also served on the faculty of mathematics specializing in mathematical analysis and theory of functions. When the Soviet Union came to an end in 1991, he served as an English-Russian translator for teachers of various Buddhist traditions who were entering the former USSR, traditions that included seon (zen), gelug, karma and shangpa kagyu, nyingma, bon, and others. In the 1990s he studied Ch’an-Mi Ch’i-kung both in Ukraine and China and taught at the college of religious studies of Donetsk Open University. Starting in 1996 he undertook studies with Chogyal Namkhai Norbu within the International Dzogchen Community (www.dzogchen.it), whose work he has been translating into Russian. He is now authorized by Chogyal Namkhai Norbu to be an instructor of Santi Maha Sangha, a global program for preserving Dzogchen teaching. Since 2002 he has taught more than 100 seminars on Buddhist teaching and practice in Ukraine, Russia, Lithuania, Poland, Czech, Slovakia, Hungary, Italy, Venezuela, and Bulgaria. He may be contacted at igor.berkhin-at-gmail.com. The five short papers that informed this article are available in their original form online: http://igorberkhin.org/eng/congress2010_1.pdf http://igorberkhin.org/eng/congress2010_2.pdf http://igorberkhin.org/eng/congress2010_3.pdf http://igorberkhin.org/eng/ijts_1.pdf http://igorberkhin.org/eng/ijts_2.pdf

68 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Berkhin & Hartelius On a Physical Scientific Approach to Transpersonal Psychology Alan Haas Psychobiophysics Research Organization Waltham, MA, USA Transpersonal psychology involves an approach to behavior and the self that transcends ordinary states of mind as well as extends to the larger environment as a whole. Treating the individual, their mind, and behavior in relation to others and the larger natural system utilizing properly developed and practically applicable concepts from physics, chemistry, and biology may provide a successful interpretation that may be more powerful than the standard views of psychology. For instance, basic concepts such as charge pair attraction‑repulsion, bonding, and synchronous behavior may be transformed into highly effective and even “spiritual” concepts that can add sophistication to human action, thought, and emotion in a way that is both more naturalistic and transcendent than current definitions in psychology. Keywords: transpersonal, physicalist, quantum, synchronicity, electromagnetism

he purpose of this article is to suggest a quantum entanglement (Radin, 2006). Quantum practicable way in which taking a physical entanglement is a relatively recently demonstrated science approach to psychology and behavior so‑called “spooky” phenomenon in physics, one with a Tcan prove to be successful. This methodology might long history of skepticism and debate beginning with perhaps be considered as effective or potentially more so Einstein’s doubts (Einstein et al., 1935). Its application than ordinary psychological and spiritual perspectives, to psychology would presumably be, like the microscopic perhaps imbuing the mind with an additional sense of quantum mechanical phenomenon itself, in the form of personal transcendence. But the idea of building a model a simultaneous‑like transmission of knowledge and other of psychology or spirituality in a reductionistic way from nonlocal “action‑at‑a‑distance” effects between brains technical subjects like physics and chemistry is often and minds (Leder, 2005). frowned upon. Such physicalistic approaches are often But these new ideas, while representing distinct thought of as being overly mechanical, too simplistic, and possibilities, may not always be fully realistic and viable, entirely inapplicable to complex human beings (Furedy, and there may be more potentially feasible approaches. 2004; Zentall, 2008; Hunt, 2005; Barnes‑Gutteridge, For instance, the contemporary belief in entanglement 1985). Yet physically derived concepts and terminology of minds may be considered highly analogous to the are increasingly used by psychologists and behavioral way many thinkers believed thoughts could be directly scientists, and by the general public as well. For example, transmitted through the ether by electromagnetic it is quite common to refer to human behavior using waves toward the end of the nineteenth century. Those physically based terminology regarding “positive” and interpretations, while certainly important and useful “negative” actions and experiences, or as involving attempts to apply physical principles to psychology, “momentum.” These are terms with clear origins and eventually proved untenable. Other approaches proved references in physics. Further, an increasing number of to be more practical and immediately employable, for appealing theories are now being published on the topic example Freud’s (1949) psychoanalytic theory. Given a of a special relation between physics and psychology history of difficulties and limitations when attempting (Radin, 2006; McTaggart, 2007), although many of to apply effects directly from physics to psychology, these interpretations must be considered hypothetical. it is therefore an important caveat that it is necessary Many of the most popular recent ideas to be careful when seeking to extrapolate laws from surrounding psychology and physics seem to focus on developments in physics or other branches of science to the idea of special physical effects being enacted through relatively unrelated ones.

PhysicalInternational Scientific Journal Approach of Transpersonal to Transpersonal Studies, 30(1-2), 2011,International pp. 69 - 81Journal of Transpersonal Studies 69 Nevertheless, new ideas and concepts in the For the present, it will be assumed that behavioral and social sciences have often been successfully the source of many such psychological experiences derived with some help from developments in the physical cannot be attributed entirely to psychopathology or sciences. At the period during the turn of the twentieth other misinterpretations of simultaneous events and century, Freud (1949) did in fact develop psychoanalysis meaningful “coincidences,” because certainly in many and his concept of quantities of libidinal “energy” using cases they can (Williams, 2010; Reiner, 2006; Krysnki principles borrowed directly from the newly developed & Tenenbaum, 2007). Yet it can be posited that it is thermodynamics (Lashley, 1924). His ideas included also quite possible that in many cases there is some application of conservation of energy principles, cathexis form of a real physical connection and relation between and decathexis as a charge/discharge, and the requirement these ostensibly “acausal” events, revealing itself in what for a healthy balancing of conscious and unconscious may be a physical ordering in interactive psychology psychological forces. His model strongly meshed with and behavior. These unusual psychological experiences new advances in the physical sciences. In that case, the might possibly be better explained in many cases by physical sciences provided invaluable new concepts that using a model that is dependent upon physical aspects of led to conceptual insights into the underlying principles a coherent biological and psychological reality that may and “mechanics” of psychological processes. It is therefore underlie human behavior. true that in many instances concepts from physics and Such an interpretation would be in contrast to chemistry proper have been helpful in developing better attributing subjective personal synchronistic experiences to models of psychology. But there have also been many seductive ideas of special kinds of “telepathic” transmission complications in efforts to apply physics to the complex of thoughts through an ether or via quantum entanglement aspects of psychology, where the two scientific domains or other unobservable forces. Elaborate “intelligently and their principles are often not fully commensurable. designed” and precisely engineered mechanisms and The most recent quantum entanglement pathways in biology cannot usually be expected due approach to psychology has probably been spurred due to to the considerable bluntness of evolutionary biology full experimental validation of the new phenomenon in (Gould, 2006; Page, Moser, & Dutton, 2003). Moreover, quantum physics as well as an increasing growing number it is usually not possible to directly apply quantum of experiences of synchronistic effects (Jung, 1955) and phenomenon to macroscopic objects, specifically a large related phenomena reported in everyday life and clinical biological entity such as the human brain. This is due to practice (Main 2007; Totton, 2007). Such strange effects the well‑known “correspondence principle” introduced by in psychology are now typically called “synchronicities” the early quantum mechanical thinkers (Bohr, 1920) that (Jung, 1955) and meaningful coincidences because they limits the extent of application of microscopic principles seem to reveal an underlying special physical order and as the size scale increases. It may therefore be necessary to simultaneity in the universe, or even an elusive mysterious look for the origin of actual forces in the more “mundane” physical force behind the psyche (Lazar, 2001). For physical‑chemical properties of nature, and these may be instance, a common example of such an experience ones that rely heavily upon traditional classical scientific might be witnessed during a simultaneous or congruent principles. thought or emotion with another person (Hogenson, If a physically based interpretation of psych­ 2009) or at a moment of an unusual sense of cognitive ology is to be used to explain synchronistic effects in alignment with an external set of circumstances. This the macroscopic realm, then precisely how is it that may sometimes occur when an individual and another physical and chemical forces might play their role? person, object, or event are separated by a significant Can physical concepts be pragmatically applied to distance and apparently seem to be causally unrelated human beings in a relevant and viable way to explain to each other, establishing what was originally called an experiences that seem to reveal a unique type of order “acausal connection” by Carl Jung (1955). The seeming between individuals and their milieu, and in their improbability of this type of event combined with its de relation to the larger “universe”? If so, such an approach facto emergence (Cambray, 2002) often leads to a state of would be required to provide some explanation of the surprise or awe and a consequent seeking of alternative correlation between the microscopic and macroscopic explanations regarding its meaning. worlds, in a way that the effects can be considered both

70 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Haas commensurable and corresponding. Evaluation of the aspect or quality of the many influential parameters macroscopic forms and functions of biological systems involved in interdependent psychology. For instance, it is therefore likely to involve an approach that takes into may often be true that two people will change mental account larger statistical sums of quantities of mass and state approximately simultaneously, and this is likely to a energy. This must be the case due to the collections considerable extent to be due to physical processes from of atoms, chemical structures, and charge states that the basic biochemistry of the human brain and body. are required to create active biological organisms. The But these processes may in many ways be subliminal and approach would also be required to describe some sort ancillary to the critically important personal and social of a general alignment and coherence between the parts decisions that an individual must make, hidden deep constituting the complex and multifaceted macroscopic beneath the external surface. system. The latter may be proposed to be caused by the Nevertheless, perhaps to a greater extent than natural physical coordination and synchronization of ever before, the use of concepts from the physical the behavior of large numbers of atoms and molecules in sciences has moved researchers closer to describing the microscopic realm, and by the macroscopic coherent an underlying physical reality and mechanics behind behavior of biological beings themselves in relation to human thought and action. As will be suggested in this each other and their larger environment. paper, the use of basic physical principles, particularly Such a possibility must also be described in a way from electromagnetism and chemistry in combination that is not merely metaphorical, and that is dependent with synchronistic principles, is likely to represent one of upon the real chemical and biological properties of the best methods to do this properly. the substances and modules that create human beings Historical and Contemporary Development (Gholson & Barker, 1986). It must rely on factors that of the Relation Between define the true biological and psychological characteristics Electromagnetism and Psychology of human beings and their natural environment— ones here is a long history of both psychologists and that are functional, observable, and measurable. Such Tphysicists who have attempted to apply principles a method would also represent a genuine physical from physics directly to psychological experiences. These relation to the surrounding environment supporting efforts have probably gone on throughout human history human existence. Currently, quantum mechanically in various forms, including in the earliest interpretations based descriptions are not applicable in such a way to of “psychic” phenomena and most recently in the form the macroscopic domain, and have not led to successful of “psi” and entanglement (Alvarado, 2006; Radin, working scientific models for psychology. The only 2006). However, the most notable landmark studies exceptions in biology are the small number of examples of regarding specific electromagnetic physics principles specific quantum mechanical behavior at the molecular began after the discovery of electricity and magnetic level of biology, such as in biological electron transfer principles themselves. Perhaps we have all at one time or tunneling and photosynthesis (Moser, 1992; Collini et al., another heard someone described as “mesmerizing” or 2010; Arndt et al., 2009). It would therefore be helpful to having a “magnetic” personality. This is a reference going consider other realistic possibilities for the ways in which all the way back to Franz Mesmer’s original studies on the principles and laws of physics and chemistry might animal magnetism in the eighteen hundreds, in which be applied to the macroscopic mechanics of psychology he believed strong magnetic fields flowed throughout the (Kim, 2005). body. While his belief in such strong forces did not prove It is a rapidly burgeoning trend to use terminology to be fully correct, his ideas did help lead to the eventual and concepts derived from the physical sciences in development of hypnotism, and in current times it is psychology, but the concepts are typically used in a largely now commonly understood that small electromagnetic “nominal” or loosely descriptive way (Smith, 2006). fields do in fact exist around the body (Burr, 1939). This may be understandable because rarely, if ever, are Later, at the turn of the twentieth century, the psychological concepts identical to the physical ones they notable physicist Oliver Lodge also made an admirable are hoped to be modeled with. Additionally, the actual attempt to apply the physics principles and technologies physical underpinnings of the mind may not be obvious he was developing to the mind. He believed that to subjective human perception, and represent only one thoughts could be transmitted directly between humans

Physical Scientific Approach to Transpersonal International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 71 via electromagnetic waves through the ether, much like mechanism. They ended up only borrowing the new they did in the radio telegraphy he helped to pioneer concept of indeterminism from quantum mechanics (Raia, 2007). Of course it is now known that an ether rather than developing what might have been a more propagating electromagnetic waves probably does not convincing extensive and rigorous scientific model exist, unless one chooses to define other kinds of “fabrics” (Zabriskie, 1995). But new approaches have now greatly of the universe (Greene, 2004; Wilczek, 2008). But in improved upon Jung’s original ideas. For instance, the part due to these past efforts, it has become very clear aspect of “emergence” of such synchronistic effects that certain types of directly transmitted “telepathy” are has been clarified as due to moments of mental and unlikely to be tenable. physical order that emanate from a seemingly chaotic While neither Lodge’s nor Mesmer’s ideas turned underpinning of unconscious factors (Cambray, 2002). out to be entirely correct, they were certainly admirable This has been compared to the way functional vesicles and valuable scientific efforts. They led to useful or cells emerge in a chemically stable way from a sea insights into potential human psychological capacities, of component parts in a previous state of disorder and and suggested new possibilities pertaining to human chaos (Cambray, 2009). interaction between dyadic partners and with the larger Most of the past historical attempts to apply universe. For instance, Lodge’s idea of a kind of resonance concepts from physics directly to psychology can or tuning between individuals’ brains (Raia, 2007) is an certainly be considered heuristically and conceptually idea that has been investigated and pursued by many helpful. But they have usually been met with a limited others since his time, and is still being actively pursued amount of success. Most of the ideas were only partially today. A testament to the legitimacy of his early work, applicable in how they pertain to actual psychological it is now standard practice for researchers to use terms mental mechanisms and behavior (perhaps the like “social tuning” to describe attempts at matching and possible exception is Freud, who primarily sought to creating a shared reality between individuals, whether make psychoanalysis only more rigorously physical by ordinary perception or implicitly activated processes scientific‑like rather than identical to physics). Yet the (Lun, Sinclair, & Witchurch, 2007). analogies and comparisons have certainly been helpful The efforts to apply physical science principles in developing better psychological theories and for to psychology continued throughout the twentieth modeling human thought and behavior more effectively. century, of course in Sigmund Freud’s own efforts to They have also consistently hinted at and suggested make psychoanalysis much like thermodynamics, but some form of an underlying physical order and unseen also very significantly in Carl Jung’s idea of synchronicity forces at work. The attempts seemed to especially take (Jung, 1955). Jung worked on his ideas about “acausal” advantage of new physical concepts and ideas from synchronous events with the eminent physicist Wolfgang electromagnetism, thermodynamics, and quantum Pauli (Zabriskie, 1995; Pauli & Jung, 2001; Main, mechanics. In most cases, however, the physical forces 2007). But Pauli concluded the events could not have a usually required substantial modification when applying direct physically mediated source, and Jung was obliged them to macroscopic biological and psychological to agree (Cambray, 2009). Failing to find a specific behavior. direct linking physical mechanism, they eventually Currently, there are many new examples similar interpreted the phenomenon mainly in an analogous and these historical efforts involving application of the metaphorical way to probabilistic and indeterministic principles of electromagnetism and quantum mechanics. quantum mechanical events. They ultimately resorted A new class of “metaphors” has found its way into the to an explanation of strange “acausal” synchronistic research lexicon. For instance, it is now a common coincidences, simultaneous thoughts, and precognitions practice for behavioral scientists to describe emotions based on a principle of a kind of unknowable alignment as containing a “valence,” which refers to emotional with surrounding events and the universe through states such as happiness or sadness. The term has almost “constellated” archetypal structures (an “acausal certainly been derived from the description of atomic connecting principle”; Jung, 1955). and chemical valence states, for which the valence would Like previous researchers, Jung and Pauli define a formal charge state (+1,- 1, +2, etc.). The idea of could not find and apply a satisfactory specific physical such states might even be considered to directly correlate

72 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Haas with an actual kind of positive or negative emotional to psychology. I describe how humans and their brains “charge state,” as suggested in this paper. may be accurately described as charged objects obeying The use of concepts derived from general physics the laws of electromagnetism and chemistry. These and chemistry, especially regarding electromagnetism and brains and the body’s behavior may act in a substantially quantum mechanics, is already on its way to becoming a synchronous and aligned way with other individuals conventional way of describing psychological phenomena. and the environment. Coordinated and coherent brains The value of such concepts and their meanings are clear. may operate much like synchronized clocks separated in When referring to an emotion, action, or state of mind space, resulting in what sometimes appear to be special as positive or negative, it can more easily be understood physical effects of simultaneous thought and behavior. as either beneficial or detrimental. Similarly, considering Approximately simultaneous changes in mental being “on the same wavelength” or “in sync” with another charge states may result in what are often perceived as person are highly physical analogies that help individuals synchronicities or “entanglement.” For instance, when a to relate to each other. These physical analogies cannot pair of individuals simultaneously think of each other (in be casually dismissed as merely useless descriptions of what might be revealed in the form of an aptly timed e- reality based on inapplicable physical scientific concepts. mail or phone call (Brown & Sheldrake, 2001), coherent Rather, they can be extremely effectual when carefully internal biological and electrochemical processes may applied and utilized in proper ways. determine the timing. The partners or “halves” of the As many of these electromagnetic analogies often pair may experience a simultaneity in their thoughts do fall short in some way, it cannot be overemphasized and actions, but do not need to be present in the same how important it is to properly tailor and design them for physical location for there to be effects of a significant human behavior. This is in a way that most optimally fits coherence between them. Figure 1 overviews the most the complex factors and specific “mechanics” that define basic version of this electrodynamic model. any particular given individual psychological or social The charge states responsible for this characteristic event. For instance, describing a candidate in a political of the mind and behavior are proposed to reside in the election or a team in a sporting event as containing neurochemistry of the brain, and in conjunction with momentum would certainly be a valid way of describing other systems of the body (e.g., hormonal and other those particular types of activities (Nevin & Grace, regulatory processes). The states may primarily be 2000). But it is also clear that the concept of behavioral created and guided by collections of charge and the momentum can only be applied to those specific types electric potential states established by neurons (Haas, of events showing a clear kind of “vectorial” trend of 2010). This can be considered in a similar manner as either winning or losing. Not all human activities will to how currents from groups of neurons are established contain those particular elements of physics, nor is and measured using EEG when they create a potential it immediately obvious how to define momentum in at the surface of the brain. However, in this case the psychological terms (in physics it is defined by a mass “m” charges may represent a more “static” (i.e., electrostatic) times velocity, but in psychology the velocity component net charge or potential state of neurons and collections is not as clear). Thus, for the purposes of the remainder thereof that change over longer periods of time. of this article, it will be useful to consider how some of As in classical physics and chemistry, most the most basic and important electromagnetic physical objects and events, and human beings themselves, may principles, in conjunction with synchronistic effects, may in some way be considered paired and to involve balanced be accurately and productively applied to psychology. forms of energy. Units of these charge and energy, like Further advanced principles may eventually follow from in physical chemistry and quantum mechanics, must this initial description. usually move from one occupied space to another available A New Hypothesis: location. These entities exist in what are typically called Electromagnetic and Chemical Psychology “orbitals,” or structurally defined spaces and locations. n The Interconnectedness of Reality (Haas, 2010) Further, a collection of these complementary constituent II introduce a new way of considering ordinary parts can be treated as parts of a larger whole integral physical sciences principles (as opposed to strange system, and this system can be treated to a considerable quantum mechanical ones) that is directly applicable extent as equilibrated but also in an “open” state of

Physical Scientific Approach to Transpersonal International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 73 growth or evolution. All of the parts may therefore be the earth there will always be an equal opposite relation considered bound or related in some generally balanced or repulsion of the earth pushing back up. This might and continually changing space‑occupying way within conceivably occur in a very specific local pairing way a larger system, and the extent of any given particular and over longer distances as well (Haas, 2010). individual connection will tend to vary in strength. It may be hypothesized that mental states are The pieces of such an interdependent system, generally positively, negatively, or neutrally charged, and particularly as pertains to a social one, are not necessarily the idea of attraction and repulsion logically follows as a “glued” together in so strong way as to be extremely central physical mental principle. “Bonding” may occur tightly attached and dependent on a given fixed opposite through the mental bonding of charges and energies at all times. A perfect relation of that nature might be that are stored within the compartment of the human the case for strong chemical bonding or the precisely brain due to its molecular activities. This will correspond correlated entanglement of the quantum states of particles directly with the decisions an individual makes, for (Bell, 1964). Rather, as regards relatively flexible and example whether to be near or far from someone else, approximating human interactions, there may be a more and it could not occur through a direct chemical bond general and exchangeable pairing relationship between as in a covalent attachment and tethering. As common individuals, and between them and their environment. sense would seem to dictate, individuals are generally The decisions and qualities of interpersonal relationships attracted to people and objects they like and avoid those will define the preferred and allowed shared behaviors they dislike. These states of mind and preferences can between pairs and groups of people, yet the relations almost certainly be considered more “electrical.” might always be considered paired as equal and The molecular activities responsible for these opposite charges and forces, perhaps much like partners charge states are likely to be created by enzymes such as contributing equally within a “couple.” Gravity itself ion channels and pumps, neurotransmitters, and other might be said to exhibit just such a pairing effect on the chemically charged and polarized molecules within human body, because to the extent a body is attracted to neurons. Charged and polar molecules are ubiquitous

Figure 1. Human Brains as Charged States of Interaction I _ I. Two individuals become involved through an ordinary interaction due to a paired charged state + of their brains (circles represent brains). One per‑

son may usually be considered more “positive” Elapsed Time and another more “negative” (there is no pejora‑ II _ tive connotation implied for the latter). II. After sharing/exchanging their initial charge states, + the qualities of their mental states may reverse (perhaps creating a temporary “repulsion”). III. The the individuals become physically separated III _ again, and proceed with their respective though/ + decision processes. IV. Another transition may then occur roughly simultaneously either (A) in isolation, or (B) when they return to meet again. IV-A _ This sequence is hypothesized to occur through ordinary biological processes and psychology via + a subconscious synchronization and coordina‑ tion. It is proposed that electrochemical mo‑ lecular activity is fundamentally responsible, as IV-B _ opposed to quantum entanglement. + 74 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Haas in cells, and are constantly added to or removed from vary in their charge magnitudes and strength, or their enzymes as modifications to regulate their activity. For total potential/kinetic energy states. example, inorganic phosphate is net negatively charged, The idea of a conscious or empathetic field and may be added or removed from ion channel proteins has been proposed by many others before in a variety to regulate their activity through phosphorylation of ways (Mansfield, 1996; Brown & Sheldrake, 2001; (Kandel, 2006). Thus, the forces between brains over Tubert‑Oklander, 2007; McTaggart, 2007). But a significant distances can perhaps be treated as akin to conscious field is likely not to be a “quantum field” ionic bonds, or capacitor‑like storages of charge, for which that takes advantage of mysterious acausal “entangled” two interacting compartmentalized halves are generally mechanisms or an actual manifestation of the brain attracted or repelled from each other and accordingly outside the body, except perhaps as it exists in culture transported by movement of the body. and other impacts on the surrounding environment. The The factors that go into human choices and processes of the brain and body are extremely macroscopic decisions, all the parameters that influence a person’s relative to hypothesized quantum fields speculated to actions, are obviously complex and numerous. However, support it. Consequently, a psychologically charged field a person will usually end up at one particular place, doing is more likely to be of the same nature as the same sort one particular thing at one particular time, either with of ionic “soup” and water‑based medium sustaining the one or more other people or alone. The decisions leading molecules and charges that generate molecular biological to the resulting event, based on a weight between all processes. This soup (even if it is “uncanny”) is directly the factors involved in an array of possible choices, will descended from and like that out of which life originally inevitably lead to a particular outcome that is a largely arose in the primordial ocean. Whatever chemical laws digital conclusion. Assuming at any given time a single have always applied to that original aqueous solution are particular choice must be made and that a person will very likely to be the most relevant to the human brain prefer to make the most favorable one, to some extent and body which is made up mostly of water and other that choice can be seen as somewhat determined or even chemical components. predetermined. It will either occur or it will not at a The neurobiology and neurochemistry of given time and spatial location, and it may also depend the brain largely works by the movement of charged on an obligatory aligned or “coherent” relation between molecules and the binding and releasing of chemical two parties. and electrochemical energy. The action potentials, In a very important sense, people may therefore neurotransmitters, and ionic gates that determine brain be considered strongly physically connected and “bonded” activity act very much like electromagnetic waves and with their environment and others. The idea of social switches. As collective statistical groups, on the whole “pair bonding” is already an extremely important in these biochemical changes probably always represent concept psychology. It has recently been experimentally some specific overall charged state of mind as the mental shown to occur in a coordinated way through space and emotional state of a brain changes. Additionally, and in simultaneous time due to prior intervals of the cognition and emotional processing involved in synchronization, persisting for a period of time after psychology probably occurs in a highly synchronous partners are separated (Oullier, Guzman, Jantzen, Lagarde, and coherent way between individuals and their groups, & Kelso, 2008; Valdesolo, Ouyang, & DeSteno, 2010). and between individuals and the natural environment From a physical perspective, the importance of this kind itself. This description of a charge paired physical and of an interconnectedness of psychological reality cannot mental reality leads to the model presented in Figure be ignored, as it creates a lasting connection that persists 1, which may represent the most basic way to begin through both time and space. Further, “fields” establishing, analyzing a unit of human psychological interaction linking, and “conducting” these effects might very well be using electromagnetic principles. considered to be constructed like classical fields of charges. Discussion and Relation to In a sense, individuals must make choices from within a Transpersonal Psychology preexistent “field” of possibilities, as they move from one deas of a universal kind of attraction have been described location to another. Regarding conscious thought and Iin various forms of “spiritual laws” and the like, and may action, the brains constituting such a field are likely to therefore directly relate to transpersonal psychology. But

Physical Scientific Approach to Transpersonal International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 75 it is important not to exaggerate the idea of an unrealistic Such a physically based interpretation of reality is unity or interconnectedness of all matter, for example by neither banal, too simplistic, nor impractical. As regards postulating a grand sort of overarching “conscious field” a transpersonal perspective, the extent of an individual’s (McTaggart, 2007). What is implied here is simply that appreciation and experience of these effects will depend brains may be charged and that these charge states lead upon their comprehension and understanding of it. Like to a general kind of attraction and repulsion between any transcendent type of philosophy, much depends on conscious organisms. Collections of such charges might be the knowledge and skill of the practitioner and thinker considered to constitute a “field”; and a change to one any (see Figure 2). This approach may represent exactly the one individualized part will usually require a concomitant kind of vision sought by inspiring early transcendentalist change with another part. These changes occur only at thinkers, like Emerson and Thoreau, who sought a union certain allowable times and locations, during “windows of or relation with nature and her laws in the most intimate opportunity.” In explicit psychological terms these events way (Thoreau, 1992). Emerson’s writings clearly express occur first and foremost through the decisions and actions his opinion of prevalent electric‑like forces within the of individuals, but they are also constrained within some psyche and nature, and this is particularly noteworthy in range of allowable personal and social limitations and his aptly entitled essay Compensation (Emerson, 1992). permissions. This may even be considered conceptually The desire for an electrical interpretation of human analogous to the properties of quantum mechanical nature has been noted in Goethe’s writing as well orbitals which allow only specific quantized discrete units (Cambray, 2009), and there are certainly many other of change, spin, and so on. thinkers who have made similar allusions.

Superstition Normal Behavior Traditional attributing order to unaware of order Spiritual Experience unlikely causes but following it perceive/create order

Gross Psycho- Personal Peak Experience/ Error pathology Creativity/ Transpersonal making becoming aware Growth Psychology something of order from creating order understand all out of nothing chaotic mental state out of nothing factors scientifically

Minimum Maximum Understanding Understanding more chaos perceived more control, efficiency, and coherence perceived

Figure 2. Levels of Physical Scientific Understanding of Psychology and Synchronistic Experience: From Chaos to Scientific Order and Transpersonal Psychology

Continuum of levels of scientific understanding of physical order in psychology and behavior (originally pre‑ sented at the Synchro Summit, Yale University, 2010). The scale represents the degree to which the modes of understanding take advantage of a physical scientific perspective. It does not imply a value judgment about the different modes of understanding. Ideally, utilizing a physical scientific model would represent an optimal method for achieving a higher awareness in psychological experience and nature. It would transcend a normal habituated consciousness or primitive state of mind. It requires a fully active understanding of the electro‑ magnetic aspects of psychological interaction and charge related activities. Full awareness and control of such aspects might be considered akin to an optimal “peak experience.”

76 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Haas The sentiment regarding central balanced to the creative growth of the unconscious self at “stuck” physical forces in nature is perhaps most strongly moments, as it breaks through and begins to perceive expressed in Eastern philosophies, particularly Buddhism and understand the natural order in the psyche and its and Taoism, which seek a sort of merging with the natural relationships with others. forces of the universe and liberation from the idea of a It seems unlikely that brains change state separate self. A parallel between Eastern perspectives and simultaneously with other individuals because they are Western scientific ideas of forces in physics has long been perfectly coupled like the quantum states of paired photons noted (Capra, 1975). This is particularly exemplified in or electrons in ideally correlated quantum entanglement the concept of yin and yang as active and receptive forms. experiments. It seems far more probable that individuals But the spiritual experience and perception of these often are emotionally and interpersonally connected with subtle physical effects may require a level awareness others and that they can often be “in synch” (Haas, beyond gross reality that involves some increased 2010; Haas, work in progress). The different physical knowledge of both one’s own psychology as well as basic interpretation expressed here is that at a fundamental scientific principles. Encouragingly, perhaps more than at level individuals can be electromagnetically charged due any time before in history, the layperson him and herself to the forms of energy stored in the neurochemistry of the are now beginning to speak in physicalized terms, for brain. They can also be highly synchronized with each example in the polarities of “positive” and “negative.” It other due to the basic biochemical processes of the brain is now more generally appreciated that for every action and body that are often attuned with their experienceable there must be some sort of a reaction, in accordance with “universe.” On the rarer occasions when individuals Newton’s Third Law. Thus, physical science concepts experience a heightened sense of “resonance” (Mishlove are already more appreciated and utilized in everyday life & Engen, 2007) or a special simultaneous thought and spirituality, if not in precisely rigorously scientific matching in other ways, it is perhaps best explained as ways. Nevertheless, the ideas are well on their way to a natural “spike” in biological timing or a sophisticated finding a proper place in scientific research, colloquial entrainment and coordination with others (Semin & language, and spirituality. Cacioppo, 2008). Further, it may even be considered to But it is important to be careful regarding resemble a peak experience (Csikszentmihalyi, 1991). currently fashionable trends borrowing concepts from While the model may also in some ways resemble the the intriguing and tantalizing features of quantum phenomenon of quantum entanglement, it is not likely entanglement. The entanglement phenomenon pertains to be identical in its physical mechanism. Like previous to the physics of the smallest quantum particles such attempts to model psychology using the physical sciences, as photons and electrons— it is not necessarily directly it is probably necessary to specifically and precisely tailor applicable to psychology using an identical physical the concept for the psychological events it describes. mechanism. An increase in psychologically analogous Quantum coherence decreases dramatically “synchronistic” phenomena has probably increased when approaching macroscopic scales. The decrease in interest and made the new interpretation more appealing. correlation between the two originally perfectly coupled However, as explained in this paper, it is evident from halves is now well‑established and experimentally historical examples that it is often very difficult to proven by the “decoherence principle” (Yu & Eberly, make microscopic phenomena correspond directly with 2009). While in principle macroscopic objects such as macroscopic ones. Jung himself, failing to achieve a humans do retain some quantum mechanical wave‑like quantum mechanical explanation for his synchronicity, properties, these features become far less relevant and concluded that it was far more likely that the powerful vanishingly small when using macroscopic masses and forces of the unconscious were dominating through “mass‑energies.” The de Broglie wavelength becomes archetypal constellations and alignments of the psyche extremely small and essentially unobservable. This is not with the external world. It was not necessarily that there to say some sort of actual quantum entanglement between were “spooky” factors at work, only that humans were minds is impossible, but rather, at the present time it seems incapable of perceiving the causes related to their own exceedingly unlikely. So far, the only long range quantum complicated unconscious processes (Williams, 2010). G. coherence effect that has been shown in a biological Williams has recently described how this may occur due system is in photosynthetic light harvesting centers over a

Physical Scientific Approach to Transpersonal International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 77 distance of ~20-25 angstroms (10-10 meters) (Collini et al., rules for atomic and molecular components is that 2010). This distance is relatively miniscule when compared they generally exist in paired forms that are charged to the distance between humans, which is generally on the and related in a way based on a balancing of such order of meters. Occurrence of the effect over a distance charges and structures. Therefore, like the most of 20 angstroms might even be considered similar to fundamental of its components, the human brain “traditional” biological electron quantum tunneling itself may be hypothesized to be charged and is features that occur at a maximum range of 14 angstroms expected to obey a similar kind of balancing of (when the distance is measured from edge-to-edge of the forces. partnered moieties; Page, Moser, Chen, & Dutton, 1999). 3) A central physical principle follows as a general kind Therefore, at the present time, it is very difficult to see how of attraction and repulsion and “bonding,” although a biological mechanism for a direct mental entanglement many other physically derived principles are likely link would work (Arndt et al., 2009). to apply (but cannot all be discussed here). As Lastly, it is important to note that experimental pertains to human psychology, the most important confirmation of the model presented here is in principle fundamental physical characteristics and properties relatively simple and straightforward. The net charge are suggested to be: the nature of conscious brains of the brain should be reflected in its total activity, or being charged, interpersonal attraction/repulsion, the sum activity of key parts relative to others. Indeed, human bonding, optimal occupancy of spaces increases or decreases in brain activity are routinely and locations, and forms of synchronization and measured using fMRI and EEG. It may remain coordination in time and through space. primarily a matter of properly comparing the difference between cognitively active and receptive states to reveal 4) The forces felt by biological organisms in a net charge or potential difference between a pair of relationship with others and their environment are states, either intra‑individual or between partners. Such very real and inescapable, but are often obscured differences in mental and behavioral state may also be from perception. A kind of equilibrium may exist, directly correlated to the small bioelectric potentials at which requires a continual expenditure of energy the functional areas and surfaces of the body. While for action and growth to both maintain and move those polarizations might more feasibly be detectable beyond a static equilibrium. Like “equilibrium” or through close interpersonal human interaction, they will slightly out of equilibrium systems in chemistry and decay rapidly due to the inverse‑square law of electric biology, the ongoing processes of life usually require fields. transfers, exchanges, and substitutions at the atomic Summary of Principles and molecular level which generally involve either hysical scientific principles hypothesized to be the moving up or down a chemical or potential gradient. most applicable to psychology and behavior: P Analogously and correspondingly, humans may 1) Biological organisms, in this case humans, are therefore be attracted to those interactions that are constructed from microscopic physical and chemical the most favorable for them and avoid those which and parts within the natural environment that are more unfavorable or painful. This is congruent creates, supports, and contains them. Therefore, at with both Freud’s pleasure principle and Darwin’s the macroscopic level of behavior and interaction, concept of the struggle for existence. In short, some of the basic laws must be applicable because human interactions and decision processes may be of the processes occurring in brains and bodies and analogous to and based upon the concept of “free the environment on the microscopic level. But this is energy” (∆G) and products/reactant reactions in only to the extent that microscopic events correspond thermodynamics. to macroscopic ones and where the physical laws are 5) Individuals will usually or always be paired with each commensurable and specifically applicable. other or some aspect of the natural environment. 2) At the microscopic level, the constituent parts Therefore, when two such halves become separated obey the laws of physics, chemistry, and molecular from each other, they may still exhibit a strong sign biology. The most fundamental of these chemical of bonding and residues with their partner. These

78 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Haas may often reveal themselves in proxy substitute be more aware of and tuned to their own and others’ interactions. But it is important to note that a cognitive and emotional states. This might even be solipsistically biased perception may sometimes lead enhanced through practices such as mindfulness which to an over or underestimation of the importance of enhance the perception and interpretation of internal other individuals who are no longer momentarily and interpersonal cues (Langer, 2009). It may therefore present. In extreme interpretations, particularly be possible to be conscious of real states of positivity and as regards ideas of versions of “telepathy,” it might negativity, and to conceivably gain new abilities to guide perhaps be believed that others are communicating and predict behavior based on an understanding of the with an individual directly. However, instead, it may natural fluctuations and balancing of such forces. be that both of the individuals change their “charge state” approximately simultaneously in time while Acknowledgements separated in location, resulting in what is often I would like to thank Harris Friedman and believed to be a special synchronicity or quantum Glenn Hartelius for inviting me to submit an article entanglement. to this journal. I would also like to thank participants Concluding Remarks of the recent first Synchro Summit at Yale University his article presents an overview of some of the many (Toward a Science of Synchronicity) who encouraged Tattempts to apply concepts from the physical sciences further development of these ideas. to psychology, especially electromagnetic and quantum mechanical ones. It also briefly introduces a very basic References and simple realistic model that may represent a feasible and proper way to begin describing and analyzing human Alvarado, C. (2006). Human radiations: Concepts of behavior directly with such physical principles. One force in mesmerism, spiritualism and psychical might wonder whether this is at too basic and simplistic a research. Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, level when compared to other humanistic theories. At the 70, 138-162. very least, it may represent a scientifically viable method Arndt, M., Juffman, T., & Vedral, V. (2009). Quantum that is a good starting point for the development of a physics meets biology. Human Frontier Science more comprehensive and complex theory. For instance, Program (HFSP) Journal, 3, 386-400. behavioral scientists might begin by interpreting the Barnes-Gutteridge, W. (1985). Evolution, behaviorism, labels and qualities of “positive” and “negative” thought, and physics envy. PsycCRITIQUES, 30, 105-107. behavior and reinforcements as precisely that—mental Bell, J. S. (1964). On the Einstein Podolsky Rosen charge states acting within a field of objects interrelated paradox. Physics, 1, 195-200. in an attractive‑repulsive way. Bohr, N. (1920). On the series spectra of elements. This approach may be treated as transpersonal Zeitschrift fur Physik, 2, 423-469. because it describes an extraordinary state of the human Brown, D. J., & Sheldrake, R. (2001). The anticipation of mind, as well as one that extends to others and the telephone calls: A survey in California. The Journal larger environment and nature as a whole. Not only of Parapsychology, 65, 145-156. might one’s own psychology and social interactions Burr, H. S. (1939). Evidence for the existence of an with others be considered more sophisticated through electrodynamic field in living organisms. Science, its comprehension, but the individual’s relationship with 89, 403. nature and reality may become very direct and highly Cambray, J. (2002). Synchronicity and emergence. attuned. It may be possible for individuals to become American Imago, 59, 409‑434. highly aware of and adept at controlling the physical and Cambray, J. (2009). Synchronicity: Nature and psyche spiritual forces within themselves and in their relation to in an interconnected universe. College Station, TX: nature through a more “enlightened” intuitive process. Texas A&M University Press. This would not necessarily be through ESP‑like powers Capra, F. (1975). The tao of physics: An exploration of the or precognitive abilities involving a special type of parallels between modern physics and eastern mysticism. psi‑like force, but rather through a heightened ability to Boston, MA: Shambhala Publications.

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Physical Scientific Approach to Transpersonal International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 81 Introduction to Special Topic Section: Ecopsychology’s Roots in Humanistic and Transpersonal Psychology, the Deep Ecology Movement, and Ecocriticism

copsychology’s roots are deeply entwined with environment (Friedman & Pappas, 2006; Hartelius, those of transpersonal and humanistic psychology, Caplan, & Rardin, 2007). An immanent more-than- as well as the deep ecology movement and related ego view of self calls the individual to both social and Eimpulses toward positive social change. This Special environmental engagement as a natural course of self- Topic section presents both contemporary work in this expression. In harmony with this, Friedman (1983) has arena and historically-oriented papers that help to clarify long argued that transpersonal psychology understands where and how ecopsychology is situated relative to its the self in a way that is “inextricably embedded in near academic neighbors. It also provides support for the the universe” so that “ultimately, self and non-self are development of closer ties between ecopsychology and equivalent” (p. 38)—a concept that he has called self- transpersonal and humanistic approaches.1 expansiveness. Personal transformation, a process close Due to the need for more empirical work in to the heart of transpersonal approches, can arguably be all transpersonally-related areas of study, the journal understood as a process in which the self expands from gives precedence to articles reporting on research. The its identification with a limited personal ego into a lived first paper in this section, entitled, Connectedness and understanding of its interconnectedness with the larger Environmental Behavior, by Robert Hoot and Harris world. Friedman, reports that a sense of interconnectedness While current research by Hoot and Friedman with nature and consideration of future consequences, helps to validate the contemporary relevance of self- as measured by relevant scales, predicted self-reported expansiveness as a construct, their work offers one pro-environmental beliefs and behavior. This suggests particularly noteworthy result. They report that the that interconnectedness, a central tenet of transpersonal Connection to Nature Scale (Mayer & Frantz, 2004), views, may be quite relevant to the environmental crises representing an immanently-oriented self-expansiveness, facing humanity. In this context, transpersonal is not predicted pro-environmental behavior, while a scale merely “beyond the ego” in some transcendent, other- measuring expanded self-identification with somewhat worldly manner, but also in a way that is immanently remote elements such as “atoms in their body or future interconnected with this-worldly community and descendents who may not even have human form” (SELF-

82 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies , 30(1-2), 2011, pp. 82-88 Schroll & Hartelius TS; Pappas & Friedman, 2007, p. 331) did not predict influencing our attitudes and our behavior (Schroll, such behavior. This latter scale arguably represents a 2007, p. 30). more transcendent view of self-expansiveness, which Some mainstream environmentalists may tends to emphasize hard-to-define ultimates rather than take offense with this turning point in his thinking, practical engagement in tangible relationships. Given believing that he no longer supports the work of that communities focused on transformation through environmental activists, or those involved in resource transcendence have been criticized for tending toward management, conservation biology, environmental insular elitism (Goldman, 2012) rather than involvement psychology and conservation psychology. But this is not in practical transformational causes such as social and correct. Schroll continues to actively support the work environmental justice, Hoot and Friedman’s results of environmental activists; and the research contributing point to a need for additional research that discriminates to resource management, conservation biology (France, more finely between the impact of immanently- and 2008), environmental and conservation psychology. transcendently-oriented self-expansiveness. Nevertheless, he remains unconvinced that these The next set of papers grew out of conversations (including APA Division 34) go far enough (MacDowell over the past 25 years between guest Special Topic Editor & Schroll, 2009/2010). His assessment of this problem Mark Schroll and Miles A. Vich, Ralph Metzner, Stanley continues to be confirmed in the American Psychologist Krippner, Robert Greenway, Kathleen Damiani, Kevin J. perspective toward addressing these concerns (Swim et Sharpe, James Fadiman, Jan Lee Ande, John Tallmadge, al., 2011). The consequences of this focus on treating Katherine MacDowell, Alan Drengson, among others. or healing the symptoms, as Ralph Nader (1990) has Several of these continuing conversations are represented pointed out, result in the tremendously high burnout in this section as a means of articulating its core message rate among environmental activists. Why? Because: that is summed up in the question: How, and in what directions, can humanity move beyond simply treating [T]he motivation that ignites most environmental the symptoms of the world’s growing number of social and activists are simply reactionary and symptom environmental crises? For Schroll, the motivation to ask focused. Trying to heal each one of these separate this question was the result of reading Roger Walsh’s symptoms is a never-ending task because the system (1984) book Staying Alive: The Psychology of Human keeps breaking down amidst our efforts to heal it; Survival. Pondering this question represented a real meaning, absent from such a focus is a coherent turning point in his thinking: philosophy of life that enables people to sustain and nurture themselves. This symptom-oriented approach It allowed me to realize that healing the world’s can be compared to a field surgeon trying to mend social and environmental crises was not going to all of the wounded in an ongoing war without end. come about simply by creating new technologies and Thankfully we are able to save some of the wounded, discontinuing the use of fossil fuels, nor by rejecting but many others die. With each new day greeting the development of new technologies and trying to us there is the need to care for more wounded, and live more simply. It is not a matter of philosophers that eventually results in burnout. Similarly, we as envisioning a better environmental ethic to guide surgeons trying to heal the wounds of our culture the practice of conservation biologists and urban will never see an end to our labors merely by trying planners, allowing us to serve as better stewards of to heal all of its symptoms of decay. Instead, the only the land. Nor would a concentrated effort of protest way to truly heal the wounds of our culture will be by eco-activists employing guilt, fear, and letter to find a way to stop all of the fighting and end our writing campaigns, urging politicians to enact stiffer war with nature. (Schroll, 2007, p. 31) environmental laws, create the kinds of changes needed in our behavior. Necessary as all these But how do we as humans end this war? How approaches might be, I believe that the real starting do we move beyond simply treating symptoms? How do point toward healing the social and environmental we shift the focus of the problem and move toward its crises begins with self-confrontation and self- solution? Asking himself similar questions, Edgar D. examination. We need to examine the worldview Mitchell concluded that what we need to solve the eco-

Special Topic Introduction: Ecopsychology International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 83 crisis “is a transformation of consciousness” (Roberts, environmental catastrophe to motivate most of us. 2011, p. 6). In other words we need a positive vision of Ram Dass raised this same concern in his interview the future and ourselves as inhabitants of this future with John Seed . . . (Ram Dass & Seed, 1991). based on a cultural (anthropological) and personal Ram Dass asked: “Will it take incredible trauma (existential) understanding of what it means to be to trigger this transformation of consciousness?” human. Only the most skeptical continue to deny that To which Seed replied (paraphrasing): “We have we are now in the midst of the eco-crisis that Rachel already had so much trauma this does not seem Carson (1962) predicted nearly 50 years ago. Skeptics and to be a sufficient means to trigger a change in our believers arguing for and against the reality of the eco- awareness. In fact trauma often has the opposite crisis have nevertheless missed a more essential point— nullifying influence on us.”2 Instead Seed suggested Carson warned against relying on a “technological fix” that what we needed was some sort of miracle that as a solution to the eco-crisis, yet this does not mean would allow us to “wake up one day different.” that technological innovation is not important; it is. This brings us back to my previous comment that What Carson meant was that by itself new technologies humanistic and transpersonal psychology have will not be enough to solve the eco-crisis (Drengson, contributed to methods and techniques associated 1995). Schroll is therefore in complete agreement with with consciousness transformation. (Schroll, 2011b, Mitchell that what is needed to solve the eco-crisis is a pp. 1-2) transformation of consciousness, and, furthermore, he All of this leads back to the current issue of IJTS, has argued: and the paper entitled, The Deep Ecology Movement: This begs the question as to how we will be able to Origins, Development, and Future Prospects (Toward a motivate ourselves to initiate this transformation Transpersonal Ecosophy), which clarifies ecopsychology’s of consciousness. Indeed the criticism many have origins in humanistic and transpersonal psychology. had regarding the hypothesis that “we need a It also connects ecopsychology with the historical transformation of consciousness” is we lack a specific development of the deep ecology movement, identifies operational definition of what this actually means. its relationship with literary ecology (otherwise known as Here too is where the importance of humanistic ecocriticism), and suggests that all this has evolved into and transpersonal psychology come into play in this something that could be called transpersonal ecosophy. conversation, because it is these schools of psychology The paper was originally written by Alan Drengson and that have focused on motivational techniques and (the late) Bill Devall, and to which Schroll later added. methods to change consciousness more than others. In the short response that follows this paper, In his film MindWalk (Capra, 1991), Fritjof Capra entitled, Reflections on the Need for a More Complete echoed this concern, suggesting that we are suffering History of the Deep Ecology Movement and Related from a “crisis of perception.” MindWalk is Capra’s Disciplines, philosopher Michael Zimmerman discusses vision of an alternative paradigm; moreover this film its significance toward aiding understanding of the itself is a demonstration of how the motivation to engagement of various disparate ideas, and how their initiate a transformation of consciousness is possible continuing process of reconciliation has contributed through dialogue. I examine both of these perspectives to current understanding. Zimmerman also suggests in my review of Capra’s film [Schroll, 2011c]. Capra’s that a more comprehensive history needs to be written, vision in MindWalk represents a precursor to what and has in his own work put forth a means of mapping many are now referring to as ecopsychology (Roszak, these multiple perspectives to foster an Integral Ecology 1992; Schroll, 2008/2009), that I have suggested (Hargens & Zimmerman, 2009). can be more accurately called transpersonal ecosophy Further advancing transpersonal ecosophy’s (Schroll, 2009, 2009/2010, 2011a). clarification is the paper, Clearing Up Rollo May’s Views Still, in conversations I have had with of Transpersonal Psychology, and Acknowledging May ecopsychologists who support the hypothesis that as an Early Supporter of Ecopsychology, that Schroll a transformation of consciousness is needed, many authored with John Rowan and Oliver Robinson—with have asked if it will take some serious apocalyptic comments by others. This paper explores Rollo May’s

84 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Schroll & Hartelius 1986 and 1989 rejection of transpersonal psychology— which such connections could exist (Whitfield, 2009). and his 1992 reversal of this position. The paper also Reality is one thing, with no parts, and no extension in shows that May was supportive of the concerns that led space or time. From an Advaitin view, the appearance of to the emergence of ecopsychology and transpersonal interconnectedness described by Davis is a phenomenon ecosophy. that takes place within the samsaric, or illusory, realm This latter paper also explores how transpersonal of time and space: a dimension in which the oneness ecosophy has encountered and embraced Kaisa Puhakka’s of reality seems to be separated into various distinct (2008) antidote to the postmodern malaise of experiential aspects. deconstruction, and Jorge N. Ferrer’s (2002) participatory This does not in any way lessen the import or turn toward “coevolutionary perspectives” that embody accuracy of Davis’ position; in fact, Davis employs the “pluralistic approaches to spirituality” (Ferrer, 2009, nonduality term in a way that is constent with its use in p. 142) to help assist in recognizing the “web of life as the contemporary nondual movement (e.g., Prendergast, primary” (Puhakka, 2008, p. 16). Puhakka’s and Ferrer’s Fenner, & Krystal, 2003). Rather, it is an opportunity papers resonate with the ecosophies of communication and to clarify the fact that the term nonduality can be and ecology of mind that were the concern of Arne Naess and is used in a variety of ways within spiritual traditions Gregory Bateson3 (Bateson, 2010; Drengson, Devall, and even within transpersonal psychology. The construct & Schroll, 2011); Ecosophies are the wisdom of place that Davos offers here is nondual relative to Western and the person’s unique relationship to it, and ecology philosophical dualism, but less radically nondual of mind reflects modes of knowing the co-evolutionary than the teachings of Advaita Vedanta. It might be experience of Being. useful to term this intermediate position “nondualistic John Davis, a long-time leading scholar in the interconnectedness,” or simply, “interconnectedness,” so area of transpersonal ecopsychology, picks up the thread as to distinguish it from strong Advaitin nonduality. of theory in the next paper, entitled Ecopsychology, The interconnectedness that ecopsychology Transpersonal Psychology, and Nonduality. Davis, who holds is not simply an abstract realization, but an also brings a clinical background in wilderness therapy, opportunity for relationship with a living world. This suggests that the transpersonal concept of nonduality is illustrated in Judson Davis’ paper, Jung at the Foot of is key to understanding the self’s interconnectedness Mount Kailash, in which he shares a personal experience with the world, a point that further reveals the deep of an unexpected personal encounter with a vast feminine connection between transpersonal psychology and presence while traveling through the Himalayas. Only ecopsychology. Yet it is important to recognize that later did he come to associate this presence with Tara, Davis’ use of nonduality is different than, say, the way the goddess of compassion. Yet this encounter suggests this term is used in a nondual tradition such as Advaita that divinities of the great spiritual traditions might be Vedanta. more than mere theoretical constructs refering to a single For Davis, nonduality is an understanding of ultimate creative power of the universe; if the world is an reality based on states of consciousness in which a person interconnected living process, then some of these deities feels immersed in a world that is dynamic process created might be living presences within that domain just as anew each moment, one in which they themselves are an surely as human beings are. In the spirit of East-West unfolding embedded within that flow. Here the self is scholarship, Davis situates this experience within the experienced as distinct but not separate from the living context of both Jungian thought and the narratives of whole. Relative to Western dualistic philosophies that Tibetan Tantra. hold mind and matter as distinct, this understanding of Turning to a far-eastern culture, authors Yukari self and world as radically intertwined is decidedly non- Kunisue and Judy Schavrien offer a glimpse into Yamato dualistic. Kotoba, the deeply embodied poetic language of ancient However, this position is significantly Japan. Drawing on language developed prior to the different from the Advaitin teaching of nonduality. In introduction of written language by the Chinese in the Advaita Vedanta reality is not interconnected, because 5th-6th centuries CE, and the vocabulary that came ultimate reality is radically one: it has no parts to be with this shift, Yamato Kotoba conveys an intimacy with interconnected, and it has no spatial domain within the natural world—an immediacy of interpenetrating

Special Topic Introduction: Ecopsychology International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 85 presence that holds human and landscape in intimate coalition that promotes experiential transformation: communion. This theme of inquiry is developed in awakening awareness and empathy of universal conversation with the philosophy of Western writers such suffering that internalizes a felt self sense of ethics. as David Abrams and Maurice Merleau-Ponty. This code of ethics is also guided by an intellectual The cost of abandoning this intimacy with life understanding of humankind’s role in cosmic is explored in Alan Pope’s piece, Modern Materialism evolution. Healing inner and outer conflict is through the Lens of Indo-Tibetan Buddhism. Here Pope therefore the means of healing the person/planet deftly applies the ancient concept of “hungry ghost” to that fosters peace (Metzner, 1998). Harris Friedman, the modern materialist consumer. The hungry ghost, in chair of the APA Division 32 Transpersonal Interest Indo-Tibetan tradition, is a being with a huge empty Group, has voiced support for these efforts, saying stomach and a tiny mouth, one who is always ravenously that he “would be glad to try to awaken it [sic, hungry, and who is incapable of eating enough to be this group] by incorporating ‘ecosophy’ somehow” satisfied. This image is remarkably apt as a metaphor (personal communication, June 12, 2011). Thus for contemporary consumerist cultures, whose very several of the papers in this Special Topics section economies rely on the fact that its members are never represent a first step toward a new era that will satiated. The answer, for Pope, is mental training in make humanistic and transpersonal psychology meditative practices that restore mental health by especially relevant toward answering the question of providing satisfaction from within, rather than through how its knowledge of motivation and consciousness the acquisition of material goods. transformation can be applied to assist humankind While it falls in the Book Review section rather toward living more sustainably. than the Special Topic section, a related offering is 2. Schroll has referred to this opposite nullifying John Harrison’s review of Stephan Beyer’s (2009) book influence of trauma as the reliance onthe fear approach Singing to the Plants: A Guide to Mestizo Shamanism in or the rhetoric of catastrophe; the guilt approach or the the Upper Amazon. Shamans, of course, live within an rhetoric of shame; and the self-sacrificing/voluntary interconnected world rather than the separate material simplicity approach or the rhetoric of redemption as world of Western culture. Among the significant negative motivating techniques (Schroll, Krippner, contributions Beyer’s book offers, two stand out: 1) Vich, Fadiman, & Mojeiko, 2009). Shamans are frequently portrayed as benign spiritual 3. Some readers may have known Naess or Bateson. leaders, whereas Beyer reveals shamans make a decision Schroll has written a “Call for Papers” as Co-Editor whether to be evil sorcerers or healers; and 2) Beyer offers of a special issue of The Trumpeter to explore the an insightful discussion of gender inequality within work of Naess and Bateson. Contributors are sought Amazonian shamanism and how an increasing interest who will explore the merged conceptual spaces among women in its practices are influencing a shift of these two outstanding philosophers and their in its traditional views. In his review, Harrison aptly boundary-dissolving investigations of the landscape summarizes these contributions. of consciousness. Personal insights are welcomed, and readers are encouraged to breathe life into their Mark A. Schroll, Special Topic Editor memories. Rhine Research Center References Glenn Hartelius, Editor Bateson, N. (Producer). (2010). An ecology of mind. Institute of Transpersonal Psychology Vancouver, BC: Impact Media Group. (Film) Beyer, S. (2009). Singing to the plants: A guide to Mestizo Notes Shamanism in the Upper Amazon. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press. 1. In AHP-Perspective Dec 2009/Jan 2010 (p. 6), Schroll Carson, R. (1962). Silent spring. Boston, MA: Houghton called for the merger of transpersonal ecosophy Mifflin. with Division 32 of the American Psychological Capra, F. (Producer). (1991). MindWalk. Hollywood, Association, inviting people to join a growing CA: Triton Pictures, Paramount. (Film)

86 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Schroll & Hartelius Drengson, A. (1995). The practice of technology: Exploring Nader, R. (1990, October 6). Untitled presentation. technology, ecophilosophy, and spiritual disciplines for Catalyst: 3rd National Student Environmental vital links. Albany, NY: State University of New Action Coalition (SEAC) conference, University of York Press. Illinois, Champaign-Urbana. Boulder, CO: Sounds Drengson, A., Devall, B., & Schroll, M. A. (2011). The True Recordings. (Sound recording) deep ecology movement: Origins, development and Pappas, J., & Friedman, H. (2007). The construct of self- future prospects: Toward a transpersonal ecosophy. expansiveness and the validity of the Transpersonal International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 30(1- Scale of the Self-Expansiveness Level Form. The 2), 101-117 (this volume). Humanistic Psychologist, 35(4), 323-347. Ferrer, J. N. (2002). Revisioning transpersonal theory: A Prendergast, J. J., Fenner, P. & Krystal, S. (Eds.). (2003). participatory vsions of human spirituality. Albany, The sacred mirror: Nondual wisdom & psychotherapy. NY: State University of New York Press. St. Paul, MN: Paragon House. Ferrer, J. N. (2009). The plurality of religions and the Puhakka, K. (2008). Transpersonal perspective: An spirit of pluralism: A participatory vision of the future antidote to the postmodern malaise. Journal of of religion. International Journal of Transpersonal Transpersonal Psychology, 40(1), 6-19. Studies, 28, 139-151. Ram Dass & Seed, J. (1991). To wake up one day different: France, R. L. (Ed.). (2008). Healing natures: Repairing John Seed talks with Ram Dass. San Francisco, CA: relationships. New perspectives on restoring ecological Rainforest Action Network. (Video recording) spaces and consciousness. Sheffield, VT: Green Frigate Roberts, D. (2011). Edgar D. Mitchell’s noetic vision: The Books. greening of cosmos and consciousness. Electronic Friedman, H. (1983). The self-expansiveness level document. Rhine Online: Psi-News Magazine, 3(1), form: A conceptualization and measurement of a 6. Retrieved from transpersonal construct. Journal of Transpersonal Roszak, T. (1992). The voice of the earth. New York, NY: Psychology, 15(1), 37-50. Simon & Schuster. Friedman, H., & Pappas, J. (2006). Self-expansiveness Schroll, M. A. (2007). Wrestling with Arne Naess: A and self-contraction: Complementary processes chronicle of ecopsychology’s origins. Electronic of transcendence and immanence. Journal of document. The Trumpeter: Journal of Ecosophy, 23(1), Transpersonal Psychology, 38(1), 41-54. 28-57. Retrieved from and the rise of spiritual privilege. New York, NY: Schroll, M. A. (2008/2009). Ecopsychology’s roots in NYU Press. humanistic and transpersonal psychology. Electronic Hargens, S., & Zimmerman, M. (2009). Integral ecology: document. Association for Humanistic Psychology- Uniting multiple perspectives on the natural world. Perspective, December/January, 16-17. Retrieved Boston, MA: Shambhala. from Transpersonal psychology: Defining the past, Schroll, M. A. (2009). New science, new culture divining the future. The Humanistic Psychologist, manifesto: Transpersonal ecosophy’s vision of what 35(2), 135-160. it means to be human. Association for Humanistic MacDowell, K. & Schroll, M. A. (2009/2010). Review Psychology-Perspective, June/July, 8-10. Retrieved of Conservation psychology: Understanding and from Mayer, F. S., & Frantz, C. M. (2004). The connectedness Schroll, M. A. (2009/2010). Merging transpersonal to nature scale: A measure of individuals’ feeling in ecosophy with Division 32: Society for Humanistic community with nature. Journal of Environmental Psychology of the American Psychological Psychology, 24(4), 503-515. Association. Association for Humanistic Psychology- Metzner, R. (1998). The unfolding self: Varieties of Perspective, December/January, 6. Retrieved from transformative experience. Novato, CA: Origin Press.

Special Topic Introduction: Ecopsychology International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 87 Schroll, M. A. (2011a). Editor’s introduction: From primordial anthropology to a transpersonal ecosophy. Anthropology of Consciousness, 22(1), 1-5. Schroll, M. A. (2011b). Editorial introduction: Sacred sites, consciousness, and the eco-crisis. Rhine Online: Psi-News Magazine, 3(1), 1-4. Retrieved from Schroll, M. A. (2011c). Review of MindWalk by F. Capra. Rhine Online: Psi-News Magazine, 3(1), 7-8. Retrieved from Schroll, M. A., Krippner, S., Vich, M. A., Fadiman, S., and Mojeiko, V. (2009). Reflections on transpersonal psychology’s 40th anniversary, ecopsychology, transpersonal science, and psychedelics: A conversation forum. International Journal for Transpersonal Studies, 28, 39-52. Swim, J. K., Stern, P. C., Doherty, T. J., Clayton, S., Reser, J. P., Wever, E. U. . . . Howard, G. S. (2011). Psychology’s contributions to understanding and addressing global climate change. American Psychologist, 6(4), 241-250. Walsh, R. (1984). Staying alive: The psychology of human survival. Boston, MA: Shambhala. Whitfield, C. (2009). The Jungian myth and Advaita Vedanta. Mylapore, Chennai, India: Arsha Vidya.

About the Journal

The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies is a peer-reviewed academic journal in print since 1981. It is published by Floraglades Foundation, and serves as the official publication of the International Transpersonal Association. The journal is available online at www. transpersonalstudies.org, and in print through www. lulu.com (search for IJTS).

88 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Schroll & Hartelius Connectedness and Environmental Behavior: Sense of Interconnectedness and Pro-Environmental Behavior

Robert E. Hoot1 & Harris Friedman Walden University Minneapolis, MN, USA

The expansion of one’s sense of identity to include various aspects of the world, both human and non-human, may relate to how one treats the world. This sense of interconnectedness can be domain specific, as through identification with nature and the future, orvery general, as through an expanded transpersonal identification with all of reality unlimited by time and space. This study explored the relationship between these two specific and the more general type of interconnectedness on environmental beliefs and behavior. A sample of 210 participants completed a battery of interconnectedness measures, including two specific measures, the Connectedness to Nature Scale (CNS) and Consideration of Future Consequences Scale (CFC), and a transpersonal measure, the Self-Expansiveness Level Form Transpersonal Scale (SELF-TS). Participants also completed a measure of environmental beliefs, the New Ecological Paradigm Scale (NEP), and a self-report measure of their environmental behavior. The CNS, CFC, and SELF-TS significantly intercorrelated, supporting that they measure a common underlying construct: interconnectedness. In addition, the CNS and CFC correlated significantly with both the NEP and environmental behavior, but the SELF-TS did not. Furthermore, the CNS and the CFC, as well as their interaction, predicted environmental behavior in a regression model, while the SELF-TS did not. These results suggest that specific indicators of feeling interconnected with nature and the future are relevant to environmental beliefs and behavior, whereas a broader sense of transpersonal interconnectedness may not relate as well in this specific domain.

Keywords: transpersonal; self-expansiveness; interconnectedness; future orientation; environmental behavior

nthropogenic environmental changes pose great and modernization). Instead, Speth (1992) made challenges for humanity’s continued adaptation recommendations to change how the environment is and perhaps even its survival. Most immediately approached. One of his suggestions is to solve structural Adaunting are threats related to climate change, problems that affect the environment, such as addressing presumably from releases of greenhouse gases and widely family planning, the status of women, and care for expected to result in widespread catastrophic outcomes older citizens as a means of decreasing birth rates. He as from rising sea levels inundating low-lying coastal also emphasized the need to make the environment a habitats (Meehl et al., 2007) and degrading coastal personal issue instead of someone else’s problem. ecosystems (United Nations Environment Programme, Schwartz’s (1977) theory of norm-activation 2006). Many other environmental challenges are nearly provides a possible basis for understanding how pro- as pressing, such as proliferating carcinogenic pesticides environmental behavior can be fostered. It suggested now found in 85% of U.S. freshwater streams (Gilliom that moral obligations are more readily translated into et al., 2007), to name just one. Often these threats are altruistic behavior, including toward the environment, seen merely as requiring technological solutions, despite when a sense of personal involvement is activated that they are human-caused and rapidly worsening (Coke, Batson, & McDavis, 1978). Constructs such due to human-related factors (e.g., population growth as sympathy (Allen & Ferrand, 1999), distress (Carlo, ConnectednessInternational Journal and Environmental of Transpersonal Behavior Studies, 30(1-2), 2011,International pp. 89-100 Journal of Transpersonal Studies 89 Allen, & Buhman, 1999), sadness (Maner et al., 2002), isolated individual, namely a sense of oneness with the and empathy (Archer, Diaz-Loving, Gollwitzer, Davis, universe across space and time. We theorized that such & Foushee, 1981) all seem related to increasing personal a transpersonal sense of interconnectedness, as well as involvement and might relate to facilitating pro- more specific senses of interconnectedness, activates environmental behavior (e.g., enhanced perspective- personal involvement with the world and can serve taking, as one type of empathy activation, was found as a basis for promoting environmentally-responsible to correlate with environmentally-responsible behavior; behavior. Coke et al., 1978). However, there has also been criticism of the Included among many constructs related usefulness of interconnectedness as a construct related to activating personal involvement is a sense of to environmentally-responsible behavior. Batson et interconnectedness, including with others, nature, and al. (1997) found that measures of oneness, a form even the entire universe (Davis, Conklin, Smith, & Luce, of interconnectedness similar to Friedman’s (1983) 1996; Batson et al., 1997; Cialdini, Brown, Lewis, Luce, construct of transpersonal self-expansiveness, had no & Neuberg, 1997; Maner et al., 2002; Schultz, 2000). significant explanatory effects on altruism beyond that A sense of social interconnectedness has been used to offered by the more conventional notion of empathy. explain various forms of altruism (e.g., the willingness of However, their methods were later criticized by Neuberg research participants to allocate more money to friends et al. (1997), who supported the greater usefulness of and relatives than to more distantly-related people; Aron, interconnectedness constructs as compared to empathy. Aron, Tudor, & Nelson, 1991). Research participants Cialdini et al. (1997) further supported the value of were also found more willing to give money in response interconnectedness constructs for understanding to an appeal for help when a feeling of interconnectedness altruism by finding that empathy influenced helping was manipulated by falsely informing participants that behavior by affecting the sense of oneness with a the proposed recipient had brain waves similar to theirs recipient, while attachment to others increased helping (Maner et al., 2002). Interconnectedness constructs behavior due to a sense of oneness as opposed to a have also been found related to environmental concerns sense of empathy. This debate continues (e.g., Batson, (Schultz, Shriver, Tabanico, & Khazian, 2004), and 1997), but another line of evidence supports a possible interventions have been shown to increase participants’ resolution, which is that feelings of distress from sense of interconnectedness to nature (Frantz, Mayer, perspective-taking affects helping behavior only among Norton, & Rock, 2005). people with lower dispositional levels of personal Among the many interconnectedness constructs distress (Carlo et al., 1999). To make matters more now emerging is self-expansiveness (Friedman, 1983), complex, Schultz and Zelezny (1998) conducted a five- which refers to how individuals construct their self- nation study and found that a nature-specific measure concept through identifying with varying aspects of of interconnectedness (i.e., self-transcendence) was reality. In this regard, the process of identification a good predictor of environmental behavior in every relates to activating personal involvement by seeing country, but a general measure of self-transcendence some aspect of reality as intimately relevant to oneself was not. It appears that the possible role between a and even a part of oneself, thus presumably worth sense of connectedness, including a transpersonal or protecting. Friedman proposed that the self-concept transcendent sense of oneness, and environmental is inherently malleable, being essentially a social- behavior requires further scrutiny. Conceptually, psychological, rather than physical, fact. Self-concept, however, we find it very appealing to speculate that from this perspective, could include any aspect of reality individuals, both the source of so many environmental that exists in time (including not just the present, but challenges as well as of possible solutions to these also the past and future), establishing a conceptual challenges, might be more environmentally responsible basis for an all-inclusive sense of interconnectedness. in their behavior if they felt more interconnectedness Friedman also proposed the possibility of a transpersonal with the environment and the universe as a whole. level of self-expansiveness, intended to reflect the Another potentially germane variable related to broadest type of identification: an interconnectedness environmental behavior is future orientation, which can that radically transcends the conventional sense of the also be seen as a form of interconnectedness across time

90 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Hoot & Friedman (Friedman, 1983). Schwartz (1968) hypothesized that broadly in a transpersonal way and more specifically to awareness of consequences moderates the relationship nature and the future, and environmental behavior. We between moral norms and behavior; this theory was hypothesized that these forms of interconnectedness are supported by showing that willingness to help others related to each other and to environmental behavior, but was influenced by awareness of consequences and a we also hypothesized that the transpersonal measure, as disposition to consider consequences that affect others a more general approach to interconnectedness, would (Schwartz, 1974). As an alternative to measuring not relate to environmental behavior as well as a nature- awareness of specific consequences, Strathman, specific measure, in accord with Schultz and Zelezny’s Gleicher, Boninger, and Edwards (1994) proposed the (1998) findings. Consideration of Future Consequences (CFC) scale as In addition to a sense of interconnectedness a dispositional measure of the degree to which people being possibly salient to environmental behaviors, emphasize future versus immediate consequences there is a growing research literature related to of actions. Whereas Schwartz’s model incorporates environmental worldview using Dunlap and Van Liere’s awareness of consequences, the CFC incorporates a (1978) New Environmental Paradigm scale, which has weighting of one set of consequences over another been found to predict environmentally-responsible (i.e., future versus immediate consequences), which behavior, such as lower use of phosphate detergents, seems pertinent to the exchange between immediate recycling, and reducing resource utilization. However, benefit of consumerism and long-term protection of the some researchers have critiqued the original NEP (see environment. Tarrant & Cordell, 1997) and, to address more current The CFC has been associated with pro- environmental issues and psychometric problems in environmental behavior (Joireman, Van Lange, & Van the original NEP, Dunlap, Van Liere, Mertig, and Vugt, 2004) and has also been found to interact with Jones (2000) revised the instrument, which is now value orientations (Joireman, Lasane, Bennett, Richards, called the New Ecological Paradigm (NEP). Both & Solaimani, 2001). The relationship between future the original NEP scale and its revised version have orientation and environmental behavior suggests that the been widely used in research. Rauwald and Moore CFC’s function fits within the norm-activation model. (2002) used a subset of the original and found that Joireman et al. (2004) found that research participants it predicted support for protective environmental with high scores on the CFC were more likely to use policies, but it was not as effective in the samples from public transportation and were more likely to believe Trinidad and the Dominican Republic. Schultz and that cars harmed the environment. They also found that Zelezny (1998) used the revised NEP as a measure modeling the interaction of perceived environmental of awareness of environmental consequences and impact with both social value orientation and CFC found that it was a good predictor of a measure of increased the predictive value of their model, although environmental behavior in the United States and in the effect size was small. Joireman et al. (2001) studied Nicaragua, but not in Mexico, Peru, or Spain. They the CFC in relation to Social Value Orientation (SVO; also found that the internal consistency was high in Messick & McClintock, 1968) and found that there was their sample from the US, but varied in samples from a statistically significant interaction between SVO and the other countries. CFC in predicting environmental behavior. Congruent Mayer and Frantz (2004) hypothesized that with Friedman’s (1983) model of self-expansiveness that the NEP would not predict behavior as accurately as focuses on the potential of the self-concept to expand their CNS and provided some evidence that the CNS both temporally and spatially, the CFC is also seen as a predicts behavior after controlling for the NEP, while measure related to temporal self-expansiveness into the the NEP does not predict environmental behavior after future and, in that sense, a measure of interconnectedness. controlling for the CNS. Consequently, as a secondary Conceptually, we theorize that individuals might be purpose of our study, we explored this conjecture. more environmentally responsible if they felt more Last, we compared the relationship between a sense of connected with the future. interconnectedness and environmental behavior after Consequently, this main focus of our study is controlling for environmental worldview as a possible on the relationship between interconnectedness, both confounding variable.

Connectedness and Environmental Behavior International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 91 Method Connectedness to Nature Scale. Another Participants recent measure, the Connectedness to Nature Scale Participants were drawn from a convenience (CNS; Mayer & Frantz, 2004), also is closely related sample of patrons at a farmer’s market in a northern conceptually to the construct of self-expansiveness and Florida college town. A non-student sample was chosen was found to correlate with environmental behavior because previous studies using non-students as research (Mayer & Frantz, 2004; Frantz et al., 2005). The 14- participants obtained stronger relationships between item CNS was used as a nature-specific measure of relevant attitudes and behaviors (e.g. Kraus, 1995). connectedness, but it is also seen as a limited type of the Patrons were approached if they appeared to be over 18 overall construct of self-expansiveness (i.e., this is one years of age and if they responded to an initial question domain of self-expansiveness). It contains items about the in English. Those over 18 and willing were asked to respondent’s feelings of connectedness to nature, which participate. The survey results include data from 97 are rated on a 5-point Likert scale from strongly agree women, 82 men, and 31 who did not specify their gender; to strongly disagree. Example questions include “I often their average age was 33.8 years, ranging from 18 to 68. feel a sense of oneness with the natural world around Measures me,” and “I think of the natural world as a community Self-Expansiveness Level Form. The Self to which I belong” (Mayer & Frantz, 2004, p. 513). Expansiveness Level Form (SELF; Friedman, 1983) Mayer and Frantz (2004) found the internal reliability defines a cartography of time and space constituting all of the CNS to be adequate (r = .84, n = 60). They with which an individual could identify. The SELF asks also found evidence for construct validity by finding respondents to rate their willingness to identify with statistically significant correlations between CNS scores items using a 5-point Likert-scale. This study focuses on and lifestyle scores that measured the amount of contact items in the SELF Transpersonal Scale (SELF-TS), seen with nature. They then tested convergent validity and as the broadest measure of interconnectivity. Examples found a moderate correlation with the revised NEP (r = of transpersonal items include: “Experiences of all life .35, p < .01). forms of which I am one” (Friedman, 1983, p. 42), Future orientation. Future orientation was “Future happenings which I will experience” (p. 42), and measured with the Consideration of Future Consequences “The beings who might descend from me in the distant Scale (CFC; Strathman et al., 1994). The CFC is a 12-item future who may not have human form” (p. 43). In initial scale that measures a dispositional trait for the degree to research by Friedman (1983), reliability of the SELF-TS which the respondent considers future versus immediate was supported by a test-retest correlation of .83 and consequences of actions (Strathman et al., 1994). It is by a Spearman-Brown Prophecy Formula calculation scored on a 5-point scale with 1 representing extremely of internal reliability of .66. In that same research, uncharacteristic (of the respondent) and 5 representing construct validity was supported by differentiating a extremely characteristic. Data from four samples suggested known group involving yoga students and members of adequate internal reliability (alpha scores of .800, .816, a transpersonal society from controls, as well as by its .860, and .805 from samples of n = 323, n = 379, n = correlation with the Mystical Experiences Scale (Hood, 153, and n = 138), and two samples suggest that test-retest 1975) and a factor analysis suggesting three factors, reliability is also adequate (r(166) = .76, after 2 weeks one of which was a transpersonal factor. A number of and r(322) = .72, after 5 weeks; Strathman et al., 1994). additional validation studies have been conducted on Strathman et al. (1994) supported the convergent validity the SELF-TS, including a recent study providing a of the CFC by showing that it was correlated with delay comprehensive review of previous validation studies of gratification (see Klineberg, 1968), locus of control (Pappas & Friedman, 2007). In this research, the SELF- (see Rotter, 1966), and the Stanford Time Perspective by TS is used as a general model for the widest type of Zimbardo (1990). Strathman et al. (1994) also supported interconnectedness, but it should be noted that a more the predictive ability of the CFC by showing that it recent variant of this approach, the Nature Inclusive predicted environmental behavior, health concern, and Measure (NIM; St. John & MacDonald, 2007), was health behavior. Future consequences also is seen as closely developed from the SELF to more specifically measure related conceptually to the construct of self-expansiveness, environmental identification. relating to identification with thefuture.

92 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Hoot & Friedman Environmental beliefs. Environmental beliefs Procedure were assessed using the revised NEP by Dunlap et A survey approach was used to explore al. (2000). They described the NEP as a measure of the relationships among environmental behavior, ecological worldview, attitudes, beliefs, and values, connectedness, future orientation, and environmental but Stern, Dietz, and Guagnano (1995) found that beliefs. Participants were asked to complete a the NEP was indistinguishable from a measure of questionnaire containing demographic background awareness of environmental consequences (as opposed information and several measures. Two versions of the to consideration of consequences). The NEP contains survey were used to counter-balance for the possibility 15 items about beliefs related to the environment. that there might be effects from asking environmental Agreement with the odd-numbered items was coded behavior questions on the measures, and vice versa. One with a 5 and disagreement was coded with a 1. The version presented the environmental behavior questions even numbered items were reverse scored (see Dunlap first, while the other presented them later. et al., 2000). Although the scoring used in this study Hypotheses corresponds to that used in the original NEP, the Hypothesis 1: There will be a significant instructions in the current study were modified to say correlation between the SELF-TS and both the “please indicate whether you STRONGLY DISAGREE, CNS and CFC as measures of more specific types of MILDLY DISAGREE, are UNSURE, MILDLY interconnectivity, as well as between the CNS and CFC. AGREE or STRONGLY AGREE with it” [upper case Hypothesis 2: There will be a significant used in the original], which is in the reverse order from correlation between all 3 measures of connectivity and the original so that the order of the number scale in the a measure of environmental behavior. current study would correspond with the order used in Hypothesis 3: There will be a significant the other instruments. difference in the ability to predict environmental Dunlap et al. (2000) relied on the validity behavior between an environment-specific measure of of the earlier version of the NEP by Dunlap and Van connectedness (the CNS) and the broader measure of Liere (1978), but also found that the revised NEP was self-expansiveness (SELF-TS). correlated with a 10-item measure of self-reported Hypothesis 4: There will be a significant environmental behavior. Dunlap and Van Liere (1978) correlation between the CNS and environmental conducted a known-group test of the validity of the behavior after controlling for environmental beliefs. original NEP. The higher scores from the environmental Hypothesis 5: Future orientation will interact group versus the general sample provided support for with the CNS in the prediction of environmental the NEP’s construct validity. Research has supported behavior. the predictive validity of the NEP by using it to predict Results recycling, avoiding environmentally damaging products, lthough 210 people participated in the survey, and other such behaviors (Dunlap & Van Liere, 1978; Asome of their responses were incomplete and four Tarrant & Cordell, 1997). participants coded non-standard answers to the behavior Environmental behavior. The measure of questions (those responses were coded as missing values). environmental behavior used in this study was a 6-item Consequently, the number of observations varied with measure previously used by Joireman et al. (2001). They each analysis. There were 195 valid observations used for found that it had adequate internal reliability (alpha = a regression that included environmental behavior, CFC, .65). The dichotomously scored questions on the survey and CNS; and 157 observations for a regression that pertained to signing petitions for or contributing to added the NEP to the analysis. Of the 210 participants environmental causes, product selection based on who completed at least one survey page, 165 completed environmental attributes, voting for political candidates the NEP, which was on the last page of the survey. for environmental reasons, membership in environmental There were no statistically significant or any groups, and reading publications by environmental other difference found in the mean of any variable based groups. One version of the questionnaire includes the 6- on survey-question order or for those who completed the item environmental behavior measure first and the other entire survey, as compared to only part of it. See Table 1 version includes it after the CNS and CFC. for a summary of the main findings. Although the exact

Connectedness and Environmental Behavior International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 93 Table 1. Correlations

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 EB — .374*** .415*** .484*** .114 .124 .421*** .262*** –.069** .099 CNS-T — .387** .395*** .336*** .466*** .865*** .170* –.058 –.129 CFC-T — .360*** .259*** .285*** .749*** .081 –.194** .036 NEP-T — .073 .220** .416*** .008 .044 –.040 SELF — .723*** .343*** –.012 –.136 –.231** SELF-TS — .446*** –.006 –.006 –.235** CFC x CNS-T — .167* –.123 –.034 Age — –.022 .218** Gender — –.048 Education —

EB = environmental behavior; CNS = Connectedness to Nature Scale; CFC = Consideration of Future Consequences; NEP = New Eco- logical Paradigm; SELF = Self-Expansiveness Level Form; SELF-TS = the Transpersonal Subscale of the SElF; Variable names ending with –T have been transformed to reduce skewness and improve normality. *p. < .05 **p. < .01 *** p. < .001 participation rate of those approached was not recorded, The CNS, CFC, and NEP distributions exhibited it is estimated that approximately one third of those statistically significant skewness, kurtosis, and lack of solicited completed at least part of the survey form. normality. Hartwig and Dearing (1979) recommended Gender Effects the use of transfor- There were notable gender effects for only mations when the Table 2. Frequency Table two variables. The mean environmental behavior intervals between Environmental Behavior score for female participants (M = 4.13, n = 97, SD = items on a scale lack Score Frequency 1.692) was higher than that for male participants (M lack objective signifi- = 3.78, n = 76, SD = 1.738), but the difference was not cance. In this study, 0 7 statistically significant. The mean untransformed CFC skewness was not in- 1 9 score for female participants (M = 49.34, n = 97, SD terpreted to mean = 5.885, mean per item = 4.11) was higher than that that the underlying 2 35 for male participants (M = 46.60, n = 82, SD = 5.813, populations were 3 26 mean per item = 3.84) and was statistically significant skewed, but that the (t(172) = 3.664, p < .001). The gender difference for scales used to tap 4 37 CFC is consistent with the results of Petrocelli (2003) normally distributed 5 43 whose study of 664 college students found a statistically populations did not significant difference between the scores on the CFC for maintain consistent 6 49 female versus male participants, with female participants intervals. Researchers scoring higher. have used transformations, including an x2 trans- Data Transformations formation, to correct skewness in the CFC (see The distribution of environmental behavior Joireman, Anderson, & Strathman, 2003; Joireman et scores exhibited a ceiling effect with the most frequent al., 2004). This type of ordinary transformation did not score being the maximum value of 6 (see Table 2). This adequately correct the skewness and normality problems distribution was irreparably nonnormal and was not in this study, but a power transformation proved transformed. effective. The form of the transformation used was

94 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Hoot & Friedman x λ −1 tested using Fisher’s r to Z transformation (see Blalock, xT = (λ ≠ 0) λ 1979) and found to be statistically significant t( (381) = This form was inspired by Box and Cox 2.604, p < .01). (1964), but the lambda values were set to minimize 4. The partial correlation between the CNS skewness. The transformations improved skewness, and environmental behavior while controlling for the kurtosis,€ and normality for the CNS and NEP, but did NEP was statistically significant r( (154) = .228, p < .01) not produce normality in the CFC. Transformation as was the partial correlation between the NEP and constants (lambda) for the CNS, CFC, and NEP were environmental behavior while controlling for the CNS 3.1, 2.4, and 2.8 respectively. Transformed values for (r(154) = .391, p < .001). Although the NEP partial these three variables were used in each analysis unless correlation appeared to be somewhat stronger than that noted otherwise. The transformed CFC variable lacked of the CNS, the difference between the two correlations normality because of the spikes in the distribution of the was not statistically significant t( (309) = 1.59, ns) at an original variable, but the overall shape of the transformed alpha level of .05. distribution appeared normal. Last, although the SELF- Because Mayer and Frantz (2004) made claims TS did not exhibit statistically significant skewness or about partial correlations that corresponded to Baron kurtosis, it did fail tests of normality, but this variable and Kenny’s (1986) description of mediation, results was not transformed because the lack of normality was from both studies were examined for mediator status. caused by spikes that were not correctable. Although the key criteria for mediation is when a Hypotheses previously significant correlation is no longer significant 1. The Pearson correlation between the SELF- after controlling for a mediator variable, Baron and TS and the CNS was .466, while for the CFC it was .285 Kenny (1986) provided a less formal suggestion for (p < .001 for both). The Pearson correlation between the cases in which the partial correlation does not reduce CNS and the CFC was .387 (p < .001). These support the independent-dependent correlation to zero. That the hypothesis that these measures are all tapping into suggestion is that “a significant reduction demonstrates similar aspects of interconnectivity. that a given mediator is indeed potent” (Baron & Kenny, 2. The Pearson correlation between CNS and 1986, p. 1176). A strict interpretation of this would be environmental behavior was statistically significant that the correlation between independent and dependent (r(202) = .374, p < .01), as was the Pearson correlation variable would drop by a statistically significant amount between CFC and environmental behavior (r(195) = when the mediator is added to a partial correlation. To .415, p < .01), but the correlation between the SELF-TS test if either the CNS or NEP acted as a mediator for the and environmental behavior was not (r(178) = .124, ns). other variable, the drops in correlation were tested. Table 3. The difference in correlative strength between 3 shows that none of the drops in correlation reached the correlations using the CNS and the SELF-TS was statistical significance.

Table 3. Tests of Differences Between Correlations and Partial Correlationsa

b c CNS CNS t NEP NEP t Ecological behaviord (n) .44** .42** 0.14 .20* .15 0.29

(65) (65) (65) (65) Environmental behavior (n) .374*** .228** 1.41 .484*** .391*** 1.01

(204) (156) (160) (156) CNS = Connectedness to Nature Scale; NEP = New Ecological Paradigm *p. < .05 **p. < .01 *** p. < .001 a Tests were conducted using Fisher’s r to Z transfomation b Controlling for NEP c Controlling for CNS d Ecological behavior from Mayer and Frantz (2004)

Connectedness and Environmental Behavior International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 95 5. The Pearson correlation between used instead of a dummy variable to account for the environmental behavior and the interaction between possibility there were nonlinear relationships between CFC and CNS was statistically significant r( (194) = .421, gender and the other variables (e.g., a possible gender p < .001), but a better measure of the predictive value of difference in the interaction term). The coefficient for the interaction term is how it contributes to a multiple CFC was statistically significant for both male and regression that contains the other two variables. The female participants. Although the coefficients for coefficient of the interaction term in such a regression CNS and the interaction between CNS and CFC were was statistically significant beta( = –.585, p < .05), but its statistically significant for female participants only, the sign was opposite of expectations (see Table 4). differences in coefficient values between the male and Regression Models female participants were not statistically significant. See A planned regression of environmental behavior Table 4 for a summary of regression analyses. on CNS, CFC, and the interaction of the two variables An unplanned regression of CNS, CFC, and was statistically significant F ( (3, 192) = 20.147, p < NEP on environmental behavior showed that all three .001, adjusted R 2 = .228) as were the coefficients for variables were statistically significant with NEP being the CNS (beta = .635, p < .001), CFC (beta = .609, p < strongest predictor. The results are displayed in Table 4. .001), and the interaction of the two (beta = –.585, p < Discussion .001). Because there was a statistically significant gender sing a convenience sample of patrons of a farmer’s effect for CFC, the first regression was run for male and Umarket, our results evidence that two specific female participants separately. Separate regressions were measures of interconnectedness, which relate to the

Table 4. Regression Analysis for Dependent Variable: Environmental Behavior Coefficients Model Attributes 2 beta t Adj R df F Model 1 .239 195 20.147*** Constant –.442 CNS-T .635 3.169*** CFC-T .609 3.960*** CFC x CNS-T –.585 -2.087 Model 2 (female) .230 92 10.154*** Constant –1.112 CNS-T 1.205 3.681*** CFC-T .650 3.090*** CFC x CNS-T –1.207 –2.756 Model 3 (male) .227 75 8.322*** Constant –.704 CNS-T .621 1.952 CFC-T .690 2.904 CFC x CNS-T –.583 –1.384 Model 4 .274 157 20.710*** Constant 1.093 CNS-T .158 2.028* CFC-T .199 2.604** NEP-T .332 4.380***

CNS = Connectedness to Nature Scale; CFC = Consideration of Future Consequences; NEP = New Ecological Paradigm; Variable names ending with –T have been transformed to reduce skewness and improve normality. *p. < .05 **p. < .01 *** p. < .001

96 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Hoot & Friedman larger construct of self-expansiveness, can predict very high CFC and did not have the possibility to score environmental behavior. This understanding fills a gap a higher environmental behavior score because they in the current body of research by providing preliminary already reached the maximum score. If future studies evidence that interconnectedness (both with nature and replicate the negative coefficient for the interaction the future) contribute to the prediction of environmental term, it might suggest the counterintuitive condition behavior both directly and through their interaction. The in which people with very high future orientation and finding that a nature-specific measure of connectedness connectedness to nature become concerned about (the CNS) has a stronger correlation with environmental many topics, such that dedication to the environment behavior than does a broader measure of connectedness becomes diffuse and actually decreases. Such a finding (the SELF-TS) is consistent with the research of Ajzen would be consistent with the work of Carlo et al. (1999) and Fishbein (1977) who suggested that more specific who found that manipulated levels of oneness increased measures of attitudes would yield higher correlations helping behavior only in those with lower dispositional with behavior than would less specific measures. Our levels of personal distress. They suggested that high levels results are also a reminder that improved prediction of of personal distress disrupt the activation of empathy. environmental behavior might require refinement of Future research could be used to explore the interaction other general predictors of environmental behavior, such of the CNS and CFC while using a more comprehensive as a nature-specific measure of future orientation. measure of environmental behavior and perhaps a Contrary to the past findings of Mayer and measure of dispositional level of personal distress to Frantz (2004), the CNS was not found to be a better explore the relationships suggested by Carlo et al. (1999). predictor of environmental behavior after controlling Future research could also expand on the current study for the NEP than the NEP was after controlling for the by using a more representative sample of participants. CNS. Mayer and Frantz (2004) made explicit claims The difference between a nature-specific that the CNS would predict behavior better than the measure of connectedness and a broader measure of NEP and also noted that the correlation between the self-expansiveness in the prediction of environmental CNS and environmental behavior while controlling for behavior was notable and in the predicted direction the NEP was better than the other partial correlation. but was not statistically significant. The results add to The data in Table 3 does not provide support of any the work of Ajzen and Fishbein (1977) whose review statistically significant mediator effects of the CNS or of research suggested that measures of attitudes and NEP in correlations with environmental behavior. behaviors that closely correspond to each other are more The nominal differences in correlations between predictive than measures that are more distantly related. the two studies among CNS, NEP, and environmental The results are also consistent with Schultz and Zelezny behavior might be a result of the smaller sample size (1998), who found that a nature-specific measure of self- in the Mayer and Frantz (2004) study or the different transcendence predicted environmental behavior better measures of environmental behavior. Some items in the than a general measure did. current study might have reflected mere support for As humanity faces the onset of likely environmental principles, whereas Mayer and Frantz environmental crises, technological advances and (2004) measured specific behaviors that might involve macrosocial interventions can undoubtedly be of great some degree of personal sacrifice. benefit. But increased understanding of how people might Support was found for the interaction between experience an increased sense of interconnectedness, future orientation and connectedness, but the sign of such as with both nature and the future, could also the coefficient was negative when it was expected to be facilitate the selection of workable pathways toward positive. The coefficient for this variable was expected to environmental sustainability. We believe these types be positive based on the theory that people with high of interconnectedness can be best understood from a connectedness to nature and high future orientation transpersonal perspective, congruent with Friedman’s would be strongly motivated to minimize long-term (1983) model of self-expansiveness, and that encouraging adverse impact on nature. A possible ceiling effect in this perspective could provide an important avenue for the environmental behavior data might have affected not only environmental sustainability but also for the the results for participants who had very high CNS and very survival of humanity.

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Connectedness and Environmental Behavior International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 99 Note

1. This paper is partially based on Hoot’s (2009) master’s thesis.

About the Authors

Harris Friedman, PhD, is a consulting and clinical psychologist. He has taught and held leadership positions at several universities, and recently retired as Research Professor of Psychology at University of Florida and Professor Emeritus at Saybrook University. He continues to supervise dissertations at a number of schools, including Walden and Northcentral, as well as Saybrook Universities. He has over 100 professional publications, mainly in the area of transpersonal psychology and spirituality. He is a Fellow of the American Psychological Association, and serves as Senior Editor of the International Journal of Transpersonal Studies and Associate Editor of The Humanistic Psychologist. His most recent books, both co-edited with Stanley Krippner in 2010 and published by Praeger, are Mysterious Minds and Debating Psychic Experiences.

Robert Hoot is a PhD student in Psychology at Walden University, currently studying the perceived moral permissibility of actions that harm nature and how those conceptions of morality relate to connectedness to nature. He can be contacted at [email protected]

About the Journal

The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies is a peer-reviewed academic journal in print since 1981. It is published by Floraglades Foundation, and serves as the official publication of the International Transpersonal Association. The journal is available online at www. transpersonalstudies.org, and in print through www. lulu.com (search for IJTS).

100 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Hoot & Friedman The Deep Ecology Movement: Origins, Development, and Future Prospects (Toward a Transpersonal Ecosophy)

Alan Drengson1 Bill Devall University of Victoria Humboldt State University Victoria, BC, Canada Arcata, CA, USA Mark A Schroll 2 Co-Editor, Restoration Earth New York, NY, USA

The deep ecology movement, which began with Arne Naess’ introduction of the term in 1972, is compared with other movements for social responsibility that developed in the 20th century. The paper discusses Naess’ cross-cultural approach to characterizing grass- roots movements via platform principles that can be supported from a diversity of cultures, worldviews, and personal philosophies, and explains his use of “ecosophy.” The deep ecology movement’s relationship with ecopsychology, ecocriticism, and humanistic and transpersonal psychology is described as part of an emerging synthesis referred to as transpersonal ecosophy. The inquiry concludes with a technical discussion of Naess’ Apron Diagram and reflections on the future of the movement in light of widespread concerns about global warming and destruction of cultural and biological diversity.

Keywords: deep ecology, long-range deep ecology movement, ecosophy, platform principles, Apron Diagram and levels of discourse, nonviolent direct action, ecological responsibility and sustainability, deep questioning, ultimate norms, Ecosophy T, Self-Realization, ecopsychology, ecocriticism, humanistic and transpersonal ecosophy.

he emergence of myriad grass-roots organizations in conditions of war and violence, but require mutual working for positive social change is one of the respect and civil relationships best realized through peace. most significant developments in the 20th century. All three movements assume individual maturity and TThese often began as local initiatives, but spread to become responsibility. Hence, people refer to active concern for national and in some cases even international as is true for all three areas as exemplifying high social responsibility. the three great movements. The three great movements An example of this is in the growing form of investing for global responsibility during the 20th century were called “Socially Responsible Investment” (SRI), in which the peace, social justice, and environmental movements. investments are screened using criteria of social justice, (For more on these three movements see Naess’ essay “The peace, and environmental responsibility. This is one of the Three Great Movements” reprinted in Naess, 2008e.) It many ways these three movements influence each other is true that the roots of these three movements predate in our society. Shallow, profit-only-oriented investment the 20th century, but it was only in the last century that is short-term and focused on narrow values. SRI is a they became global. They have attracted a wide variety of deeper, longer term approach that cares for the present people with different worldviews, religions, cultures, and and future. Thus, all three movements can be supported, nationalities. Each can be seen as having interconnections but an individual might focus their actions mostly on one with the others. For example, violence and war are of them, recognizing their complementary nature and a incompatible with environmental responsibility, and person’s limited energy (Chernushenko, 2008). environmental destruction and degradation raise issues The environmental movement was at first of social justice. Liberty and equality cannot be secured diffuse, but in time it became more focused. Within TheInternational Deep Ecology Journal Movementof Transpersonal Studies, 30(1-2), 2011,International pp. 101-117 Journal of Transpersonal Studies 101 these socially responsible movements, there is a short- in local and global systems. The environmental term shallow focus on investing energies in responsible movement, then, is a call to ecological responsibility. education and business, and a deeper, longer term The better we understand ecosystem processes and approach that uses deep questioning to get to ultimate functions, the better able we are to connect our whole values and the roots of the problems, which lie deep lives with them. Carson suggested that honoring this within ourselves as individuals and as societies. The responsibility requires a basic shift in the way we see, shallow approach to environmental action is piecemeal feel, and value the world. This deep change is often in caring for the natural world and its life-support described as a shift in paradigms, values, and basic systems. The environmental movement was deepened relationships. We cannot continue to do the same and strengthened by the more widespread social justice things in the same way for the same reasons, with only and peace movements in the 1960s. Martin Luther modest modifications. We cannot go on with business King, Jr. was a leader in these movements. He and as usual, if we are going to solve these problems. (For many others realized that a basic human right is to be more on shifting paradigms see Drengson, 1980, 2011; safe in your person. Living and working in hazardous Caley, 2011; MacDowell, 2011; Fox, 2011; Schroll & conditions violates human rights, and people who are Walker, 2011; Schroll & Greenwood, 2011.) less well off usually bear more negative consequences Carson showed the need for deep changes from pollution in their home and workplace. in human practices and ways of living. Mainstream Origins of the Deep Ecology Movement politicians and other people have acknowledged that ome consider the publication of Rachel Carson’s there are problems, but they typically believe that mild Sbook Silent Spring (1962) as the beginning of the reforms and improved technology will solve them. contemporary, long-range deep ecology movement. Economic growth and increased consumption are still When her book appeared there was a long-standing considered central values of the society and so the movement for conservation of land and resources, status quo economy is placed before the environment. as well as support for creating parks and other areas Arne Naess called this approach the shallow ecology devoted to preserving wilderness and spectacular movement. Carson’s book and the writings of other nature. Carson’s writings were especially influential ecology researchers related to it, all implied that a because they clearly showed how human well-being comprehensive and deep change in basic values and depends on the condition of whole biotic communities. patterns of action is needed. In our complex social systems She explained in practical terms how living beings are it is basic values, choices, and priorities that determine interrelated within ecosystems. She explained how how the whole system develops and what its effects are. pesticides used to control mosquitoes and other insects Thus, those calling for basic changes challenged the rest led to declines in some bird populations. Silent Spring of us to ask deep questions about why and how we act as helped show how complex food webs and networks we do. What are our ultimate values? What do we live of biotic relationships function. Since humans are at for? How do we realize our highest ends? What means the top of many food chains, exposure to chemicals shall we adopt to realize these aims? becomes more concentrated as these move up the The 1960s was a decade of vigorous social chains. The chemicals also can be stored in human activism in the United States, Canada, Western tissues and gradually accumulate over time, adversely Europe, and Australia. Some activism focused on affecting health. war and peace and the issue of nuclear weapons. A Carson helped a generation to grasp that caring well-known early environmental organization started for some animal populations, such as birds, requires care with a focus on nuclear tests and their environmental for the health of the whole system they live in. Because hazards. Some people in British Columbia, Canada, of interrelatedness, humans need to respect all forms of were opposed to the test of a nuclear weapon by the life as part of our whole biotic community. In societal US government on Amchitka Island in the Aleutians communities every person counts; so too in natural off of Alaska. They hired a fishing vessel and sailed communities, all beings contribute and participate. towards the nuclear test site in protest. This action led As humans with forethought and self reflection, we to the founding of Greenpeace, which became more are responsible for what we do and how we participate identified with environmental issues as time went by.

102 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Drengson, Devall, & Schroll The name Greenpeace, then, is associated with two of regarded his presentation as a preliminary account of the the three great social movements, the conservation (or environmental movement. It was based on empirical environmental) movement and the peace or antiwar studies, questionnaires, and an examination of texts movement. and documents. During the 1980s and 1990s, Naess Many environmental organizations, such as the continued to revise the points of characterization that he Sierra Club in California, were originally more local in had introduced in his talk and its published summary. focus. They concentrated mainly on preserving special Thus, he coined the terms deep ecology movement and spectacular scenic areas, but shifted and widened their ecosophy in, The Shallow and the Deep, Long-Range focus in the 1960s and 1970s. Additional research and Ecology Movement: A Summary (first published as knowledge eventually led to a deeper, more comprehensive Naess, 1973, now reprinted in Naess, 2005, Vol. 10, and approach to environmental problems. The U.S. Wilder- online as Naess, 2008d). He contrasted the mainstream ness Act was passed in 1964, as well as many other shallow ecology movement with the deep ecology conservation measures. By the early 1970s the National movement, which stresses the need for extensive changes Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) was passed. This act in values and practices, especially in industrial nations. created the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in Naess said that supporters of the deep ecology the US. Similar efforts were going on in other countries movement embrace its principles as a result of a deep such as Canada and in Western Europe. The first Earth questioning of mainstream values, beliefs, and practices to Day was held in 1970. The environmental movement was arrive at intuitions that are at the level of ultimate norms strengthened by the more widespread social responsibility and hypotheses. By comparison, the shallow movement movement; it worked cooperatively with the peace and does not go to the ultimate level in values and conceptions social justice movements. Martin Luther King, Jr.’s civil of the world. It is concerned primarily with pollution and rights message was embraced as an essential human right, resource depletion in industrialized nations, and only and led to the implementation of policy that living and with minor reform of the system without fundamental working in hazardous conditions violates these rights. changes in values and practices. It is concerned with Moreover, those with financial means can avoid being the health and affluence of industrial nations. Of the subjected to the worst environmental pollution, which deep approach Naess wrote, “Ecologically responsible raises questions of fairness. policies are concerned only in part with pollution and These three great movements were further resource depletion. There are deeper concerns which catalyzed by the now iconic images of the whole Earth touch upon principles of diversity, complexity, autonomy, floating in space taken during the return of the Apollo decentralization, symbiosis, egalitarianism, and class- space missions from their journey to the moon. Among lessness” (Drengson & Inoue, 1995, p. 3; Naess, 2008a). the astronauts that witnessed seeing the whole Earth In his detailed discussion, Naess used terms firsthand was Edgar D. Mitchell, who in 1971, during such as “biocentric egalitarianism in principle” to try the return mission of Apollo 14, had an epiphany that to articulate the underlying intuitions that supporters what is needed to solve the eco-crisis “is a transformation of deep changes felt are needed in industrial societies, of consciousness” (Roberts, 2011). In response, the in relation to the way natural and built environments criticism many have had regarding the hypothesis “we are treated. Later, for a variety of reasons, he dropped need a transformation of consciousness” is that a specific this egalitarian terminology when he articulated the operational definition of what this actually means is Platform Principles for the deep ecology movement. As lacking (Schroll, 2011b). Humanistic and transpersonal will be seen, the first two principles approach the essence psychology have an important role to play in offering of some of these intuitions, since they recognize the support to this hypothesis, because these schools of intrinsic worth of all living beings (Platform Principle psychology have focused more than others on motivational No. 1) and the intrinsic worth of diversity and richness techniques and methods to change consciousness. (Platform Principle No. 2). Shallow-Deep Distinction Joseph Meeker’s Role orwegian philosopher Arne Naess first used the in the Development of the Deep Ecology Movement Nshallow-deep distinction in a talk at the World oseph Meeker’s role in the development of the deep Future Research Conference in Bucharest in 1972. Naess Jecology movement is important because it was he, in The Deep Ecology Movement International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 103 1973, who told George Sessions “about the Norwegian orientation in the work of Thoreau where it is possible philosopher Arne Naess, whom Meeker knew personally” to see a further connection between the deep ecology (Fox, 1990, p. 63). As Warwick Fox related: movement and ecocriticism: One of the things that initially interested Sessions Thoreau appreciated Emerson’s work, but felt about Naess was Naess’s strong interest in, and it stopped short. He recognized that Emerson’s innovative approach to, the work of Spinoza. spiritual culture was still European in some respects. Sessions says that he had himself “arrived at Spinoza There remains a sense of separation from Nature as the answer to the process of teaching history of with a nostalgic longing for something beyond this philosophy by about 1972 and independently of continent. Thoreau seemed to feel that Emerson’s being in contact with Naess.” Sessions therefore transcendentalism welled up from a lack of literary, wrote to Naess at this time, and their association has experiential and physical grounding in wild places continued ever since. (p. 63) in North America. To see nature as it is depends on access to wilderness and to our own inner wild Meeker’s (1972, 1997) book, The Comedy nature. Identity, awareness and place are network webs of Survival,3 emerged through the work of scholars of reciprocal relationships. When we are ecologically seeking an environmental ethic. The Comedy of Survival aware, we know that we need wild places in Nature represents Meeker’s founding work in literary ecology to help us realize our wholesome wild energies. and ecocriticism, which demonstrates the relationship This is what completes us as human Earth dwellers. between the literary arts and scientific ecology, especially When we are aware beings, we are self realizing humankind’s consideration of comedy and tragedy. It and creatively changing within a home space. . . . reminds that adaptive behaviors (comedy) promote Thoreau’s way to wholeness—his prescription—was survival, whereas tragedy estranges from other life to walk at least four hours [in wild nature] every day. forms. This thesis rests on Meeker’s study of comparative (Drengson, 2010, p. 2010, emphasis supplied) literature, his work with biologist Konrad Lorenz, and his work as a field ecologist in the National Park service This helps to raise an interesting question: in in Alaska, Oregon, and California. order to maintain a healthy psyche, what is the minimum Similar to Meeker, John Tallmadge is another time of nature exposure that a person needs each day? (See representative of ecocriticism. While serving as president Drengson’s [2010] Wild Way Home for outlines of such of the Association for the Study of Literature and the Envi- efforts.) To the authors’ knowledge, this is a question that ronment (ASLE) in 1997, he shared this accout: still needs investigation as we are unaware of any specific data to answer it. A related question would be: does In the early 1990s a group of scholars began to exposure to nature expand one’s sense of self identity and address this necessary relationship and promoted how one treats the world? This is the focus of Robert E. the inclusion of environmental perspectives in Hoot and Harris Friedman’s (2011; this volume) article, literary studies. The movement grew and developed Sense of Interconnectedness and Pro-Environmental in a new area of study: ecocriticism (Tallmadge, Behavior. Similarly, one might ask if all places in nature 1999, pp. 15-16). are equivalent, or if it might be that certain places tend In the years leading up to the formation of ASLE and to be more influential? Jim Swan has been collecting ecocriticism, Tallmadge’s personal journey was guided data on what he has called the study of place, or, more by the question: “how should human beings relate specifically, sacred places in nature as triggers that produce to the world?” (p. 15). Tallmadge came to a deeper transpersonal states (Swan, 1988, 1990, 2010; Schroll, understanding of this question through his realization 2011b). This discussion, however, exceeds the limits of the that wilderness is actually a state of consciousness present article. Finally, Thoreau’s method to wholeness (Tallmadge, 1981, 1987). Drengson has referred to this brings to mind a walk with Meeker, David Spangler (a as the human need for the Way of Wild Journeying, or major theoretician of the New Age Movement), and others simply the Wild Way, pointing out that an example of through his private forest (his backyard; Meeker, 1997a). the Wild Way is expressed in Thoreau’s (1862) essay, Those close to arboretums at university campuses or a Walking. It is Drengson’s discussion of the Wild Way public park also have a way of practicing the Wild Way.

104 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Drengson, Devall, & Schroll Toward a Vision of Sustainable Agriculture of the good examples of traditional agriculture have eturning to Mitchell’s hypothesis that what is employed what we now recognize as sound ecological Rneeded to solve the eco-crisis is a transformation of principles (p. 93). consciousness, Meeker has summarized this suggestion Still, new methods of plant breeding and the as: reinstatement of traditional farming methods will not, An image of human adaptation to the world and [an] by themselves, create the means to develop sustainable acceptance of [its] given conditions without escape, agriculture. In addition, Jackson (1992) suggested the rebellion, or egotistical insistence upon human need “for a less extractive and polluting economic order,” centrality. (Meeker, 1972, p. 182) based on what he referred to as “sustainable human communities” (p. 93). Jackson (2009) clarified what In other words, those urging a transformation of he meant by sustainable human communities, pointing consciousness do not support the belief that humanity will out: be saved by supernatural forces from the consequences of mistreating nature. This is not to suggest that those urging Our greatest achievement is not being able to say a transformation of consciousness are in favor of totally “we saved this place,” but being able to say, instead, abandoning humankind’s relationship with the sacred, or “you belong here. You are home.” Land conservation a total and complete overthrow of the status quo. What can become the story of how the soul of the land is being suggested is the need to transcend the narrow became the soul of our culture, signaling over and piety of the established social order, whose governance is over our place in the world. (p. 262) predicated on idealistic platitudes far beyond the reach The achievement of this goal is the most radical suggestion of the common citizen. Humankind is being invited that Jackson (1992) proposed: to participate in the fullness of nature as a wilderness, not a well-manicured garden that is dominated and If we are to look at nature to inform us about controlled for human use. This does not require giving sustainable structures and functions in a human up gardening and agriculture in the practical sense, but community, we must have the courage to shift our an end to the treatment of nature as an object that exists attention back to the Paleolithic and even earlier in only for instrumental use: an idea whose goal, according order to help define what the human being is as a to Wes Jackson (1992), is to “seriously begin to build a social creature. (p. 94) science of agricultural sustainability, where nature is the Evolution as a Comedy of Survival: measure” (p. 92). The goal of sustainable agriculture is to Remembering Right Relationship with Nature move away from monocultural farming techniques and ackson’s suggestion that modern humans shift their seasonal reliance on herbicides and pesticides to control attention back to the Paleolithic will truly require a weeds and insects. J transformation of consciousness. Meeker (1972) has Jackson (1992) and his colleagues at the suggested one way humankind could begin to transcend Land Institute in Salina, Kansas, have already begun its present worldview is for us to see evolution as a comedy developing perennial strains of grasses, legumes (peas, of survival. Why comedy? Because, as he explained, beans, clover, alfalfa, etc.), sunflower family members comedy “is a celebration, a ritual renewal of biological and miscellaneous others that not only imitate nature’s welfare as it persists in spite of any reasons there may structure, but are bred “for high seed-yield and resistance be for feeling metaphysical despair (p. 24). Moreover, to seed shatter and pests” (p. 93). Speaking about his Meeker suggested that “evolution itself is a gigantic work at the Land Institute, Jackson stated: comic drama, not the bloody tragic spectacle imagined Though some of the work features diversity over by the sentimental humanists of early Darwinism. . . . Like time (crop rotation, in order words), it is not comedy, evolution itself is a matter of muddling through” necessarily succession. Nevertheless, by featuring (p. 33). “In modern terms, comedy is systemic rather diversity, maintaining ground cover, and relying than hierarchical (Meeker, 1995, p. 22). Still—with the on internal sources of nutrients, better control of possible exception of socially and politically conscious weeds, diseases, and insects is possible. Nearly all satire—it is hard to shake the image of comedians as

The Deep Ecology Movement International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 105 people who earn their living making light-hearted jokes. three great movements as compatible and complementary. How would comparing life to a comedy help anyone care Each does important work and should remain focused more about the world in which they live? on its own platform. The front of all these movements is Unlike the heroic warrior image found in tragic very long and deep. There is something each individual literature, the comic perspective is non-confrontational. can do in their own place to support all three. Thus, instead of fighting nature, the comic perspective The first complete articulation of the Platform attempts to establish a right relationship with nature. Principles of the deep ecology movement was by Naess The phrase “right relationship” may suggest to those and Sessions in 1984, developed while hiking in Death unfamiliar with the terminology of Eastern and trans- Valley, and published in Deep Ecology (Devall & Sessions, personal psychology, an ideological creed similar to “my 1985). A more recent and elegant version of this Platform country right or wrong!” Additional reasoning along was published by Devall (2002). this line might lead one to assume it means a political Platform Principles mandate for correct behavioral conduct. In actuality of the Deep Ecology Movement right relationship refers to humankind’s coherent, co- evolutionary, sustainable orientation with nature. Right 1. All living beings have intrinsic value. relationship suggests the need for a psychic reorientation 2. The diversity and richness of life has intrinsic with the personal and collective unconscious that, value. according to Metzner (1992), will require “re-thinking 3. Except to satisfy vital human needs, humankind the relationship of humankind with the animal kingdom, does not have a right to reduce this diversity and the plant kingdom and the elemental realms of air, water richness. and earth/land” (p. 1). Drengson (2010) referred to right 4. It would be better for human beings if there relationship or “right actions with integrity and honesty, were fewer of them, and much better for other honoring others” (p. 244) as an essential value in the living creatures. Wild Way. 5. Today the extent and nature of human interfer- Deep Ecology Movement Platform Principles ence in the various ecosystems is not sustainable, upporters of the long-range deep ecology movement and lack of sustainability is rising. Smostly agree on the general Platform Principles of the 6. Decisive improvement requires considerable movement. This is true for supporters of other movements change: social, economic, technological and as well. Social-political movements often unite people ideological. with different religions and personal philosophies. 7. An ideological change would essentially entail Such movements cannot be precisely defined, but are seeking a better quality of life rather than a often characterized by fairly general goals and aims raised standard of living. that are stated in something like a platform. There 8. Those who accept the aforementioned points will be variations in applying such principles within a are responsible for trying to contribute directly broad movement, since in specific places different direct or indirectly to the realization of the necessary actions might be required; people live in quite different changes. ecosystems and cultures, and they have different personal From Naess with Haukeland, 2002, pp. 108-109; an philosophies (Devall, 2006). expanded version of the Platform has been proposed While there have been several articulations of by Bender (2003, pp. 448-449). the deep platform by different philosophers and activists, this paper will focus on Naess’ version. His articulation The application of the principles articulated in the of these principles distills what seem to be the shared Platform occurs at the levels of local households and principles in the movement from a wide, cross-cultural communities, nation states, and global agreements. literature, and also as gleaned from activists’ statements. It involves actions, policies, laws, and other forms of The gist of the original principles is now incorporated in agreement. many documents and agreements. Similar distillations It should be stressed that those who follow of platform principles have been done within the social Naess’ lead welcome a great diversity of personal views justice and peace movements. Naess and others see the and cultures that support the local and global movement

106 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Drengson, Devall, & Schroll for ecological responsibility. Similarly, Naess and other announcements and hypotheses concerning the supporters of the deep ecology movement, have avoided states of affairs in our universe. Wisdom is policy using divisive terms words such as “shallow ecologist” and wisdom, prescription, not only scientific description “deep ecologist.” Instead, “supporter of deep ecology” is and prediction. The details of an ecosophy will shorthand for “supporter of the deep ecology movement.” show many variations due to significant differences In this way it is recognized that one can be a supporter concerning not only the “facts” of pollution, of social justice, world peace, and the deep ecology resources, population, etc., but also value priorities. movement, as well as of many other movements. A person (Naess, 1973, as reprinted in Drengson & Inoue, who supports the social justice and peace movements 1995, p. 8) is not thereby called a “social justicist” or “peaceist,” Each person’s ecosophy can be given a unique name, since their reasons for supporting these movements are possibly for the place they live, or for something to based on their own philosophy of life or on a spiritual which they feel strongly connected. For example, John tradition such as Buddhism or Christianity. As is made Muir might have called his ecosophy “Ecosophy M,” clear by Naess’ Apron Diagram, social justice, peace, and where “M” stands for mountains, but also for Muir ecological responsibility are not by themselves complete (Bresnahan, 2007). There can be indefinitely many philosophies, but are supported by a great diversity of ecosophies as articulated personal life philosophies that people having different philosophies. are lived with a variety of different actions appropriate to The terms “intrinsic value, inherent worth, their unique places. biocentric equality, egalitarianism, ecocentrism, and non- To simplify the articulation of an ecosophy as anthropocentrism” have been used widely in the literature a whole personal view, Naess suggested distilling it into to distinguish deep ecology movement principles from two kinds of statements. These consist of (a) ultimate humanism and other forms of narrow anthropocentrism; hypotheses (H) about the nature of the world, and (b) these philosophies emphasize humans first over all other ultimate values he called norms (N). Naess used an beings, an attitude characteristic of shallow approaches. exclamation point to identify norms in his writing. Many shallow ecology supporters also place economic Since there is an abundance of individuals, languages, values over environmental ones. However, both the cultures, and religions, there will be an abundance of Shallow and Deep Movements acknowledge that humans ecosophies in support of the deep ecology movement all are having a negative impact on the natural world, and over the world, such as Ecosophy Ann, Ecosophy Bob, that this impact should be minimized for a variety of Ecosophy Chan, Ecosophy Ishu, and so on. Naess used somewhat different reasons. his Ecosophy T to exemplify how one can articulate a Ecosophies in Abundance unique personal philosophy that aims for ecological n describing the main features of the deep ecology harmony. movement in his earliest writings, Naess explained how I Here are a couple of examples of Naess’ (1990) personal philosophies of life, or what he also called total use of norms and hypotheses to articulate Ecosophy T and complete views, could be consciously articulated to (the “T” refers to his hut Tvergastein, a place of arctic aim for ecological harmony and wisdom. He called such extremes, high in the mountains of Norway). His ecocentric personal philosophies ecosophies, combining ecosophy’s ultimate norm is “Self-realization!” He stated the root words from ancient Greek ecos (household this first and then organized the subsequent norms place) and sophia (wisdom), to mean ecological wisdom and hypotheses in chains of derivation. Here is how he or wisdom of place. Naess thought that mature persons presented these in Ecology, Community and Lifestyle: know what their life philosophy is, what they stand for, and what their priorities are. Here is his original account Formulation of the Most Basic Norms (N) of ecosophy (Drengson, 2005): and Hypotheses (H) By an ecosophy I mean a philosophy of ecological N1: Self-realization! harmony or equilibrium. A philosophy as a kind of H1: The higher the Self-realization attained by sofia (or) wisdom, is openly normative, it contains anyone, the broader and deeper the identi- both norms, rules, postulates, value priority fication with others.

The Deep Ecology Movement International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 107 H2: The higher the level of Self-realization attained by Abraham Maslow and other humanistic and by anyone, the more its further increase transpersonal psychologists in their accounts of stages of depends upon the Self-realization of others. growth and self actualization. In various ways, the ego H3: Complete Self-realization of anyone depends self (with a small s) grows to realize a more concerned on that of all. social self, and then perhaps an ontological self that N2: Self-realization for all living beings! Naess called Self using a capital “S.” This type of self- (Naess, 1990, p. 197; see also Naess, 1992; 2005, Self distinction is made in Hinduism and in some Vol. X). forms of Zen Buddhism. Whereas Maslow wrote of self-actualization, Naess used the more Gandhian and Later in the same chapter (p. 199) he offered the following: Spinozan terminology of Self-realization. This ecology Norms and Hypotheses Originating in Ecology of self-Self is not part of the deep ecology movement; instead, it is part of Naess’s theoretical support for his H4: Diversity of life increases Self-realization social activism, and his support for the peace, social potentials. justice, and ecology movements. This distinction is N3: Diversity of Life! made at the level of an ultimate philosophy of life; it is H5: Complexity of life increases Self-realization not made in all worldviews and ecosophies. potentials. A Misunderstanding to Avoid N4: Complexity! ome writers have misunderstood Naess, taking H6: Life resources of the Earth are limited. his Ecosophy T, with its Self-realization norm, H7: Symbiosis maximizes Self-realization S as something meant to characterize the whole deep potentials under conditions of limited ecology movement as part of a single philosophy called resources. “deep ecology.” Naess was not doing either of these. N5: Symbiosis! He emphasized that movements cannot be precisely As noted, Naess used the exclamation point to emphasize defined, but only roughly characterized by very general and mark that a statement is a value norm. As a norm statements. They are often united internationally by it entails that he ought to do something. The ultimate means of such principles as found in the United Nations norm “Self-realization!” implies that he ought to strive to (UN) Earth Charter (1980), and in UN documents realize himself and to help others to realize themselves. about basic human rights. In the case of “Diversity!” he ought to honor and support Thus, Naess was doing something more subtle diversity on every level (biological, individual, cultural, than many thought. He was not putting forth a single etc.) in any way he can. Interweaving norms and worldview and philosophy of life that everyone should hypotheses, Naess articulated a systematic outline of the adhere to in support of the international ecology movement. basic elements in his ecosophy. Note that ecosophies are Instead, he was making an empirical claim based on not just theories; they are ways of life actively engaged overwhelming evidence that global social movements, on a daily basis. from the grass roots up, consist of people with very diverse Naess explained what he means by Self- religious, philosophical, cultural, and personal orientations. realization in many places, but especially in his influential Nonetheless, they can agree on certain courses of action paper, Self-Realization: An Ecological Approach to and certain broad principles, especially at the international Being in the World (Naess, 1987; this was first a lecture level. As supporters of a given movement, they can treat delivered in Australia). In this paper, and in his daily one another with mutual respect. life, Naess explored the ecology of the self in a world of Because of these misunderstandings Naess deep ecological relationships, not just to other humans, introduced an Apron Diagram to clearly illustrate his but also to other living beings. He noted that selves relate subtle distinctions. There is collective cooperation on to others on many levels, from physical and emotional, to global concerns, and yet a great variety of ultimate psychological and spiritual. He also observed that there premises from which each person or group acts locally. are many kinds of selves, human and nonhuman. Within global movements there is diversity at the local As an individual matures they go through level because each place and community is different and different developmental stages that have been described must adapt to its unique setting.

108 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Drengson, Devall, & Schroll Ecosophy T, Tailor-Made for Naess are. Once a person reaches a certain level of maturity, hus, Naess stressed that his Ecosophy T is not meant they are usually secure enough in their own philosophy Tto hold for everyone, since it is tailored to his very and spiritual way that they are not frightened or angered modest lifestyle suitable to a place such as Tvergastein. by others whose views are different from their own. They The ultimate premises for his whole view might be are not reluctant to discuss or share their views. They conceptually incompatible with those in someone else’s do not want everyone to agree with them or hold the whole views. But even if this is true, they could both same views as they do. Even within specific religions and support the Platform Principles of the deep ecology traditions, there is considerable variety. This is a great movement and other social-political global movements, benefit, as Naess observed. The integrity of each person, such as for peace and social justice. In recognizing the and of each being, should be respected as having its principle that all living beings have intrinsic worth, one own way and story. So, supporters of the deep ecology acknowledges they are good for their own sake. This does movement welcome a great pluralism of ultimate views, not commit one to biocentric equality or egalitarianism along with cultural, biological, and individual diversity. between species. Within the vast diversity of living Indeed, this is the way of the wild Earth, the source of beings, there are complex relationships the range of which creativity. (On whole or total views see Naess’ insightful is predation, competition, cooperation, and symbiosis. paper, Reflections on Total Views, in Naess, 2008c.) Many think that symbiosis and complementarity are The Deep Ecology Movement’s Relationship to important values to embrace as they are consistent with Ecopsychology, and Ecopsychology’s Roots in global cooperation, community life, and support for the Humanistic and Transpersonal Psychology deep ecology movement Platform. hat is the deep ecology movement’s relationship to When one considers what Naess has said about Wecopsychology? This important question has not Ecosophy T and the Self-realization! Norm, it becomes been fully addressed in existing literature; partial efforts possible to better appreciate what he means by asking include, The Relevance of Humanistic Psychology, by others to consider how they feel and what they think they Christopher M. Aanstoos (2003), who pointed out that: should do. In striving for Self-realization one might see how A “deep ecology” movement (e.g., Naess, 1986) has their sense of self develops through time and experience. recently been coalescing around the basic vision of As a person matures, they become concerned with their radical inter-connectedness. The utter compatibility relationships to other people, and to other beings with of this movement with the humanistic vision is just whom they are interconnected. They come to identify with a now being comprehended, and an emerging subfield larger community, and so the sense of who they are becomes of ecopsychology is being born. Metzner (1999) more expansive (cf. Friedman, 1983). Naess thought that urges psychology to undergo a “fundamental . . . one can actually increase their feelings for those around revision that would take the ecological context of them by extending care, but not by expanding egotistical human life into account” (p. 2). (p. 129) control. To be nonviolent in relationships, one must practice nonviolent communication. This is a systematic Likewise James L. Kuhn (2001) discussed the importance practice that is learned with effort through direct action. of Naess’ work in his article, Toward an Ecological One avoids making negative judgments about others, and Humanistic Psychology, endorsing the importance tries to appreciate where each person is coming from. An of our developing an ecological self, pointing out that assumed enemy can become a friend and ally. For Gandhi “humanistic psychology can bridge the gap between and Naess this related to the ecology of self-Self, that is, the humanity and nature, between psychology and ecology, particular self in its relations to a universal Self or Atman. to learn to see the needs of the person and the needs As humans mature, each person has unique of the Earth as interrelated and interdependent” (p. 22). feelings for the world and how they relate to it. These Taking Aanstoos and Kuhn’s work a step further, Schroll’s personal lifestyles represent a somewhat complete, whole efforts to date have focused on investigating the history view—that is, a way of being in the world. We realize that of ecopsychology (Schroll, 2007, 2009, 2010a) and we come from a certain milieu, worldview, and a cultural ecopsychology’s roots in humanistic and transpersonal background with familial and personal elements. There psychology (Schroll, 2004, 2008/2009, 2010b; Schroll, are local and ecosystem factors that are part of who we Krippner, Vich, Fadiman, & Mojeiko, 2009).

The Deep Ecology Movement International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 109 Ecopsychology is a movement that emerged support and be activists in the long-range deep ecology from Theodore Roszak’s (1992) book, The Voice of the movement, because they support its Platform Principles Earth. Despite its innovation and ability to catalyze a from their deep personal views and feelings. The popular movement, since its inception ecopsychology Platform enables them to see how to apply movement has failed to be integrated with environmental ethics, the principles to design active solutions in their home place, deep ecology movement, and various other movements from formulation of local policies to specific actions. that led to its birth. The remaining discussion in this The Apron Diagram underscores that in international section seeks to clarify the contributions of humanistic discussions, it is necessary to recognize four levels of and transpersonal psychology that helped to produce discourse in articulating views and their implications, as what is now referred to as ecopsychology. in questioning and deriving ultimate hypotheses about Ecopsychology has its origins in humanistic the world and ultimate norms (see below and Fig. 1). and transpersonal psychology, as Robert Greenway Thus, it is possible to see how there can be great cultural, recalled that one rainy afternoon in late Fall 1962 religious, philosophical, and personal diversity, while at Maslow was looking out the window, saying, “It’s the same time developing consensus and coordinated not enough, humanistic psychology is not enough.” actions at the level of cross-cultural and international This initiated Maslow’s thinking about the limits of cooperation, so as to address shared problems and aims. humanistic psychology and it was during this time he The planet has a unified ecosystem made up became influenced by Aldous Huxley’s view of trans- of vast numbers of regional and local systems down to humanism. Greenway later suggested creating what the level of individual beings. The existence of many he called a psychoecology (Schroll, 2007). Stanley languages and cultural diversity is a reflection of this Krippner recalled in his last conversation with Maslow ecological and biological diversity. Naess, and others that Abe spoke of founding a new psychology he was supporting the deep ecology movement, have expressed calling trans-human psychology. Krippner added that, the belief that this diversity is a great treasure of the “as we talked about it, in retrospect, I now realize he Earth. Hence, one of the Platform Principles (No. 2) was talking about what we now call ecopsychology” recognizes support for the intrinsic value of diversity. (Schroll, 2008/2009, p. 16). In Krippner’s words, Diversity and complexity support resilience and also this was something that “stemmed from the deep enrich human lives. Global monoculture impoverishes ecology movement. . . . We should therefore extend humanity by destroying diversity and places. our concerns—go trans-human—and not make this Naess’ Apron Diagram a human-centered psychology. Unfortunately Maslow he four levels of discourse that, according to Naess, never had this dream realized” (Schroll et al., 2009, p. Tneed to be taken into account, are: (1) verbalized 40); Kripner added the opinion “that ecopsychology is fundamental or ultimate philosophical and religious absolutely critical” (p. 46). Greenway’s research later ideas and intuitions; (2) the Platform of the long-range rose to national attention through the efforts of Elan deep ecology (or other social) movement; (3) more or Shapiro, a graduate student of Greenway’s. In 1989 less general consequences derived from the Platform that Shapiro (responding to the first Gulf War) formed an involve formulation of policies and (4) concrete situations anti-war group at University of California Berkeley and practical decisions made to act in them (Fig. 1). whose discussion included psychoecology, later Supporters of the deep ecology movement morphing into ecopsychology (Schroll, 2007). In this have ultimate views (Level 1) from which they derive vision, healing inner and outer conflict becomes the their acceptance of the Platform. These views can be means of healing the person/planet that fosters peace very different from person to person, and from group (Metzner, 1997). “Unfortunately few picked up on this to group. Likewise, supporters may disagree about what thread of the conversation when ecopsychology began follows from the Platform (Level 3), partly because they to catch on” (Schroll, 2009/2010, p. 6). interpret the principles differently, partly because what Levels of Discourse in the Apron Diagram follows does not follow from the Platform alone, but s noted above, in later writings Naess used an from a wider set of premises that differ from those of AApron Diagram to explain how people who hold other people. This does not prevent cooperative action very different religious and philosophical views can on a regional, national or international level.

110 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Drengson, Devall, & Schroll The Apron Diagram is meant to illustrate C’ might be inspired by a sort of Christianity, and B’ logical, as distinct from genetic, relations between views by a sort of Buddhism: or, again, P’ may be Spinozan. and their connection with social movements, policies (Drengson & Inoue, 1995, p. 12) and practical actions. By “logical relations” this means verbally articulated relations between the premises and The long-range deep ecology movement thus conclusions. They move down the diagram in stages: manifests both plurality and unity. There is unity at Level some conclusions become premises for deriving new 2, as is true for many global grass-roots movements, and conclusions. “Genetic relations” refers to influences, plurality at other levels. Individuals and communities motivations, inspirations, and cause and effect relations. can articulate diverse ecosophies based on their deep They are not indicated in the Apron Diagram. They may thinking about the principles of the Platform. Hence, a move up and down, or anywhere, and they involve time, community of monks might have their own unique blend specific places, and agents. Naess described the diagram of Buddhist practice, that they view as their ecosophy

Fig. 1. Naess’ Apron Diagram

C Level 1: Ultimate B P Premises of Worldviews

Deep Ecology Platform Level 2: Deep Ecology

Level 3: Normative Logical C’ policies or Factual Hypotheses Questioning

B’ policies P’ policies

B’ acts C’ P’ acts Level 4: Particular The deep ecology movement can bring together diverse groups and individuals situated within different philosophical, cul- tural, and religious contexts who share common platform principles and coordinate to act in response to local instances of global problems. B = Buddhist, C = Christian, P = Personal Philosophy (after Drengson & Devall, 2010, p. 61) in a passage quoted and to some extent paraphrased in for the place they live and their tradition. Their place the book, The Deep Ecology Movement: becomes an ecostery, a place where ecosophies are lived (see www.ecostery.org website for details). Their practices The possibility of the Platform Principles being (Levels 3 & 4) are in a sense continually adapting to derived from a plurality of mutually inconsistent the world as it changes; at the same time they preserve premises, for example—a B-set and a C-set—is abiding values and bring new values (Level 1) to the in the upper part of the Apron Diagram at level fore. These traditions of ecosophic practices are self- 1. Let us say that the B set is Buddhism, and C is learning, self-correcting systems that aim for sustainable Christianity, and a P set is Spinoza’s philosophy, or dynamic harmony. They are recursive learning systems it could be Ecosophy T. Similarly, the lower part of that continue to grow in positive qualities. Their aim the diagram illustrates how, with one or more of the is to create personal, communal and spiritual traditions eight principles as part of a set of premises, mutually that are ecosophies with high life quality. inconsistent conclusions may be logically derived, Each person can contribute to improving the leading to the C’-set or B’-set of concrete decisions. quality of life (Platform Principle No. 7) on all levels The Deep Ecology Movement International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 111 all at once, since once a person shifts to quality of life, The Platform Principles of the long-range deep rather than mere quantities (e.g., no longer thinking ecology movement can be grounded for supporters in a “bigger is better”), universes of possibilities are opened. It religious tradition, or in an ultimate personal philosophy is possible in principle to have endless growth in quality such as Spinoza’s. There is a great diversity of religions of life without increasing consumption above a certain and philosophies from which people can support these life-support level. There are many values related to and other social movement principles. In a loose sense, quality of life that can increase indefinitely. For example, the Platform Principles can be derived from these kinds wisdom, love, courage, beauty, harmony and so on can of ultimate fundamentals—a reminder that a set of be manifested and appreciated in all degrees. Thus, a very similar or even identical conclusions may be drawn very high quality of life is possible even with a low level from divergent premises. The Platform can be the same, of material and energy consumption. A large population even though the ultimate premises can differ. One must is not necessary for high levels of cultural diversity and avoid looking for one definite philosophy or religion richness of life (Naess, 2008b). among all the supporters of the deep ecology movement. Importance of Levels of Discourse Fortunately, there is a manifold richness of fundamental to Depth and Diversity views compatible with the Platform of the movement. rom what has been said above, and by looking at Supporters live in different cultures and have different Fthe Apron, the long-range deep ecology movement religions. Furthermore, there are manifold kinds of can be seen as an example of a grass-roots movement consequences derived from the Platform because of these with many variations and local applications, plus some differences in history, culture, local conditions, and so broad points of general agreement nationally and on (on this diversity and richness see Naess, 1992). internationally. There are many different social political Continuing Importance movements on the Earth. Some have mainly local focus, of the Deep Ecology Movement some have regional concerns, and some include whole he conditions of global warming and its regional Earth problems and needs in their aims. Naess, and Timpacts are a reality of the environmental situation other scholars who support the deep ecology movement, in which all of humanity dwells. The Fourth Assessment have tried to appreciate and understand the diversity Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate of cultures and languages that make up human life on Change (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the planet. There is in-depth and large-scale study of 2007) surveyed a range of possible alternatives within languages, cultures, religions, worldviews, and personal which humans and other sentient beings will live during philosophies that use comparative systems of typology the 21st century (Sessions, 1995). based on naturalist and ecological concepts. (For some Some analysts think that the tipping point examples see the journal Human Ecology Review of the of global warming and catastrophic weather change is Society for Human Ecology (SHE) and their website.) already occurring. Drastic changes in social organization For practical purposes, in the Western context, it will occur because of the already major changes in these is possible to appreciate that people in our societies come natural processes, as these become manifest in daily life. from a wide variety of backgrounds and have different Even without a pandemic of bird flu or other strain of views about the nature of the world and what is of ultimate virus, minor and major disruptions of oil and gas supplies value. Naess and others in the deep ecology movement to the United States and Europe due to hurricanes, low- have suggested that each person can have a complete view level warfare, or acts of terrorism will disrupt social order that comprises many levels of articulation, application of and could imperil the survival of millions of people. Global language, and practical action. Global movements, such warming will intensify the need for rapid social change. as the peace, social justice, and ecology movements are On a global level, social change is especially supported by a wide variety of people with a diversity urgent in North America, Europe, Japan, China, India, of ultimate philosophies and diversity of local practices. Indonesia, and Brazil because these combined regions Each movement has its own platform principles, so, for have the largest human populations, the largest impact example, the principles of other movements such as for on the planet, and the largest arsenals of weapons of social justice or for world peace might appear on Level 2 mass destruction. In Indonesia and Brazil the weapons in the Apron Diagram, and so on. are fires and chainsaws, as the carbon-sequestering

112 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Drengson, Devall, & Schroll tropical rainforests are destroyed to make way for human 1999) . . . Transpersonal ecosophy represents liberation settlement. In other industrial nations, damaging impacts from the paradigmatic restrictions that . . . perceive include burning coal and other fossil fuels, along with any state of consciousness that is not within the weapons of war (McLaughlin, 1993). normal range of consciousness as abnormal (Tart One responsible adaptation to global warming 1975). (Schroll, 2011a, p. 4) could be a return to bioregional practices. Communities of Elaborating further: people living in life regions with arable land could locally produce most of their own food and energy resources. Many environmental activists have reduced Although these bioregional communities might remain this inspiring vision of wholeness to symptoms in contact with each via mail, phone, and the Internet, (deforestation, acid rain, overpopulation, etc.) travel between bioregions could be more limited. (On the whose treatment is now the focus of ecotherapy. But shortcomings of globalization and the promise of local transpersonal ecosophy is more than mere therapy, adaptations see Mander, 2007; Mander & Goldsmith, more than blindly driven social action inspired by 1996; McKibben, 2008. For deep design see McDonough frustration and anger. Transpersonal ecosophy is & Braungart, 2002, www.mcdonough.com; see also more than a response to the rhetoric of catastrophe, Weston, 2012.) and it seeks to offer more than a rhetoric of shame While bioregional communities might be one as a solution, nor is it simply a pedantic list of b- form of adaptation to rapid changes in the natural attitudes, or a rhetoric of self-sacrifice [Schroll et al., environment, the framework discussed in this article 2009, pp. 47-48, 2009]. This is not to suggest that offers readers a way to develop their own ecosophies and Naess’ deep ecology movement platform is wrong; worldviews that can lead to different kinds of highly I am suggesting that people have gotten stuck on responsible local communities. To have nonviolent this platform as a moral catechism or a diagnosis communication and collective effort requires cooperation of symptoms (Schroll: 6, 2009/2010). . . . Granted, and mutual respect. The less one identifies their personal Naess’ platform is a good beginning toward framing worth with their views and culture, the more they can the problems we are seeking to consider. However, appreciate others and the diversity found all around. To Naess’ ultimate vision was about awakening self- allow all beings and humans to flourish is to honor and realization and ecosophy, which he recognized care for diversity, which supports the second Platform was the same as Maslow’s self-actualization and Principle of the deep ecology movement. The deep transcendence. (Schroll, 2009/2010, p. 6) movement finds depth in all dimensions and directions, In sum, transpersonal ecosophy (which includes in nature, in ourselves as human persons, in our texts, ecocriticism, ecopsychology, the deep ecology movement, in our practices, and in our inquiring spiritual nature as the anthropology of consciousness, humanistic and self-transforming, creative processes and activities. transpersonal psychology) is a growing coalition that: Toward a Transpersonal Ecosophy t the 2009 Society for the Anthropology of promotes experiential transformation: awakening AConsciousness conference, Alan Drengson noted our awareness of empathy of universal suffering that a significant comment by Arne Naess. Speaking of internalizes a felt self sense of ethics. This code of Warwick Fox’s (1990) book, Toward a Transpersonal ethics is also guided by an intellectual understanding Ecology, Naess noted that a better title would have been, of humankind’s role in cosmic evolution. (Schroll, Toward a Transpersonal Ecosophy. 2009/2010, p. 6) This is because Naess’ view of self-realization Mark Schroll is therefore calling for the creation of embodies a transpersonal perspective that derives transpersonal ecosophy as special interest group, and from his personal philosophical approach that once established to merge this group with Division 32 he called Ecosophy-T. Transpersonal ecosophy (Society for Humanistic Psychology) of the American also embodies experiential insight derived from Psychology Association. techniques of consciousness expansion that liberate us from the “human superiority complex . . . (Metzner

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114 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Drengson, Devall, & Schroll McLaughlin, A. (1993). Regarding nature: Industrialism Naess, A. (2008c). The ecology of wisdom: Writings by and deep ecology. Albany, NY: State University of Arne Naess. (Alan Drengson & Bill Devall, Eds.). New York Press. Emeryville, CA: Counterpoint Press. Meeker, J. W. (1972). The comedy of survival: Studies in Naess, A. (2008d). The shallow and the deep ecology literary ecology. New York, NY: Charles Scribner’s movement. In P. Anker, Deep ecology in Bucharest. Sons. The Trumpeter: Journal of Ecosophy, 24(1), 56-67. Meeker, J. W. (1995). Comedy and a play ethic. ReVision, Naess, A. (2008e). The three great movements. In A. 17 (4), 21-24. Drengson & B. Devall (Eds.), The ecology of wisdom Meeker, J. W. (1997). The comedy of survival: Literary (pp. 99-104), Emeryville, CA: Counterpoint ecology and a play ethic (3rd ed.). Tucson, AZ: Press. University of Arizona Press. Roberts, D. (2011). Edgar D. Mitchell’s noetic vision: Metzner, R. (1992). Statement of purpose. Green Earth The greening of cosmos and consciousness. Rhine Foundation Catalog. El Verano, CA: Green Earth Online: Psi-News Magazine, 3(1), 6. Retrieved from Foundation. http://www.rhine.org Metzner, R. (1997). The unfolding self: Varieties of Roszak, T. (1992). The voice of the earth. New York, NY: transformative experience. Novato, CA: Origin Press. Simon & Schuster. Metzner, R. (1999). Green psychology: Transforming Schroll, M. A. (2004, June 15). Animism, shamanism, our relationship to the earth. Rochester, VT: Inner and ethnobotony: Ecopsychology’s link with the Traditions Press. transpersonal. (Two-hour forum organized and Naess, A. (1973). The shallow and the deep, long-range moderated by Schroll that included John E. Mack, ecology movement: A summary. Inquiry, 16, 95- Charles T. Tart, and Peter Russell; CD/DVD copies 100. at (800) Naess, A. (1986). The deep ecology movement. 647-1110; A portion of this forum has been printed Philosophical Inquiry, 8, 10-13. in Schroll, 2010a) Naess, A. (1987). Self-realization: An ecological approach Schroll, M. A. (2007). Wrestling with Arne Naess and to being in the world. The Trumpeter: Journal of the origins of ecopsychology. The Trumpeter: Journal Ecosophy, 4(3), 35-42. Retrieved from (Reprinted in Naess 2008c) article/view/940/1353> Naess, A. (1990). Ecology, community & lifestyle. London, Schroll, M. A. (2008/2009). Ecopsychology’s roots in UK: Cambridge. humanistic and transpersonal psychology. Association Naess, A. (1992). The encouraging richness and diversity for Humanistic Psychology-Perspective, Dec/Jan, 16- of ultimate premises in environmental philosophy. 17. Retrieved from (Reprinted in Naess, 2005, Vol. 10) Schroll, M. A. (Organizer/Chair). (2009, April 4). The Naess, A. with Haukeland, P. (2002). Life’s philosophy: History and Future of Ecopsychology (3-hour Reason and feeling in a deeper world. Athens, GA: symposium that included presentations by Stanley University of Georgia Press. Krippner, Alan Drengson, Nora Bateson, Robert Naess, A. (2005). Selected works of Arne Naess (SWAN; Greenway, Daniela Maffei, and Schroll). Annual H. Glasser & A. Drengson, Eds.; Vols. 1-10). Conference for the Society for the Anthropology Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer. of Consciousness, McMenamins Edgefield Resort, Naess, A. (2008a). Reflections on total views. In A. Portland, Oregon. Drengson & B. Devall (Eds.), The ecology of wisdom Schroll, M. A. (2009/2010). Merging transpersonal (pp. 145-159), Emeryville, CA: Counterpoint Press. ecosophy with Division 32 (Society for Humanistic Naess, A. (2008b). The basics of the deep ecology Psychology of the American Psychological movement. In A. Drengson & B. Devall (Eds.), The Association). Association for Humanistic Psychology- ecology of wisdom (pp. 105-119), Emeryville, CA: Perspective, Dec/Jan. Retrieved from

The Deep Ecology Movement International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 115 Schroll, M. A. (2010a). Toward a new kind of science and Thoreau, H. D. (1862). Walking. Atlantic Monthly, its methods of inquiry. Anthropology of Consciousness, 9(56), 657-674. 21(1), 1-29. Weston, A. (2012). Mobilizing green imagination: An Schroll, M. A. (2010b). Reflections on Naess’ humor exuberant manifesto. Gabriola Island, BC, Canada: and ecosophy from two meetings. The Trumpeter: New Society. Journal of Ecosophy, 26(2), 45-47. Retrieved from Zimmerman, M. E. (2010). Reflections on the need for a more complete history of the deep ecology Schroll, M. A. (2011a). Editor’s introduction: From movement and related disciplines. International primordial anthropology to a transpersonal ecosophy. Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 30(1-2), 118-119 Anthropology of Consciousness, 22(1), 4-8. (this volume). Schroll, M. A. (2011b). Editorial introduction: Sacred Notes sites, consciousness, and the eco-crisis. Rhine Online: Psi-News Magazine, 3(1), 1-4. Retrieved 1. Alan Drengson: At the end of the original article I from had a brief remark saying this was the last essay Bill Schroll, M. A., Krippner, S., Vich, M. A., Fadiman, J. and I wrote together before his death. Our aim was & Mojeiko, V. (2009). Reflections on transpersonal not to revisit all the twists and turns of discussions of psychology’s 40th anniversary, ecopsychology, trans- the deep ecology movement or deep ecology, but to personal science, and psychedelics: A conversation focus mainly on Arne’s account of it as we learned it forum. International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, from him, from his writings, from working on the 10 28, 39-52. volumes of SWAN (Naess, 2005) plus the Trumpeter Schroll, M. A. & Walker, H. (2011). Diagnosing the Series on his work. This also includes our anthology human superiority complex: Providing evidence the drawn from all of these other sources, The Ecology eco-crisis is born of conscious agency. Anthropology of Wisdom (Naess 2008c). Neither of us felt at the of Consciousness, 22(1), 39-48. time we wrote this article that we could undertake a Schroll, M. A. & Greenwood, S. (2011). Worldviews in larger project to discuss all of these other details and collision/worldviews in metamorphosis: Toward a the various mistakes in interpreting Naess’ work, multistate paradigm. Anthropology of Consciousness, which we only touched on in the original Trumpeter 22(1), 49-60. article (Drenson & Devall, 2010). Sessions, G. (Ed.). (1995). Deep ecology for the 21st century. The current version of the article does bring in Boston, MA: Shambhala. other important dimensions and also begins to explore Swan, J. A. (1988). Sacred places in nature and transpersonal ecosophies and this is very important. transpersonal experiences. ReVision, 10(3), 21-26. Bill would have enjoyed reading this version. Swan, J. A. (1990). Sacred places: How the living earth 2. Mark A. Schroll: This paper was finished in late seeks our friendship. Santa Fe, NM: Bear. November of 2008, as a collaboration between Alan Swan, J. A. (2010). Transpersonal psychology and the Drengson and Bill Devall. Since it was written both ecological conscience. Journal of Transpersonal Arne Naess and Bill Devall have died. Arne died Psychology, 42(1), 2-25. in January of 2009 and Bill died 6 months later in Tallmadge, J. (1981). Saying you to the land. June. I have not changed the tense or discussions Environmental Ethics, 3, 351-363. in this paper to reflect their deaths. Only minor Tallmadge, J. (1987). Anatomy of a classic. In. J. B. corrections have been made since Bill died. We Callicott (Ed.), Companion to a Sand County discussed its details before their deaths. almanac (pp. 110-127). Madison, WI: University of In editing the paper, I added some sections, with Wisconsin Press. the agreement of the authors, which were initially Tallmadge, J. (1999). Engaging the homeplace: Tallmadge identified as editorial changes. Since these were searches for nature and finds it in unlikely places. substantial enough that the journal has opted to list The Network, 15(2), 15-17. me as an author, I wish to identify those sections so Tart, C. T. (1975). States of consciousness. New York, NY: that the work of these pioneers stands on its own. Dutton. My additions to the paper are as follows: (1) the

116 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Drengson, Devall, & Schroll final paragraph of the section entitled, Origins of the the long-range, deep ecology movement and has been Deep Ecology Movement, (2) the section, Toward a conservation activist in many wilderness issues. He a Vision of Sustainable Agriculture, (3) the section, also was an assistant editor of Deep Ecology of Wisdom, Evolution as a Comedy of Survival: Remembering Volume X in the Selected Works of Arne Naess published Right Relationship with Nature, (4) the section in 2005 by Springer, and coeditor of Ecology of Wisdom, The Deep Ecology Movement’s Relationship to Counterpoint 2008. Ecopsychology, and Ecopsychology’s Roots in Humanistic and Transpersonal Psychology, and (5) Mark A. Schroll, PhD, Research Adjunct Faculty, the final section, Toward a Transpersonal ecosophy. Institute of Transpersonl Psychology, Palo Alto, 3. During a conversation I had with Meeker at his California. He is Co-Editor-In-Chief, Restoration Earth: home on December 14, 1997, he acknowledged that An Interdisciplinary Journal for the Study of Nature and I had correctly articulated the central theses in his Civilization. He is Founding Editor of Rhine Online: Psi- book; adding that a new edition of The Comedy of News Magazine; in 2011 he Edited Rhine Online 3(1), the Survival had been published (Meeker, 1997). special 2nd anniversary issue, Sacred Sites, Consciousness, and the Eco-Crisis. He served as Guest Managing Editor About the Authors of the special Anthropology of Consciousness, 22(1), 2011 issue, From Primordial Anthropology to a Transpersonal Alan Drengson, PhD, is Emeritus Professor of Phil-osophy Ecosophy, and Anthropology of Consciousness, 16(1), 2005 and Adjunct Professor of Environmental Studies at the issue, Primordial Visions in an Age of Technology. He University of Victoria in British Columbia, Canada. He is served as the 2009 Co-Chair for Bridging Nature and currently serving as an adjunct professor in Environmental Human Nature, the annual Society for the Anthropology Studies and also Grad Studies. His books include Beyond of Consciousness conference co-sponsored by the Environmental Crisis, The Practice of Technology and Wild Association for Transpersonal Psychology. He serves Way Home. He published an ecotopian novel Doc Forest on the Editorial Board for the Journal of Ecopsychology, and Blue Mt. Ecostery, and three poetry books called the and was invited to serve as Co-Editor of the forthcoming Sacred Journey series. He is the Associate Editor for the special issue, The Ecosophies of Communication: 10 Volume Selected Works of Arne Naess published by Exploring the Worldview of Gregory Bateson and Springer in 2005. He is the coeditor of five anthologies: Arne Naess, with Michael Caley, Editor In Chief, The The Philosophy of Society, The Deep Ecology Movement, Trumpeter: Journal of Ecosophy (due out Fall/Winter Ecoforestry: The Art and Science of Sustainable Forest 2012). He served as Editorial Assistant on the 1st issue Use, The Ecology of Wisdom: Writings by Arne Naess, and of Goddess Thealogy with Patricia ‘Iolana (due out in the Wild Foresting: Practicing Nature’s Wisdom. He is the Fall of 2011). He serves on the Windbridge Institute founding editor of The Trumpeter: Journal of Ecosophy and Scientific Advisory Board, and the Advisory Board of Ecoforestry. In Winter 2008 he was a Visiting Professor Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine. Schroll is a at Simon Fraser University in Canadian Studies. He has transpersonal cultural theorist and conference organizer recently finished two book manuscripts called Caring for with multi-disciplinary interests ranging from philosophy Home Places and Being at Home with One’s Self. His email of science to ecopsychology/transpersonal ecosophy. He is [email protected]. For samples of his work visit: www. may be contacted at [email protected]. ecostery.org and http://trumpeter.athabascau.ca About the Journal Bill Devall, PhD, died in June, 2010. His bio would have said that he is Emeritus Professor of Sociology at The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies is a Humboldt State University, Arcata, California. He is the peer-reviewed academic journal in print since 1981. It is author of numerous books on deep ecology, including published by Floraglades Foundation, and serves as the Deep Ecology: Living as if Nature Mattered and Simple official publication of the International Transpersonal in Means, Rich in Ends: Practicing Deep Ecology. He Association. The journal is available online at www. is also the editor-in-chief of Clearcut: The Tragedy of transpersonalstudies.org, and in print through www. Industrial Forestry. He has written numerous articles on lulu.com (search for IJTS).

The Deep Ecology Movement International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 117 RESPONSE: Reflections on the Need for a More Complete History of The Deep Ecology Movement and Related Disciplines

Michael E. Zimmerman University of Colorado Boulder, CO, USA

lan Drengson and the late Bill Devall have written In August 1981, Sessions, Devall, Steve Meyers, an interesting article with Mark A. Schroll about and I accepted the invitation of the late Deep Ecologist the Deep Ecology Movement. Their article Dolores LaChapelle to take part in a “Heidegger in Adiscusses some of the movement’s history, but focuses the Mountains” symposium at her home in Silverton, primarily on its major tenets, such as the Deep Ecology Colorado. This symposium revealed tensions at play Platform, and on how Deep Ecology meshes with other between my Heideggerian form of anti-anthropocentrism contemporary concerns, especially social justice. and the anti-anthropocentrism favored by Sessions and Despite these merits, the article omits a lot Devall. Eventually, my concerns about the philosophical of the movement’s history, especially its feisty anti- dimension of Heidegger’s involvement with National anthropocentrism and its opposition to Green social justice Socialism led me to urge Deep Ecologists to explore issues that a number of deep ecologists displayed during whether their frequent expressions of anti-modernism at least the first two decades of the movement. Perhaps the could lead to support for a version of eco-fascism. I key American Deep Ecologist is George Sessions, whom concluded that Heidegger should not be promoted as I met in 1976 when I was presenting an eco-philosophy a forerunner of Deep Ecology. This fact may help to paper at the American Philosophical Association explain why Sessions chose not to include any of my Meeting in Berkeley, California. We both rejoiced to publications on Deep Ecology in his anthology, Deep discover another philosopher with similar interests. For Ecology for the 21st Century. more than 20 years, Sessions and I corresponded, worked Despite the importance of Sessions’ views and together, and spent time together on camping trips, with contributions to the Deep Ecology movement, the article the aim of articulating various aspects of Deep Ecology. under consideration makes scant reference to him, a fact that An indication of my respect for Sessions’ work is that may stem in part from the falling out that occurred between I invited him to edit the Deep Ecology section of my Devall and Sessions many years ago. Another reason for anthology, Environmental Philosophy: From Animal Rights downplaying Sessions’ contributions is that doing so would to Radical Environmentalism. A senior editor at Prentice have made the historical overview of Deep Ecology much Hall was puzzled by the proposal, which included a less politically correct. In effect, the history offered here section on Ecofeminism as well, but ultimately he agreed bowdlerizes the Deep Ecology Movement, perhaps to make it to publish the anthology, with Sessions editing his section appear more acceptable to other environmental movements, of the first three editions. including Ecofeminism and the Green Movement. In fact, A tireless promoter of the Deep Ecology however, several leading Deep Ecologists were at odds Movement, Sessions was also a fierce critic of with these movements. Although in the mid-1980s I wrote anthropocentrism, as were Devall and I at the time. articles trying to discover common ground between Deep The idea of biocentric egalitarianism was a constructive Ecology and Ecofeminism, many ecofeminists regarded expression of anti-anthropocentrism, although as Deep Ecology as hopelessly androcentric and incapable of Drengson and Devall point out, many Deep Ecologists understanding how misogyny has contributed to ecological moved away from this perspective, with the possible problems. Sessions and Devall were not exactly light on exception of Sessions and some others. their feet in regard to this conflict.

118 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies , 30(1-2), 2011, pp. 118-119 Zimmerman Something similar is true as well in regard to the Deep Ecology-social justice relationship. Although the current article depicts this relationship as healthy, almost to the point that Deep Ecology is depicted as equivalent to the social justice movement(s), Deep Ecologists such as Sessions, Devall, and Arne Naess insisted for many years that Deep Ecology was primarily concerned not with social justice, but rather with wilderness protection. This stance helps to explain why so many Earth First!ers adopted some version of Deep Ecology. About twenty years ago, I was invited to be a panelist at the “Human in Nature” conference at what is now Naropa University in Boulder, Colorado. Alan Drengson and Bill Devall were panelists as well. I distinctly recall Bill Devall taking a position about social justice issues and Deep Ecology that dismayed many people in the room, a position that seemed incapable of being reconciled with his background as a sociologist. People change, fortunately, and Devall—as evidenced by the present article—evolved to hold a much more constructive view of the Deep Ecology-social justice relationship. The complete history of the Deep Ecology Movement remains to be written.

Response to Drengson, Devall, & Schroll International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 119 Clearing Up Rollo May’s Views of Transpersonal Psychology and Acknowledging May as an Early Supporter of Ecopsychology

Mark A Schroll John Rowan Oliver Robinson Co-Editor, Restoration Earth Independent Consultant University of Greenwich New York, NY, USA London, UK London, UK

with comments by Angela Voss and Brad Adams

This paper explores Rollo May’s 1992 reassessment of transpersonal psychology, in which he reverses his 1986 and 1989 arguments against transpersonal psychology. Equally relevant, this paper shows that May was actually interested in supporting what is now called ecopsychology. Schroll (following Alan Drengson and Arne Naess) now refers to ecopsychology as transpersonal ecosophy. This paper offers a thorough examination of several key concerns that May had regarding his reservations toward accepting transpersonal psychology’s legitimacy, and includes May’s vigorous discussion with Ken Wilber. Wilber’s discussion with Kirk Schneider’s 1987 and 1989 critique of transpersonal psychology is also examined. Likewise Albert Ellis’ 1986 and 1989 rejection and misunderstanding of transpersonal psychology is discussed.

Keywords: ecopsychology, transpersonal ecosophy, Ken Wilber, humanistic psychology.

any have been confused as to why Rollo May What is Spirituality? rejected transpersonal psychology, a question In a recent article by Aryeh Lazar (2009), he asked that is addressed and answered in this “what is spirituality?” He concluded that “there is little Mpaper. In early March 2010, Oliver Robinson initiated agreement in the literature as to what spirituality actually a conversation asking (1) “what is spirituality” on the is. However, almost all researchers appear to agree that Facebook group “Cosmos and Consciousness.” It was spirituality is a multi-dimensional construct” (p. 4). agreed that spirituality does represent a more general and Mark A. Schroll: Before we begin our inquiry into the less ideologically focused inquiry into religious concerns. question, what is spirituality, let me hark back to the It was for this reason John Rowan said that references Editor’s Introduction to this section, in which I expressed to spirituality are often so general as to be confusing support for the work of: as to what is actually meant by it. (2) This led Rowan Kaisa Puhakka’s antidote to the postmodern malaise to suggest that references to transpersonal psychology of experiential deconstruction (Puhakka, 2008, are more precise. Agreeing with Rowan, I added some p. 12), and Jorge N. Ferrer’s participatory turn additional background information on transpersonal toward “coevolutionary perspectives” that embody psychology and related fields of inquiry. (3) This inquiry “pluralistic approaches to spirituality” (Ferrer, 2009, led Rowan to bring up May’s misunderstanding and p. 142) to help assist in recognizing the “web of life rejection of transpersonal psychology, adding that toward as primary” (Puhakka, 2008, p. 16). Puhakka and the end of his life, May had reversed his position on Ferrer’s papers do not explore the concept of ecosophies transpersonal psychology to one of acceptance. This in of communication and ecology of mind based on the itself is very encouraging. (4) Amidst this inquiry, Albert legacy of Arne Naess and Gregory Bateson (Bateson, Ellis’ rejection and misunderstanding of transpersonal 2010; Drengson, Devall & Schroll, 2011); Bateson psychology is also discussed. (5) Finally, equally and Naess were both addressing these concerns. encouraging and relevant to this issue’s Special Topics Ecosophies (the wisdom of place and the person’s theme, this paper will show that May was a supporter of unique relationship to it) and ecology of mind (modes what is here called transpersonal ecosophy. 120 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies , 30(1), 2011, pp. 120-136Schroll, Rowan, & Robinson of knowing the co-evolutionary experience of Being). ways of reintroducing spiritual practice into life in a (Schroll & Hartelius, 2011, p. 85 [this volume]). manner that complements rational endeavor rather than compromising it, and that is not confined to Transpersonal theory owes a great debt to Ferrer’s a particular religion or book. The mystical impulse clarification of the limitations inherent within a diverse has survived through modernity in many guises, “family of interpretive models” associated with the but it has been inevitably squeezed towards the perennial philosophy (models that agree a single universal periphery as rationality has attempted to clear the truth exists “at the heart of the mystical teachings of world of unquantifiable or subjective concerns, the world[’s] religious traditions” for all cultures and all while giving the object ontological dominance. religions). Ferrer juxtaposed this view and the postmodern Modern science posits observable objects and their critique of contextualism, which leads to his conclusion quantifiable properties as ultimately real, and the that both are flawed, “whereas perennialism leans back world is viewed through the prism of science as a to Cartesianism, contextualism subscribes to Neo- collection of objects governed by laws. However, Kantian epistemological assumptions about the nature of despite the best efforts of scientists to remove the knowledge and reality” (Ferrer, 2000, p. 23). Following subject from the world, even going so far as to make Tarnas, Ferrer agreed their mutual flaw is dualism, the word “I” taboo in scientific articles, it just will and echoed the assessment: “Thus the cosmological not go away. “I” and the “you” remain central to estrangement of modern consciousness initiated by our vocabulary and our interactions despite the Copernicus and the ontological estrangement initiated best attempts of materialist philosophers to reduce by Descartes were completed by the epistemological the world to a collection of “it”s. The “I” cannot be estrangement initiated by Kant: a threefold mutually observed, for it is always the observer—it is therefore enforced prison of modern alienation” (Tarnas, 1991, p. outside of the province of science, which deals only 419, as quoted in Ferrer, 2000, p. 24). with observable phenomena. Ferrer’s (2000, 2009) search to move beyond This simple fact has been highlighted by many both of these viewpoints led to his participatory turn thinkers including Kant (who referred to the I as and his embrace of co-evolutionary perspectives. Others the transcendental ego), William James (1890/1950; support this participatory turn, such as Jeremy D. Yunt who referred to the I as the self-as-subject) and (2001), who has argued that “conscious participation in contemporary thinkers such as Peter Russell (2005) relations with others and the world predominates over and Ken Wilber (2006). Here we find ourselves in the detachment and calculation—primarily characteristics territory of spirituality, for the subject can be explored of technical reasoning. By stressing the inextricable and through contemplative or reflective practice. The potentially empathetic link between psyche and nature, subject is spirit. In the process of acknowledging one’s ecopsychology makes development of this participatory nature as irreducible subject, a person moves beyond reason its primary goal” (p. 109). I, too, have supported a purely material conception of themselves and the this coevolutionary participatory turn (Schroll, 1997), world, not through faith, myth, or superstition, but and the need to apply this perspective to methodological through a realization of their inherent nature. From inquiry (Schroll, 2010a). I will say more about this the exploration of the subject, questions emerge such methodological inquiry in a moment. as: Are subject and object necessarily inseparably and Oliver Robinson: A common conversation in the permanently linked? Could the universe itself be Scientific and Medical Network is, What do we actually both subject and object? Am I just my body? Could mean by the term “spirituality”? It is certainly a slippery I have a “relationship” with the universe, or with concept. Here is a short passage from a chapter of mine nature, in the way I have a relationship with human that gives one angle on the issue: subjects? Such a “bottom up” approach to spirituality, The secular worldview is being challenged by a starting with an exploration of self and other, is not renewed engagement with the notion of spirituality, an alternative to grand theological or cosmological beyond the traditional confines of religion and conceptions of Spirit, but is a complementary process theology. This new spirituality is evidenced in the that is available to all and highly congruent with the diverse literature and organizations that consider inquiring modern mindset (Robinson, 2010).

Rollo May’s Views on Transpersonal & Ecosophy International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 121 Schroll: I found the way you wrestled with EuroAmerican John Rowan: Perhaps the most productive way to look science’s efforts to reconcile subjectivity, objectivity, and at spirituality is to divide it into levels. At one level how this concern relates to the larger issue of spirituality, spirituality is superstitious, observing rituals to keep away cosmos, and consciousness has much in common with evil spirits. At another level spirituality is something to be my own inquiry. You mentioned several people that have regulated by experts and officials, not to be approached addressed these concerns, one of which was Peter Russell. individually, but possibly inspiring and useful. At another I lectured with Russell in 2004 at the International level spirituality is what is central to me: I am skeptical Transpersonal Association conference; my discussion of official definitions and feel rather alone with my real with Russell on the issue of science and spirituality is self. At another level I am a spiritual being, I am a soul, included in my paper “Toward a New Kind of Science I can be inspired by deities, angels, nature spirits, I can and its Methods of Inquiry” (Schroll, 2010a). In response see the divine everywhere. At another level I have seen to my views on methodology, Peter N. Jones compared it through all illusions and question the value of names like to the jazz style of Miles Davis: spirituality. None of these levels is THE TRUTH. Schroll: Finding “a truth” or final stage of Schroll argues that our present methods fail to “enlightenment” is one of the points that you sought provide the means to fully comprehend aspects of to clarify in your paper “Maslow Amended” (Rowan, consciousness, simply because we are always trapped 1998). Too often, as you suggest (and as I have come within our own metanarrative. His suggestion is that to agree), Maslow’s hierarchy of needs views personality we find ethnographic methods that include within development leading toward transcendence as having an their approaches an understanding of methods and end point—hence your suggestion to do away with the techniques that allow us to experientially encounter triangle (let us save the discussion of Wilber and his “all them. Our becoming transformed and then quadrants, all levels, all lines, all states, and all types” recollecting our ethnobiographical experiences is the AQAL model for a future discussion). In your paper means, he argues, toward a new kind of anthropology. “Maslow Amended,” you suggested substituting a ladder In this sense, Schroll is arguing for the same thing for the triangle. It was 1998 when you wrote this so maybe that Miles Davis played so well—we must not only you have improved on this idea, and I would like to hear study the physical characteristics of space but also what your latest thoughts are. Regarding the “ladder” the nonphysical characteristics. We must not only alternative, in his book From Science to an Adequate play the notes, or experientially encounter aspects of Mythology (Sharpe, 1984), (the late) Kevin J. Sharpe space, but we must also play the space around the proposed a ladder model of cosmos and consciousness notes, allowing ourselves to become transformed by in chapter five (Sharpe was one of my former professors). the physical and nonphysical characteristics of space I rejected this ladder model in my early correspondence (Jones, 2010, pp. 43-44). and conversations with Sharpe. I ended up leaving Hillary S. Webb (Managing Editor of Anthropology of these conversations out of my dissertation because I Consciousness) has included additional commentary on never finished working out a complete ontology and this paper and subtitled these comments, The Future of a epistemology of the transpersonal. I am continuing to Discipline: Considering the Ontological/Methodological work out these ideas. Future of the Anthropology of Consciousness, Part 1. I One alternative I have considered is to view specifically discuss my views on science and religion on personality/cosmos and consciousness as having no pp. 4-7. This paper, and my paper “The Physics of Psi: absolute end-point, represented visually as a double helix, An Interview with Stanley Krippner” (Schroll, 2010b), Mobius band, light cone, infinity symbol, two inverted provide a platform with which to finally go forward with triangles, etc. But the map is not the territory as you my most extensive research area from my dissertation: know, which is why Rowan divides spirituality into two the legacy of David Bohm and its relationship to levels. To some extent Rowan’s division reminded me of transpersonal psychology. My continuing goal is to what Maslow (1971) spoke of in The Farther Reaches of offer a theory of psi, cosmos, and consciousness that is Human Nature as organized religion on the one hand and consistent with Bohm’s transpersonal physics, which the mystical/individual experience on the other hand (see may take a few more years to complete. pp. 343-344). Like Rowan, I see organized religion as

122 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Schroll, Rowan, & Robinson “ritualistic symbolism without somatic understanding” (1) Redundant by being so diffuse as to be that operates at the physical or behavioral level of essentially meaningless, and belief systems, which often excludes an experiential ( 2) Redundant by having no unique domain of aspect where the person can ground theory in somatic reference. transcendental awareness. Still (as Rowan’s comments elude) there continues Countering the first problem requires finding a to be the question does the mystical experience allow us common denominator or core that runs through to cut through illusion (maya) and bear witness to the Tao all the manifestations of the idea, or to reject some or truth in itself? No; or to clarify, I do not view mystical manifestations and find a common denominator in experience as a singular experience of visionary insight. those that are considered valid. If there is a core to the This is not because I fail to believe in transcendence or concept, then we can be sure it is not a “disjunctive transpersonal domains of awareness. Instead personality category” (i.e., a catch-all). The second issue requires development, cosmos, and consciousness are evolving an assurance that spirituality has its own “turf” beyond infinitely, and at the personal level we all need each empirical science, rational philosophy and religion. All other to continue on our path. By this I mean a collective claim access to Truth, after all. The search for Truth is a process of shared visionary experience whereby multiple crowded marketplace these days! stories are woven together in order to tell the story of the Schroll: This is a good point you raise Oliver, that so far universe (Schroll & Greenwood, 2011). Transcendence in this conversation we have 1) not clearly defined the then is not a final state or location or quantitative neural- domain of “spirituality/transcendence,” nor 2) have we chemical analog, it is the personal and collective journey yet given a clear operational definition of spirituality or that all of us are on. Thank you for helping me remember transcendence. Rowan rightly suggested that in talking this John. about spirituality we need to define levels, or stages, or Rowan: I still think the ladder is a useful model, and states. This assists in our differentiation between mere there is a nice version of it in Figure 2.4 and 2.5 in “belief systems” that operate as a “social fact.” People Wilber’s Integral Spirituality (Wilber 2006). I also go can believe in things that are not real (like the Easter along with Wilber in saying that the Nondual is not an Bunny) which are useful in creating folk beliefs that can item on this model, but rather can be represented by the become part of a larger explanatory system. It may seem paper on which it is printed.1 harmless for us to indulge ourselves in folk beliefs as part Schroll: The ladder is a useful model, and does (as you of holiday celebrations, yet this is why Maslow held (and have pointed out in “Maslow Amended”) move us away I think this was also Rowan’s point) that organized/ from viewing transcendence as an end point. I will legalistic religion has the same tendency to create rituals take a look at Wilber’s Integral Spirituality figure’s 2.4 that operate as social facts. and 2.5 again, and get back to you on this. Regarding One example is baptism, which can amount to “nondual” as not an item on the model but the paper on nothing more than slight immersion in water or a mere which it is printed seems in a way to be suggesting, as I sprinkling of water on our head, which has now become have also said, “transcendence/nondual” is not a place a ritual that symbolically represents transcendence or or location; it is life itself or our journey through life transpersonal awareness, whereas holding someone (Schroll, 2009a). Rowan and I agree on this. (I offer a underwater until they are very close to death represents a general discussion of this elsewhere, in Schroll, 2010a, “thanto-mimetic” method potentially capable of inducing which is primarily a philosophical view of methodology. a mystical, or transpersonal state of consciousness. But the More could be added to this view of methodology; for technique is difficult because the person could potentially example, I did not specifically discuss Clark Moustakes’ drown (Pelletier, 1978). Here even before we have an heuristic inquiry or other specific qualitative or operational definition of spirituality or transcendence is phenomenological approaches. I did briefly touch on the need to clearly differentiate organized religion from personality development, cultural development, cosmos, mystical traditions that have specific methods or techniques and consciousness.) for inducing transpersonal states of consciousness. The Robinson: For me, to justify using a term and a concept Sufi story, The Man Who Walked on Water offers one like “spirituality,” one has to make sure that it is not: way of making this distinction (Shah, 1967).

Rollo May’s Views on Transpersonal & Ecosophy International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 123 Demarcating organized religion from the hoped—for some reason—to be able to achieve. core religious experience (or transpersonal states Now he could hear nothing from the reed hut, but of consciousness vs. the more general reference to he was sure that his lesson had been well taken. spirituality) became an exercise in proving its cross- Then he heard a faltering U Ya as the second dervish cultural or perennial philosophical significance. I sought started to repeat the phrase in his old way. to clarify this point in a conversation on September 29, While the first dervish was thinking about 1999 in Lincoln, Nebraska with Anizah A. Bakar, a this, reflecting upon the perversity of humanity and friend visiting from Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. I realized its persistence in error, he suddenly saw a strange that besides my discussion of Maslow’s (1971) distinction sight. From the island the other dervish was coming between legalistic and core religion, and my previous toward him, walking on the surface of the water . . . . comments on the discussion “What is Spirituality,” an Amazed, he stopped rowing. The second dervish additional means of getting this idea across to people was walked up to him and said: “Brother, I am sorry to needed. Reflecting on this problem reminded me of the trouble you, but I have come out to ask you again the Sufi story: standard method of making the repetition you were telling me, because I find it difficult to remember it” The Man Who Walked on Water (Shah, 1967, pp. 84-85). A conventionally-minded dervish, from an austerely Telling Bakar this story provided her with the pious school, was walking one day along a riverbank. means to understand the point being made in this essay He was absorbed in concentration upon moralistic regarding the core religious experience and organized and scholastic problems, for this was the form which religion. On the one hand, the humble dervish sitting Sufi teaching had taken in the community, which in the reed hut represents someone whose purity of he belonged. He equated emotional religion with the intention has allowed his consciousness to resonate search for ultimate truth. Suddenly his thoughts were with the source of religion or [David Bohm’s] holoflux, interrupted by a loud shout: someone was repeating giving him the ability to “walk on water.” On the the dervish call. “There is no point in that,” he said other hand, the conventionally minded dervish to himself, “because the man is mispronouncing the knows the proper pronunciation of the chant, yet his syllables. Instead of intoning Ya Hu, he is saying ‘U trappings of legalistic and/or organizational religious Ya Hu.’” methodology are nothing more than “ritualistic Then he realized that he had a duty, as a more symbolism without somatic understanding.” careful student, to correct this unfortunate person, Demonstrating and understanding this demarcation who might have had no opportunity of being rightly between a [soma-significant] tradition of mystical guided, and was therefore probably only doing his best experience and ritualistic symbolism without somatic to attune himself with the idea behind the sounds. understanding is the key to understanding the So he hired a boat and made his way to the island in transpersonal perspective—our ability to resonate midstream from which the sound appeared to come. with holoflux—[the fundamental unifying principle, Sitting in a reed hut he found a man, dressed in a or] the source of religion. (Schroll, 2005, p. 65) dervish robe, moving in time to his own repetition of the initiatory phrase. “My friend,” said the first I hope this helps us to clarify our conversation and dervish, “you are mispronouncing the phrase. It is speaks to both Ferrer’s embrace of the participatory incumbent upon me to tell you this, because there is turn, avoiding dualism, while preserving a fundamental merit for him who gives and him who takes advice. unifying principle that I (following Bohm) refer to as the This is the way in which you speak it.” And he told holoflux. Still the question remains what is our operational him. “Thank you,” said the other dervish humbly. definition of “spirituality” or “transcendence,” and what The first dervish entered his boat again, full of is its corresponding domain? This is the real question satisfaction at having done a good deed. After all, when we are talking about cosmos and consciousness. it was said that a man who could repeat the sacred Rowan: It is because of the various meanings and uses formula correctly could even walk upon the waves: of the term spirituality that I prefer to use the term something that he had never seen, but always transpersonal.

124 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Schroll, Rowan, & Robinson Schroll: Yes John, I too prefer using the term of just shaking you to your roots and really waking transpersonal instead of the term spirituality. One of the you up: life encounters that make you come alive best examples I can give of how (even at its best) the word and experience the kinesthetic, the tactile, and the spirituality remains unclear is the 1988 paper, Toward a erotic. Each of these human drives (and their various Humanistic-Phenomenological Spirituality: Definition, nuances) is equally important toward the creation and Description, and Measurement, by David N. Elkins, L. maintenance of a healthy personality. Nevertheless, James Hedstrom, Lori L. Hughes, J. Andrew Leaf, and no definition of transpersonal psychology should Cheryl Saunders. They defined it this way: be viewed as a description of some finished or final product of enlightenment. Rather, transpersonal Spirituality, which comes from the Latin, spiritus, psychology’s emphasis is on the continuous process of meaning “breath of life,” is a way of being and transcendence and transformation within the realms experiencing that comes about through awareness of of the personal, the planetary, and the cosmological. a transcendent dimension and that is characterized Here we are on the verge of having an operational by certain identifiable values in regard to self, others, definition of transpersonal psychology.The question that nature, life, and whatever one considers to be the continues to remain is what or where “ontologically” is the Ultimate. (p. 10) source of the transpersonal located? This is a question that In this definition of spirituality the question transpersonal psychology continues to be vague about, in that Robinson raised about having an operational spite of the work of people such as Stanislav Grof (1998, definition is somewhat satisfied. Still, the bigger question 2000). This vagueness regarding the ontological domain regarding its corresponding domain is still ambiguous. of the transpersonal is, I believe, because the full meaning Vague references to the “transcendent dimension” do and understanding of the philosophical legacy of Bohm and not tell us much, nor does a reference to “whatever one its implications for transpersonal psychology continues to considers to be the Ultimate.” Raising this concern prior remain an unfinished conversation. to reading Lazar (2009), I was therefore surprised when I Rowan: The main advantage of using the term discovered it was the Elkins et al. definition of spirituality transpersonal is that it places the field. It places it as that contributed to Lazar’s operational definition for his following after the prepersonal and the personal in the investigation of spirituality and measures of psychological process of psychospiritual development. Therefore it is functioning among Israeli Jews (Lazar, 2009). I am not clearly not to be confused with the prepersonal and the criticizing the findings of Lazar’s inquiry, yet based personal. Not so with spirituality, which roams all over on his operational definition this was a study of belief the place. systems (or what I might suggest could be referred to as Schroll: Exactly, John; hopefully our conversation thus a cultural placebo), and not an inquiry of transpersonal far has helped people to see that the term spirituality does experience. roam all over the place, and that the term transpersonal This is why I agree with Rowan’s preference for clarifies this frequently ambiguous discussion. Moreover, using the term transpersonal which has a variety of this distinction and discussion regarding spirituality and definitions. Transpersonal psychology recognizes the term transpersonal provides a reply to the criticisms that “humanity has both drives toward sex and raised by Albert Ellis and Raymond J. Yeager in their aggression and drives toward wholeness, toward 1989 book Why Some Therapies Don’t Work: The Dangers connecting with and experiencing the divine” (R. of Transpersonal Psychology. We will take up Ellis’ Hutchins, as quoted in Lajoie & Shapiro, 1992, p. 87, criticisms of transpersonal psychology in greater detail emphasis supplied). I like this definition of the person later in this conversation. because it suggests that personality development has Tangential to these concerns, the British a dynamic quality, instead of placing an emphasis Psychological Society’s recognition of a transpersonal on the object permanence of any particular state of psychology section and corresponding journal Trans- consciousness we might experience, demonstrate, personal Psychology Review offers a forum to advance or actualize within our self-awareness. The this discussion. Still I continue to encounter many transpersonal is equally present in states of ecstasy, psychologists in the UK who are unfamiliar with sensuality, and somatic experiences that are capable transpersonal psychology. Awareness of transpersonal

Rollo May’s Views on Transpersonal & Ecosophy International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 125 psychology is not much better in the USA in spite of its people, where they argued with him that his rejection now 40-year history. Indeed the American Psychological of transpersonal psychology was ill-advised, and May Association does not even recognize an independent eventually agreed; but I cannot seem to lay my hands division of transpersonal psychology, as its APA on it now. Does anyone remember that? I think it was affiliation comes through its organizational connection published in the Journal of Humanistic Psychology, but I with Division 32: Society for Humanistic Psychology am not sure.2 of the APA. Moreover it has only been since August Angela Voss: This is a very interesting discussion. of 2007 that humanistic and transpersonal psychology To distinguish scientific from spiritual inquiry, the finally officially reconciled their differences. neoplatonic=theological model of levels of cognition is Likewise, with regard to psychospiritual very helpful. There are literal modes of understanding, development, the term transpersonal does place itself allegorical, moral, and finally mystical. The important after the prepersonal and personal, yet Rollo May never thing is not to apply one mode to try to understand accepted this, as you know, John. After you published the another, such as a literal, empirical mode applied paper, “Two Humanistic Psychologies or One” (Rowan, to the apprehension of the sacred, or revelation. We 1989), May (1989) responded with his paper, “Answers tend to stay with the literal and allegorical in most to Ken Wilber and John Rowan,” which told us that forms of knowing, particularly in the discussion of May not only believes there are at least two humanistic ‘transpersonal’ experience. This model suggests deeper, psychologies (one focused on the existential and one on more contemplative and intuitive forms of apprehension the transpersonal), but that May believed: that eventually culminate in a union of the knower with what is known. in parapsychology and William James’s studies Schroll: Thanks for your comment Angela. I can see concerning the fringes of consciousness. I am very how you might have viewed this conversation John and I much interested in the sacraments of the primitive have been having as a means of “distinguishing scientific sects of Brazil, for example, and have experienced from spiritual inquiry.” But it is a bit more subtle than them personally. When I was ill with tuberculosis I this. Maslow actually spoke to a similar concern in his had two experiences with faith healers. All of these I hopes to prove the relationship between science and choose to call religion. I am in favor of experiments religion. Specifically Maslow (1964) sought to establish on the interface between religion and psychology. transpersonal psychology as a discipline that would My objection to transpersonal psychology is that it enable EuroAmerican science to: “examine religion in all blurs the distinction between the two (p. 244). its facets and all its meanings in a way that makes it part We are left to wonder how May was able to hold such of science rather than something outside and exclusive seemingly contradictory positions. How was May able of it” (p. 20). to believe in parapsychology, which kept the APA Maslow later expanded on this discussion in Council of Representatives from endorsing transpersonal his posthumously edited book (that Bertha Maslow psychology as a separate division within the APA, while commissioned Miles A. Vich to do) The Farther Reaches simultaneously continuing to endorse and participate of Human Nature (1971). Vich pointed out that there is in the investigation of shamanism until his death in a very important difference between organized religion 1994? These are unanswered questions that continue to and transpersonal psychology: there is no catechism plague the acceptance and development of transpersonal associated with transpersonal psychology; it: “is not a psychology. There are, of course, other concerns and religion; it has no dogma, no list of precepts, no theology, interests of mine that I have raised throughout this and no church” (Vich, 1986, p. 2). As important as conversation regarding the continued development of this distinction of “scientific” and “spiritual inquiry” transpersonal psychology; yet as we have been doing thus is, let alone the need to clarify what it is we mean by far it is essential to clarify these basic issues—answering “scientific” or “genuine science and essential science” the critics—and establishing a solid foundation from (which Charles T. Tart has taken up in his recent book, which to proceed. The End of Materialism, 2009) versus “spiritual inquiry”: Rowan: There is a very interesting dialogue between all of which I have tried to do my best in sorting out Jackie Doyle and Rollo May, and a couple of other (Schroll, 2010a).

126 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Schroll, Rowan, & Robinson Later in our discussion (as I said before) we will surprises us. In tonight’s episode, the protagonists of need to be more clear how scholars such as Ellis have Supernatural were confronted with all of the world’s misunderstood “spirituality” in all of its diverse meanings “mythical” religious gods and goddesses that are major that we have talked about here, and what is meant by players in Armageddon. The character playing Kali, transpersonal psychology. May made this same error, which the Hindu goddess of time and change (sometimes we will also attempt to clear up later in this discussion. associated with anihilation, sometimes as redeemer of Likewise, the best way I know to clearly make a distinction the universe) said to the characters associated with the between organized religion and mysticism/transpersonal Christian myths of Armageddon: “You Westerners are psychology is the example I provide with the Sufi story, The so arrogant, always believing that your world myths Man Who Walked On Water. I hope this helps to clarify trump all others, which you use to justify your wars and this particular point. The rest of Voss’ comments are also your desires for power.” important, in which Voss has condensed several very This brings us back to our discussion of “spiritual­ difficult ontological and epistemological problems related ity.” As Rowan has pointed out, the use of the term to “stage theories of consciousness” and/or the “great chain spirituality is imprecise and that the more operationally of being.” Clearing up these concerns, however, exceeds precise term is “transpersonal.” One of the things we have the limits of our current conversation. Still, it is important not discussed in our rejection of the word spirituality is if here to point out, regarding Ken Wilber (as well as Voss’ we were to use this term, we would have to ask ourselves, questions about ontological and epistemological problems “whose spirituality?” Or what state of consciousness is related to stage theories of consciousness), that some of this this spirituality we are talking about coming from, and is cleared up in Schroll (2010b) and MacDowell (2010). what tradition does it represent? This is why the word Brad Adams: I have been reading everything said and “transpersonal” is more precise, because it does not most of the conversation has been psychologically based. presuppose any arrogance for one spiritual tradition or I have no college degrees so I will stick to what I know as another. Its formulation draws equally from all spiritual I cannot quote the many minds that are represented here. traditions and recognizes the value of their teaching So what is spirituality? First, I am not going to debate the stories, in addition to their value toward our understanding term. I am a mystic. This is my perspective. Spirituality the human condition. But even more precisely, the is the seeking of the state of being in spirit. As was said, word transpersonal seeks to ground the discussion in the definition of spirit can be translated as the “breath of an operational definition by which we can attempt to life.” So what is the breath of life? Who gives life? God. investigate states of consciousness that have throughout So spiritual pursuits are ways to be in the knowing of the the world been associated with transcendence. presence of God. What is a spiritual pursuit? It can be said Clarifying Rollo May’s Misunderstanding that it is a way to set aside our self, our ego, our physical of Transpersonal Psychology constraints; to be open to the presence of God, to be open This brings us to the discussion of May’s views of the to receive the spirit, the breath of life. In so doing you find transpersonal and the paper, The Role of Transpersonal that you are at peace, you are in balance, you find that Psychology in Psychology as a Whole (May, Krippner, there is healing here. This state of awareness that I speak & Doyle, 1992), which was a conversation between of is what the spiritual person is in pursuit of: to be in the Rollo May, Stanley Krippner, and Jacqueline Doyle. In constant state of being in spirit or the knowing presence of summing up May’s views, Doyle stated: God. This would be what some would call enlightenment, Rollo said that his reading of William James or to transcend our physical limitations. This is something (1905/19[61]) had reaffirmed his conviction about I think all humans want. Whether they realize it or would the importance of spiritual life, and that he wanted admit it is another topic. I can tell you that it is possible to correct the misunderstanding of his previous to reach the highest states of human awareness; but the criticisms of transpersonal psychology. It is of the only being who has reached true enlightenment and truly utmost importance at this time, Rollo conveyed, transcended this physical world is the son of God. that transpersonal psychology be viewed in the Schroll: Tonight while I was eating, I was watching proper perspective, within the context of the whole the television program Supernatural that I watch for of psychology (p. 307). entertainment. Sometimes Hollywood and pop culture

Rollo May’s Views on Transpersonal & Ecosophy International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 127 This echo’s May’s views previously cited in this paper his concept of “involution” that he spoke of in Up (May, 1989), whereas the book that influenced May was From Eden (pp. 299-309). Bohm’s “implicate” and James’ (1905/1961) The Varieties of Religious Experience. “super implicate” orders bore (for me) a resemblance Krippner then offered another operational definition of with Wilber’s discussion of involution, whereas Bohm’s transpersonal psychology: “explicate order” corresponded to Wilber’s discussion (as Rowan has summarized it) of his developmental model. For me, Transpersonal Psychology is a psychological I make a brief reference to this in my review of Integral perspective or framework which assigns primary Ecology (Schroll, 2010c). Still this topic deserves much importance to experiential reports of concern or greater attention than we can give it in this paper. contact with entities, beliefs or realms greater than Returning to our discussion of May’s rejection of oneself using them as a basis for conducting and transpersonal psychology and domains of consciousness interpreting psychological theories, intervention and associated with the Nondual, May’s (1986) criticism was: research. When I say theory I mean development[al] theory, motivational theory, personality theory. The problem with the term “transpersonal” in When I say interventions I mean psychotherapy, practice is its implication that we can “leap across” counseling, and education (May, Krippner, & Doyle, the negative aspects of human behavior, the 1992, p. 308). expressions of the “ego” as they are often called. We would then “leap across,” for example, the cruelty Rowan: I have a very simple account of the transpersonal, shown in Zimbardo’s “nice” Stanford students in which takes less than five minutes to explain. It follows his famous prison experiment. Or the “Eichmann” Wilber’s (1980) useful map, given in the early book The studies in which Stanley Milgram demonstrated that Atman Project. 1. We start our psychospiritual journey in average people, when ordered to do so by scientific the prepersonal realm—that is, the whole area of child authority, would turn up the electricity high enough development, extending up into adolescence. 2. We then to kill the “suffering” person on the other side of move on into the personal realm, where we learn about the glass. These experiments show that such cruelty control, and logic, and role-playing, and the self-image, and obedience to an authoritarian command are getting social rewards at each stage. We end up with a nascent in all of us, German, Russian, Nicaraguan, mature ego. At this point society stops rewarding us, and or American, though covered over with a veneer of we are on our own. If we proceed, it is often as a result civilization. (p. 2) of a crisis. 3. Then comes the realm of the transpersonal, first of all consolidating our achievement of an authentic This statement is greatly puzzling to many of us self, an existential self, secure in a sense of bodymind that are now (and were then) familiar with the history unity. If we then proceed further, we enter the realm and development of transpersonal psychology. In fact, of the Subtle, where we encounter a rich and colorful Doyle’s summary of this criticism by May was not realm of concrete representations of the divine: gods cleared up in the 1992 dialogue between May, Krippner, and goddesses, archetypes, symbols and images, visions, and Doyle. Specifically, Doyle said that May’s 1986 APA the whole imaginal realm. We may get very interested Monitor comments were: in mythology, dreams, and spiritual experiences of one attacking the use, which sometimes occurs, of kind and another. If we then proceed further, we move transpersonal themes and transpersonal psychology into the Causal realm, where there are no landmarks, no as a way to avoid tangling with the real issues of handrails, no definitions—the deep ocean of mysticism. psychology and our day, problems of value such as We may then start to be seriously interested in the peace and war and so forth. He said at times these Nondual. themes are being thrown aside in what becomes an Schroll: This is a very succinct and accurate summary of escape into the higher realms. He has always objected Wilber’s developmental model from the prepersonal to the to the use of psychology, not just transpersonal transpersonal, and Nondual domains of consciousness, psychology as in this case, as a method of avoiding the John. I, too, read The Atman Project (Wilber, 1980), and problems of being human and of living in the world its companion volume, Up From Eden (Wilber, 1981). (May, Krippner, & Doyle, 1992, pp. 308-309). But it is no longer clear to me where Wilber includes

128 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Schroll, Rowan, & Robinson This point was never fully explored in the 1992 in human needs and interests, going beyond dialogue because this point was raised before May showed humanness, identity, self-actualization and the like up, and then the conversation shifted. What needs to be (Maslow, 1968, pp. iii-iv). said in reply to May’s critique is that, on the one hand, this Now, on the issue of “higher” or Nondual consciousness, is a legitimate concern and a tendency of some affluent plus May’s support of shamanism and psi phenomenon, I supporters of transpersonal psychology to have this kind of do think this was cleared up in the 1992 May, Krippner, disconnect. Theodore Roszak noticed this and mentioned and Doyle dialogue (which is a point I will return to in it to me in 1993 when he presented at the annual a moment). First, however, it is important to point out Association for Transpersonal Psychology conference that right up to the very end of this dialogue between (which was while Wilber was working on his (1995) book Krippner, May, and Doyle, Doyle continued to focus on Sex, Ecology, Spirituality: The Spirit of Evolution (Schroll, the problem of leaping “over the present complexity and 2010c). Nevertheless, aside from the misunderstanding of jump[ing] to spirituality because development includes some affluent ATP members in the 1990s, what theory and proceeds hand in hand with the all the experiences or practice of transpersonal psychology is May referring clients wrestle with in real life” (p. 316). Kirk Schneider to that encourages “leaping across” the pathologies of (1987, 1989), now editor of Journal of Humanistic the ego? I can only hope historians can one day tell us Psychology and former student of May, repeated this that Jesus, Buddha, Krishna, Mohammed, and Lao Tsu same criticism in an exchange with Wilber. were all ordinary men, people like you and me capable Summary Intermission of making mistakes and finding ways of correcting them, Schroll: To recap, this discussion thread started out people whose earthy existential encounters provided them with the question “what is spirituality?” This led Rowan with life-altering experiences that opened their eyes up to and Schroll to conclude that references to “spirituality” the miraculous, experiences (if we can somehow become are imprecise, and that it is preferred when having these open to them) that are our birthright as we muddle discussions to use the term “transpersonal.” Second, there through life’s developmental stages. has been the lingering question as to why May rejected But where do these developmental stages of transpersonal psychology (which will be the focus of our personality end? We have touched on this before in this next section). Third, I will offer a reply to May’s 1986 conversation, and it is another issue that needs to be criticism that Kirk Schneider (1987, 1989) and Doyle cleared up. May (1969; if I understand him correctly) (May, Krippner, & Doyle, 1992) have repeated. Clearing believed the psychological growth of the person this up will leave us with two questions: 1) Where in ends in becoming self-actualized or achieving one’s Wilber’s latest models does he include “involution” (that individuality: relates to the work of Bohm, and big questions about In my judgment, the existential approach is the physics, mysticism, consciousness, etc.)? 2) How today achieving of individuality (including subjective is transpersonal psychology addressing the existential individuality) not by by-passing or avoiding ego consciousness concerns of May, and how are conflictual realities of the world in which we these concerns informed by transcendent or Nondual immediately find ourselves—for us, in the Western awareness? world—but by confronting these conflicts directly Kirt Schneider’s Existentially-Oriented Critique and, through the meeting of them, achieving one’s of Transpersonal Psychology individuality (pp. 47-48). Schroll: The paradigm clash with existential psychology has been lead by Schneider (1987, 1989). Honing this argument even more sharply in his To be fair, these ideas were expressed by Schneider 1986 letter to the APA (May, 1986), May argued that over 20 years ago, so his views may have considerably Maslow’s evolving vision of personality development evolved. I would welcome his feedback and those who was nothing more than contagious enthusiasm when he know his work that can assist in offering amendments pointed beyond humanistic psychology to: to the views expressed here. The essence of Schneider’s a still “higher” Fourth Psychology, transpersonal, critique is first that he doubts that anyone is capable of transhuman, centered in the cosmos rather than attaining true transpersonal awareness, that is: “divine

Rollo May’s Views on Transpersonal & Ecosophy International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 129 consciousness—a totally unrestricted, transcendent by spiritual bypassing, Welwood went on to suggest that oneness with all time and space” (Schneider, 1987, p. within contemporary society it may: 197). Much to the contrary, Schneider contended that be particularly tempting for individuals who are humanistic psychology and self-actualization—or, using having difficulty making their way through life’s Wilber’s [1980, 1981] terminology, the centaur mode of basic developmental stages, especially at a time consciousness lying halfway between the personal and when what were once ordinary developmental transpersonal bands—is the farthest level of personality landmarks—earning a livelihood through development possible. Schneider has admitted he is dignified work, raising a family, keeping a marriage unfamiliar with the disciplines and practices necessary together—have become increasingly difficult and to achieve ultimate transpersonal consciousness. But elusive for large segments of the population. While then Schneider tried to cover up this lack of experience, struggling with becoming autonomous individuals, saying that he doubts anyone who possesses first-hand many people are introduced to spiritual teachings experience of transpersonal awareness would also be and practices which come from cultures that assume unable to verify the authentic attainment of this state of a person having already passed through the basic consciousness in themselves or others. developmental stages. The result is that many people Second, Schneider argued that even if groups wind up trying to use spiritual practice to meet their of people could somehow develop past the centaur personal needs or establish their identity, and this mode of consciousness, such personality development just doesn’t work. (pp. 64-65) would be irrelevant and unnecessary. Finally, his third criticism is that a society of transpersonally enlightened In addition, Welwood pointed out that: individuals would be boring. Moreover, he contends that Many of the so-called “perils of the path”—such as his argument is supported by recent developments in the spiritual materialism, narcissism, inflation, group philosophy of science; yet, Schneider failed to provide think—result from trying to use spirituality to make any documented evidence that supports this criticism. up for the developmental deficiencies in an urban- Ken Wilber’s Response technological culture (p. 65). to Kurt Schneider’s Critique of Transpersonal Psychology Seymour Boorstein agreed with both May and Welwood: Schroll: In reply, Wilber (1989a, 1989b) chose to Transpersonal psychology embraces the traditional respond to Schneider’s criticisms point by point. Wilber psychological systems for the understanding and began his rebuttal by first questioning if Schneider has treatment of emotional problems, and within a truly understood his definition of ultimate transpersonal spiritual context (for the therapist, and the patient, consciousness, pointing out that most humanistic when possible), seeks simultaneously to honor psychologists, including Schneider, have failed to humanity’s highest potentials. Thirty years ago I understand that transpersonal psychology stresses both had hoped that the actual experiences of the spiritual a negation or a going beyond former levels of personality dimension would “undo” traditional emotional development, but also preserving and including “all the problems. Sadly, this has not turned out to be. The basic concerns and needs and joys and pains of the lower spiritual path usually cannot undo problems in the levels” (Wilber, 1989a, p. 460). Thus Wilber contended “basement” of our minds, and, in fact, we need that humanistic psychologists such as May and Schneider to be cautious that the spiritual path not enhance have missed the essence of this important point, because “basement” narcissism. (Caplan, Hartelius, & they have mistakenly focused their attention on the Rardin, 2003, p. 145). “negation” or “leaping beyond” previous levels. John Welwood (1984) has also warned about this danger, Schneider, and other critics of transpersonal psychology, urging the need for transpersonal psychologists to would greatly benefit from reading Welwood’s article. establish a well grounded personality before embarking Moreover, is it just a linguistic similarity, or is May really upon a path “to help liberate us from an imprisoning self saying the same thing as Welwood on the issue of spiritual structure” (p. 65), lest the would-be mystic become the by-passing? Welwood certainly seems to be clear enough victim of spiritual bypassing. In defining what he means about the need to first confront life’s basic developmental

130 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Schroll, Rowan, & Robinson landmarks, and work through them, before attempting (1969) referred to in his emphasis on confronting the to move beyond these needs into the transpersonal. This, existential conflicts of life, “and, through the meeting however, is May’s position also. Why then is May so of them, achieving one’s individuality” (pp. 47-48). critical of transpersonal psychology? It can only be as Wilber’s (1989a) third rebuttal addressed Vich (1986) has pointed out: Schneider’s charge that a society of enlightened beings

would be boring. Wilber countered this accusation first May seems to be confused about what transpersonal by pointing out that Schneider only thinks ultimate psychology is, and at the same time he is concerned transpersonal experience would be dull, because that transpersonal psychology confuses religion and Schneider has admitted that he has never experienced psychology. (p. 2) it. Additionally, Wilber demonstrated Schneider’s ill- This leads me to conclude that if someone like May conceived “outside looking in” view of transpersonal is confused about transpersonal psychology, one can experience, pointing out that mystics do not spend begin to appreciate the enormous difficulty in clearing their entire day in blissed out euphoria. Rather, because up this confusion within the entire field of mainstream transpersonal consciousness is a composite, albeit psychology. transcendent, aspect of all previous levels of human Meanwhile, within the broader scheme of things, personality structure, they are capable of more, not modernity continues to routinely neglect its nourishment less motivation. Consequently Wilber went on to point of the human psyche’s developmental needs. It was out that Schneider has overlooked even the most basic this issue of neglect that was the focus of a workshop definition of transpersonal consciousness (stemming presented by Daniel Goleman, Huston Smith, and Ram from the Zen tradition), which is: “How wonderful, how Dass at the New York Open Center on September 21, mystical this! I chop wood, I carry water” (p. 466). 1985. Speaking to this concern, Ram Dass reminded the Thus, I hope with this summary the motivation listeners that the goal of the spiritual path (at least from to create a transpersonal psychology was not, as May, his own personal perspective): Schneider, and Doyle have argued, inspired by “leaping across” the concerns of the existential journey to is to work on myself, to become an environment understand the self. Its creation was instead prompted in which other people can see their clearest truth. by humanistic psychology’s limited view of personality I don’t feel I have to teach them in the sense of push development, beginning with Maslow’s study of peak and them to find the truth, I merely have to create an plateau experiences. It is this investigation of the farther environment where they can feel safe enough and reaches of human nature by Maslow and others (such open enough to explore that truth. I treat other as Wilber) who have followed similar lines of research people’s attitudes as the work. . . . I don’t focus on beyond the boundaries of their “skin encapsulated their predicament, I focus on my reactions to their egos” that has expanded their field of awareness beyond attitudes. (Goleman, Smith, & Ram Dass, 1985, p. the immediate concerns of humanistic psychology. 209) Humanistic psychology has continued to evolve its Second, addressing the charge that ultimate perspective. transpersonal consciousness is irrelevant and unnecessary, Albert Ellis’ Warning About the Dangers Wilber replied that Schneider is again mistaken about of Transpersonal Psychology his understanding of what ultimate transpersonal Schroll: Next to May, (the late) Albert Ellis was the most consciousness refers to. Wilber (1989a) explained that well-known psychologist to directly challenge the views even though transpersonally enlightened individuals of transpersonal psychology. Indeed, with his powers of have transcended previous levels of personality persuasion, if the only book I ever read on transpersonal development, they still contain all those previous levels psychology was Why Some Therapies Don’t Work: The within themselves as persons. “Therefore, they are often Dangers of Transpersonal Psychology, written by Ellis and predominantly moved . . . by a profound compassion Raymond J. Yeager (1989), my view would be that it is for literally all of the world and all of its suffering, dangerous; it is for this reason that I felt motivated to precisely because they have been through it all” (p. 464, briefly respond to Ellis’ criticisms. Overall, I agree with emphasis supplied). This too seems to be what May the concerns Ellis raises throughout his book; where

Rollo May’s Views on Transpersonal & Ecosophy International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 131 I disagree is the dangers that Ellis warns about do not I am not particularly worried about our leaders represent the views of transpersonal psychology as I or the Russian leaders, nor about the great mass understand it. I would have welcomed Ellis’ reply (and I of our people or the Russian people. Virtually all invite others to comment who share his views) so that I these leaders and citizens are sensible and sane might better understand how and/or why our views are enough about the possibility of atomic reprisal to in disagreement. Similar to May, Ellis’ primary criticism strongly oppose starting almost any kind of nuclear is with Wilber’s polemical style of communication. conflagration. (Ellis, 1986, p. 146) Wilber’s work has the ability to speak to many people, but not to everyone. Nor does Wilber’s work speak for This comment suggests that Ellis did not share everyone in transpersonal psychology. President Reagan’s views of Russia as an untrustworthy Ellis’ initial misunderstanding of transpersonal political adversary. And yet, Ellis (who wrote this paper psychology began in his paper “Fanaticism That May during the Reagan administration) believed in Reagan’s Lead to a Nuclear Holocaust: The Contributions of leadership abilities enough to state unequivocally that Scientific Counseling and Psychotherapy” (1986). In Reagan’s political views on nuclear war did not worry response, instead of helping Ellis to understand that he him. Thus it would have been helpful from the very misrepresented transpersonal psychology as a euphemism beginning to point out to Ellis that his views were also at for cult phenomenon, guru worship, the new age odds with humanistic psychologists like Carl R. Rogers. movement, and the paranormal borderlands of science in In particular, the question critics should have asked this paper, the critics merely attacked Ellis.3 Among the Ellis is: how could he be so confident in his total trust critics of Ellis’ paper was Roger Walsh, who summed it of President Reagan’s nuclear policy? Because during up by saying: the time Ellis expressed these sentiments, Reagan was considering “the possibility of a nuclear war limited to Ellis’ article is flawed fourfold: (1) It does not deal Europe, and Secretary Haig’s plan to fire off a nuclear with the central, practical issues facing therapists weapon in Europe simply to demonstrate our capability working to prevent nuclear war; (2) it makes to the Russians” (Rogers, 1989, p. 446). How it is rational grossly inaccurate criticisms of diverse non-RET for Ellis to ignore George Bush, Sr.’s maniacal belief that a psychotherapies; (3) the author makes logically and winner could actually be possible in a nuclear war (Rogers, philosophically impossible knowledge claims; and 1980, pp. 341-342)? Are these not the belief of fanatics? (4) the author falls into the very trap of fanaticism Ellis and Yeager even cited Rogers’ 1980 publication yet that he warns against. (Walsh, 1989, p. 338) failed to discuss Robert Scheer’s interview with Bush, Ellis did not, as far as I know, reply to Walsh. Sr. More conversation on all of these concerns is needed Granted, Walsh made valid criticisms of Ellis’ 1989 to sort all of this out. This would be a timely endeavor paper, yet what was lacking was a positive portrayal of considering the world’s current state of social and political transpersonal psychology in a language that Ellis could upheaval, and a welcome opportunity toward clearing up identify. Then the conversation went horribly wrong when these many misunderstandings. Wilber (1989c) used satire to bolster Walsh’s arguments Conclusion: and his disapproval of Ellis’ 1986 paper, a tactic that May’s Support for Environmentalism or evoked Ellis’ ire and served as a catalyst to launch Transpersonal Ecosophy Ellis’ crusade to liberate the world from The Dangers of Schroll: Returning to this paper’s central question, Transpersonal Psychology (Ellis & Yeager, 1989). “what is spirituality,” Rowan and I have pointed out The question I wish to raise is this: is there another throughout this paper that “spirituality” is a less approach to this discussion that would have resonated precise reference to transpersonal psychology. The with Ellis, and have shifted his thoughts to reconsider question then arose as to May’s misunderstanding if there might actually be some value in transpersonal about the relationship between humanistic and psychology? This is because I too share Ellis’ concern transpersonal psychology. Reading the paper, The about the potential danger of a nuclear holocaust. It is Role of Transpersonal Psychology in Psychology as a for this reason that I find it curious that Ellis would state Whole (May, Krippner, & Doyle, 1992), I discovered so boldly: that May’s attack on transpersonal psychology was

132 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Schroll, Rowan, & Robinson more precisely an attack on the work of Wilber. May to as “ecopsychology,” which I have pointed out has also pointed out that it was his meeting with Wilber its roots in humanistic and transpersonal psychology prior to writing his comments in the APA Monitor in (Schroll, 2008/2009; Schroll, Krippner, Vich, Fadiman, 1986 that sparked his thoughts regarding transpersonal & Mojeiko, 2009). Furthermore, I have clarified that psychology. Thus it has been appropriate to discuss the I want a more precise term than ecopsychology, and work of Wilber throughout this paper. have instead suggested referring to it as “transpersonal In taking issue with Wilber, May pointed out: ecosophy” (Schroll, 2009b, 2011). I hope this paper was helpful in clearing up these concerns. Ken Wilber (1981) says we are all growing toward Eden. We will be happier and happier. We will be References freed from our problems. This is impossible and undesirable. We would cease to be human. This is Caplan, M., Hartelius, G., & Rardin, M. A. (2003). what I fight against. . . . The idea was that we were Contemporary viewpoints on transpersonal growing towards increasing perfection. So all a psychology. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, person had to do was sit tight, and these good things 35(2), 143-162. will automatically come about. Well I don’t believe it Bateson, N. (2010). An ecology of mind: A daughter’s at all! (May, Krippner, & Doyle, 1992, p. 310). portrait of Gregory Bateson. Vancouver, BC, Canada: These misunderstandings with both Wilber’s Impact Media Group. (Film) work in particular and transpersonal psychology in Drengson, A., Devall, B., & Schroll, M. A. (2011). general have been discussed throughout this paper. International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 30(1- Thus it is my understanding that May and his students 2), 101-117 (this volume). have been confused about the respective focus of both Elkins, D. N., Hedstrom, L. J., Hughes, L. L., Leaf, J. humanistic and transpersonal psychology. May went on A., & Saunders, C. (1988). Toward a humanistic- to say that: phenomenological spirituality: Definition, descrip- tion, and measurement. Journal of Humanistic It [consciousness expansion] would happen by virtue Psychology, 28(4), 5-18. of our devotion or hard work, . . . [You] see what I am Ellis, A. (1986). Fanaticism that may lead to a nuclear against is the belief that this comes automatically. holocaust: The contributions of scientific counseling Higher states are not achieved automatically. And and psychotherapy. Journal of Counseling and the way that America is effecting the world seems Development, 65(3), 146-151. to me to be tremendously significant. For instance, Ellis, A. (1989). Dangers of transpersonal psychology: in ten, twenty years, the Amazon will have been A reply to Ken Wilber. Journal of Counseling and gutted. Now I see that as a threat to all of us. The Development, 67(6), 336-337. taking of this view, that psychological evolution is Ellis, A. & Yeager, R. J. (1998). Why some therapies don’t going to occur if we simply sit tight, concerns me. work: The dangers of transpersonal psychology. New The Amazon’s being destroyed very quickly. Progress York, NY: Prometheus Books. is not automatic; we do not become better every day Ferrer, J. N. (2000). The perennial philosophy revisited. without effort. (1992, p. 311) Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 32(1), 7-30. Here again, perhaps affluent members of the Association Ferrer, J. N. (2009). The plurality of religions and the for Transpersonal Psychology (especially those in spirit of pluralism: A participatory vision of the future California) in the beginning of this movement, had their of religion. International Journal of Transpersonal heads only in the clouds, without having their feet on Studies, 28, 139-151. the ground. But within the literature as I have pointed Goleman, D., Smith, H., & Ram Dass. (1985). Truth out in this paper, Welwood warned about “spiritual by- and transformation in psychological and spiritual passing;” Wilber and Ram Dass also clarified their own paths. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 17(2), views that higher consciousness is not merely automatic. 183-214. Moreover, today May’s concerns with the destruction Grof, S. (1998). The cosmic game: Explorations of the of the Amazon, and so on, is what many are referring frontiers of human consciousness. Albany, NY: State

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134 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Schroll, Rowan, & Robinson presentation at the 29th Annual Spring Meeting at Walsh, R. (1989). Psychological chauvinism and nuclear the Society for the Anthropology of Consciousness, holocaust: A response to Albert Ellis and defense of Portland, Oregon. non-rational emotive therapies. Journal of Counseling Schroll, M. A. (2009b). New science, new culture and Development, 67(6), 338-340. manifesto: Transpersonal ecosophy’s vision of what Welwood, J. (1984). Principles of inner work: it means to be human. Association for Humanistic Psychological and spiritual. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology-Perspective, June/July, 8-10. Psychology, 16(1), 63-73. Schroll, M. A. (2010a). Toward a new kind of science and Wilber, K. (1980). The Atman project: A transpersonal its methods of inquiry. Anthropology of Consciousness, view of human development. Wheaton, IL: Quest. 21(1), 1-29. Wilber, K. (1981). Up from Eden: A transpersonal view of Schroll, M. A. (2010b). The physics of psi: An interview human evolution. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books/ with Stanley Krippner. Transpersonal Psychology Doubleday. Review, 14(1), 3-15. Wilber, K. (1989a). God is so damn boring: A response Schroll, M. A. (2010c). Review of Integral ecology: Uniting to Schneider. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, multiple perspectives on the natural world (2009) by 29(4), 457-469. Sean Esbjorn-Hargens & Michael E. Zimmerman Wilber, K. (1989b). Reply to Schneider. Journal of (Boston, MA: Shambhala). The Trumpeter: Journal Humanistic Psychology, 29(4), 493-500. of Ecosophy, 26(1), 155-173. Wilber, K. (1989c). Let’s nuke the transpersonalists: A Schroll, M. A. (2011). Editor’s introduction: From response to Albert Ellis. Journal of Counseling and primordial anthropology to a transpersonal ecosophy. Development, 67(6), February, 332-335. Anthropology of Consciousness, 22(1), 4-8. Wilber, K. (1995). Sex, ecology, spirituality: The spirit of Schroll, M. A., & Hartelius, G. (2011). Introduction to special evolution. Boston, MA: Shambhala. topic section: Ecopsychology’s roots in humanistic and Wilber, K. (2006). Integral spirituality: A startling new transpersonal psychology, the deep ecology movement, role for religion in the modern and postmodern world. and ecocriticism. International Journal of Transpersonal Boston, MA: Integral Books/Shambhala. Studies, 30(1-2), 82-88 (this volume). Schroll, M. A., Krippner, S., Vich, M. A., Fadiman, J., Notes & Mojeiko, V. (2009). Reflections on transpersonal psychology’s 40th anniversary, ecopsychology, 1. Schroll: Since this conversation took place, Rowan transpersonal science, and psychedelics: A (2010) has compared Wilber’s stage theory of conversation forum. International Journal of consciousness to levels of psychological maturity Transpersonal Studies, 28, 39-52. and/or our process of transpersonal growth, whose Sharpe, K. J. (1984). From science to an adequate mythology. various stages are reflected in answers to koans. Auckland, New Zealand: Interface Press. 2. Schroll: This sounds like an excellent paper and Shah, I. (Ed.). (1967). The man who walked on water. In it is very hopeful to hear that Rollo May reversed Tales of the Dervishes (pp. 84-85). New York, NY: E. his views on transpersonal psychology. I will see if P. Dutton. I can track this down and will let you know when Tarnas, R. (1991). The passion of the Western mind: I find it. Rowan: I have tracked down the Rollo Understanding the ideas that have shaped our world May conversation to 1992, but still no source! It was view. New York, NY: Ballantine Books. Rollo May, Jacqueline Larcombe Doyle and Stanley Tart, C. T. (2009). The end of materialism: How evidence Krippner. Following this information exchange, I of the paranormal is bringing science and spirit together. wrote to Stanley Krippner and found out that the Oakland, CA: New Harbinger. reference we were seeking was May, R., Krippner, Yunt, J. D. (2001). Jung’s contribution to an ecological S., & Doyle, J.L. (1992). “The role of transpersonal psychology. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 41(2), psychology in psychology as a whole: A discussion.” 96-121. Schroll: I heard back again from Stanley Krippner. Vich, M. (1986). The argument for transpersonal Due the kindness and generosity of Stanley, and his psychology. Common Boundary, 4(4), 2-3. brilliant research assistant Steve Hart, they are going

Rollo May’s Views on Transpersonal & Ecosophy International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 135 to mail a copy to me. Rowan: Good progress Mark! Oliver C. Robinson, Ph.D., University of Greenwich, 3. Ellis and Yeager (1989) do provide a more senior lecturer in psychology (September 2006 to present), extensive discussion of these various euphemism’s London, United Kingdom. He is the author (with D. of transpersonal psychology. Still, the distinctive Lorimer, Eds), of A new Renaissance: Transforming science, vision of transpersonal psychology remains spirit and society (Floris Books, November 2010). misunderstood. About the Journal About the Authors The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies is a Mark A. Schroll, Ph.D., is Research Adjunct Faculty, peer-reviewed academic journal in print since 1981. It is Institute of Transpersonl Psychology, Palo Alto, published by Floraglades Foundation, and serves as the California, an Co-Editor-in-Chief, Restoration Earth: official publication of the International Transpersonal An Interdisciplinary Journal for the Study of Nature and Association. The journal is available online at www. transpersonalstudies.org, and in print through www. Civilization. He is Founding Editor of Rhine Online: Psi- lulu.com (search for IJTS). News Magazine; in 2011 he Edited Rhine Online 3(1), the special 2nd anniversary issue “Sacred Sites, Consciousness, and the Eco-Crisis.” He served as Guest Managing Editor of the special Anthropology of Consciousness, 22 (1), 2011 issue “From Primordial Anthropology to a Transpersonal Ecosophy,” and Anthropology of Consciousness, 16 (1), 2005 issue “Primordial Visions in an Age of Technology.” He served as the 2009 Co-Chair for Bridging Nature and Human Nature, the annual Society for the Anthropology of Consciousness conference co-sponsored by the Association for Transpersonal Psychology. He serves on the Editorial Board Journal of Ecopsychology, and was invited to serve as Co-Editor of the forthcoming special issue, The Ecosophies of Communication: Exploring the Worldview of Gregory Bateson and Arne Naess, with Michael Caley, Editor-in-Chief, The Trumpeter: Journal of Ecosophy (due out fall/winter 2012). He served as Editorial Assistant on the first issue of Goddess Thealogy with Patricia ‘Iolana (due out in the Fall of 2011). He serves on the Windbridge Institute Scientific Advisory Board, and the Advisory Board of Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine. Schroll is a transpersonal cultural theorist and conference organizer with multi- disciplinary interests ranging from philosophy of science to ecopsychology/transpersonal ecosophy. He can be reached at [email protected].

John Rowan, Ph.D., has been studying the transpersonal and meditating since 1982, and has published papers, chapters and books on this subject a number of times since then. His “training manual”on the ten ox-herding pictures was published in 1993. He is a Fellow of the British Psychological Society.

136 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Schroll, Rowan, & Robinson Ecopsychology, Transpersonal Psychology, and Nonduality

John V. Davis Naropa University Boulder, CO, USA

Nonduality is at the core of both transpersonal psychology and ecopsychology and provides a means of finding common ground between these approaches. However, misunderstandings and the lack of an adequate conceptual language for nonduality have limited the value of this concept for ecopsychology. Nonduality is presented as a range of experiences and stages of development in which particulars are perceived and understood as part of an all- encompassing totality. Specifically, nonduality is understood in terms of a self-identity in which separating boundaries no longer isolate one from other expressions of Being. A description of nondual dimensions of Being based on the Diamond Approach of A. H. Almaas provides ways of articulating the transpersonal dimensions of ecopsychology.

Keywords: ecopsychology, transpersonal psychology, nonduality, spirituality and nature, Almaas, Diamond Approach

any have recognized transpersonal experiences into nature images. Most of the research has focused on in natural settings and found qualities of relaxation, a sense of restoration, and cognitive benefits peace, joy, love, guidance, and inspiration (Hartig, Mang, & Evans, 1991; Ulrich et al., 1991; Mthat are exemplars of the spiritual quest. Similarly, some Kaplan, 1995; Chalquist, 2009). More recently, research people in both the psychological and the environmental on nature experiences has demonstrated increases in action communities sense that ecopsychology can be prosocial behavior (Weinstein, Przybylski, & Ryan, a path to the spiritual as well as a powerful element in 2009) and a sense of vitality (Ryan et al., 2010). promoting sustainable lifestyles, effective environmental An important subset of this research identifies work, and optimal mental health. Spirituality has been transpersonal aspects of nature experiences. Wuthnow part of the ecopsychology literature, though not without (1978) used three definitions of peak experiences in a ambivalence or disagreement. For the most part, however, large representative survey: “feeling that you were in the transpersonal elements of ecopsychology have not close contact with something holy or sacred,” “feeling been clearly articulated. In this article, I explore the that you were in harmony with the universe,” and connection between ecopsychology and transpersonal “experiencing the beauty of nature in a deeply moving psychology. Since the central issue for this connection is way.” Eighty-two percent of his sample reported being the notion of nonduality, I offer a discussion of nonduality deeply moved by the beauty of nature, the most common and its relation to ecopsychology. I do not intend this to be of the three definitions, and forty-nine percent felt this a thorough review of either transpersonal psychology or experience had a lasting influence. Greeley (1974) and ecopsychology but rather a contribution to a continuing Keutzer (1978) asked large samples whether they had dialogue on psyche, nature, and spirit. had what they called an ecstatic experience or an intense Research on Nature-Based spiritual experience. Thirty-five percent of the U.S. Transpersonal Experiences population and sixty-five percent of a college population substantial and rapidly-growing body of (respectively) responded affirmatively. In these studies, Apsychological research points to the mental health the “beauties of nature such as the sunset” was ranked as benefits of nature experiences. Research settings include the most common trigger by the students and the third a broad range of encounters with nature including most common trigger by the general population. In a extended wilderness trips, nearby nature (such as city cross-cultural confirmation of these findings, Hoffman parks and gardens), built environments, and immersion (2007) found that a sample of Japanese college students Ecopsychology,International Journal Transpersonal, of Transpersonal and Nonduality Studies, 30(1-2), 2011,International pp. 137-147 Journal of Transpersonal Studies 137 reported nature experiences as the first or second most from other approaches, however, by valuing and describing common trigger for their peak experiences. states in which the self transcends a narrow identification Several empirical studies have examined spiritual (e.g., Wilber, 2000). Self-transcendence refers to states experiences in the context of wilderness adventure of consciousness and stages of development in which the activities. Overall, it seems that both the adventure sense of self is expanded beyond the ordinary boundaries, element and the wilderness setting play a role in evoking identifications, and self-images of the individual personality transpersonal experiences and that one of the primary and reflects a fundamental connection, harmony, or reasons people engage in wilderness experiences is to seek unity with others and the world (Caplan, Hartelius, & transpersonal experiences (Brown, 1989). For instance, Rardin, 2003; Davis, 2003; Friedman, 1983; Walsh & Stringer and McAvoy (1992), using naturalistic inquiry Vaughan, 1993). Bynum (1997), consistent with many methods, found that spiritual experiences are common in others describing transpersonal psychology, places “unitive wilderness adventure activities. Beck (1988) studied river conscious experiences” at the center of the field (p. 301). rafters and showed that intensive recreational encounters Based on a longer list of 202 definitions, Lajoie and Shapiro with wild rivers often led to transpersonal experiences (1992) offered this integration: “expressed in terms of humility and spirituality....[and] Transpersonal psychology is concerned with the a sense of oneness” (p. 133-135; emphasis in original). study of humanity’s highest potential, and with Kaplan and Talbot (1983) and Talbot and Kaplan (1986) the recognition, understanding, and realization reported extensive research on wilderness experiences. of unitive, spiritual, and transcendent states of Their Outdoor Challenge Program took inner city consciousness. (p. 91) children, teachers, and others on week-long wilderness trips and analyzed the contents of participants’ journals. Ecopsychology argues that the deep and Although this program did not have an explicit enduring psychological questions—who we are as human psychological orientation, they found spiritual and beings, how we grow, why we suffer, how we heal—are transpersonal qualities to be the strongest theme. intimately connected to our relationships with the natural world, and similarly, that the overriding environmental For many participants [during the backpacking trips] questions of our time—the sources of, consequences there is eventually a surprising sense of revelation, as of, and solutions to environmental destruction—are both the environment and the self are newly perceived deeply rooted in the psyche, our images of self and and seem newly wondrous. The wilderness inspires nature, and our behaviors. Among ecopsychology’s feelings of awe and wonder, and one’s intimate potential contributions are bringing more sophisticated contact with this environment leads to thoughts psychological principles and practices to environmental about spiritual meanings and eternal processes. education and action; bringing the contributions of Individuals feel better acquainted with their own ecological thinking, the values of the natural world, and thoughts and feelings, and they feel “different” in responses to environmental destruction to psychotherapy some way—calmer, at peace with themselves, “more and personal growth; and fostering lifestyles that are both beautiful on the inside and unstifled.” .. . ecologically and psychologically healthy (Doherty, 2009; [After the trips] there is a growing sense of wonder Esbjörn-Hargens & Zimmerman, 2009; Roszak, 1992; and a complex awareness of spiritual meanings as Roszak, Gomes, & Kanner, 1995; Winter, 1996). individuals feel at one with nature, yet they are aware Ecopsychologists view the relationship between of the transience of individual concerns when seen humans and nature as a deeply bonded and reciprocal against the background of enduring natural rhythms. communion or union between humans and nature. The (Kaplan & Talbot, 1983, p. 178-180) denial of this bond is a source of suffering both for the Transpersonal Psychology and Ecopsychology physical environment and for the human psyche, and the n transpersonal psychology, as well as many other realization of the connection between humans and nature Ipsychological approaches, the sense of separate self is seen is healing for both. This reconnection includes the healing as a product of one’s personal history and is characterized potential of contact with nature, work on grief and despair by a sense of autonomy, independent agency, and separation about environmental destruction, psychoemotional from surroundings. The transpersonal approach differs bonding with nature as a source of environmental action,

138 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Davis and the cultivation of environmentally-responsible theme in his presentation of ecopsychology. Whether or lifestyles. A number of methods have been used by not ecopsychology continues along the lines proposed by ecopsychologists to awaken and develop this connection, Roszak, they argued “it would be prudent to account for including sensory-based educational and counseling Roszak’s contribution and the significance of spiritual techniques (Cohen, 1993), wilderness passage rites (Foster experience in his representation of ecopsychology” & Little, 1988, 1997; Davis, 2005) and other wilderness- (p. 112). Warwick Fox’s (1995) Transpersonal Ecology based work (Greenway, 1995; Harper, 1995), shamanism bears directly on the intersection of transpersonal (Gray, 1995), and psychotherapeutic practices (Cahalan, psychology and ecopsychology. Although the original 1995; Swanson, 1995; Buzzell & Chalquist, 2009). 1990 publication of this book predates Roszak’s (1992) For the most part, ecopsychology presents two major presentation of ecopsychology, Fox mentioned images for the relationship between humans and nature: Roszak’s earlier work at several points. Importantly for (a) nature as home and its inhabitants as family (e.g., this discussion, Fox included Roszak in a list of writers siblings or Mother Earth) and (b) nature as self, in which who “see the cultivation of ecological consciousness in self-identifications are broadened and deepened to include ‘spiritual’ or ‘quasi-religious’ terms” (Fox, 1995, p. 52). the non-human world. These views stand in contrast to Andy Fisher’s Radical Ecopsychology (2002) is views that nature is dangerous and needs to be controlled another formative work for the field of ecopsychology, and dominated or that nature is (merely) a useful resource and he also included multiple positive references to which needs to be protected, conserved, and stewarded spirituality in ecopsychology. He considered spirituality for ourselves and future generations. Fox (1995) provided in some instances to be virtually synonymous with the a useful outline of various positions on human-nature reunion of humans and the rest of nature (p. 97) and relationships. A transpersonal view of human-nature a necessary foundation for encountering the depths of relationships can include these two images, and it will environmental suffering in order to engage in effective transcend them. Conceiving of nature as an expanded and environmental action (pp. 190-191). Deborah Winter’s more-inclusive self may be a necessary step in developing a Ecological Psychology (1996) included a major section more transpersonal view of the human-nature relationship. on transpersonal psychology with a discussion of deep However, this broader self is not a final understanding. ecology, transpersonal ecology, and ecopsychology. She What is needed is an articulation of a transpersonal concluded that “with so much common conceptual view that goes beyond the nature-as-self view without ground, it is not surprising that theories are beginning to invalidating it. Such a transpersonal view recognizes synthesize transpersonal psychology and deep ecology” that both human and nature are expressions of the same (p. 249). She cited Roszak’s ecopsychology and Fox’s ground of Being. An understanding of unitive, nondual transpersonal ecology as examples of this synthesis. The states, and practices for developing this understanding is subtitle of her book, Healing the Split between Planet and the foundation for an effective integration of transpersonal Self, clearly expresses her view of a unity that transcends psychology and ecopsychology. the illusion of a human-nature split. Winter summarized Integrations of Ecopsychology a discussion of these fields this way: and Transpersonal Psychology The basic principle to be drawn from both gestalt and eferences to spirituality, sacredness, and the transpersonal psychology (and their recent forms of transpersonal (though generally without using that R ecopsychology and transpersonal ecology) is that our term) can be found in much of ecopsychology. Theodore ordinary experience of ourselves as separate autonomous Roszak’s (1992) The Voice of the Earth, the seminal beings is incomplete and inaccurate. [Recognizing book in ecopsychology, includes positive references to this] will require . . . a shift in consciousness (the “nature mysticism,” “Feminist Spirituality,” and in his transpersonal emphasis) from the smaller, autonomous, conclusion, “the interplay between planetary and personal ego-oriented self to the wider and deeper ecological self. well-being, [phrasing which] is deliberately chosen for Transpersonal psychologists, ecopsychologists, and its traditional theological connotation” (p. 321). Snell, transpersonal ecologists argue that such a shift is more Simmonds, and Webster (2011) reviewed Roszak’s work than a cognitive event—it is also a directly perceptual on ecopsychology and concluded that spiritual experience and/or spiritual event. (p. 264, emphasis supplied) (though he tends to avoid that term) is an important

Ecopsychology, Transpersonal, and Nonduality International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 139 Doherty (2009) suggested that as ecopsychology between nature, nonduality, and transpersonal states, moves into a “second generation” of research, theory, Wilber (1996) illustrated the first of the transpersonal and application, it is becoming less defined by its stages of development as “nature-mysticism,” defined by countercultural, holistic, and romantic stance and more “an awareness that is no longer confined exclusively to self-reflective, pluralistic, and pragmatic. Doherty called the individual ego” (p. 202). I would argue that this is for an expansion from those early tenets of ecopsychology one description of nonduality. At this level, “there is no but not a rejection of them. For others, this movement separation between subject and object, between you and within ecopsychology may reflect concerns about the the entire natural world ‘out there.’ Inside and outside— explicit spiritual and mystical flavor of early presentations they don’t have any meaning anymore. You can still tell of ecopsychology by Roszak and others. For example, perfectly well where you body stops and the environment Reser (1995) found cause for concern with the “quasi- begins—this is not psychotic adualism. ... It is your own religious—and often explicitly religious—character higher self” (Wilber, 1996, p. 202, emphasis in original). of the discourse” (p. 241). “The rhetoric is of spiritual From an ecopsychological perspective, Greenway connecting and transformation, there is a clear quest for (1995) pointed to dualism as “perhaps the source of our the sacred and use of ritual, frequent reference to earth pervasive sense of being disconnected” from the natural magic and animism/transcendentalism, [and so forth]” world (p. 131). He suggested that such dualism is also at (p. 242). While Reser and others are skeptical about the the root of our culture’s domination, exploitation, and value of an ongoing influence of transpersonalism in destruction of our habitat, “the very basis of our survival ecopsychology, I feel its intersection with transpersonal as a species” (p. 131). He suggested that an important psychology is one important aspect of ecopsychology’s step in redressing these problems is a better language pluralism. While ecopsychology finds useful common for ecopsychology and for understanding nonduality. I ground with environmental psychology, conservation agree. psychology, and other environmentally-focused psych- Nonduality refers to the locus, structure, and ologies, it will also be fruitful to develop its common nature of self-identity, encompassing those states of ground with transpersonal psychology. Being and consciousness in which the sense of separate Nonduality individuality and autonomy has been metabolized or am using the term nonduality to capture the dissolved into the flow of experience. Self-identity becomes Iunderstanding of unitive states, an expanded and deeper integrated into a qualitatively higher (or deeper) perspective sense of self, and self-transcendence. In transcending a in which individual identity and the contents of experience sense of separate self, one realizes a nondual relationship are differentiated but not split or separated. The world with Being. It is not awareness or consciousness which is does not melt away, perception gains greater clarity and transcended, only the sense of a self which is grounded richness, and actions flow more harmoniously. At the in separation, narcissism, and defenses (the so-called same time, the self is no longer experienced as separate or ego in many spiritual traditions). Nonduality does not ultimately autonomous. Instead, an expanded, more open, mean a loss of consciousness but rather a heightened and more inclusive view of the world becomes foreground. consciousness in which particulars (objects, persons, and As Zimmerman wrote, “In the moment of releasement, relationships) can be perceived with greater clarity as the enlightenment, or authenticity, things do not dissolve conditioning and cognitive limitations of the ego-based into an undifferentiated mass. Instead, they stand out or separate self are dissolved, integrated, and transcended. reveal themselves in their own unique mode of Being” This view of nonduality is at the core of the relationship (as quoted in Fox, 1995, p. 239). Similarly, Fox wrote, between transpersonal psychology and ecopsychology. “The realization that we and all other entities are aspects Ecopsychology is based on the recognition of a of a single unfolding reality—that ‘life is fundamentally fundamental nonduality between humans and nature one’—does not mean that all multiplicity and diversity and on the insight that the failure to experience, value, is reduced to homogeneous mush” (p. 232). Indeed, all and act from this nonduality creates suffering for both spiritual traditions that have described nonduality have humans and the environment. Nonduality and unitive pointed out that the world becomes more real, beautiful, states of consciousness are also at the foundation of trans- alive, and whole when one steps outside the confinement personal psychology. Demonstrating this close connection of duality. When the separate identity, with its filters and

140 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Davis expectations based on personal needs, history, cognitive the integration of these nondual dimensions into the schemata, and the like, is not reified or identified with, the personal life and functioning of individuals (Almaas, world appears to us as more vivid and vital. 2000a, 2000b). I will give brief descriptions of each to A central difficulty in understanding the role of help clarify this discussion of nonduality in the context nonduality in ecopsychology is the misconception that of ecopsychology. nonduality is undifferentiated (the descriptions by Fox In one of these dimensions the world is and Zimmerman notwithstanding). In that view, the experienced as a flowing, dynamic unfoldment in each nondual state, a merged union without any differences or moment. This dimension leads to an awareness that the discriminations, would preclude perception and action. world is born anew each moment. This dynamism reveals For example, Naess (1989) spoke of two ways to go wrong: the world’s aliveness, its multiplicity, and its constant “Here is a difficult ridge to walk: to the left we have the unfolding. ocean of organic and mystic views, to the right the abyss The fact that presence includes the various of atomic individualism” (p. 165). Yet, these are not manifestations of the self in a nondual way indicates opposite sides of the same ridge. The issue of nonduality is that presence is not a static reality. Seeing that it somewhat complicated by the fact that there are nondual is always transforming its appearance, we become states in which perception does disappear into a complete aware that presence is dynamic. It is not only and absolute cessation. However, this is not the only state thereness, but also a flow. (Almaas, 2000b, p. 33) in which the self is in a union with the world. The more- inclusive definition I am using here is more consistent From this dimension, nature is seen in its eternal and with reports of nonduality in relation to nature. I suggest timeless unfolding expression and change. This expression that “the ocean of organic and mystic views” is precisely is not haphazard but self-organizing. Inner experience, the way out of “the abyss of atomic individualism.” the physical world, conceptualizations, and actions all Finding ourselves to be this ocean, nothing more than arise, discriminable but not divided. One might use a identification with a separate self is lost. Duality is a metaphor of waves on an ocean which can be identified product of identification, not differentiation. as unique but never separate from the ocean. Self and Dimensions of Nonduality nature are manifestations of this flow; neither is more ost spiritual wisdom traditions have described or less central or fundamental. This dimension reveals Mthis terrain and developed specific methods that discrimination, change, and unfolding can happen for experiencing, understanding, and integrating without a separate self. nonduality. A. H. Almaas, in what he calls the Diamond Without equating Almaas’s description to others, Approach, articulates a richly detailed and systematic this dimension compares to Fox’s (1995) cosmologically approach to clarifying personality, experiencing essence, based identification and the focus by Roszak and others and realizing spiritual maturity (Davis, 1999). His on “the world as a single unfolding process—as a ‘unity descriptions of nondual states (which he has also called in process,’ to employ Theodore Roszak’s splendid boundless or formless) states are particularly relevant phrase” (p. 252). This concept of dynamic, nondual flow here. Almaas has described five boundless or nondual is also similar to Roszak’s (1992) use of the concepts dimensions, each with distinctive characteristics, and he of anima mundi, World Soul, and Gaia. He described has related each dimension to descriptions of these states these related concepts as the view “that the whole of the from traditional spiritual systems, including Sufism, cosmos is a single great organism” (p. 139) referring to its Buddhism, Christianity, Kabbalah, and Shaivism (e.g., vitality, aliveness, and unfolding. Almaas gave a similar 1986, p. 419-484; 2000b, p. 397-441). Each dimension description of this dimension: has a sense of freedom, clarity, and authenticity which The world is perceived, in some sense, as alive and transcends ordinary identity without denying or living, as one infinite and boundless organism rejecting a sense of individual consciousness. A precise of consciousness. It is not merely the presence of understanding of the psychological issues that arise in Being or consciousness; this dimension of Being each of these advanced stages of spiritual work provides is experienced as a living organism, boundless and foundations for self-realization through the method of infinite.” (Almaas, 2000a, p. 475) inquiry and other practices. He has further described

Ecopsychology, Transpersonal, and Nonduality International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 141 Almaas has also referred to this dimension as the quality of presence, purity, significance, profundity, and “Universal Soul” or the soul of the universe, similar realness that was masked, as it were, by its beauty. All is to Roszak’s use of the term World Soul (personal experienced as pure presence without any differentiated communication, July 28, 1997). Both Roszak and characteristics beyond the experience of its existence. Almaas use soul in the sense of its original meaning as At this level of realization, we come also to perceive individual consciousness or the medium of experience. the unity of all manifestation. Since Being is an All of these ideas, taken together, point to existence indivisible medium (not composed of parts), it as a single unfolding reality, in constant renewal and follows that everything makes up a unity, a oneness. originality, flowing, and undivided. There is one existence, as opposed to two or many. It A second boundless dimension focuses on the is merely an infinite presence that possesses a pattern. richness and beauty of existence and the origin of the This pattern is everything we perceive, including all limitless aesthetic qualities of the world. It is referred persons and objects. So everything is connected to to often in nature writing and descriptions of nature- everything; there exist no separate and autonomous oriented mystical experiences. With this dimension objects or persons. (Almaas, 2000b, p. 406) comes an unconditional love for the world. The flow of the phenomena (both as inner experience and outer world) There is discriminating awareness, but this awareness is may be seen as a surface quality whose depth is this beauty, not separate from the knowledge of it. This dimension or the flow may be co-emergent with this beauty, and reveals in a deeper way that consciousness and the world what is flowing is beauty and love. Experiencing this flow are nondual. Nature is revealed in its profound, palpable deeply reveals that its nature is beauty and love. Almaas and precious existence. described it as being held in the arms of a boundless loving This nondual presence resembles what Fox light. Without the veils of dualistic identity, the world (1995) called ontologically based identification. emerges in ever more exquisite ways, revealing its intrinsic The basic idea that I am attempting to communicate glory and richness. Everything—including ego, spirit, by referring to ontologically based identification is suffering, attachment, environmental destruction, toxic that the fact—the utterly astonishing fact—that dumps, the outrageous beauty of a sunrise, and the grace things are impresses itself upon some people in such of a bird rising from a pond—is seen as an expression and a profound way that all that exists seems to stand out manifestation of unconditional love. This is not a logical as foreground from a background of nonexistence, conclusion or solely an intellectual insight but rather a voidness or emptiness—a background from which direct, transrational knowing of the nature of reality. this foreground arises moment by moment. . . . “The Penetrating or transcending the boundless, nonegoic, environment” or “the world at large” is experienced nondual sense of flow does not halt or disappear nature; not as a mere backdrop against which our privileged it reveals a deeper characteristic of nature, its loveliness, egos and those entities with which they are most in a way that ego-based experience does not. concerned play themselves out, but rather as just The unfolding of nondual consciousness does as much an expression of the manifesting of Being not stop with this beauty and love, despite our tendency (i.e., of existence per se) as we ourselves are. (p. 251, to want to hold on to it and reside in it. When this emphasis in original) dimension of beauty and love is experienced deeply enough, its nature is revealed as a deeper dimension Fox related this awareness to the insights of the Zen of nonduality, a fullness of presence. Beauty is now Buddhists, Heidegger, and Wittgenstein and suggested seen as a surface quality, and within the loveliness and that people experiencing “the world in this way on a lovableness of the world lies the fact of its presence. If, regular or semi-regular basis (typically as a result of as Emerson wrote, “beauty is God’s handwriting,” this arduous spiritual discipline) find themselves tending to dimension corresponds to God, the source of that beauty experience a deep but impartial sense of identification (though nontheistic traditions have also recognized this with all existents” (p. 251, emphasis in original). I would dimension of pure presence without invoking a singular extend this to say that all existents are experienced deity). Patterns in the world are revealed as expressions as a unity, and the unity of Being is the source of this of noetic forms. The world (inner and outer) has a identification.

142 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Davis The ground and inner nature of the awareness But we do not easily know nature, or even know of pure presence is the realm of nonconceptual ourselves. Whatever it actually is, it will not fulfill awareness and pure perception. It is what Fox called “the our conceptions or assumptions. It will dodge our background of nonexistence, voidness, or emptiness” expectations and theoretical models. There is no from which arises existence and presence. Penetrating single or set “nature” either as “the natural world” or the pure presence and unity of the world, one discovers “the nature of things.” The greatest respect we can its ground to be awareness without content or concepts. pay to nature is not to trap it, but to acknowledge It has a quality of emptiness that is more fundamental that it eludes us and that our own nature is also than form. Upon realizing the pure presence and fullness fluid, open, and conditional. of Being, one Hakuin Zenji put it “self-nature that is no begins to experience the totality of the world— nature/ . . . far beyond mere doctrine.” An open space which forms a oneness—as external to himself [sic1], to move in, with the whole body, the whole mind. as if his identity now is deeper than this unity of (Snyder, 1992, p. v., emphasis in original) experience. . . . He realizes that he still adheres to Almaas also described a nondual dimension the concepts of world, oneness, existence, and so fundamental to each of these. He called this the Absolute, on, or more precisely, that these things are actually a dimension beyond presence and emptiness. The concepts. He penetrates his reification of Being, Absolute is the unknowable origin and ultimate nature unity, and oneness. This precipitates the movement of Being. At this level, all paradoxes dissolve, including of the student’s identity into a subtler manifestation the paradox that existence is both full and empty, present of Being, a totally nonconceptual realization of true and absent. This absolute mystery is beyond all qualities nature. He experiences himself now as nonconceptual of Being. It is a cessation and an absence: no perception, reality, beyond all mind and concepts, beyond all no awareness that there is no perception, no movement. specifications and recognitions. . . . He is both self He compared it to the state of consciousness in deep and not self. This is a very paradoxical manifestation sleep or to the state of universe before the Big Bang. The of Being, beyond any conceptualization. . . . There is Absolute is revealed only in its absence. The state of the a stunning sense of awakeness, intensely fresh and Absolute shows all that is seen—nature, self, culture, new. When there are no concepts in our recognition sacred, profane—is a thin bubble over this complete of ourselves, nothing is old; everything is the pure mystery. This is the source of the experience of complete freshness of suchness, the intensity of eternity that liberation and complete nonduality. Although it is its has no concept of time. (Almaas, 2000b, pp. 411- nature to be indescribable and unknowable, various 412) spiritual traditions have acknowledged this mystery Note that while there is no conceptual content and recognized it as the ultimate source of freedom and in this state, there is awareness and that awareness has liberation. noticeable qualities: freshness, intensity, timelessness, A Nonhierarchical View and transparency. Indeed, nature is revealed in a fully he dimensions of nondual Being are usually presented transparent way. One sees the world, but it is as if each Tas a linear unfolding or development according perception is empty of differentiated content beyond to a “journey of ascent.” This progression describes the pure awareness, brand new, and undistorted by past development of consciousness from the perspective of the memories, expectations, and labels. The dynamic flow individual. Consciousness, as it develops and becomes described above is co-emergent with this dimension. more refined, reveals increasingly deeper and more subtle However, rather than the flow of beauty and love or levels of Being. On the other hand, Being can be described the flow of noetic forms, here it is experienced as pure as unfolding and manifesting in an orderly way from flow without content. Zen Buddhism, among other the Absolute mystery into the multitude of forms and contemplative and mystical traditions, has dealt with qualities of the phenomenal world. As it unfolds, it flows this dimension. Perhaps this is what Gary Snyder through these various dimensions in a progression from pointed to when he titled his collection of his poetry the Absolute mystery to those more differentiated as the No Nature. phenomenal world, a “journey of descent.” The mystery

Ecopsychology, Transpersonal, and Nonduality International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 143 unfolds and manifests first as non-conceptual awareness Some ecopsychologists and deep ecologists have which differentiates into presence itself and then into pointed to this as a source of environmental action. Fox forms, patterns, and qualities, giving rise to experiences of (1995), summarizing a vast amount of writing in this ourselves as humans, and the world. The journey of ascent is area, concluded, “For transpersonal ecologists, given a a process of understanding the inner nature of phenomena, deep enough understanding of the way things are, the including the physical and the experiential realms, as a response of being inclined to care for the unfolding progression to more and more subtle forms of nonduality. of the world in all its aspects follows ‘naturally’” (p. The journey of descent is a process of nonduality expressing 247). Wilber (1996) claimed that in nature mysticism, itself in more and more differentiated manifestations “a spontaneous environmental ethics surges from your without losing its inherent unity. heart” (p. 204). Such engaged spirituality can be seen Both of these “journeys” and each of these in the activism of Gandhi, Thich Nhat Hanh, and the dimensions can also be viewed as co-existent and co- Dalai Lama, for example. One who understands and has emergent. These dimensions are complementary and integrated the teachings of nonduality has no resistance equally valid. Immanence, fullness, and the myriad to acting on behalf of all of existence and its parts. forms of the world are one side of a coin (the result of Conflicts between one’s own interests and the interests the journey of descent); transcendence, emptiness, and of the whole are transcended. The wisdom of the whole the mystery of union are the other (the fruition of the guides one’s actions in a way that is optimal for the journey of ascent). Thus, the richness and beauty of the whole. Nonduality prompts compassionate and skillful world are no more or less privileged than its emptiness. action in the service of the environment. To the extent This view contrasts with those spiritual systems which that these propositions need empirical testing, this hold that one of these dimensions is real and the others understanding of nonduality could help operationalize are illusory. This is a particularly important point for such research. ecopsychologists. This understanding of nonduality does Conclusions not devalue or reject the natural world or human culture. his understanding of nonduality has radical From this view, spiritual realization does not need to Tconsequences for views of nature and psyche. When isolate nature from humans. To the extent that one does nature is seen as a family or larger self, it is a projection want to distinguish these (and there are times this is a of our human selves, and an eventual split is inevitable. useful distinction), they can still be seen as manifestations When we conceive of the world, we impregnate it with of the same absolutely mysterious ground of Being. our concepts, so to speak, and birth it through our own None of the dimensions of nonduality means leaving images. We do not encounter nature on its own, but the world. The physical world as less than the spiritual is through our filters. With the concept of the world as rejected, as is as the natural world as the source of Being. a larger self comes the possibility judgments, grasping, Regardless of whether the physical world (including the rejection, and constriction—all the characteristics of a natural world) or spirit is privileged, both of these views “smaller,” egoic, and dualistic self. This is the origin of continue a pernicious duality. With the understanding of the splits that lead to alienation and suffering. A nondual nonduality presented here, one can embrace both nature view of ecopsychology goes beyond anthropocentrism and human as manifestations of Being. and ecocentrism. One could say that Being or the Nonduality and Functioning totality of existence is the center and equally, that there he consciousness of nonduality is closely related is no center, just flow, beauty, presence, emptiness, and Tto the action that emerges in nondual states. mystery. Just as nonduality is not “undifferentiated mass” or A transpersonal understanding that is sensitive “homogeneous mush,” non-doing is not merely quietude to the Earth recognizes that direct contact with nature, or passivity (although it may be when appropriate). In wherever it is encountered—in the backyard, garden, virtually all the descriptions of nonduality throughout wilderness, or one’s body—expands and develops the world’s spiritual wisdom traditions, nonduality has one’s maturity beyond the personal and supports self- been seen not as an end to action, but as the beginning transcendence. It also recognizes spirit in all forms, of a new source of action that does not place self-interest including the natural, the built, the wounded, the at the center. sublime, and the toxic. Environmental problems become

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Ecopsychology, Transpersonal, and Nonduality International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 145 Gray, L. (1995). Shamanic counseling and ecopsychology. Snell, T., Simmonds, J., & Webster, R. S. (2011). In T. Roszak, M. Gomes, & A. Kanner (Eds.), Spirituality in the work of Theodore Roszak: Ecopsychology. San Francisco, CA: Sierra Club. Implications for contemporary ecopsychology. Greeley, A. (1974). Ecstasy: A way of knowing. Englewood Ecopsychology, 3(2), 105-113. Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Snyder, G. (1992). No nature: New and selected poems. Greenway, R. (1995). The wilderness effect and New York, NY: Pantheon Books. ecopsychology. In T. Roszak, M. Gomes, & A. Stringer, L., & McAvoy, L. (1992). The need for Kanner (Eds.), Ecopsychology: Restoring the earth, something different: Spirituality and wilderness healing the mind (pp. 122-135). San Francisco, CA: adventure. Journal of Experiential Education, 15(1), Sierra Club. 13-20. Harper, S. (1995). The way of wilderness. In T. Roszak, Swanson, J. (1995). The call for gestalt’s contribution to M. Gomes, & A. Kanner (Eds.), Ecopsychology: ecopsychology: Figuring in the environmental field. Restoring the earth, healing the mind (pp. 183-200). The Gestalt Journal, 18(1), 47-85. San Francisco, CA: Sierra Club. Talbot, J., & Kaplan, S. (1986). Perspectives on Hartig, T., Mang, M., & Evans, G. (1991). Restorative wilderness: Re-examining the values of extended effects of natural environment experience.Environment wilderness experiences. Journal of Environmental and Behavior, 23(1), 3-26. Psychology, 6(3), 177-188. Hoffman, E. (2007). Peak experiences among Japanese Ulrich, R., Simons, R., Losito, B., Fiorito, E., Miles, youth. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 47(4), 497- M., & Zelson, M. (1991). Stress recovery during 513. exposure to natural and urban environments. Kaplan, S. (1995). The restorative benefits of nature: Journal of Environmental Psychology, 11, 201-230. Toward an integrative framework. Journal of Walsh, R., & Vaughan, F. (Eds.). (1993). Paths beyond Environmental Psychology, 15(3), 169-182. ego: The transpersonal vision. New York, NY: Tarcher/ Kaplan. S., & Talbot, J. (1983). Psychological benefits of Putnam. a wilderness experience. In I. Altman & J. Wohlwill Weinstein, N., Przybylski, A. & Ryan, R. (2009). Can (Eds.), Behavior and the natural environment (163- nature make us more caring? Effects of immersion 203). New York, NY: Plenum Press. in nature on intrinsic aspirations and generosity. Keutzer, C. (1978). Whatever turns you on: Triggers Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35(10), to transcendent experiences. Journal of Humanistic 1315-1329. Psychology, 18(3), 77-80. Wilber, K. (1996). A brief history of everything. Boston, Lajoie, D., & Shapiro, S. (1992). Definitions of trans- MA: Shambhala. personal psychology: The first twenty-three years. Wilber, K. (2000). Integral psychology: Consciousness, Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 24(1), 79-98. spirit, psychology, therapy. Boston, MA: Shambhala. Naess, A. (1989). Ecology, community, and lifestyle. (D. Winter, D. (1996). Ecological psychology: Healing Rothenberg, Trans.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge the split between planet and self. New York, NY: University Press. HarperCollins. Reser, J. (1995). Whither environmental psychology?: Wuthnow, R. (1978). Peak experiences: Some empirical The transpersonal ecopsychology crossroads. Journal tests. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 18(3), 59-75. of Environmental Psychology, 15(3), 235-257. Note Roszak, T. (1992). The voice of the earth: An exploration of ecopsychology. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. 1. Almaas uses both the masculine and the feminine in Roszak, T., Gomes, M, & Kanner, A. (Eds.). (1995). his examples. In this passage, he uses the masculine, Ecopsychology: Restoring the Earth/Healing the mind. but the feminine is implied as well. San Francisco, CA: Sierra Club Books. About the Author Ryan, R., Weinstein, N., Bernstein, J., Brown, K., Mistretta, L., & Gagné, M. (2010). Vitalizing John Davis, PhD, is Adjunct Professor in the Graduate effects of being outdoors and in nature. Journal of School of Psychology, Naropa University, Boulder, Environmental Psychology, 30(2), 159-168. CO. A former department chair at Naropa University,

146 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Davis he also directed the low-residency Ecopsychology and Transpersonal Psychology MA programs there. As a staff member with the School of Lost Borders, he leads wilderness retreats and trains wilderness rites of passage guides, and he is an ordained teacher of the Diamond Approach. Parts of this article are based on Davis (1998). Correspondence concerning this article may be directed to [email protected] or John Davis, Graduate School of Psychology, Naropa University, 2130 Arapahoe Avenue, Boulder, CO 80302 USA.

About the Journal

The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies is a peer-reviewed academic journal in print since 1981. It is published by Floraglades Foundation, and serves as the official publication of the International Transpersonal Association. The journal is available online at www. transpersonalstudies.org, and in print through www. lulu.com (search for IJTS).

Ecopsychology, Transpersonal, and Nonduality International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 147 Jung at the Foot of Mount Kailash: A Transpersonal Synthesis of Depth Psychology, Tibetan Tantra, and the Sacred Mythic Imagery of East and West

Judson Davis California Institute of Integral Studies San Francisco, CA, USA

Tibetan Buddhist Tantra and Jungian depth psychology represent two of the world’s more dynamic psycho-spiritual traditions. This comparative study explores their respective insights, cosmologies, and often striking similarities, with particular emphasis on the manner in which mythic imagery is employed in both disciplines as a powerful agent of healing and transformation. The ontological status of Tibetan deities and archetypal entities is also given careful consideration, especially in relation to the phenomena of psychic projection and autonomous spiritual dimensions.

Keywords: Jungian psychology, Tibetan Tantra, integral scholarship, transpersonal, archetypal dimension, dream yoga, participatory event

ungian psychology and Tibetan Tantra share a own distinctive characteristics and include sometimes number of characteristics and methodologies that widely varying notions of a higher spiritual order or have as their primary focus the treatment of human ultimate reality (the apparent incongruity between the J suffering and the elicitation of spiritual awakening. Jungian Self and the Buddhist “no-Self” being a primary Each tradition arose in a very different historical period example), but an in-depth explication concerning their and socio-cultural context, which makes these various respective metaphysical postulations is not the purpose overlapping aspects all the more compelling. of this study. Rather, it is my intention to examine how These two transformative disciplines—one mythic imagery is used in both traditions as a means revealing the wisdom of an ancient Eastern spiritual of inducing transpersonal experience, and how such tradition and the other the insights of a contemporary experiences affect and transform human consciousness. Western psychological framework—are linked most In this sense, regardless of the differences in ontological readily through their shared emphasis on the creative or epistemological pronouncements, it can be said that use of mythic imagery as a dynamic means of effecting both systems are committed to the treating and healing spiritual development. With transcendence acting as their of human suffering as well as the inducement of spiritual primary focus, both traditions emphasize the mind, or awakening through transformative methodologies that psyche, as the foundational basis of existence and the share a number of intriguing characteristics. In addition, primary means through which liberation (in the tantric each discipline emphasizes a radical shift away from the tradition) and psychic wholeness (in Jungian psychology) ego as the center of one‘s identity toward the realization of is pursued. Each emphasizes the realm of dreams (e.g., an inseparable interrelationship with a boundless and all- dream analysis in depth psychology and dream yoga in encompassing psychic matrix. And within this context, Tibetan Tantra), meditative visualizations (such as the it is essential to understand that in each tradition “the focus on wisdom figures in both disciplines), and an psyche or mind of the individual—the only instrument assortment of other practices that, at their very essence, through which one experiences reality—is the sole are designed to effect a reconciliation of opposites and the authority” (Moacanin, 2003, pp. 102-103). attendant union of masculine and feminine elements. In the spirit of integral scholarship, Western and It should be noted that both of these disciplines Eastern accounts of numinous states of consciousness, represent complex psychological systems that possess their findings from modern transpersonal research, and

148 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies , 30(1-2), 2011, pp. 148-164 Davis elements of my own personal, therapeutic, and mystical Jungian Depth Psychology experience are integrated in this study, especially when ungian psychology grew out of the depth psychological these aspects serve to enhance a given example or Jmovement that was initiated by Sigmund Freud in theoretical component. This is done in recognition of late nineteenth-century Europe. In contrast to Freud’s the need for spiritually reductionist psychoanalysis, Jung (1963) came to understand the human psyche as possessing a religious a scholarship that realizes that these religious worlds function whereby archetypal symbols—as revealed are not dead corpses that we can dissect and analyze through the unconscious and as manifested through from a safe distance, but rather are vital, living bodies dreams, myth, and creative expression—inform and of knowledge and practice that have the potential to guide human spiritual development on both a personal change completely our taken-for-granted notions of and collective level. who we are, why we are here and what we could or Jung was also fascinated by and readily should become. (Gunnlaugson, 2005, pp. 333-334) acknowledged what he viewed as the superior develop­ The importance of integrating one’s own ment of various ancient Eastern spiritual traditions, and deeply transformative experiences into any related was especially intrigued with what he described as “the course of study is highlighted in Jeffrey Kripal’s self-liberating power of the introverted mind” (1992a, (2001) emphasis upon a mystical hermeneutic, as “the p. 56). He wrote a number of essays on various aspects modern, and now post-modern, study of mysticism . . . of Asian esotericism, including The Psychology of Eastern has been largely inspired, sustained, and rhetorically Meditation, psychological commentaries on The Tibetan formed by the unitive, ecstatic, visionary, and mystico- Book of Great Liberation and The Tibetan Book of the hermeneutical experiences of the scholars themselves” Dead, and a foreword to D. T. Suzuki’s Introduction (p. 3). Accordingly, in this study, for example, one of to Zen Buddhism. Jung was particularly drawn to the my own highly transformative mystical experiences manner in which certain Eastern disciplines emphasize serves as the starting point for an exploration of the the reconciliation of opposites and the union of male ontological status of autonomous dimensions and and female aspects. He also saw in these traditions a psychic projections. direct link to a primary component in his own evolving The integration of such material presents both psychological theory—the notion of unus mundus. potential benefits (e.g., the elucidation of theory through This term, which derives from his studies of medieval direct experience) and pitfalls (e.g., the potential for philosophy, translates as “one unitary world” and personal projection and cultural appropriation), and represents the original, inseparable union of all things, these important considerations can be approached the non-differentiated essence out of which all things with greater clarity when considered through Hans- arise and are given individual form (Jung, 1963). Georg Gadamer’s (1989) notion of a horizon, which The nature of unus mundus was conceived as he described as “the range of vision that includes manifesting into separate parts such as subject and object everything that can be seen from a particular vantage in order to bring forth a condition of actuality from the point” (p. 271). The spiritual and theoretical horizons potentiality inherent in the original, non-differentiated of both disciplines are thus explored in relation to their essence. Jung (1963) applied this concept to his study of respective vantage points, a process that inevitably the human psyche, and conceived that the differentiation unfolds within the context of one’s own particular of the conscious and unconscious contents of the psyche insights and experience. In this sense, understanding (i.e., separate parts or opposites) is necessary for the sake is not conceived as a final or fixed truth, but rather of growth and adaptation, but ultimately these aspects as an enhanced, deepened, and fluid perspective that must be reunited in order to achieve a state of psychic reflects the fruits of such a dialogical inquiry—and its wholeness. Central to this course of development (i.e., fusion of horizons—between observer, lens, and texts. the individuation process) and its circuitous return to This is precisely the spirit in which this comparative the origin of one’s being (i.e., the Self) is the concept of study unfolds, and as such it is intended as a concerted archetypes, the primordial psychic structures that guide form of cross-fertilization, or creative dialogical human development and serve as the basis of humanity’s hermeneutics. inherent religious instinct.

Jung at the Foot of Mount Kailash International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 149 Tibetan Buddhist Tantra for which the three primary realms of desire, form, and uddhism, with its origins in the Indian formlessness constitute the most basic structure (there Bsubcontinent, arrived in Tibet in the seventh are other more thorough distinctions, such as the six century C.E. during the reign of King Songsten Gampo or thirty-one realms of the Kalacakra system; human (Pal, 1990). There it merged, sometimes contentiously, beings inhabit the desire realm, which involves existence with the native animistic and shamanistic tradition in a state of samsara). According to the present Dalai (later known as Bon), which it would eventually Lama, these various dimensions are inhabited by other supersede as the primary religious discipline. The new conscious entities of widely varying characteristics: religion would retain, however, many of the existing Basically we can say there are different worlds, indigenous beliefs and practices, and through this different experiences; human life is just one of integration and development “all native gods already them. What we usually call spirits are some inhabiting the local mountains, the forests, the lakes different form of life, beings who have a different and rivers, the sky, and the underworld were adopted body and mentality. Within the desire realm, and into the pantheon and made protectors of the Buddhist more specifically within the environment inhabited religion” (pp. 42-43). by human beings, there is quite a variety of other The renowned mystic Padmasambhava and the entities . . . . And they’re all cohabitating with us right great monk Santarakshita made significant contributions here. (Varela, 1997, p. 141) toward the acceptance and expansion of this new religious system, and in about the year 779 it became The various Tibetan sects also share the notion officially indoctrinated through the founding of the first that emptiness (Skt., shunyata) is the essential truth of all great monastery at Samye. The tantric form of Indian existence, and within this context “all four orders agree Buddhism that developed in Tibet is known in Sanskrit that the mind is of the nature of clear light . . . and all as Vajrayana, the Thunderbolt or Diamond Vehicle, agree that the most subtle and basic level of mind is of and involves the use of such contemplative practices as the nature of pure luminosity and emptiness” (Powers, meditation, creative visualization, artistic expression, 1995/2007, p. 358). This state of blissful, nondual mantra recitation, and the enactment of mudras (ritual emptiness is the ultimate goal of tantric practice, and poses) as a means of facilitating spiritual development and concurrent with an awakening into shunyata arise ultimate liberation. The body is regarded as an essential two vital manifestations, wisdom (Skt., prajna) and component in this process, and through the activation compassion (Skt., karuna), which are considered the two of the vital energies of the chakras, plays a central role as most essential qualities resulting from the attainment a kind of alchemical container of inner transformation. of this fully liberated state. Humility and simplicity are These various methods, practices, and rituals all share also highly valued, and in this sense “being a Buddha one ultimate aim—the awakening to dharmakaya, the is not being some omnipotent spiritual superman, but ultimate nature of the fully enlightened mind. becoming at last a true human being” (Sogyal, 1994, p. Each of Tibetan Buddhism’s four primary schools 54). (Nyingma, Sakya, Kagyu, and Gelugpa) is aligned with Comparative Analysis specific lineages, tantras (texts), doctrines, and practices Jungian psychology and Tibetan Tantra both employ that are designed to correspond to the particular needs a variety of dynamic methodologies that foster healing and circumstances of its respective practitioners (Powers, and accentuate spiritual development and awakening. 1995/2007). Although differences exist concerning each As previously stated, both disciplines emphasize the order’s tantric practices, these four schools naturally transformative power of mythic imagery and the share many common Buddhist precepts, including an reconciliation of opposites as a means of facilitating adherence to the teachings of the Middle Way School human development, and in each discipline these of Nagarjuna and devotion to the bodhisattva ideal processes are understood as vital catalysts for the of Mahayana Buddhism, with its emphasis on the inducement of numinous and mystical experience treatment and cessation of human suffering. Each also (Moacanin, 2003). Each also places crucial emphasis aligns itself with the precept of reincarnation as well as on the union of feminine and masculine elements, as the cosmological notion of autonomous spiritual realms, revealed in the following passage:

150 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Davis as it pertains to the psychic relationship between subject The union of masculine and feminine is central to and object, observer and observed. This is particularly much of life, both inwardly and outwardly. The well demonstrated in the texts of the Tibetan tradition, conjunctio, as Jung called this union, is equally as Clarke astutely observed regarding The Tibetan Book important to the completion stage of tantra, where of the Dead: male and female aspects of the meditator are brought into union on an inner level. (Preece, 2006, p. 215) the emphasis throughout the treatise is on the doctrine that the only reality is mind or consciousness, This emphasis on the union of opposites also and that all things, including material reality, are applies directly to the light and dark aspects of human mind-made. Furthermore, all minds, and hence all nature, and in Tibetan Tantra, as in certain primary existing things, are manifestations of the Absolute practices in depth psychotherapy, visualization plays a or One Mind. (p. 127) primary role in this process: The reading of this enigmatic Buddhist text provided In Jungian analysis one must deal with one’s Jung (1992b) with what he felt was significant validation shadow, the dark rejected part of the psyche; one for his own theories of psychic reality: must detect projections and egocentric aims . . . . For that reason the total psyche must be approached, The whole book is created out the archetypal contents its dark as well as its light aspects, personified in of the unconscious. Behind these there lie—and in tantra by peaceful and wrathful deities repeatedly this our Western reason is quite right—no physical constructed and dissolved in one’s visualization. One or metaphysical realities, but “merely” the reality of is continually facing the conflict of opposites in an psychic facts, the data of psychic experience. . . . The effort to transcend them. This is the purpose of the Bardo Thodol says no more than this, for its five sadhanas (meditation exercises), which are based on Dhyani-Buddhas are no more than psychic data. . . . a profound understanding of what Jung would call The world of gods and spirits is truly “nothing but” depth psychology. (Moacanin, 2003, pp. 88-89) the collective unconscious inside me. (p. 96) Regarding this integration of opposing psychic forces, Lama Yeshe, in referring to the process of Jung (1963) believed that the image of the Buddha was a tantric meditation, expressed a similar perspective more complete representation of the total human being when he stated that “such a deity is an archetype of because it integrated both the light and dark aspects of our own deepest nature, our most profound level of human nature, whereas in the Christian tradition the consciousness” (1987/2001, p. 30). In The Psychology of image of Christ was depicted in purely benign form, Eastern Meditation, Jung (1936/1958) again emphasized with the dark aspects being split off and assigned to the this shared principle when he expressed the following: figure of the Devil. In the meditation it is realized that the Buddha The creative engagement of god-images and is really nothing other than the activating psyche other sacred symbols (e.g., the mandala) holds special of the yogi—the meditator himself. It is not only significance in each tradition, both as a means of facilitat­ that the image of the Buddha is produced out of ing spiritual development and as a process that points “one’s own mind and thought,” but that the psyche directly to an essential precept that lies at the foundation which produces these thought-forms is the Buddha of each system—the primacy of psychic reality. Both himself. (p. 567) the Buddhist and Jungian disciplines variously stress an empirical approach in their understanding of the human Clarke (1994) further observed that Jung’s mind, and each emphasizes the importance of a direct exposure to Eastern spiritual traditions helped him experiential comprehension of spiritual processes while to more fully develop his theory of introversion and avoiding definitive metaphysical postulations (Clarke, extroversion, and it was through such exposures that 1994). At the same time, each system posits the intimate Jung (1992a) came to understand the Asian disciplines interrelationship of all phenomena, and this notion of as possessing “a typically introverted point of view, inseparable union, of the ultimate interconnectedness contrasted with the equally typical extraverted point between all things and processes, is especially relevant of view of the West” (p. 53). In Jung’s thinking,

Jung at the Foot of Mount Kailash International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 151 the extroverted tendency of the West is most readily of chakras. Jung had received an initial exposure to exemplified by its exaggerated emphasis upon this fundamental tenet of Hindu and Buddhist tantric rationalism and scientific materialism (at the expense of practice through J. G. Woodroffe’sThe Serpent Power, and contact with the archetypal unconscious), and he was it was through tantric yoga that “Jung discovered certain greatly concerned that this imbalance had substantially symbolic parallels with his own conception of psychic diminished contemporary Western humanity’s sense of libido and with the general goal of psychic integration” inner meaning, resulting in a deeply engrained spiritual (Clarke, 1994, p. 75). This discipline, which is especially malaise. This pervasive disconnection from the core of prominent in the Tibetan tradition, appealed to Jung one’s inner world is a primary theme of many Tibetan because it represented a system that integrated psychic and masters as well, including Sogyal Rinpoche (1994), who somatic factors, involved the manifestation of symbolic described this condition as “perhaps the darkest and most material indicative of the stages of spiritual development disturbing aspect of modern civilization—its ignorance (as variously arising in the seven vital energy centers), and and repression of who we really are” (p. 52). was holistic in that it offered a “positive, life-affirming Both traditions are primarily concerned, then, view of the body, the passions, and the shadowy regions of with a proper understanding of the nature and workings the psyche” (p. 111). In the activation of the chakras one of the human mind, and the depth and clarity of this again finds precepts common to both disciplines, for the understanding is thought to have a direct correlation with attendant meditative techniques are designed to stimulate both spiritual development and the cessation of psychic the female principle, or kundalini, and “to raise it from suffering. It warrants mention, however, that whereas in the lowest to the highest chakra, there to be united with the Tibetan tradition the achievement of enlightenment the male principle, a union which brings about a state of is accompanied by an end to suffering, for Jung (1963) supreme bliss beyond all dualities” (pp. 110-111). the process of individuation involves an endless course of Jung, Dreams, and development of which suffering remains an unceasing— Archetypes of the Numinous and even necessary—component. In this sense he could not aving established a basic framework of overlapping conceive of a state of complete liberation, and concurrently Hsimilarities between the two traditions, the focus could not accept the Eastern notion of an egoless, non- now turns to an outline of pertinent Jungian psychological dual, unitary state of heightened consciousness: perspectives and their emphasis upon the healing and transformative aspects of the human psyche, a process that Consciousness is inconceivable without an ego; it ultimately leads to a greater elucidation of Tibetan Tantra is equated with the relation of contents to an ego. as well. Here the relationship of numinous experience If there is no ego there is nobody to be conscious becomes especially relevant, as such experiences represent of anything. . . . The Eastern mind, however, has no breakthroughs into considerably broader, unfathomable difficulty in conceiving of a consciousness without an psychic realms that serve to greatly influence and instruct ego. Consciousness is deemed capable of transcending human spiritual development: its ego condition; indeed, in its “higher” forms, the ego disappears altogether. Such an egoless mental Numinous experience is . . . the feeling that one is condition can only be unconscious to us, for the in the grip something greater than oneself, the simple reason that there would be nobody to witness impossibility of exercising criticism, and the paralysis it. . . . I cannot imagine a conscious mental state that of the will. Under the impact of the experience reason does not relate to a subject, that is, to an ego. (Jung, evaporates and another power simultaneously takes 1992a, p. 56) control—a most singular feeling which one willy- nilly hoards up as a secret treasure no matter how Despite this incongruity with the Eastern view, Jung much one’s reason may protest. That, indeed, is the aligned his concept of the Self with Buddhism’s Universal uncomprehended purpose of the experience—to Mind, and stated that “the unconscious is the root of all make us feel the overpowering presence of a mystery. experience of oneness . . . dharmakaya” (p. 66). (Jung, 1977, pp. 154-155) Finally, no comparative study of these two disciplines would be complete without some mention of An in-depth attunement to the mythic images their mutual association with the esoteric phenomena that arise through dreams, visions, and other psychic

152 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Davis phenomena represents an essential component in this features of this alchemical healing process, as it signals process, as such archetypal forms often evoke (or are “a movement out of the suspension between opposites, used to induce) the experience of numinosity (Jung, a living birth that leads to a new level of being, a new 1974). The phenomena of dreams are of particular situation . . . a quality of conjoined opposites” (Jung, importance in depth psychology “because dreams are 1960, p. 90). This phenomenon is well represented the most common and most normal expression of the through the following dream (one of my own) and the unconscious psyche . . . they provide the bulk of the process of psychic amplification that followed: material for its investigation” (p. 73). Jung also made an I am standing in a room and am engaged in a important distinction “between ‘little’ and ‘big’ dreams, conversation that reveals with great certainty that at or as we might say, ‘insignificant’ and ‘significant’ a later date I will be involved in the dissemination of dreams” (p. 76). One such dream that is of particular Jung’s theories to a wider audience. This realization relevance came to Jung in his middle years and proved to is accompanied by a strong sense of personal pride be instrumental in the creation of an expanded dialogical at the prospect of personal accomplishment and relationship with the Self: recognition in the outer world. Then I suddenly pass I had dreamed once before of the problem of the through a curtain and find myself on a football field self and the ego. . . . I was walking along a little road preparing to kick a field goal that will signify my through a hilly landscape; the sun was shining and success in this endeavor, but when I kick the ball, it I had a wide view in all directions. Then I came to hits the goal post, and falls short. Then I wake up. a small wayside chapel. The door was ajar, and I I was left with the undeniable sense that this went in. To my surprise there was no image of the dream had special significance, and at the same time virgin on the alter, and no crucifix either, but only a was confused by the seemingly contradictory messages wonderful flower arrangement. But then I saw that that it provided. So, intent upon uncovering its deeper on the floor in front of the alter, facing me, sat a meaning, I chose to engage in the practice of active yogi—in lotus posture, in deep meditation. When I imagination, an imaginal exercise created by Jung in looked at him more closely, I realized that he had my which one reenters the dream in a conscious state by face. I started in profound fright, and awoke with focusing upon a primary image and then allowing the the thought: ‘Aha, so he is the one who is meditating inner drama to unfold of its own accord. In this case, me. He has a dream, and I am it.’ I knew that when the goal post was clearly the most prominent figure, and he awakened, I would no longer be. (1963, p. 323). so, with this image firmly in mind, I proceeded to close Jung (1963) stressed that the purpose of my eyes, concentrate my focus, and then experienced the such dreams is “to effect a reversal of the relationship following: between ego-consciousness and the unconscious, and In a short time I found myself again on the football to represent the unconscious as the generator of the field, this time playing quarterback. Each time I empirical personality” (p. 324). He chose to experiment tried to pass the ball, I was quickly tackled. Finally, with various techniques designed to help manifest the I decided to keep the ball and attempt to cross the interplay between consciousness and the unconscious, goal line by my own volition, and was then able to and he viewed creative expression as an especially effective maneuver my way through the defense, ultimately means of facilitating this process. In conjunction with his being brought down as I successfully crossed the discoveries, Jung developed the process of amplification, goal line. As the football I was carrying touched a method by which the deeper spiritual meanings of the ground, it suddenly turned into an enlarged, psychic images, symbols, and dream-figures are expanded glowing blue diamond, and this was accompanied through their association with mythological, cultural, by a wordless, telepathic communication that can and religious metaphors—a process that has particular only be described as a numinous revelation, one that application within a therapeutic and developmental arose from a deeper part of myself that I rarely have context. direct access to, and yet somehow instinctively know The psyche’s direct engagement with mythic to be my true self. And what this communication imagery thus represents one of the most essential

Jung at the Foot of Mount Kailash International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 153 revealed to me was that the goal in life is not about symbols of humanity . . . and may even have existed in achieving success or status in the outer world, but Paleolithic times. . . . The mandalas used in ceremonial rather, the true meaning of this life is to reconnect, are of great significance because their centers usually to return home, to the very source of one’s being. contain one of the highest religious figures: either Shiva himself—often in the embrace of Shakti—or This experience clearly delineates Jung’s (1960) the Buddha, Amitabha, Avalokiteshvara, or one of notion of the dynamic interplay between consciousness the great Mahayana teachers, or simply the dorje, and the unconscious. It also appears to be highly suggestive symbol of all the divine forces together, whether of the existence of numinous universal archetypes, as the creative or destructive. (pp. 170-172) diamond exists as one of the primary representations of the Self (Jung, 1964), and has manifested as a sacred The above passages clearly exemplify the central symbol of spiritual radiance, purity, and indestructibility themes mentioned previously, namely the essential in an array of diverse cultural traditions, including importance of the reconciliation of opposites and the Tibetan Buddhist Tantra, or Vajrayana—the Diamond attendant union of male/female aspects, a process Vehicle. that is accompanied by the manifestation of various These psychic processes also serve to exemplify forms of universal mythic imagery that appear both in the means by which the unconscious acts in a regulatory individual spiritual development and in broader cultural capacity, compensating for the misguided direction and religious contexts. This notion is echoed by Tenzin of the ego through the spontaneous manifestation of Wangyal Rinpoche (1998), who touched upon this psychic imagery, a process that combines aspects of one’s phenomenon as follows: contemporary personal existence (i.e., the goal post) The underlying truth is that these teaching arise with the universal symbolic imagery of the collective spontaneously from humans when they reach a unconsciousness (i.e., the blue diamond), resulting in certain point in their individual development. The an experience of deep personal meaning and psychic teachings are inherent in the foundational wisdom wholeness (Jung, 1960). that any culture can eventually access. They are not Jung (1963) stated that specific archetypal only Buddhist or Bon teachings; they are teachings symbols manifest in direct correlation with one’s spiritual for all humans. (p. 71) development, and observed that as the Self increasingly assumes a central position within consciousness, the Tibetan Tantra: mandala becomes the most prominent and consistent Dreams, Sacred Imagery, and Mythic Realms symbol. An important bridge is thus established here oth Jungian psychology and Tibetan Tantra between the Western and Eastern traditions in question, Bemphasize spiritual transformation, and both especially as it pertains to the arising and manifestation engage in imaginal practices that are intended to of mythic imagery in a broader universal context: directly influence this process. Dream yoga represents one of the primary practices in the Tibetan tradition, The mandala is an archetypal image whose and reflects “how greatly dream is valued in Tibetan occurrence is attested throughout the ages. It culture . . . and how information from the unconscious is signifies the wholeness of the self. The circular image often of greater value than the information the conscious represents the wholeness of the psychic ground or, mind can provide. (Wangyal, 1998, p. 12) However, in to put it in mythic terms, the divinity incarnate in considering the manner in which the tantric tradition man. . . . which spontaneously arises in the mind as a employs such practices, an important distinction must representation of the struggle and reconciliation of be made: opposites. (pp. 334-335) There is nothing more real than dream. This statement Jung (1974) further enunciated this theme as follows: only makes sense once it is understood that normal It seems to me beyond question that these Eastern waking life is as unreal as dream, and in exactly the symbols originated in dreams and visions, and were same way. Then it can be understood that dream not invented by some Mahayana church father. On yoga applies to all experience, to the dreams of the the contrary, they are among the oldest religious day as well as the dreams of the night. (p. 23)

154 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Davis The above passage relates to the Tibetan in various tantric methodologies as a creative means Buddhist view (and broader Indian notion) of maya, of furthering one’s spiritual development. This is done which refers to the illusory nature of ordinary dualistic with the understanding that perception. Genuine clarity of mind, on the other the deity we choose to identify with represents the hand, involves the immediate, penetrating, nondual essential qualities of the fully awakened experience comprehension that “the very ground of our being is latent within us. To use the language of psychology, pervasive, self-existing, empty, primordial awareness. . . . such a deity is an archetype of our own deepest Bon-Buddhism places a great emphasis on the doctrine nature, our most profound level of consciousness. of no-self or emptiness (sunyata), which is the ultimate In tantra we focus our attention upon such an truth of all phenomena” (Wangyal, 1998, p. 200). archetypal image and identify with it in order to Within this mode of perception, all phenomena, both arouse the deepest, most profound aspects of our in the waking and dream state, are understood to be being and bring them into our present reality. lacking in any inherent existence, and as such the (Yeshe, 1987/2001, p. 30) conventional self, the separate “me” that one normally identifies with, is understood to be a projection of the Rob Preece (2006) also emphasized this important mind that is not abiding in its true nature, known distinction when he stated that in Tibetan Buddhism as the “clear light of bliss,” even though the notion of no-Self (Skt., anatma) is and in the Tibetan language as rigpa. Learning not a central tenet of Buddhism, the Buddhist tantric to falsely identify with illusory projections, which in path conceives that our potential for wholeness is Buddhism are seen as arising from one’s karmic traces personified in the symbolic form of a deity. . . . The and perpetuating the cycle of rebirth in samsara, is a deity in Tantra is understood as a gateway or bridge fundamental aspect of this discipline. Accordingly, between two aspects of reality. . . . In Buddhism we such methods as deity visualizations, dream yoga, and speak of ‘relative truth,’ the world of appearances other meditative practices are intended to dissolve the and forms, and ‘ultimate truth,’ the empty, spacious, dualistic mind into nondual nature of reality. . . . The deity stands on the the clear light and abide in it through all the threshold as the potential for creative manifestation. moments of life: waking, meditating, dreaming, (pp. 38-39) sleeping, and death. Essentially, the teaching are At the same time it is important to note that designed to help us recognize the nature of mind, Tibetan Buddhist cosmology posits the existence of to understand and overcome the obstacles in our various spiritual dimensions and ethereal entities that practice, and to abide fully in rigpa. We can utilize are considered to be more than mere psychic projections. the same methods to remain in joy, to find peace in They are thought to possess their own autonomous the midst of the turmoil of the world, to live well nature and to exist in innumerable planes and universes, and to appreciate each vivid moment of our human as Tulku Thongdup wrote: existence. (p. 208) Buddhist cosmology encompasses an unimaginably To abide in the clear light, then, in the waking vast number of world systems beyond our earthly state, during meditation, in the bardo (which is given home. Outside of the mundane world, the six realms particular emphasis in dream yoga), and during of samsara, there exist innumerable pure lands dreaming itself, and to approach the phenomena that extending in all ten directions of the universe. . . . one encounters in all of these states as projections of These purified paradises are the dwelling places of the mind while sustaining a state of calm abiding in advanced beings, including celestial buddhas and nondual awareness—this is the essential purpose of great bodhisattvas. (2005, p. 284) tantric practice (Wangyal, 1998). And so, despite the fact that in Buddhism one’s This perspective is given further support through essential nature is understood as lacking any inherent the pioneering transpersonal findings of Stanislav Grof existence, mythic imagery and entities (e.g., Buddha (1998), whose more than forty years of research into Sakyamuni, Avalokitesvara, and Tara) are employed non-ordinary states of consciousness have suggested the

Jung at the Foot of Mount Kailash International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 155 existence of an immense array of spiritual realms and a mythological realm that has been extensively experiential dimensions that lie beyond the perception studied by C. G. Jung and his followers. . . . Jung of ordinary waking consciousness. His findings also referred to it as the archetypal realm of the collective suggest the existence of two forms of ultimate reality, unconscious. The beings inhabiting these realms which are referred to as Absolute Consciousness and seem to be endowed with extraordinary energy and Cosmic Emptiness, or the Void. Absolute Consciousness have an aura of sacredness or numinosity. For this represents the supreme creative principle (which is reason they are usually perceived and described as responsible for the creation of manifest existence), and deities. . . . The encounters with mythological beings this creative principle is thought to co-exist with, and and visits to mythic landscapes . . . can be in every emanate from, the great Void, as outlined below: respect as real as events in our everyday life, or more so. The archetypal realm is not a figment of human When we encounter the Void, we feel that it is fantasy and imagination; it has an independent primordial emptiness of cosmic proportions and existence of its own and a high degree of autonomy. relevance. We become pure consciousness aware of At the same time, its dynamics seem to be intimately this absolute nothingness; however, at the same time, connected with material reality and with human we have a strange paradoxical sense of its essential life. (pp. 69-70) fullness. . . . While it does not contain anything in a concrete manifest form, it seems to comprise all of It is these advanced spiritual dimensions that existence in potential form. . . . The Void transcends are sometimes accessed through the creative, meditative the usual categories of space and time, and lies and dream practices emphasized in both Junigan beyond all dichotomies and polarities, such as light psychotherapy and Tibetan Tantra. There exist many and darkness, good and evil . . . agony and ecstasy, stories in Tibetan Buddhist literature, for example, that singularity and plurality, form and emptiness, and tell of “meditators who leave their bodies for days at a even existence and nonexistence. . . . This metaphysical time to travel through the invisible world” (Thongdup, vacuum, pregnant with potential for everything there 2005, p. 6). These practitioners, who are known as is, appears to be the cradle of all being, the ultimate delogs, then “come back to their bodies to record their source of existence. The creation of all phenomenal extraordinary journeys, which could span the lowest worlds is then the realization and concretization of its rungs of hell and the sublime pure lands” (p. 6). One pre-existing potentialities. (p. 30) captivating account of just such a journey—replete with sacred mythic entities and imagery—is revealed in the The above passage addresses a number of following experience of a young Tibetan woman: primary themes in Buddhist cosmology, including the Void as primordial emptiness, the reconciliation and Dawa Drolma felt that she moved through the union of all opposites (one is immediately reminded here sky, soaring like a vulture. She found herself in the of the famous Buddhist adage, form is emptiness, and manifested pure land of Guru Rimpoche, the buddha emptiness is form), the existence of a timeless dimension, in the form a realized master. There was a boundlessly and the presence of countless world systems. It also vast field. In the center she saw a giant red rock touches upon the theme of manifest existence arising mountain in the shape of a heart. The mountain was out of this Void, and Grof (1998) stated that some of surrounded by many sharp, sword-like mountains, these various realms and the entities that inhabit them all shining with a reddish color. The sky was adorned are understood to interact with and inform our earthly with a canopy of five colored rainbow light. All kinds dimension in ways that are consistent with aspects of of beautiful birds were singing and playing joyfully. Jungian psychology: The ground was covered with flowers of all kinds and colors. The whole atmosphere was filled with an The material realm that we inhabit and with which amazing sweet fragrance that overwhelmed all her we are intimately familiar seems to be just one of senses. There was also a blue mountain, as if made these worlds. . . . Of special interest is a domain of sapphire. These were not vague appearances, but that lies between our everyday reality and the vivid images with real presence. . . . In the middle undifferentiated Absolute Consciousness. It is of the mountain, she saw the inconceivable palace

156 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Davis of Guru Rimpoche called the Lotus of Light. perspectives (i.e., psychic projection vs. autonomous The palace was the enlightened wisdom of Guru dimensions) presented above concerning the phenomena Rimpoche himself, spontaneously appearing in the of archetypal imagery and mythic realms, how is one form of a luminous mansion of light. . . . This pure to arrive at a distinction between where an individual’s land was filled with masters, dakas, and dakinis. . . . mythic projections end and these autonomous and often Accompanied by White Tara, Dawa Drolma entered greatly heightened realities begin? This question lies at into another inconceivably beautiful palace, made as the heart of a tremendous enigma, especially in relation if of red crystal. . . . In the middle of a great hall, Dawa to the many different psychic contexts (e.g., dreams, the Drolma saw an enormous throne—higher, it seemed bardo, near-death experience, and other non-ordinary to her, than a three-story building. . . . On that throne states of consciousness) in which these realms and she beheld the amazing presence of Guru Rimpoche, entities manifest. Padmasambhava, the embodiment of the wisdom, Thankas and other forms of sacred art that are compassion, and power of the enlightened ones. . . . used in Tibetan meditative practices depict such deities, Dawa Drolma drew closer to the throne and touched paradises, and dimensions, but in referring to these her forehead to the feet of Guru Rimpoche. . . . Guru divine entities Lama Yeshe (1987) was careful to clarify Rimpoche bestowed upon her empowerments and that blessings. With great compassion, he said . . . “Tell tantric meditational deities should not be confused people what you saw and entreat them to pursue with what different mythologies and religions might virtue”. . . . Then White Tara led Dawa Drolma to the mean when they speak of gods and goddesses. . . . hell realms. Dawa Drolma journeyed through the The deity we choose to identify with represents the experiences of the bardo. She saw the Dharma King essential qualities of the fully awakened experience of the Lords of the Dead in wrathful and terrifying latent within us. (p. 30) form in his Court of Judgment. . . . She also saw the results of karmic effects and the severity of sufferings Echoing the same perspective, Pal (1990) stated that “on of the hell realms with her naked eyes, so she would a more metaphysical level, the divine images are simply be able to teach more effectively on her return to the symbols of the Buddha. . . . They are not themselves real world of the living. . . . White. but help to define reality, and are dispensed with by the Tara then took Dawa Drolma to visit Potala, the enlightened mind and by the true yogi” (1990, p. 36). pure land of Avalokiteshvara, and Yulo Kopa, the Further, Padmasambhava’s (2005) famous instruction pure land of Tara, before returning to the human manual for liberation in the bardo state, The Tibetan world. . . . Dawa Drolma spent the rest of her life Book of the Dead, clearly delineates the forms and entities teaching Dharma based on her delog experiences and encountered in this intermediate state as projections of totally devoting her life to the service of others. . . . one’s mind. And, as previously cited, Jung (1992b), in In 1941, at the age of thirty-two, she died. . . . People his commentary on the same text, asserted that “the witnessed many miracles at the time of her death whole book is created out of the archetypal contents of and cremation. She and her delog accounts inspired the unconscious. . . . The world of gods and spirits is truly the hearts of many people in many parts of Eastern ‘nothing but’ the collective unconscious inside me” (p. Tibet to believe in the law of karma and rebirth. 96). That in turn awakened a kinder nature in many. And yet, as previously revealed both the Dalai (Thongdup, 2005, pp. 151-155) Lama and Grof (in an expansion upon Jung’s initial findings) havee affirmed the autonomous existence of This portrayal reveals an array of mythic other entities and dimensions, and Tulku Thongdup entities and imagery that appear to represent aspects of (2005) emphasized that in the Tibetan tradition rebirth the practitioner’s own inner spiritual processes while at into one of these paradisiacal, non-samsaric pure lands the same time revealing greatly advanced experiential (as part of one’s spiritual evolution toward ultimate dimensions. In light of the rather fantastic nature (at least liberation) stands as a principal aim of tantric practice. in modern Western terms) of this other-worldly depiction, Further, Jamgon Kongtrul’s (1995/2003) The Treasury and in consideration of the sometimes widely differing of Knowledge: Myriad Worlds presented a comprehensive

Jung at the Foot of Mount Kailash International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 157 overview of world-systems and the various beings who ancient towns and medieval villages we encountered a inhabit them. In the latter years of his life even Jung, vast, ever-changing landscape of immeasurable mountain who in adherence to Kantian epistemology was always ranges and open, desolate plains that exuded a stark, careful not to draw absolute metaphysical conclusions, ominous beauty. In this environment human beings find nonetheless considered archetypal forms and other themselves in the presence of immense natural forces such numinous phenomena to be strongly suggestive that dwarf the human condition. In the midst of this of an autonomous and unfathomable force possessing a seemingly endless expanse of open, untamed wilderness, profoundly multi-dimensional nature (Edinger, 1996). It one’s usual sense of position and importance in the is also fascinating to note that Lama Govinda (1960), world is greatly diminished and one stands humbled in in his foreword to The Tibetan Book of the Dead that the presence of an environment whose indelible scope accompanies Jung’s own commentary on the same text, remains an unquenchable mystery. made a point to emphasize that Our evening at the monastery was spent attending to the practical aims of food and shelter, as we animism permeates all Buddhist texts, wherein every had arrived well after dark and were tired and hungry tree and grove, and every locality, is held to have its after a long arduous ascent over hard and unforgiving own peculiar deities; and the Buddha is represented terrain. The guest quarters were cold, sparse, and dimly as discoursing with gods and other spiritual beings, lit, as were the kitchen conditions where we consumed inhabiting the Earth and the realms beyond, as if it in silence a simple bowl of buckwheat noodles while were a most natural procedure. Only a completely surrounded by a retinue of subdued young novice monks. intellectualized and Westernized Buddhism, Immediately after dinner I retired to my humble cot, which attempts to separate the thought-content of and was soon fast asleep. Then, sometime in the middle Buddhism from its equally profound mythological of the night I awoke and was instinctively drawn outside elements, can deny this animistic background and and up a neighboring hillside where, upon reaching the with it the metaphysical foundations of Buddhism. top, I suddenly encountered the undeniable presence of (p. lvii) an utterly vast feminine energy that seemed to blanket At first glance, then, one appears to be left with the sky above. I was awestruck by its combination of a somewhat beguiling predicament. Although I cannot depth, power, and immensity, and at that moment I felt claim to offer any definitive explanations regarding that perhaps my mother had died and that her expanded the apparent disparities in the above examples, an in- spirit was somehow visiting me. But when I expressed this depth exploration of the following experience—a very thought to the sky, this notion was in no way confirmed, mysterious encounter with a vast ethereal feminine and later I would discover that my mother was indeed presence many years ago at the base of Mt. Everest—may still alive, which draped this profound experience in help to further clarify a distinction between personal mystery. mythic projection and the presence of autonomous A few days later we arrived in the city of archetypal realms and beings. Kathmandu, and the next day, while strolling through the Mystical Encounter at Mt. Everest colorful, crowded side streets of this medieval metropolis, he experience in question took place in the summer I came upon an image that immediately captured my Tof 1996 and involved an overland expedition from attention and held it in a state of great attraction and the Tibetan capital of Lhasa to the enigmatic city of curiosity. The image was of an ethereal female figure, Kathmandu, Nepal. The journey was scheduled to take clearly presented in the context of veneration and about a week, and would extend along what is known surrounded by a host of exotic and esoteric figures. At as the Friendship Highway, a rough, unpaved road that the time I was not well versed in the pantheon of Tibetan links these two ancient trading partners. This route Buddhist deities and religious iconography, and as such took us through an array of small villages as well as a I was not immediately well attuned to the fact that number of important religious settlements, including this enigmatic and alluring female presence, with her the monastic centers of Gyantse and Shigatse, before undeniable air of serenity and deep green coloring, was arriving at Rongbuk Monastery near the base camp of in fact the Goddess Tara, accompanied by her cohorts Mt. Everest. Throughout this passing kaleidoscope of and astral attendants. This specific identification would

158 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Davis come to me at a later date; all I knew then, after first its lowest elementary phase to its supreme spiritual setting my eyes on her, was that she must return home transformation. (1955/1983, pp. 334-335) with me. Upon my return to California she was carefully And the vital role that the sacred feminine plays in the framed and subsequently began to assume a distinct process of spiritual development was revealed by Nathan visual presence in my living space. However, a deeper Katz in the following perspective: appreciation of her underlying meaning—in a broader religious context and in my own personal experience— The inspiration of the anima or the dakini is a call for remained largely beyond my conscious awareness until one to look inward. As such, she is the link between I began to encounter writings on the sacred feminine the conscious and unconscious. In appearing to through my studies in depth psychology and Tibetan consciousness, the anima calls its attention to Buddhism. what has remained hidden; she is the door to the Through this process I began to more fully unconscious. (1992, p. 322) appreciate that within the context of the archetypal Therefore, what appears to have remained hidden feminine, one of the most prominent figures is the and unconscious in my own experience was a deep and Goddess Tara, who, as the mother of all buddhas, abiding realization of the archetypal feminine, which exemplifies compassion, enlightened activity, and “the was brought into direct conscious awareness through my totally developed wisdom that transcends reason” encounter with the Goddess entity at the base of Everest. (Moacanin, 2003, p. 63). In Jungian terms, she “represents The vital link that then resulted in the all-important the mother archetype. . . . she is the image of the mother amplification of the above experience came through who has integrated in herself all the opposites, positive my subsequent encounter with Tara’s mythic image, and negative” (p. 63). as encountered in the shop in Kathmandu. This image Tara can be viewed as belonging to a broader carried tremendous power and attraction (as a personal group of female embodiments of wisdom and divine mythic projection/association), and consequently lead power that include the dakini, which has on occasion to a much deeper attunement to my own unfolding been associated by Western scholars with one of Jung’s spiritual processes. It also profoundly evoked the key archetypes, the anima (Moacanin, 2003). Jung undeniable presence of a vast and autonomous spiritual (1963) placed great emphasis on the integration of the entity, an utterly immense and numinous mystery that feminine aspect as well as the importance of actively is symbolized by—and transcendent of—the image of embracing the natural world in a deeply spiritual and Tara itself. mythological framework, and in this context he viewed If one thus understands the deities depicted in Nature as the supreme manifestation of the archetypal mythic imagery as essentially symbolic representations of Goddess. One of Jung’s most prominent contemporaries, transcendent forces, it must also be acknowledged that Erich Neumann, outlined the significance of the sacred these symbols nonetheless possess a potent numinous feminine and its direct correlation to the Goddess Tara quality by virtue of their archetypal nature. In Tibetan as follows: Tantra they also denote—like the progressively advanced The archetypal feminine in man unfolds like stages of the chakras—heightened levels of spiritual mankind itself. At the beginning stands the primeval development to which inhabitants of this earthly goddess, resting in the materiality of her elementary dimension aspire. As previously noted, the Buddha is character, knowing nothing but the secret of her said to have interacted with otherworldly entities, and womb; at the end is Tara, in her left hand the opening indeed the very basis of the bodhisattva ideal involves lotus blossom of psychic flowering, her right hand the instruction and guidance of all sentient beings in this held out toward the world in a gesture of giving. Her earthly realm—and in innumerable other dimensions as eyes are half closed and in her meditation she turns well. toward the outward as well as the inner world: an In his book The Sacred Place, Paul Devereux eternal image of the redeeming female spirit. Both (2000) observed that the interaction of cosmic and together form the unity of the Great Goddess, who, earthly forces appears to be highly concentrated in certain in the totality of her unfolding, fills the world from physical environments, and it is especially pertinent

Jung at the Foot of Mount Kailash International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 159 to note that throughout human history mountains in 276). Here one finds a direct correspondence between the particular have been known to exist as the sacred refuge presence of the axial mountain, the human chakras, and of the Goddess. This is precisely the belief that is held the simultaneous access to other dimensions of reality. by the native Tibetan and Nepalese inhabitants who In Tibetan Buddhism one such reality is occupy both sides of Mt. Everest. This mountain has Khacho Shing, the Pure Land of the Dakinis, “a realm long been considered a sanctified entity because an array closely related to our own, yet more subtle and more of mystical experiences and encounters with various intimately connected to the elemental forces of nature” disincarnate beings have been reported in its immediate (Preece, 2006, p. 248). In considering this relationship vicinity for millennia. With this understanding in mind, between sanctified realms and the natural world, Mircea the potential connection between Mt. Everest and the Eliade observed that “where the sacred manifests itself in Goddess in my own experience deserves further in-depth space, the real unveils itself. . . . It opens communication consideration. between the cosmic planes (between earth and heaven) Mountains hold a special place in the religious and makes possible ontological passage from one mode thinking and creative iconography of the Himalayas, of being to another” (1957/1987, p. 63). From this and Mt. Kailash in particular (located in Western Tibet) perspective it seems quite probable that my experience ubiquitously appears on thankas and in other forms of of the Goddess was facilitated through the spiritual axis Buddhist and Hindu art. Like Everest, Kailash represents of Mt. Everest, and whether she derived from the realm the archetype of the World Mountain, and in its various of Kacho Shing, Yulo Kopa (the Pure Land of Tara), or manifestations “this cosmic mountain may be identified one of the many other exalted paradises, there can be no with a real mountain, or it can be mythic, but it is question in my experience of her utterly advanced spiritual always placed at the center of the world” (Eliade, 1992, nature and development. In this way her emergence p. 110). This sacred mountain, as a form of axis mundi, served to activate a deep, on-going archetypal process represents both a physical and spiritual entity, and, as the while simultaneously revealing a wholly expanded sense outer form serves to activate the inner archetype in the of divine potential, one that points to the existence of human psyche, it is also directly linked with the union greatly heightened celestial or psychic realms that are, of opposites and the psycho-somatic dynamics of the in the Buddhist tradition, major steps forward along the chakra system: path to final liberation. The multidimensional nature of this enigmatic To Hindus and Buddhists alike Kailas is the center of experience presents an intriguing parallel to Jorge Ferrer’s the universe. It is called Meru or Sumeru, according (2002) view of transpersonal phenomena as “multilocal to the oldest Sanskrit tradition, and is regarded to participatory events” (p. 117), which he conceived as be not only the physical but metaphysical center containing the following principal components: of the world. And as our psychological organism is a microcosmic replica of the universe, Meru (1) events, in contrast to intrasubjective experiences; is represented by the spinal cord in our nervous (2) multilocal, in that they can arise in different loci, system; and just as the various centers (Skt.: cakra) of such as an individual, a relationship, a community, consciousness are supported by and connected with a collective identity, or a place; and (3) participatory, the spinal cord (Skt.: meru-danda) . . . in the same way in that they can invite the generative power and Mount Meru forms the axis of the various planes of dynamism of all dimensions of human nature to supramundane worlds. (Govinda, 1966, p. 273) interact with a spiritual power in the co-creation of spiritual worlds. (p. 117) This structural cosmology serves as the very basis of the all-important Buddhist stupa, and in depth This framework has a direct application to my encounter psychology the World Mountain is one of the foremost with the Goddess entity beneath Mt. Everest, as this archetypes of the Self and a most powerful and evocative experience involved a sacred entity (i.e., the Goddess), symbol of spiritual ascendance. It warrants repeating sacred place (i.e., Mt. Everest), and a co-creative element that “as Kailas corresponds to the spinal column, it (i.e., one’s shared participation/interaction). As a multi- represents the axis of the spiritual universe, rising local, multi-dimensional event, it is clearly indicative of through innumerable world planes” (Govinda, 1966, p. the participatory vision.

160 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Davis The participatory perspective suggests that who reach this level focus their energy into . . . work on human consciousness acts as “the agent of religious one’s self, conquering one’s outward-going tendencies, knowing” (Ferrer & Sherman, 2008, p. 38), a process turning all inward” (p. 35). Jung himself described this in which all aspects of perception—imaginal, somatic, level as involving “a full recognition of the psychical intuitive, aesthetic, and rational—can potentially essences of substances as the fundamental essences participate in unison with the Mystery in the unfolding of the world, and not by virtue of speculation but by and bringing forth of spiritual realities. One is thus virtue of experience” (quoted in Clarke, 1994, p. 115). encouraged to “recognize the ontologically creative role This perspective exemplifies the core of Jung’s notion of spiritual cognition,” and to carefully consider the of the primacy of psychic reality, but he had little to notion that “these worlds are not statically closed but say in relation to the two remaining levels. A number fundamentally dynamic and open to the continued of contemporary scholars, including Alan Watts, transformation resulting (at least in part) from the Ken Wilber, and Harold Coward, have speculated creative impact of human visionary imagination” (p. 32). that Jung’s own experiential horizon, while revealing In this sense, both psychic projections and autonomous tremendous insights in its own right, did not allow him dimensions, along with a array of other mysterious to adequately comprehend the Eastern principle of non- spiritual phenomena, can be understood as representing dual awareness. This is due to the fact that he could varying manifestations of this co-creative process. And not conceive of a conscious state independent of the the participatory perspective accordingly suggests that ego and its dualistic subject-object relationship. Indeed, indeed these various phenomena are each valid and Jung considered the psychic stages represented by the ontologically real in their own right. last two chakras—especially the awakened non-dual Jung at the Foot of Mt. Kailash state of the seventh chakra—to be levels that existed o-creative, participatory aspects are prominent in beyond any notion of human consciousness. In this Cboth Jungian psychology and Tibetan Tantra. In sense he referred to chakra six as a state in which “the the Jungian tradition, practices such as active imagination ego disappears completely,” and he considered chakra (as previously discussed) can serve to profoundly amplify seven to be “beyond possible experience” (p. 115). primary dream images from the unconscious. In Thus, from a Tibetan Buddhist standpoint, Jung’s own Tibetan Tantra, meditations upon deities such as Tara spiritual path never lead him to the unconquerable view similarly act as a kind of psychic bridge to the threshold of the Mountaintop. Although his journey took him to of expanded dimensions. But the spiritual heights to considerable heights, he never did make the final ascent which each discipline aspires vary in significant ways, of the World Mountain (the Self), but instead came to and it is through a more thorough consideration of rest at the foot of Mt. Kailash, where he stood gazing at the chakras that further distinctions between the two its objectified, mythic proportions, rather than merging systems emerge. with its unified, definitive totality. Jung felt that the extroverted nature of Of course the most fundamental teachings contemporary Westerners, with its focus on the primacy of Tibetan Buddhism assert that not only are these of exterior existence, had caused the broader culture to two upper levels of the chakras attainable, but that remain at the levels of the second and third chakras. These the seventh chakra, as the very mode of dharmakaya levels emphasize respectively the sexual nature of existence itself, represents one’s true nature as all-encompassing, (in its procreative as opposed to its transformational undifferentiated, non-dual awareness. This signifies an potentiality), and competition and conquest, especially ecstatic, unitary, timeless state that defies all rational in the financial, military and erotic spheres (Campbell, conception, “representing a rapture beyond any god 1986). And though all of the chakras play an important known as of a name or form” (Campbell, 1986, p. role in the process of human development, the last three 37). For it is at the level of chakra seven that “both the levels are especially relevant to spiritual awakening in beheld image and the beholding mind dissolve together that “the uppermost three centers are of increasingly in a blaze that is at once of nonbeing and of being” (p. sublimated spiritual realizations” (p. 37). 39). This is the unrivaled, incomparable vision from the Campbell (2003) suggested that the fifth center summit of the highest peak, the ultimate horizon from “is the cakra of ascetic, monkish disciplines. . . . Those which all is one and where the “I” vanishes, not into the

Jung at the Foot of Mount Kailash International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 161 oblivion of the unconscious as Jung believed, but into the Tarthang Tulku, founder of the Nyingma Institute in eternal light of supreme spiritual realization. Berkeley, California, described this vital process of The meditative practices of Tibetan Tantra are, as unification as one that involves previous noted, designed to induce psychic development meaning which reveals itself not in words or concepts, toward this indomitable state, and the mythic image itself but in the quality of our lives, in the intrinsic beauty stands “at the threshold of passage from time to eternity, and value of all things. When our actions arise which is in fact the plane of reference of the metaphors naturally from a celebration of living, all concepts of myth” (Campbell, 1986, p. 40). Concurrent with this drop away. We become meaning itself, enlightened perspective is the understanding that by all existence. (1978/1990, p. 116) this threshold is . . . the place of the sacred in its Conclusion archetypal and symbolic manifestations. On this ibetan Buddhist Tantra and Jungian depth threshold we come into relationship with the power psychology each represent a complex system of of archetypal intent, the forces that can shape our T psycho-spiritual transformation. In addition, each views lives. The tantric deity occupies a central place on the human mind, or psyche, as the primary instrument this threshold as a personification of that intent . . . through which the transcendence of duality is achieved. Awakening our relationship to the sacred on this level And it is precisely this experience of transcendence that has a profound influence upon our lives, because the is variously facilitated in both methodologies through the deity is the vehicle or channel through which the creative use of mythic imagery. Spiritual awakening thus power of dharmakaya manifests. (Preece, 2006, p. exists as the ultimate aim in both disciplines, a process 137) that is intended, in Jungian terms, to lead the individual This threshold can be seen as the boundary “from the ego to the Self, from the unconscious to between temporal, dualistic, manifest existence and the consciousness, from the personal to the transpersonal, the eternal, nondual, formless nature of dharmakaya, and it holy, the realization that the macrocosm is being mirrored is the various practices of tantra, and more specifically in the microcosm of the human psyche” (Moacanin, 2003, tantric meditation, or mahamudra, that “enable a p. 67). In the Tibetan tradition, the path of liberation meditator to cultivate a quality of emptiness with is understood as leading to an awakening to one’s true appearance” (Preece, 2006, pp. 132-133). These exercises nature—the primordial, all-pervasive, inherently empty, are intended to soften our psychosomatic boundaries, non-dual, clear light of bliss. thus gradually diminishing the sense of separation Further, although it appears that Jung’s between one’s solidified sense of identity and the outer understanding of ultimate spiritual potential did not rise environment. Ultimately this transformation reveals a to the same level as revealed in Tibetan Buddhism, he dynamic alchemical process, one that serves to “make nonetheless made a profound and lasting contribution a crystal of our minds, so that there is no separation to the East-West dialogue while addressing many of between inner and outer” (Tarthang Tulku, 1978/1990, contemporary culture’s most pressing issues. Foremost p. 30). Liberation is thus achieved through the dissolution among these in his mind was the need for humanity to of a separate ego and the luminous union of observer and return to it inner roots, to reconnect with the powerful observed, a process that in Highest Yoga Tantra (as the and ever present psychic structures that guide the process final stage of practice) reveals itself as follows: of human development. These archetypal structures reveal an inscrutable variety of deities and dimensions, The meditator experiences the first taste of dharmakaya the ultimate nature of which remains a profound mystery as clear light awareness dissolves into nonduality like a and an important subject for further inquiry. But whether clear sky, or a drop of water dissolving into the ocean. they manifest as autonomous realms, psychic projections, Once this experience arises, buddhahood, it is said, is or some other form of esoteric phenomena, the precepts possible within this lifetime, and practitioners with and experiential findings of these two vibrant disciplines this quality of awareness can, within their present clearly suggest that psychic engagement with the sacred bodies, complete the final stages of unification. mythic imagery of the mind remains an essential part (Preece, 2006, p. 230) of psycho-spiritual growth and transcendence. In

162 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Davis deeply considering this profound inner process, one is Govinda, L. A. (1960). Introductory foreword to The reminded of the judicious counsel of Lama Govinda, Tibetan book of the dead (W. Y. Evans-Wentz, Ed.; who stressed that “such penetration and transformation Lama Kazi Dawa-Samdup, Trans.). London, UK: is only possible through the compelling power of inner Oxford University Press. vision, whose primordial images or ‘archetypes’ are the Govinda, L. A. (1966) The way of the white clouds. New formative principles of our mind” (1969, p. 91). York, NY: Overlook Press. Jungian depth psychology and Tibetan Govinda, L. A. (1969). Foundations of Tibetan mysticism. Buddhist Tantra present an array of fascinating parallels, San Francisco, CA: Weiser Books. especially in relation to the creative and meditative use Grof, S. (1998). The cosmic game. Explorations of the of mythic imagery as a powerful means of effecting frontiers of human consciousness. Albany, NY: State spiritual transformation. Their respective methodologies University of New York Press. thus represent valuable avenues through which to deepen Gunnlaugson, O. (2005). Toward integrally informed the course of human development, ultimately laying the theories of transformative learning. Journal of foundation for genuine personal and collective growth, Transformative Education, 3(4), 331-353. psychic reconciliation, and further exploration within Jung, C. G. (1958). The psychology of Eastern the ever mysterious process of spiritual awakening. meditation. In H. Read (Ed.), The collected works of C. G. Jung (Vol. X, pp. 558-575; R. F. C. Hull, References Trans.). Princeton, NJ: University Press. (Original work published 1936) Campbell, J. (1986). The inner reaches of outer space: Jung, C. G. (1960). The transcendent function. In H. Metaphor as myth and as religion. Novato, CA: New Read (Ed.), The collected works of C. G. Jung. (Vol. World Library. VIII, pp. 67-91; R. F. C. Hull, Trans.). Princeton, Campbell, J. (2003). Myths of light: Eastern metaphors of NJ: University Press. the eternal. Novato, CA: New World Library. Jung, C. G. (1963). Memories, dreams, reflections (A. Clarke, J. J. (1994). Jung and Eastern thought: A dialogue Jaffe, Ed.; R. Winston & C. Winston, Trans.). New with the Orient. London, UK: Routledge. York, NY: Vintage B ooks. Devereux, P. (2000). The sacred place: The ancient origin Jung, C. G. (1964). Approaching the unconscious. In C. of holy and mystical sites. London, UK: Cassell. G. Jung (Ed.), Man and his symbols. London, UK: Edinger, E. F. (1996). The new god-image: A study of Jung’s Aldus Books. key letters concerning the evolution of the Western god- Jung, C. G. (1974). Dreams (R. F. C. Hull, Trans.). image. Wilmette, IL: Chiron. Princeton, NJ: University Press. Eliade, M. (1987). The sacred and the profane: The nature Jung, C. G. (1977). Psychology and the occult (R. F. C. of religion (W. R. Trask, Trans.). New York, NY: Hull, Trans.). Princeton, NJ: University Press. Harcourt. (Original work published 1957) Jung, C. G. (1992a). Psychological commentary on The Eliade, M. (1992). Symbolism, the sacred, and the arts Tibetan book of great liberation. In D. J. Meckel & R. L. (D. Apostolos-Cappadona, Ed.). New York, NY: Moore (Eds.), Self and liberation: The Jung/Buddhism Continuum. dialogue (pp. 48-80). Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press. Ferrer, J. N. (2002). Revisioning transpersonal theory: A Jung, C. G. (1992b). Psychological commentary on The participatory vision of human spirituality. Albany, Tibetan book of the dead. In D. J. Meckel & R. L. NY: State University of New York Press. Moore (Eds.), Self and liberation: The Jung/Buddhism Ferrer, J. N. & Sherman, J. H. (2008). Introduction: The dialogue (pp. 81- 100). Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press. participatory turn in spirituality, mysticism, and Katz, N. (1992). Dakini and anima—On tantric deities religious studies. In J. N. Ferrer & J. H. Sherman and Jungian archetypes. In D. J. Meckel & R. L. (Eds.), The participatory turn: Spirituality, mysticism, Moore (Eds.), Self and liberation: The Jung/Buddhism religious studies. Albany, NY: State University of dialogue (pp. 302-329). Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press. New York Press. Kongtrul, J. (2003). The treasury of knowledge: Myriad worlds Gadamer, H.-G. (1989). Truth and method. New York, (Kalu Rinpoche Translation Group, Trans.). Ithaca, NY: Crossroad. NY: Snow Lion. (Original work published 1995)

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About the Author

Judson Davis is a doctoral candidate in East-West Psychology at the California Institute of Integral Studies in San Francisco, California. His present work involves a synthesis of Tibetan Buddhist Tantra and Jungian depth psychology, with particular emphasis on the healing and transformative power of mythic imagery and archetypal forms.

164 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Davis Yamato Kotoba: The Language of the Flesh

Yukari Kunisue & Judy Schavrien Institute of Transpersonal Psychology Palo Alto, CA, USA

This inquiry builds on the work of such thinkers as David Abram and Maurice Merleau- Ponty; like their work, it addresses the fact that people in the Western developed world, through their acculturations, sacrifice intimacy with the natural world. The article explores one remedial measure: the Yamato Kotoba language of the Japanese. This is a language before the Chinese injection of spoken and written words, one that preserves the earlier words better suited, the authors propose, to expressing the interpenetrating experience of the person with—in this case the Japanese—natural setting. Such an intimacy appears, for instance, in Basho’s Haiku. In the same vein, Japanese Koto Dama deploys the spiritual power that resides in words—as they are both spoken and unspoken. These linguistic phenomena are explored and explained insofar as they preserve, capture, and celebrate human intimacy with nature. In the words of Merleau-Ponty, they re-member humans as “flesh of the world’s flesh.”

Keywords: haiku, Yamato Kotoba, Furuike, Koto Dama, phenomenology, Merleau-Ponty, lifeworld, lebenswelt

n this article, the authors examine a world in which as well as we into the things. (Merleau-Ponty, a human being is so completely embedded in her Lefort, & Lingis, 1969, p. 123) or his “life-world,” as Husserl would have it, that Merleau-Ponty et al. pictured here an interlacing of Ipsyche can, in the end, sustain no life apart from its subject and object: I both see and am seen, touch surroundings. There is a Japanese brand of language, and am touched, and this constitutes the subject and an early language but still preserved, that produces and the outer world as “passing into each other”—in that inheres in images in which subject and object, human sense, inseparable (p. 123; Abram, 1997, p. 66). and landscape, conjoin rather than separate. On the other hand, some work to be Some of this conjoining would match examined in this inquiry, such as Basho’s work, Merleau-Ponty’s description of a world in which expresses an intimacy greater than the one described humans are “flesh of the world’s flesh”: by the Western philosopher. There is a Buddhist When I find again the actual world such as it is, experiencing which would invalidate the quote from under my hands, under my eyes, up against my Merleau-Ponty: “This does not mean that there was body, I find much more than an object: a Being a fusion.” On the contrary, when NoSelf is in full of which my vision is a part, a visibility older presence, when I am my Face before I was born, than my operations or my acts. But this does not then there is truly no distinction between subjective mean that there was a fusion or coinciding of and objective world. me with it: on the contrary, this occurs because Both versions of experiencing, the pheno- a sort of dehiscence opens my body in two, and menological one that is closer to the Western because between my body looked at and my predilection, and the Buddhist version of complete body looking, my body touched and my body Presence, offer people far greater intimacy with touching, there is overlapping or encroachment, their natural setting than most get to enjoy at so that we must say that the things pass into us present, since the subject-object split in our human YamatoInternational Kotoba: Journal The ofLanguage Transpersonal of the Studies Flesh , 30(1), 2011,International pp. 165-170 Journal of Transpersonal Studies 165 conceptual system tends to function as a self- It is not only poets who care about fulfilling prophecy. We (which will here refer to grounding—poets, with their particular feeling for the authors) will investigate the manner in which good old Anglo-Saxon words that keep one literally this greater intimacy is accomplished by virtue of “grounded” in earth and flesh, that in some sense a particular form of the Japanese language, Yamato enact what they mean by way of a concrete “feel” or Kotoba. Before doing so, we will give an example of picture, words such as “small” and “fish” and “hook.” a somewhat parallel Western version of a language Perhaps the intense interest in Buddhism in the late of immediacy, hoping to bring the point home to ‘60s and ‘70s indicated how much need there was, English readers first in their own language. not just for ideas from the East, but also the bodily Norman Maclean, author of A River Runs feelings afforded by Eastern arts and practices. Zen Through It, began his teaching of English poetry and Tibetan Buddhism, for instance, had and still with a favorite exercise (personal communication, have nature-ensconced verbal and visual arts to offer ca. 1971). He would quote this anonymous verse as part of an education that likewise includes the from circa 1500 CE: theory and practice of meditation. This prologue, then, has attempted merely O Western wind, when wilt thou blow to act as a reminder of how much the West can That the small rain down can rain? benefit from its contact with the East, from, in the Christ, that my love were in my arms, case of this inquiry, the indigenous East; we seek not And I in my bed again! only high and abstract learnings but also Eastern (Anonymous) grounding in the body and in nature. Westerners, Then he would challenge the students to find a in sum, might appreciate Eastern poetry in the spirit better description of rain than “small.” The authors of Merleau-Ponty’s phenomenology, embracing of this article improvise, at this point, how the one’s own becoming as “flesh of the world’s flesh”; class might proceed to meet the challenge: With or Westerners might seek the more challenging much license, disregarding rhythmic requirements, experience of NoSelf—utterly simple but not always students might try out “tropical rain” or “sudden easy. In any case, one has access, enriching one’s rain”—“that the sudden rain down can rain”— and own poetic and visual tradition, to the wisdom of discard them immediately. These obviously fall grounding in the body and in the natural setting by short. How instead could students anticipate, with a coming into contact with Eastern art. The particular single word, the tender embracing of what was most art examined here is that of Japanese poetry; likely a small beloved? How could they improve one’s experience of it is much enhanced through upon “that the small rain down can rain”? Students acquaintance with Yamato Kotoba. might try out the word “petite.” The problem with Yamato Kotoba such a word is that it is borrowed from the French; ntil Chinese characters were introduced by it puts someone reading or better yet hearing the UBuddhist scholars around the 5th or 6th century poem at one remove from the immediacy of sensual CE, the Japanese maintained an oral culture to and therefore emotional feeling. The French word is express their thoughts and emotions. Not having a an import that cannot accomplish the immediacy, written language, however, did not hinder ancient the bodily “feel,” of the Anglo-Saxon word “small.” Japanese from creating and enjoying vivid and Worse would be the use of anything Latinate: If one poignant poems connecting their internal world to were to try “localized rain;” the head takes over, the natural world. Manyo-shu, the oldest remaining pushing the body out of the way. And so it must anthology of over 4,500 poems was complied be: in late 700 BCE (Haitani, 2005). The Manyo poets—ranging from emperors and aristocracy O Western wind, when wilt thou blow to low-ranking soldiers and court clerks—lived, That the small rain down can rain? understood, and created poems in a language which Christ, that my love were in my arms portrayed people as “flesh of the world’s flesh.” And I in my bed again! The Japanese equivalent of this language 166 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Kunisue & Schavrien of the flesh is Yamato Kotoba Yamato,( old name of with a rationalized discipline of Buddhist process Japan, Kotoba, words and language). Dale offered and content, he nevertheless used Yamato Kotoba Shoichi Watanabe’s explanation of Yamato Kotoba to convey the felt sense of his experiences, beyond as words “which have their roots set down in the anything reason could grasp or express (and this well-springs of the soul of our [the Japanese] race” conveys the ultimate beyond-reason Buddhist (Watanabe, 1974, as cited in Dale, 1986, p. 84). It sensibility). Expressing symbolism in nature through is the pristine form of the language deeply rooted using the words of silence was his way of capturing in the primordial Japanese psyche. Later transcribed connection with the world. Such connection he and recorded in the borrowed Chinese characters, conveyed much more effectively through his native Manyo poets used Yamato Kotoba in poems that Yamato Kotoba than had he attempted to do so using reflected and represented all the human senses as the sinicized imports that had produced, in effect, a they operated in an animate landscape. These poets revised and compounded Japanese language. were also an integral part of the very landscape which One of Basho’s most famous Haiku both they described. In this article we explore Yamato expresses, and, more than expresses, enacts the world Kotoba, expressed in various forms such as waka of a landscape: and Haiku. Even the modern-day Japanese, after The ancaient pond almost 1000 years since the importation of written A frog leaps in characters from China, intuitively distinguish The sound of the water between sinicized words which are, therefore, loan words as they contrast with words from the native (Furuike ya Kawazu tobi Yamato Kotoba. The authors will also examine how komu Mizu no oto) Yamato Kotoba is related to the indigenous concept (Ueda, 1982, p. 53) of Koto Dama, or the spirit of the words. Japanese Haiku poets often sought (and The Flesh of Language seek) vocabulary in Yamato Kotoba language ince ancient times humans have experienced and expressive of the emotional realm, while minimizing understood their existence in terms of relationship S or limiting usage of loan words from Chinese. to the natural world. As an ardent advocate of Basho did precisely that in this poem. “The sound Husserl’s and Merleau-Ponty’s phenomenological of the water” in a quiet old temple garden resonates views of the world, David Abram (1997), in his book in the perceiver as it does in Basho’s bodily senses. The Spell of the Sensuous, walked readers through His visual and aural perceptions, expressed in words the intertwined wonder-world of subjectivity and furu ike (“old pond”) and tobi komu (“jumping objectivity (see esp. p. 36). For these thinkers, while in”), were attuned with the new and instantaneous the exterior world looks “remarkably solid and stable” sound of a frog’s splashing, and with the quietude (p. 39), the “real world” is a collection of experiences of the otherwise tranquil ancient pond and desolate by multitudes of subjective perceivers. garden. As Basho stops being the observer of the Languages in oral societies are inseparable limited scene of the exterior, instead becoming the from the surrounding land, and they can be said, to sound of the water, the smell of the pond, and the the best of researched knowledge, to be perceived as tactile sense of water encompassing the jumping connected with natural phenomena such as changing frog itself, Haiku readers experience with him his weather and seasons, water, sky, plants, and animals. union with the scenery. In fact as the Haiku has As Abram (1997) described it, oral cultures “preserve brought the reader beyond the “passing into each active participation of the objects in the subjective other” of subject and object, the distinction really consciousness” (p. 162) in the form of language. The does disappear. old form of the Japanese language, Yamato Kotoba, The Shakkei school of garden design provides an excellent example of this. similarly contained the Japanese poets’ integration of When famous Haiku master Matsuo perceiving self and perceived exterior. Characterized Basho (1644-1694) created his poems in the 17th by its indispensable inclusion of natural scenery, century, which he imbued, as he composed them, Yamato Kotoba: The Language of the Flesh International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 167 Shakkei as used by Japanese landscape designers however, departing from the setting sun toward would integrate surrounding nature with the rest of the darkening sky during the magical hours of the their design. day, one starts to sense the embodied anticipation, In the present day, one can relate to yearning, and anxiety regarding the uncertainties intertwined perception by way of the experience of in his life. Prince Nakano Oe later became the looking out an airplane window to gain a bird’s eye 38th emperor after many years of political turmoil. view of mountain and valley. While one experiences His use of Yamato Kotoba softened the disquiet a surrealistic closeness to clouds, sky, and the distant captured in the scenery; yet readers, knowing what ocean now seen as a whole, and all seen from above they had come to know, could empathically recreate the usual human altitude, all as a new gestalt that that moment of disquiet as they resonated, many wakes one with its differentness, one nevertheless centuries later, with the same natural landscape. remains sardined in the aircraft: one may be feeling Koto Dama: The Spirit of the Language into and out of a range of bodily experiences. One’s apanese children grow up believing in the body is a part of the flying airplane which is also a Jmiraculous power of words, known as Koto part of the local portion of the vast landscape of the Dama. When a word comes out of one’s mouth earth. It is not unlike the perception that Abram or even emerges in one’s thoughts, it carries at (1997) described as “the ongoing interchange be- that moment the power or the spirit of the word tween my body and the entities that surround it”; itself. This is what children are told. Such a notion at least one may be more awake to such interchange parallels, in other societies, the notion that taboo (p. 52). words carry dangerous powers. Examples of Koto For older Manyo poets, as one can see in Dama are these: The Japanese avoid at a wedding the following poem by Prince Nakano Oe, written words relating to cut (“kiru”) or to number four in approximately the 7th century, human existence (“shi”) or nine (“ku”); these words have the same in the context of natural beauty was enchanted, sound as death (“shi”) and pain or suffering (“ku” influenced, and expanded through this relation with or “kuro”; Pei, 1965, p. 270). However, Koto Dama a larger sense of natural context: holds a still more primordial position in the Japanese psychic structure. On the banner-shaped clouds over the sea, Morihei Ueshiba, the founder of Aikido, the setting sun is glowing. has said in his teaching that Aikido is based on the May the moonlight of this evening be serene spiritual teaching of Koto Dama (Stevens, 1993, p. and bright. 12). According to Ueshiba, Aikido, a newer form of (Watatsumi no Toyohatakumo ni Irihi sashi traditional Japanese martial arts, is rather “the study Koyoi no Tsukuyo sayakekari koso) of the spirit” (p. 12). Practicing Aikido requires understanding and following the spirit of Koto (Haitani, 2005, n.p.) Dama which leads to the “unification of heaven, Prince Oe’s famous tanka (short poem) which earth, gods and humankind” (p. 12). The founder of followed the 31 syllable form (5-7-5-7-7 syllables) Aikido was inspired by the spiritual tradition of the was a rhetorical form of waka that consisted entirely ancient Japanese teaching and very aware of Koto of Yamato Kotoba. Dama as the basis of and gateway to the spiritual The rule of waka requires pillow words, origin of the country. traditionally-formulated figures of speech (e.g., Etymologically, Koto in Koto Dama came Watatsumi no) that are not explicitly translated in from the word kotoba, koto meaning word, speech, English; through them the poem shows yearning, or language, and ba being one of the words for leaf. respect, and awe to the god or the spirit of the ocean. Like a single leaf falling out of its mother tree, when At first glance the poem is simply about celebrating a word comes out of thoughts, each leaf of thought the splendor of nature as the sun sets over the ocean brings out the power of the spirit that originated and as one welcomes the moon emerging in the clear in the deep roots of the tree. The tree breathing evening sky. When one follows the poet’s visual sense, the spirit of the forest as well as regenerating itself 168 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Kunisue & Schavrien from the power of the soil lets go its integral power role onomatopoetic phrases play in the Japanese through each flare of a seemingly innocent leaf. In language is too often overlooked and greater than short, glancing at a word, or, more so, uttering it, imagined. Japanese people have an abundance of inspires in the Japanese a memory of the “life-world” descriptive sound words for water, rain, snow, and (Abram, 1997, p. 40; Husserl, 1938/1970, p. 111). ocean (Shogaku Kan, 2009). Some claim there are The tree also holds a spirit called Ko Dama (echo) more than 270 words to describe clouds (Yasuno that relates to the spirit of the mountains. & Fujiwara, 2009). The many sounds of water in Abram (1997) reminded readers that lan- ocean, rain, and mountain streams evince a deep guage in indigenous oral cultures such as Japanese yearning for connection with nature. Yamato Kotoba is experienced “not as the exclusive Conclusion property of humankind,” but “as a property of the he Japanese language has kept an embedded sensuous life-world” (p. 154). Koto Dama is closely Tconnectivity with its land, preserving the related to the name, the person, and the intention as spiritual legacy of the land, the people, and the they all participate in the formulating of the words. culture. Yamato Kotoba, deeply intertwined with It also relates humans to the space and the particular the spiritual power in words as recognized in Koto landscape of the earth where the word came to be. Dama, offers fruits from the earthyKoto Dama root, Because of the connection of the word to the wider ripe for the crafting of Haiku and waka. Authors world, it is important for a person to be extremely like Abram (1997) may be correct to lament the careful about provoking such miraculous power. way in which civilized humans have sacrificed their Thus, even after the written form of language had deep interconnectedness with the natural world; been introduced through Chinese influence, the and Merleau-Ponty may do a service, especially in Japanese people preserved the opinion that in native the West, by perceiving afresh a world in which words a silent spiritual power resided, and that by subject and object, rather than fatally split apart, preserving both the belief and the knowledge of meet inextricably in the world as embodied flesh. those words, the people could preserve the actual Likewise, the West and the East can also benefit power itself. by what remains to testify of an earlier intimacy Modern children’s manga or anime, which amongst all that composes the interconnected texture are animations or graphic novels (English versions of creatures and natural context. The Japanese still are also very popular among American children), possess—have artfully preserved—a treasure to use Koto Dama as a powerful theme. Some heroes in enjoy and to share in their Yamato Kotoba. In it, these manga (e.g., Kotodama User, not translated in subject and object, word and reality, conjoin; the English) discover and/or tap a secret power by citing poetry that grows from it embodies and exudes a the name of the place, person, or object. In other living and a sacred power. To this very day, Yamato anime, a person loses spiritual power by being told Kotoba, both ancient and yet new in this very repeatedly that s/he lacks such power. instant, both sustains an embedded sensibility and Onomatopoeia directly and sensually rebirths it with each utterance of Furuike ya Kawazu conveys certain sounds, movement, and actions tobi komu Mizu no oto: in a language. Onomatopoetic language grounds The ancient pond image in the sensual qualities of the language A frog leaps in itself. Examples of onomatopoeia that convey The sound of the water aural qualities enhancing the image’s aural and (Ueda, 1982, p. 53) pictorial qualities would be these: “batter” for beat up or “splutter” or “shh!” as a silencing word. The frequency of onomatopoetic usage in the Japanese language, as well as the richness of such usage, is an example of “synaesthetic participation from the animate surroundings” (Abram, 1997, p. 162; Fukuda, 2003; Shibatani, 1990) stated that the Yamato Kotoba: The Language of the Flesh International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 169 References About the Authors

Abram, D. (1997). The spell of the sensuous. New Yukari Kunisue, PhD, is a lecturer in Japanese at York, NY: Vintage Books. the University of Hawai’i in Hilo. She does research Anonymous (circa 1500). Retrieved from http:// in the field of death and dying, including on the www.pinkmonkey.com/dl/library1/west_w.pdf subject of the spiritual aspects of the listening Dale, P. (1986). The myth of Japanese uniqueness (7th communication between dying patients and ed.). London, UK: Broom Helm. hospice workers. She also researches cross-cultural Fukuda, H. (2003). Jazz up your Japanese with issues. She holds a Master’s and Doctorate from onomatopoeia. New York, NY: Kodansha Inter- the Institute of Transpersonal Psychology, having national. pursued a Bachelor of Science degree in psychology Haitani, K. (2005-2007). Man’yo-shu best 100. Seattle, as an undergraduate; she also holds a Master’s from WA: Kanji Haitani. Retrieved from http://home. the University of Hawai’i in East Asian Studie, and earthlink.net/~khaitani1/manyoshu.htm a Master’s in Education from the Teacher’s College Husserl, E. (1970). The crisis of European sciences and at New York’s Columbia University. transcendental phenomenology: An introduction to phenomenological philosophy. (D. Carr, Trans.). Judy Schavrien, PhD, MFT, is core faculty and Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press. former Chair of the Global Online Doctoral (Original work published 1938) Program at Institute of Transpersonal Psychology. Merleau-Ponty, M., Lefort, C. & Lingis, A. (1969). She received, for early curricular and teaching The visible and the invisible. Evanston, IL: innovations, the feminist Pioneer Award from the Northwestern University Press. Association of Women in Psychology, along with a Pei, M. (1965). The story of language. New York, NY: Founding Mothers award for helping to establish Penguin Group. the world’s first two graduate degrees in Women’s Shibatani, M. (1990). The languages of Japan. Spirituality. In addition, she was an early innovator Cambridge, UK: University Press. in transpersonal psychology, in 1991, through her Shogaku Kan. (2009). Utukushii Nihongo no jiten groundbreaking course in Feminist Transpersonal (“Dictionary of beautiful Japanese words”). Psychology. She publishes (in JTP, IJTS, and Tokyo, Japan: author. elsewhere) on late vision, which views life in the Stevens, J. (1993). The essence of Aikido: Spiritual light of death—whether of an individual or an era teachings of Morihei Ueshiba. Tokyo, Japan: past its apogee. She analyzes renewal—including the Kodansha International. role played by natural cycle and feminine energies— Ueda, M. (1982). The master haiku poet: Matsuo in the late visions of Shakespeare, Sophocles, and Basho. Tokyo, Japan: Kodansha International. Ingmar Bergman, both as individuals and poets Watanabe, S. (1974). Nihongo no kokoro (The spirit of of their age. New Rivers Press published her book the Japanese). Tokyo, Japan: Kodansha Gendai What Rhymes with Cancer?; and she is anthologized Shinsho. as a poet and scholar, with 16 awards, from local to Yasuno, M., & Fujiwara, M. (2009). Yonimo international, for her work. http://judys.imagekind. utsukushii Nihongo nyuumon (“Primer to the com most beautiful Japanese”). Tokyo, Japan: Chikuma Primar Shinsho.

170 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Kunisue & Schavrien Modern Materialism Through the Lens of Indo-Tibetan Buddhism

Alan Pope University of West Georgia Carrollton, GA, USA

The suffering that gives rise to and is perpetuated by contemporary culture’s addiction to materialistic consumption is described surprisingly well by the ancient tradition of Indo- Tibetan Buddhism. From this perspective, modern human beings exemplify hungry ghosts trapped in a state of incessant greed and insatiability, which at its core reflects a desperate attempt to maintain a sense of self that is out of accord with basic reality. The rich Tibetan Buddhist understanding of the unfolding process by which the hungry ghost negotiates its project, including its attempts to avoid greater suffering and to seek bliss, serves to elucidate our contemporary psychological dynamic. This analysis points to what is needed in order to extract ourselves from a consumerist mentality and find genuine fulfillment.

Keywords: hungry ghost, Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, materialistic value orientation, consumerism, neuromarketing, addiction, meditation

n Indo-Tibetan Buddhist iconography, the hungry consume them, or flaunt possession of them” (p. 92). ghost is a being whose massive, protruding belly is In this instance, excessive means exceeding survival paired with a tiny pinhole mouth. Because it is able and encroaching on other important areas of a person’s Ito consume but small bits of food at any one time, its development and enjoyment. Kasser, Ryan, Couchman, huge stomach remains ever empty, and its limbs and and Sheldon (2004) described contemporary America’s torso scrawny. Although the Tibetan tradition speaks culture of consumption as having a materialistic value of hungry ghosts as denizens of a realm into which orientation (MVO). Copious research suggests that an beings may incarnate, modern teachers emphasize that MVO develops both as compensation for an insecure such realms are not places, but rather primordial states self-image and through social exposure to materialistic of mind familiar to us all (e.g., Trungpa, 1973, 1992). models and values. These studies also demonstrate that As such, the hungry ghost symbolizes addictive greed this approach leads to lower subjective well-being and and insatiability. In this paper, I use this image and the diminished concern for the welfare of others and the philosophy of Indo-Tibetan Buddhism to shed light environment. This latter aspect is not surprising given on the state of mind made presently manifest through that overconsumption—through its exploitation of contemporary consumerist culture.1 In so doing, I natural resources and polluting of the environment—is look beyond materialism as simply a historical-cultural the driving force behind the accelerating ecological crisis phenomenon, situating it as the outward expression (Starke & Mastny, 2010). of a mental state endemic to the human condition, The MVO operates under the premise that by one described with extraordinary detail by a spiritual consuming more and more goods, we can be happy tradition whose roots are more than 2500 years old. (throughout this article, all uses of “we” and “our” Modern Materialism refer to human beings in the collective sense, while he difficulties inherent in modern materialism acknowledging that the author writes from his own Thave been well documented and empirically specific location in Western culture). But does this demonstrated (e.g., see Kasser, 2002; Kasser & Kanner, strategy work? When I buy that new 46-inch flat screen 2004). Csikszentmihalyi (2004) defined materialism as TV, I may enjoy it for some time, taking pride in my “the tendency to allocate excessive attention to goals possession, displaying it for others to see. I enjoy the that involve material objects: wanting to own them, crisp, clean images of my favorite programs. I might

ModernInternational Materialism Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 30(1-2), 2011,International pp. 171-177 Journal of Transpersonal Studies 171 spend countless hours watching it, freed momentarily example, space out in front of our 46-inch flat screen TV. from the other concerns and worries of my life. However, When that pleasure wears out, we are caught once again there remains a deep longing that in fact the TV does in the mindset of the hungry ghost, desperately afraid of not fulfill. The TV becomes another fixture to fade the hell realms, and longing for the pleasures of the god into the background of my life. My unfulfilled desire realm. We return to the mall, opting for consumerism as turns its attention to new objects that might satisfy our best chance at a stable state of being, albeit one that it. I return to the shopping mall, looking for my next lives in fantasy and sacrifices compassion. conquest, which I make, and then the cycle repeats. In Neuroscientific Materialism Buddhist parlance, I am caught in the cycle of samsara, and the Hungry Ghost a compulsive repetition of suffering that thrives on my he underlying basis of the hungry ghost, and of the failure to recognize the source of my suffering and of my TMVO, can be found in the philosophical doctrine happiness (Ray, 2000). of dualism, the position that mind and body are two The Six Realms completely different substances (Karr, 2007). This view n Buddhist theory, samsara is depicted by six realms, is ultimately untenable, leading to two predominant Iknown as that of the gods, jealous gods, humans, solutions: (1) reducing everything to material reality, or animals, hungry ghosts, and hell beings (see Patrul materialism, and (2) reducing everything to mind, or Rinpoche, 1994, for vivid descriptions). These realms idealism. Contemporary traditional neuroscience adopts represent different states of mind through which we the materialist view in its assumption that mind is an cycle in the course of a human lifetime. They are inter­ emergent property of underlying neurological structure dependently connected, and so we cannot understand and function. Given that this approach frames most one without the other. For instance, the insatiability and conversations about addiction, it is worth considering addictive tendencies of the hungry ghost are strategies briefly what light it might shed on the hungry ghost. for avoiding the rage and depression of the hell realms, In this view, the subjective mental experience of where beings are depicted as suffering inconceivable hunger arises from the complex interplay of numerous torments—such as the repeated severing of limbs and physical elements, including a variety of brain structures, gouging of eyeballs in settings of either extreme heat blood sugar levels, and hormones (Le Magnen, 1985). or cold, depending on the nature of the anger in whose Normally, this system maintains homeostasis, alternating grip one is held. This extreme aggression is, as Freud between experiences of hunger and, upon eating, satiety. (1917/1957) suggested of depression, directed toward However, what makes food potentially addictive is that one’s own identifications of self, and the pain of the hell eating also provides a jolt of dopamine, the same pleasure- realms thereby conveys the intensity of suffering that can inducing neurotransmitter that is implicated in drugs of arise when self-hatred and rage become extreme. abuse (Avena, Rada, & Hoebel, 2008; Stoehr, 2006). If The desperate grasping of the hungry ghost our baseline dopamine levels are depressed, we might helps it avoid falling into the terror of the hell realms consume food beyond the point of physical satiety, or and expresses its longing for the bliss of the god realm, take drugs purely to get high, both of which provide where beings are endowed with beauty and wealth, and short-term relief with negative long-term consequences. enjoy every conceivable pleasure (Trungpa, 1973). In Hence, even at the neurobiological level, the essential root contemporary Western culture, this desire to be a god is cause of the hungry ghost’s insatiable hunger is likewise made visible in voyeuristic fascination with celebrities and the basis for substance addiction more generally. their lives. However, we also exhibit the characteristics However, this same physical root cause can lead of the jealous gods—those who envy the gods and are to all manner of craving. For example, even the sight paranoid about losing their own favorable position— or smell of food in the absence of actual consumption whenever we wallow in a celebrity’s fall from grace. induces the release of dopamine levels (Zurawicki, 2010). When we let go of such envy we can truly be human, Further, it has been shown that processing novel visual or meaning that while we live in desire, we are able to cognitive information also elevates dopamine (in addition balance suffering with compassion. When our suffering to activating opioid receptors in association areas of the becomes too difficult to bear, however, we sink into the cerebral cortex; Biederman & Vessel, 2006; Bromberg- ignorance of the animal realm, whereupon we may, for Martin & Hikosaka, 2009). Thus, seeing food, smelling

172 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Pope food, consuming drugs, viewing novel displays, thinking can change our relationship to our emotions, and that about interesting new things—all have the capacity to we can come to naturally have greater control over our induce a chemical experience of pleasure and the craving urges and cravings. Actually, this is precisely what the that comes with it. Buddhist tradition teaches (Tsering, 2005). It stands A new discipline calling itself neuromarketing is to reason that studies of lower animals—generally the exploiting these findings and applying them to the task basis of addiction studies—will uncover the neurology of developing ways to maximize potential customers’ of unmediated craving; however, investigations of dopamine surges and other consumption-friendly highly conscious human beings show that neurological biological processes (Zurawicki, 2010; Lindstrom, 2010). determinism is an inaccurate model. Human cognitive For example, if a product is displayed strategically, a capacities can modulate emotional ones, and as such we dopamine rush will induce a purchase, even as the need not be the puppet of advertisers and profiteers. The ensuing “crash” leaves us wondering what we were hungry ghost can be transformed. thinking (Lindstrom, 2010). Neurologically speaking, Beyond Materialism humans are wired for all manner of consumption, and he studies by Davidson and his colleagues open advertisers—just as they have done in the past with Tonto even larger implications. They challenge the behaviorism and psychoanalysis—are exploiting the very assumptions of standard neurobiology—namely, latest trends in psychology in order to stimulate desire, that the mind is an emergent property of matter. If increase profit, and populate the world with ever more training the mind can affect neurology, then one must hungry ghosts. Nevertheless, there is a growing body of perhaps take seriously the suggestion made by the Dalai evidence that this wiring can be changed. Lama (2005) that thoughts may give rise to chemical Neuroplasticity and Meditation events. In that event, the brain should be viewed not as ust as physics has advanced to the point that it has the origin of mind, but rather as mind’s executive officer. Joverthrown its earlier limiting assumptions, the The philosophical doctrine of materialism itself is thrown work of Richard Davidson and other neuroscientists into question, and in turn it is necessary to question the is challenging the presuppositions of traditional cost of continuing to adopt it. In the words of Buddhist neuroscience. In particular, they have demonstrated that writer Andy Karr (2007), “these materialistic views can the adult brain can change in response to experience, a prevent us from understanding the causal relationships phenomenon termed neuroplasticity (Lutz, Dunne, & that are more important to us: the determinants of Davidson, 2007). This view is largely based on studies happiness and sorrow, bondage and liberation” (p. 79). with highly experienced meditators in the Tibetan In holding to a materialistic view, we look to the outer Buddhist tradition. Using brain imaging equipment, world for happiness, rather than looking within. Davidson and colleagues found that in meditation Indo-Tibetan Buddhism regards idealism— these individuals could easily slip into a pronounced besides materialism, the other proposed solution to pattern of asymmetrical firing in the prefrontal cortex the problem of dualism—as the superior position, (Begley, 2007). This pattern, in which the left cortex is recognizing that all experience is mental, meaning that extremely active relative to the right, signals the inner it first registers in the mind (Karr, 2007). Although subjective experience of energized happiness, joy, and this view is developed in great detail in the Cittamatra, well-being. The extreme degree to which this pattern or Mind Only School of Mahayana Buddhism, it is was demonstrated—far beyond what non-meditators ultimately recognized as only partially correct, for the exhibit—suggests the potential to rewire the brain One Mind is itself a concept that is superimposed on through mental training. reality (Gyamtso, 1994). The Madhyamaka, or Middle- Whereas it used to be thought that the prefrontal Way, teachings of Mahayana Buddhism assert that cortex only pertains to the highest levels of abstract everything is ultimately neither mind nor matter, reasoning, and that the limbic system was the seat of because neither ultimately exists. Rather, they both arise emotions, it is now known that the prefrontal cortex is together, interdependently. It is only when we appeal to neurologically connected with and mediates the centers concepts that we see either mind or matter as prior. of emotional processing (Begley, 2007). As such, cutting When we realize the middle way position, edge neuroscience is suggesting that mental training placing primacy on neither the mind nor material

Modern Materialism International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 173 reality, we see vividly that the ego, or sense of “I,” is it refers to the neurotic preoccupation that drives us an illusion. It neither exists in a solid way (the doctrine to create them, to try to control nature. (pp. 5-6) of eternalism), nor does it not exist altogether (the The deep source of our consumerist mentality can be doctrine of nihilism). In order to escape the endless seen in this neurotic pursuit of comfort, security and cycling through the six realms, we must see through pleasure, the compulsion to control the seeming chaos of our habituated patterns and realize the true nature of life. This approach to life reflects a basic confusion about the self. When we closely examine the body, we see that ourselves and our actions. it is composed of a collection of parts, such as blood, When we recognize that mind and matter skin, sensory organs, internal organs, nerves, and so arise together, and that we do not exist in an intrinsic forth. These parts are composed of ever-smaller particles, and separate way, we realize that no one phenomenon none of which has an intrinsic, separate existence. If we can appear except in interdependent relationship with examine the mind, we find an overlapping stream of all other phenomena. This realization invites a deeper thoughts, feelings, impressions, and sensations, none of understanding of the consequences of our consumerist which exists independently. What we call a self is really actions. We recognize not only that habitual consumption a succession of experiences onto which we have imputed is not in the service of our own happiness—it is as well various concepts, the most central one being “I.” That deeply unethical, for its far-ranging impact places our is, our sense of self is a fiction, a story we tell ourselves collective survival in jeopardy. to give coherency to our experience. It exists not as a Genuine Happiness solid entity, but rather as a character in a social fabric of n the most basic sense, the MVO cannot promote conceptual understanding and storytelling. true happiness because it is based on a principle of Interdependent Existence I satisfaction rather than fulfillment. When we seek he MVO is an integral part of the contemporary satisfaction, we seek the external conditions whereby social fabric that gives definition and shape to T we can feel temporarily sated. Inevitably, however, as our sense of self. In its part, the ego is not interested conditions change, these states of satiation fade and new in consuming materials goods in an authentic sense; hunger arises. rather, what the ego consumes is symbols. It is what Even so, the ancient philosophical doctrine of things represent, what they tell about us—whether we hedonism regarded the pursuit of pleasure as the highest are successful, affluent, desirable, or superior—that good (Kashdan, Biswas-Diener, & King, 2008). In its establishes their worth. In the meantime, we are actually subtler versions, such as that expressed by Epicurus, a covering over a tremendous sense of lack, hiding from the greater happiness necessitates that we use moderation in fact that we do not exist in the ways we conventionally order that excessive indulgence not lead to excessive pain think that we do. As David Loy (1996) has suggested, (De Lacy, 1967). Nevertheless, in this view happiness this lack is the deepest source of our anxiety, more depends on the manipulation of external circumstances fundamental even than the fear of death. in the pursuit of more rather than less (pleasure). Given In order to comfort ourselves in the face of that pleasure can only be defined in contrast to pain, this lack, we bow to what Chögyam Trungpa (1973) happiness is necessarily relative and fleeting. Insofar characterized as The Three Lords of Materialism: as Freud’s economic model considered the pursuit of those of Form, Speech, and Mind. Of the first one, he pleasure to be the ultimate motivating force of psyche, we explained: can understand how it is that a successful psychoanalytic The Lord of Form refers to the neurotic pursuit treatment aims merely to bring ordinary unhappiness to of physical comfort, security, and pleasure. Our its patients (Freud, 1895/1955). highly organized and technological society reflects It is laudable that the hedonistic view values our preoccupation with manipulating physical immediate experience, for otherwise we would live in surroundings so as to shield ourselves from the our thoughts about the past or the future, separated from irritations of the raw, rugged, unpredictable aspects of reality as it is. However, that which is revealed in our life…The Lord of Form does not signify the physically immediate experience varies depending on the state of rich and secure life-situations we create per se. Rather our mind. For example, we can be immediately present

174 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Pope to feelings of greed or hatred without recognizing that psychological processes. Although this description such feelings are transitory and ultimately empty of any resonates with the Buddhist notion of the ego as a substantial reality. Immediacy without genuine presence continuum of psychophysical events, it does not accord leaves us vulnerable to surfing a series of ever-pressing with Buddhism’s understanding of our deepest nature. desires and aversions. Instead, we must train our minds That is, it does not explicitly account for realizing our to rest in a panoramic awareness that sees mental states transpersonal potentials, those that enable us to let go such as greed and hatred as adventitious phenomena that of even the subtlest traces of greed and protective self- cannot touch the deep sense of our true nature. From cherishing. this perspective, genuine fulfillment or happiness, rather Regaining the Natural State than being the accumulation of pleasures, is “a deep sense ccording to the Madhyamaka Shentong teachings of of flourishing that arises from an exceptionally healthy ATibetan Buddhism, all humans have the same basic mind” (Ricard, 2003, p. 19). nature at the core of their Being (Maitraya, 2000). This From a Buddhist perspective, such mental health so-called buddha-nature is naturally and spontaneously is gained through disciplined mental training of no less wise, loving, and compassionate. However, it is obscured effort than that used to maintain our physical bodies in to the extent that we cling to ego identifications that peak condition. Through the practices of contemplation keep the natural qualities of ourselves and our experience and meditation we can face our fears and discomforts cloaked by layers of conceptual artifice. When that in a disciplined way. When we confront them directly, conceptual artifice, erected and maintained with the their force is diminished, for it is what we do not see support of consumerist culture, tells us to seek pleasure that unnerves us. A mind that is consequently calm and avoid pain—and not only sanctions shopping, but and balanced can withstand any external circumstance. regards it as a nationalistic duty—then we are kept in a While such happiness can be regarded as an objective state of alienation from ourselves and from one another. state relating to the condition of one’s awareness, it has We live as hungry ghosts, unable to really touch the subjective correlates. When times are prosperous, the material world, unable to touch each other, and unable fulfilled mind experiences joy; when times are difficult, to be sated in any meaningful way. We are removed from it responds with courage (DeWit, 2001, March). Rather the possibility of genuine fulfillment. than being passive to events in the world, we choose the Genuine fulfillment arises to the extent that ways we interpret and respond to them. Rather than we can put the needs of others before our own. Such being a temporary experience, genuine happiness is an altruism is not simply a “random act of kindness”; rather, optimal state of being (Ricard, 2003). in Tibetan Buddhist thought it is a pervasive modality of This form of happiness resembles the Hellenic being that we must cultivate in order to recover our true concept of eudaimonia, which for Aristotle was an nature. Given that we are interdependent rather than objective condition associated with living a life of independent beings, to think only of ourselves is to live contemplation and virtue (Waterman, 2008). Drawing out of accord with reality and to create the conditions upon the work of contemporary philosopher David for suffering. The material sensibilities of the modern age Norton, Waterman (2008) explained: “Eudaimonia inculcate this deluded perception in us, imprisoning us was seen as a consequence of ‘living in truth to one’s in a vicious circle of heightened pleasure and subsequent daimon’ or ‘true self,’ when an individual strives toward pain. The way to overcome this state of affairs is to excellence in fulfilling his or her personal potentials” confront the fear and grief from which we are hiding, (pp. 235-236). At this level, we can see Buddhist whereupon shopping will lose its appeal in favor happiness as a strong form of eudaimonia in which the of human connection and caring. true self to be realized is the no-self, the self that exists beyond all concepts. However, the Greek conception References of eudaimonia, particularly in its contemporary interpretation, preserves the sense of the self as intrinsic Avena, N. M., Rada, P., & Hoebel, B. G. (2008). Evidence and separate. Waterman goes on to observe that whereas for sugar addiction: Behavioral and neurochemical daimon originally meant guiding spirit, contemporary effects of intermittent, excessive sugar intake. theorists regard it as a constellation of interrelated Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 32, 20-39.

Modern Materialism International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 175 Begley, S. (2007). Train your mind, change your brain: Le Magnen, J. (1985). Hunger. London, UK: Cambridge How a new science reveals our extraordinary potential to University Press. transform ourselves. New York, NY: Ballantine Books. Lindstrom, M. (2010). Buy-ology: The new science of why Biederman, I., & Vessel, E. A. (2006, June). Perceptual we buy. New York, NY: Broadway Books. pleasure and the brain. American Scientist, 93, 249-255. Loy, D. (1996). Lack and transcendence: The problem of Bromberg-Martin, E., & Hikosaka, O. (2009). Midbrain death and life in psychotherapy, existentialism, and dopamine neurons signal preference for advance Buddhism. Amherst, NY: Humanity Books. information about upcoming rewards. Neuron, 63, Lutz, A., Dunne, J. D., & Davidson, R. J. (2007). 119-126. Meditation and the neuroscience of consciousness: Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2004). Materialism and the An introduction. In P. D. Zelazo, M. Moscovitch, evolution of consciousness. In T. Kasser & A. D. Kanner & E. Thompson (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook (Eds.), Psychology and consumer culture. Washington, of consciousness (pp. 499-551). New York, NY: DC: Amerian Psychological Association. Cambridge University Press. Dalai Lama, H. H. (2005). The universe in a single atom: Maitraya, A. (2000). Buddha nature: The Mahayana The convergence of science and spirituality. New York, Uttaratantra Shastra with commentary (R. Fuchs, NY: Morgan Road Books. Trans.). Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion. De Lacy, P. H. (1967). Epicurus. In P. Edwards (Ed.), Patrul Rinpoche. (1994). The words of my perfect The Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Vol. 3, pp. 3-5). New teacher. The sacred literature series. New York, NY: York, NY: Macmillan & Free Press. HarperCollins. De Wit, H. F. (2001, March). The case for contemplative Ray, R. A. (2000). Indestructible truth: The living spirituality psychology. Shambhala Sun, 34-37. of Tibetan Buddhism. Boston, MA: Shambhala. Freud, S. (1895/1955). Studies of hysteria (Vol. 2). Ricard, M. (2003). Happiness: A guide to developing life’s London, UK: Hogarth Press and Institute of Psycho- most important skill. New York, NY: Little, Brown analysis. and Company. Freud, S. (1917/1957). Mourning and melancholia (J. Strachey, Starke, L., & Mastny, L. (Eds.). (2010). State of the world Trans.). In J. Strachey (Ed.), The standard edition of the 2010: Transforming cultures: From consumerism to complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 14, sustainability. New York, NY: W. W. Norton. pp. 237-260). London, UK: Hogarth Press. Stoehr, J. (2006). The neurobiology of addiction. Gyamtso, K. T. (1994). Progressive stages of meditation on Philadelphia, PA: Chelsea House. emptiness. Auckland, New Zealand: Zhyisil Chokyi Tsering, T. (2005). The four noble truths. Boston, MA: Ghatsal. Wisdom. Karr, A. (2007). Contemplating reality: A practitioner’s Trungpa, C. (1973). Cutting through spiritual materialism. guide to the view in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism. Boston, Boston, MA: Shambhala. MA: Shambhala. Trungpa, C. (1992). Transcending madness: The experience Kashdan, T. B., Biswas-Diener, R., & King, L. A. (2008). of the six bardos. Boston, MA: Shambhala. Reconsidering happiness: The costs of distinguishing Waterman, A. S. (2008). Reconsidering happiness: between hedonics and eudaimonia. Journal of Positive A eudaimonist’s perspective. Journal of Positive Psychology, 3(4), 219. Psychology, 3(4), 234. Kasser, T. (2002). The high price of materialism. Zurawicki, L. (2010). Neuromarketing: Exploring the Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. brain of the consumer. London, UK: Springer. Kasser, T., & Kanner, A. D. (Eds.). (2004). Psychology and consumer culture. Washington, DC: American Notes Psychological Asscociation. Kasser, T., Ryan, R. M., Couchman, C. E., & Sheldon, 1. The term Indo-Tibetan Buddhism acknowledges that K. M. (2004). Materialistic values: Their causes and the rich philosophical tradition of Tibetan Buddhism consequences. In T. Kasser & A. D. Kanner (Eds.), has deep roots in Indian culture, from whence Buddhism Psychology and consumer culture. Washington, D.C.: migrated to Tibet. American Psychological Association.

176 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Pope About the Author

Alan Pope, PhD, is an Associate Professor of Psychology at the University of West Georgia. Following advanced graduate studies in computer science and artificial intelligence (Ph.D./ABD), he received his doctorate in clinical existential-phenomenological psychology at Duquesne University (2000). In addition, for the past 20 years he has studied and practiced within the Vajrayana Buddhist tradition. His research generally seeks to elucidate the processes of psycho-spiritual transformation resulting from involuntary suffering and through disciplined spiritual and creative practice. His recent work examines various aspects of Western psychology and culture through the lens of Indo-Tibetan Buddhism. He is the author of From Child to Elder: Personal Transformation in Becoming an Orphan at Midlife (2006, Peter Lang). He was the 2009 recipient of Division 32 (APA)’s Carmi Harari Early/Mid Career Award for Outstanding Contribution to Inquiry in Humanistic and Transpersonal Psychology.

About the Journal

The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies is a peer-reviewed academic journal in print since 1981. It is published by Floraglades Foundation, and serves as the official publication of the International Transpersonal Association. The journal is available online at www. transpersonalstudies.org, and in print through www. lulu.com (search for IJTS).

Modern Materialism International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 177 BOOK REVIEW Singing to the Plants: A Guide to Mestizo Shamanism in the Upper Amazon by Stephan V. Beyer

John Harrison California Institute of Integral Studies San Francisco, CA, USA

The plant comes and talks to you, it teaches you to sing. —Don Solon Tello Lozano

What would you say to the possibility of a riveting, researched information and knowledge gained from years yet thoroughly academic, nonfiction page-turner? Stephan of actual time in the Amazon Jungle), “is a result of my V. Beyer’s tour de force, Singing to the Plants: A Guide own need to make sense of the mestizo shamanism of the to Mestizo Shamanism in the Upper Amazon, is nothing Upper Amazon, to place it in context, to understand why less! Building an inclusive bridge between a layman’s and how it works, to think through what it means, and accessibility and comprehensive scholarly research, Beyer what it has meant for me.” So, this seminal work springs has effectively embodied and integrated his intellectual (as all good work does) from Beyer’s own hunger to put understanding and knowledge with years of first-hand together the many threads of his own story. experiential encounters with Ayahuasca and other plant As the book unfolds Beyer’s own tale is presented medicines of Upper Amazonia. Dr. Beyer holds a degree in the context of his relationship with two remarkable in law and doctorates in both psychology and religious teacher-healers of the Upper Amazon: Dona Maria Luisa studies, but these are obviously only some of his interests Tuesta Flores and Don Roberto Acho Jurama. Beyer stated and talents. His eclectic background has led to stints as that the purpose of this volume “is to try and understand a university professor, trial lawyer, community builder, who they are and what they do—as healers, as shamans, and wilderness guide, and it was his interest in wilderness as dwellers in the spiritual world of the Upper Amazon, as survival that initially brought him into contact with traditional practitioners in a modern world, as innovators, medicinal plants and their potential. His skillful, often as cultural syncretists, and as individuals.” poetical word-phrasing lends such depth and artistry to It is when talking about his teachers that Beyer his research results that a reader hardly knows where to is most revealed as a humble and thoughtful human look to be most impressed. being. He does not engage in excessive fawning or As he studied and learned more about the survival synchophantish pedestalization, but presents them as skills of indigenous people, it became apparent to Beyer real people with flaws and foibles, as well as remarkable that “wilderness survival includes a significant spiritual reservoirs of knowledge. component—the maintenance of right relationships both Throughout the narrative Beyer informs and with human persons and with the other-than-human educates, opening doors to another world, a world he persons who fill the indigenous world.” In addition, clearly respects, embraces, and even loves. He escorts us Beyer’s spiritual background and interest in Buddhism up the threshold and through this doorway describing and Tibetan language shapes his connection to the in detail such subjects as: (1) the ayahuasca ceremony, transcendent and also establishes a deep recognition of (2) shamanic performance, (3) the shamanic landscape, the unifying bond between all sentient beings. (4) learning the plants, sounds, 5) phlegm and darts, (6) Beyer states that his intention in writing the initiation, (7) spirits, (8) sex, (9) harming, (10) healing, monumental Singing to the Plants (400 pages of well- and (11) vomiting, among 35 total chapters.

178 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies , 30(1-2), 2011, pp. 178-181 Harrison Beyer begins with an appreciative and loving the importance of la dieta (the restricted diet) as the key description of his two teachers. In a particularly to a relationship with the plants. beautiful passage he describes the dream of Dona Maria To learn the plants--termed dominar, or that led to her coronacion, her crowning or initiation. In mastery—means to create a relationship with the plant one illuminating and enlightening sidebar (which are spirits. This is accomplished by, “taking them into the liberally included throughout the book) he also explores body, listening to them speak in the language of plants, the topic of ayahuasqueras (women shamans), their and receiving their gifts of power and song.” relative rarity, and the occasional chauvinistic reaction To win their love, to learn to sing to them in of some shamans who said Dona Maria should not be a their own language, shamans must first show that they healer. Dona Maria in her whimsical way dismisses these are strong and faithful and worthy of trust. To do this, naysayers “as stupid people with no fuerza, or shamanic they must go into the monte (the wilderness), away from power, anyway.” other people, and follow la dieta, the restricted diet. After Beyer continues by looking at the interface of old ingesting and studying their effects, apprentice shamans superstitions regarding women during their menstrual await “the appearance of the plant spirit in a vision or cycle and their contact with Ayahuasca. Among some dream to be taught their uses and their songs.” indigenous tribes a menstruating woman—or one who Beyer illustrates clearly that shamans have a real has recently had sex—should not participate in an interactive intimacy with the plants of the jungle and this Ayahuasca ceremony. Dr. Beyer quotes a Cocama shaman is a process of deep learning which can be instantaneous who says, “that for the Ayahuasca vine to grow properly, or it may be gradual, “the plants become your body and it must not be seen by a woman, especially a woman give you the power to heal; they become—through this who is menstruating, or who has not slept well because lengthy, dreamlike, silent, sacred process—your allies. she was drunk.” If these women see the Ayahuasca he You learn the plants in plant time, not human time.” says, “the plant becomes resentful and neither grows nor Beyer joyfully discusses the nature of the icaros twines upright. It folds over and is damaged.” Thanks (the magic songs of the plants) and explains that it is to the upsurge in Ayahuasca tourism, Beyer tells us that only through learning the songs of the plants (taught these attitudes may be slowly changing. “Female tourists by the plants) that the shaman can communicate and who have come great distances at considerable expense to learn the spirits of the plants from the songs. The song attend an Ayahuasca ceremony object strongly to being may be whispered, whistled, or sung and the icaro is a excluded because they are menstruating. There are also gift from the plants to the shaman who uses the songs an increasing number of Ayahuasca retreats for women- for healing, protection and to completely and intimately only tourist groups, and an increasing demand for female enter the world of spirits. Beyer quotes the poet Gary ayahuasqueras to accommodate female tourists.” This Snyder, saying that the “shaman gives songs to dreams, helps to explain the relative paucity of curanderas (female he speaks for the green of the leaf, the soil, for wild healers); Beyer reports that he knows of only two. animals, and the spirits of plants and mountains.” The Beyer’s encyclopedic masterpiece includes a shaman is indeed the healer who sings. detailed description of the the ayahuasca ceremony, where Certainly there are a number of compelling he describes point by point the essential components of traditions where sound (instruments, drums, humming, the healing practices of the curandero (male healer) as chanting, and singing) is the connective link between the ingestion of ayahuasca to diagnose illness, the focus this and other realms. However, no other culture, either on soplar (breath), chupar (sucking), and the use of icaros related or unrelated to the subject at hand, ever diverts (sacred songs) and the invocation of the spirits of the the attention of the writer, or reader of this volume. It is plants themselves during the healing ceremonies. Stephan Beyer’s breadth of knowledge with salient and In the chapter titled, Learning the Plants compelling references to anthropology, ethnobotany, Stephan Beyer goes into elegant detail, as he sensitively pharmacology, psychology, law, sociology, and various describes the intimate relationship required to “win their forms of magic that make this book a scintillating read. [the plants] love.” This thorough attention to detail is a Yet, with his prodigious intellectual prowess Beyer consistent trait of his writing style. Beyer deconstructs the never gets too top-heavy with empty philosophical or process of developing this relationship by emphasizing pretentiously lofty discourses. He returns again and Review of Beyer, Singing to the Plants International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 179 again to the body, the gritty, purging/vomiting, sucking/ humbling experience of having his psychic and physical blowing, sometimes nasty, but down-to-earth, back to the butt kicked good, and hard, and often! roots of revelations (as it were) of the plant and animal Beyer’s gift is conveying this far ranging and spirits of the Upper Amazon. These powerful plant voluminous material while walking a finely nuanced medicines can be messy with a myriad of unpredictable line between personal memoir and scholarly discourse outcomes. He is not talking ecstasy-at-a-rave time here. (this line has been crossed by other authors, often with This is not Amazonian amateur hour or psychedelic poor results). Neither a dry ethnography nor a subjective karaoke; this is balls-to-the-wall commitment. The platform for Beyer, he has gone into the wilderness and author does not whitewash or sugarcoat the sometimes returned to tell tall tales of the jungle. It could have been enigmatic and dulcet dirge of the jungle, or the occasional tempting for Beyer to make the story about himself and shaman with less that heroic intent. He acknowledges his exploits. However, in my view his objectivity serves that as every plant has a particular energy or use, so do both him and the reader quite well. I appreciate that Beyer shamans come in many psychological shades, sometimes did not over-personalize this work. Clearly transformed dark, sometimes light, but mostly gray; that is where the by his experiences, he modestly maintains a keen truth can often be found, in the ambiguous nature of objectivity laced with an unmistakable understanding humans. (from the inside out) of his subject. This understanding As a psychologist I found Beyer’s discussion of is best exemplified by Beyer’s apparent disinterest in the Social Ambiguity of the Shaman a fascinating and standing out front and center as the main protagonist in honest, yet arcane revelation that shamanic powers can this treatise. In my view this is deliberate and reflects the be used for healing and for harming. “People see that deeper lessons Beyer has learned from his experiences. the shaman can heal, which means that the shaman can He also does not answer all the questions nor also kill,” Beyer exclaims! In this context the shaman is attempt to spell out or overly define the Ayahuasca neither hero nor villain, but set apart, as someone not to be experience. In contrast, by opening this space Stephan is trusted though someone who is needed. Beyer states, “In encouraging others to embark upon their own journeys, the Amazon, the dark and the light, killing and curing, to seek their own answers, and ultimately to ask are at once antagonistic and complementary, shamanic better questions. Beyer states that, “Ayahuasca teaches healers and shamanic killers represent interlocking many things—what is wrong or broken in a life, what cultural tendencies, and their battleground is the flesh medicine to take for healing. It teaches us to see through of the sick, the ambiguous heart of the shaman, the the everyday, to see that the world is meaningful and valley of the soul. Thus the shaman’s power is granted magical; it opens the door to wonder and surprise.” grudgingly by a society that both needs and fears it.” As As a researcher and psychologist investigating ethno-botanist Terence McKenna said, “Only psychos the efficacy of ibogaine in the treatment of opiate and shamans create their own reality!” addiction, I recognize that the wisdom and mysteries of Beyer appears to have been wise (or lucky indigenous and centuries old shamanic plant medicines enough) to let the plants come into him, and though a deserve respect. Admiration is best served by not consummate scholar and thinker, he balances this with imposing Western and hyper-linear models on these gentle kindness and a receptive heart. His great lesson, tools to make Westerners more comfortable. Beyer seems in my view, is to stay true to his teachers Dona Maria to understand on both a cellular and on a soulular level, and Don Roberto, the plants and the entire gestalt of the that these non-Western ways of seeing, healing and being Upper Amazon. have so much to teach. My own experience as both subjective participant This book is about as perfect as any book (fiction and relatively objective researcher with a panoply of or non fiction) has a right to be. Standing far above all psychedelic plant medicines from psilocybin to ibogaine other investigations on ayahuasca in its scope and depth, I to DMT has taught me that these teachers reveal multiple found myself irresistibly engaged and frankly enchanted versions of reality: vivid, intense, paradigm-shifting, by Steve Beyer’s labor of love brimming with obvious sometimes terrifying, and producing an occasional affection and respect for these plant spirits as teachers epiphany. Stephan Beyer seems to genuinely understand who actually seem to care for humans in return. Though this and his true reverence appears to spring from the verifiably academic, each page reads like a novel—with

180 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Harrison layers upon layers of intrigue and information, and with the plants, the animals, and the teachers as finely drawn characters imbued with complexity, mystery, and wisdom. I highly recommend this book to anyone who seeks not only a thoroughly researched fount of information, but also a deep and rich source of inspiration.

Review of Beyer, Singing to the Plants International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 181