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sustainability Article Between Sand Dunes and Hamadas: Environmental Sustainability of the Thar Desert, West India Jiri Chlachula 1,2 1 Institute of Geoecology and Geoinformation, Adam Mickiewicz University, 61-680 Pozna´n,Poland; [email protected] 2 Environmental Research Centre, 686 03 Stare Mesto, Czech Republic; [email protected] Abstract: Extensive geographic areas of the world show a long-term atmospheric moisture deficit. Desertification of Rajasthan is concurrent with the strengthened weather extremality and mean annual air temperature (MAAT) rise over the western part of the Indian subcontinent. The present landscape aridification due to the precipitation decrease and reinforced windiness generates surface-cover dryness, aeolian erosion with a mass sediment transfer, salinity of excessively irrigated lands and groundwater depletion; altogether these pose major geo-environmental threats and settlement risks of the expanding Thar Desert. Livestock-overgrazing of sparse-vegetation contributes to ecological pressure to the fragile wasteland ecosystems with approximately three-quarters of the countryside affected to a certain extent by degradation and >50% exposed to wind erosion. Sand dune stabilisation by the drought-adapted tree plantation, the regional hydrology network regulation and the arid- land farming based on new xerophytic cultigens are the key land-use and mitigation strategies. Specific geomorphic palaeosettings predetermined patterned adaptive forms of the ancient desert inhabitation. Geo- and eco-tourism contributes to the arid-zone socioeconomic sustainability with regard to the rich natural and cultural heritage of the area. This study outlines the main effects of the current climate variations on the pristine and occupied lands of western Rajasthan, and the past and Citation: Chlachula, J. Between Sand present relief transformations, and reviews the modern anthropogenic responses to desertification. Dunes and Hamadas: Environmental Sustainability of the Thar Desert, Keywords: Rajasthan; climate change; aridification; sand dunes; environmental impact; landscape West India. Sustainability 2021, 13, degradation; settlement sustainability; geoheritage 3602. https://doi.org/10.3390/ su13073602 Academic Editor: Gabrijel Ondrasek 1. Introduction Received: 22 December 2020 Present aridification is a worldwide phenomenon threatening regional ecosystems Accepted: 3 March 2021 and economies [1–5]. The trends of globally progressing landscape dryness reflect the Published: 24 March 2021 changes in atmospheric circulation patterns, solar insolation and windiness contributing to regional climate continentality. The combination of these factors predetermines geomorphic Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral landscape dynamics, groundwater resources and environmental sustainability. with regard to jurisdictional claims in The Thar Desert is the driest place of the arid zone of the NW Indian subcontinent published maps and institutional affil- (Figure1). Past geomorphic processes related to orogenesis and climate change acting iations. on this territory generated a diversity of landforms depending on the structural geology and bedrock intensity weathering and the resulting depositional bodies. Natural land- scapes have been changed by modern human activities modifying the original relief and contributing to the present environmental vulnerability and a loss of natural resilience. Copyright: © 2021 by the author. The ongoing desertification manifested by an increase of MAAT and a precipitation Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. decrease over most of NW India [6] triggers a mass, large-scale sediment transfer and This article is an open access article ground surface salinity (both severely affecting agrarian lands). These natural processes distributed under the terms and pose major threats to the local ecosystems and limitations to the rural occupation habitats. conditions of the Creative Commons In western Rajasthan, the annual rainfall is estimated to have dropped by ≈ 15% over the Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// past 100 years [7]. The sparse desert vegetation cover contributes to intensified windiness creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ and a large-scale sand transport generating an active dune-fields’ formation. 4.0/). Sustainability 2021, 13, 3602. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13073602 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 16 Sustainability 2021, 13, 3602 2 of 16 past 100 years [7]. The sparse desert vegetation cover contributes to intensified windiness and a large-scale sand transport generating an active dune-fields’ formation. FigureFigure 1. GeographyGeography of of the the Thar Thar Desert Desert (West India–East Pakistan) (the satellite map by Google Earth). TheThe arid zone of NW India shows a differential degree of landscape degradation in termsterms of environmentalenvironmental stability,stability, natural natural restoration restoration capability capability and and socioeconomic socioeconomic sustain- sus- tainabilityability because because of the of variablythe variably co-acting co-acting adverse adverse natural natural and humanand human factors. factors. These These have havea direct a direct bearing bearing on the on inhabitability the inhabitability of the of traditional the traditional settlement settlement loci inloci the in desert. the desert. The Thesame same concerns concerns the climatically the climatically more more favourable favourable and densely and densely occupied occupied northern northern and eastern and easternareas of areas Rajasthan of Rajasthan receiving receiving an increased an increased annual rainfallannual rainfall (300–500 (300–500 mm) which mm) allowswhich foral- lowsan intensive, for an intensive, largely irrigation-basedlargely irrigation-based agricultural agricultural economy. economy. Presently, Presently, >5800 km>58002 of km the2 ofland the are land severely are severely degraded, degraded, 24,430 24,430 km2 degraded, km2 degraded, 73,740 73,740 km2 moderatelykm2 moderately degraded, degraded, and and526,900 526,900 km2 kmare2 slightlyare slightly degraded degraded [8]. [8]. The The unfavourable unfavourable landscape landscape shifts shifts are countermea-are counter- measuredsured by the by regionalthe regional land-management land-management strategies strategies that arethat aimed are aimed at securing at securing the ecological the eco- logicalstability stability of the state. of the The state. responding The respondi environmentalng environmental sustainability sustainability management management includes, includesamong other, among an other artificial an landscapeartificial landscape re-vegetation re-vegetation by planting byselected planting xerothermic selected xerother- bushes micand bushes trees, fixing and trees, the activated fixing the sand activated dune fields; sand dune implementation fields; implementation of a diversified of a land-use diversi- fiedpolicy, land-use mainly policy, promoting mainly adaptive promoting drought-resistant adaptive drought-resistant cultigens; and cultigens; the construction and the of con- the structionrainfall-water of the retention rainfall-water dams for retention year-round dams water for availability.year-round Thesewater ecologyavailability. precaution These ecologymeasures precaution against the measures progressing against regional the progressing aridification regional and thearidification large-scale and desert the large- sand scaletransfer desert are sand intended transfer to secure are intended future industrial to secure future growth industrial along with growth the long-term along with rising the long-termdemography rising particularly demography due partic to urbanisationularly due [ 9to]. urbanisation [9]. 2 Rajasthan,Rajasthan, as as the largest and most arid state of India (342,239(342,239 kmkm²),), experiences the majormajor social and economic challenges backed backed-up-up by increasing revenues from different sectorssectors (agriculture, mining, services, transp transportation,ortation, tourism), reflecting reflecting the improving livelihoodlivelihood conditions conditions of of the residents. The The expanding transport network has facilitated betterbetter accessibility accessibility to the marginal marginal pristine desert areas for development and trade, as well asas new new settlements settlements that that have have moved moved from from the the densely densely populated populated eastern eastern parts parts of of the the state. state. This progress, inin turn,turn, generatesgenerates serious serious environmental environmental threats threats due due to to the the rising rising population popula- (from ≈1 million to 30 million over the past 50 years, with the current ≈130 people/km2 population density) in the formerly sparsely populated western wasteland area. This leads to a gradual depletion of natural resources (mainly ground water and arable land). At present, about 80% of western Rajasthan is affected by a certain form of land degradation; Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 16 tion (from ≈ 1 million to 30 million over the past 50 years, with the current ≈ 130 peo- ple/km2 population density) in the formerly sparsely populated wasteland area. This leads to a gradual depletion of natural resources (mainly ground water and arable land). At present, about 80 % of western Rajasthan is affected by a certain form of land degradation; >73 % is subjected to wind erosion and sand dune deposition [10] (Figures 2 and 3). Veg- etation retreat,
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