The Middle Palaeolithic in the Desert and Its Implications for Understanding Hominin Adaptation and Dispersal

Quaternary International 300 (2013) 1–12

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Guest Editorial The Middle Palaeolithic in the desert and its implications for understanding hominin adaptation and dispersal

1. Introduction: into the desert location of major changes in hominin demography during the Pleis- tocene. These demographic changes relate to both the expansion The mid-latitude desert belt extending from the Atlantic coast of and dispersal of hominin populations and changing patterns of North Africa, through the Middle East and deep into Asia is one of behaviour and hence survivability. The dispersal of Homo sapiens the fundamental environmental and biogeographical features of from sub-Saharan Africa into Eurasia must have involved the colo- the modern world. Although today much of this region can only nisation and occupation of the mid-latitude arid belt. Given the be inhabited as a result of complex cultural adaptations to these analogous environmental and climatic settings of North Africa arid environments (e.g. irrigation, camel domestication, etc.), a and southern Asia, the binary opposition of Africa and Eurasia ap- rich variety of archaeological evidence attests to the occupation pears to be an unproductive approach to understand how hominins of the desert belt during the Pleistocene. The aim of this volume were able to expand into new, diverse habitats. Rather than the cur- of Quaternary International is to explore the Palaeolithic occupation rent focus upon modern human dispersals ‘Out of Africa’, we sug- of this desert belt, and highlight these regions as critical to under- gest a reorientation towards understanding the dispersal of standing changes in hominin behaviour and demography that have hominins ‘Into the Saharo-Arabian Belt’. occurred during the Middle and Upper Pleistocene. It is important to recognise that the opportunities to exploit new As several papers in this volume discuss, the mid-latitude desert resources made available in the deserts by the onset of enhanced belt has undergone profound climatic and environmental changes humidity were not solely the preserve of modern humans. The in the Pleistocene, which continue in the Holocene. This dynamism colonisation of these desert environments during periods of hu- is clearly one of the central features of this area. Deserts are typi- midity did not only occur from Africa, but also from Eurasia, in cally defined as regions receiving less than 250 mm mean annual what Dennell (2009, 2013) have characterised as the “scramble rainfall, with semi-arid regions receiving between 250 and for Asia”. It is within these desert landscapes that the earliest con- 500 mm mean annual rainfall (MAR). Fig. 1 shows average modern tact between modern humans and Neanderthals, including poten- rainfall values. However, behind such averages lies dramatic tial interbreeding (e.g. Green et al., 2010), may have occurred. Given annual, decadal and centennial variability in rainfall that can have this situation the organisational heuristic of the ‘Middle Palaeo- profound impacts upon contemporary occupants of these drylands lithic’ offers a more objective way to compare hominin behaviour at a generational scale. in the desert belt than framing variation in terms of inter-species During the Middle and Upper Pleistocene, there was significant contrasts, when hominin fossil material is rare and spatially biased. variability in humidity at millennial timescales, somewhat Simple associations of forms of technology and particular hominin removed from the experience of the hominin inhabitants of these species should be avoided. regions. Within these broad scale variations finer scale fluctuations The Middle Palaeolithic covers the period from around 300,000 would also have occurred. For the purposes of this introduction, we to 30,000 years ago. We use the term Middle Palaeolithic synony- refer to those regions that experienced arid (Europe equals Neanderthals) are typi- on past precipitation levels. Short and long term variability in hu- cally formulated at the expense of Asia. They also downplay the midity in these desert regions is likely to have played a driving complexity of the evolutionary process in areas like Africa. The cre- role in the colonisation and occupation of the mid-latitude arid ation of the term ‘Middle Stone Age’ reflected the early 20th century belt by hominin populations, as well as, ultimately, their extirpa- belief that although broadly comparable to the Eurasian Middle tion. Previous publications on the archaeology of desert environ- Palaeolithic the MSA was both younger and more short-lived. ments include Barker and Gilbertson (2000), Veth et al. (2005) Goodwin and Van Riet Lowe (1929) are quite explicit in their claim and Mol and Sternberg (2012). Most previous research has focussed that the MSA reflected the dispersal of either ideas or populations of on the Holocene, and significant questions remain in relation to the ‘Mousterians’ from the north. Now that the initial premises for the Pleistocene occupation of arid environments. separation of the MSA have been disproven, the distinction between As the mid-latitude desert belt separates the African and ‘Middle Stone Age’ and ‘Middle Palaeolithic’ is largely arbitrary, and Eurasian landmasses, these landscapes are likely to have been the the latter term has taxonomic precedence, although we respect the

Fig. 1. Average annual rainfall between 1950 and 2000 (following Hijmans et al., 2005). choice of scholars to use terminology of their own choosing. For this Secondly, as the availability of water is a limiting factor upon the reason in this introduction we often use the terminology the au- occupation of these desert landscapes, developing a more detailed, thors of the particular paper being discussed use. regional understanding of chronometrically constrained palaeoen- Previous publications have addressed particularly regions vironmental variability is critical. Orbital scale global climatic within the desert belt, including North Africa (Hublin and changes form a coherent backdrop to Middle and Upper Pleistocene McPherron, 2012), North Africa and the Levant (Wendorf and palaeoenvironmental variability, well characterised by 18O marine Marks, 1975), and Arabia (Petraglia and Rose, 2009). More thematic and ice cores such as SPECMAP. However, localised terrestrial prox- concerns have included the nature of Levallois technology (Dibble ies present evidence for how a particular region has responded to and Bar-Yosef, 1995) and ‘transitions’ in the Middle Palaeolithic these large-scale climate changes. Significantly, a millennium of (Hovers and Kuhn, 2006). While our knowledge of the Middle humidity in the desert belt may not be apparent in records from Palaeolithic has improved dramatically in recent years, a number the North Atlantic, but may have had dramatic impacts upon hom- of significant biases remain. In spatial terms, most of our knowledge inin demography, and the archaeological record for occupation of of the Middle Palaeolithic comes from Europe, the Levant and South these regions. Africa. This volume contributes towards a partial restoration of this Thirdly, the means to compare archaeological assemblages be- bias. Likewise, much of our understanding comes from deeply strat- tween North Africa and southern Asia are paramount to the inves- ified cave sites (e.g. Tabun). Open air and surface sites are common tigation of hominin dispersal and evolution. The majority of the parts of the record and all forms of material culture need to be stud- desert belt, such as much of the Sahara, Arabia and Iranian Plateau, ied in order to understand the past. are known through rare excavations and a larger number of This focus upon colonisation of desert landscapes by hominins, deflated surface assemblages. Any assessment of the archaeological and the interaction of dispersals and behavioural evolution, has a record of the mid-latitude desert belt must transcend both the number of ramifications. Firstly, the directionality of hominin colo- diverse nature of the archaeological record, and the terminologies nisation of the deserts will be linked to resource availability, rather that have been developed to describe it. than any pre-determined destination. As a result, the dispersal of The key to addressing a number of these issues is to promote human populations to the Maghreb should be placed on equal engagement between archaeologists and palaeoenvironmental re- footing with their dispersal to the Thar Desert, particularly as searchers working across the mid-latitude desert belt. This volume similar distances are covered from a potential East African area of of Quaternary International comprises the proceedings of the Mid- endemism. Developing a broader understanding of how Pleistocene dle Palaeolithic in the Desert conference, held at Wolfson College, hominins were able to adapt to these environments will enable a University of Oxford, on the 13th and 14th January 2012, with the more detailed assessment of particular hypotheses proposed by re- aim of promoting such engagement. In total, 27 papers were pre- searchers (e.g. whether modern humans first passed through the sented over two days at the conference, by teams based in 13 Sinai or crossed the Red Sea at the Bab-al-Mandab). different nations, and working across the Sahara, Arabia, the Levant, Guest Editorial / Quaternary International 300 (2013) 1–12 3

Iran and India. Other papers in this volume were provided by col- While both the Sahara and Arabia show evidence for periodic hu- leagues who were unable to attend the conference. In the following mid episodes in the glacial period of MIS 6, these also seem to occur sections, we will outline the main themes of the papers in this vol- at slightly different times. They relate these differences to the vary- ume under the titles of ‘Biogeography and environmental change’, ing responses of the weather systems involved. MIS 5 was wet in ‘North African Archaeology’ and ‘southern Asian Archaeology’, both areas, and environmental change was broadly synchronous although the latter two sections are broadly contiguous as organ- in this phase. ised from west to east. Following this the implications of the papers Parton et al. (2013) present the most detailed lacustrine evi- will be discussed. dence yet published on the MIS 3 pluvial in Arabia. In contrast to traditional dates putting this late in MIS 3 (w40–20 ka), their study 2. Biogeography and environmental change shows this occurred rather earlier (ca. 61–58 ka). Their evidence comes from a multiproxy analysis of lake sediments in the Sharjah Evidence for ancient climate change in today’s deserts and Emirate of the United Arab Emirates. Other evidence for humidity bordering semi-arid areas has long been recognised, and palaeo- between w60 and 50 ka in Arabia include alluvial deposition in lakes and palaeorivers are some of the characteristic features of central Saudi Arabia (McLaren et al., 2009) and in Wadi Surdud, the arid belt. However, it is only in recent times that techniques Yemen (Delagnes et al., 2012, 2013; Sitzia et al., 2012). Parton to date (most of the Upper Pleistocene, let alone earlier times, lies et al. (2013) suggest that a northern movement of monsoonal pre- beyond reliable radiocarbon age) and analyse climatic and environ- cipitation led to repeated lake formation in early MIS 3. mental change have been developed. Atkinson et al. (2013) describe Upper Pleistocene and early Ho- Dennell (2013) reviews the environmental history of Asian de- locene palaeoenvironmental change in the United Arab Emirates. serts. Against a dynamic character of growth and contraction Their evidence consists of sedimentary sequences from two sites, from well before the Pleistocene, there appears to have a strong both dated by a suite of Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) trend towards aridification from the Middle Pleistocene onwards. estimates. Humid conditions in the area, evidenced by features This was a driver of geographical isolation and therefore hominin such as the presence of river gravels, occurred in MIS 5e, 5a and 1 speciation and cultural developments. Aside from summarising (early Holocene). The Holocene Wet Phase in Arabia offers an anal- their history and interaction with hominins, Dennell reminds us ogy for earlier, Pleistocene, pluvial episodes (see also e.g. Parker, that there is considerable variation between deserts. An example 2009; Groucutt and Petraglia, 2012). The MIS 5 evidence provides relates to winter temperatures. landscape scale evidence for increased humidity and context for Finlayson (2013) proposes the Water Optimisation Hypothesis, emerging evidence of hominin occupation in southern Arabia, at suggesting that Homo occupy an intermediate position on the hu- sites such as Jebel Faya (Armitage et al., 2011; Bretzke et al., midity spectrum, preferring semi-arid to semi-humid environ- 2013). Atkinson et al. (2013) offer a contribution towards under- ments over either extreme. His analysis of 357 sites occupied by standing palaeoenvironmental change at a landscape rather than Homo between 200 and 10 ka indicate a number of hotspots for hu- site level and demonstrates that areas such as the Rub’ al-Khali man habitation. While noting interesting insights into the organisa- were transformed during periods of increased precipitation. tion of settlement patterns across northern Eurasia, North America Bretzke et al. (2013) also focus on the environmental evolution of and the Pacific Rim, Finlayson (2013) highlights the mid-latitude south-eastern Arabia. They present an analysis of sedimentary arid belt as an optimal region for Pleistocene hominin occupations. sequence of the site of Jebel Faya, Sharjah Emirate, UAE. Jebel Faya The role of these desert landscapes is characterised as crucibles of preserves evidence for hominin occupation in the Upper Pleisto- human evolution and central to Pleistocene hominin expansions, cene, with three layers producing archaeological material which rather than corridors that were rapidly traversed. This analysis sug- the excavators argue demonstrates a dispersal of H. sapiens from Af- gests H.s. sapiens and H.s. neanderthalensis addressed different con- rica around the transition from MIS 6 to 5 followed by autochtho- texts in a similar manner, corroborating the suggestion that shared nous evolution and the creation of a regionally distinctive material requirements for access to water resources exist at the genus level, culture (Armitage et al., 2011). Bretzke et al. (2013) demonstrate although greater mobility in sapiens populations may have variation in particle size and phytolith assemblages to show that permitted deeper penetration into the aridity gradient. Assemblage C, dating to MIS 5e, was deposited in sediments during Boivin et al. (2013) focus on the possibility of a successful ‘Out of a time of increased precipitation and an environment characterised Africa’ dispersal of H. sapiens in Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 5. They by grasses and trees. The younger archaeological layers are associ- describe the flora and fauna which hominins could have used to ated with decreasing levels of C3 grasses and increasing levels of disperse through what is today desert. Their efforts make a contri- C4 grasses with decreasing age, indicating that the human occupa- bution to the need to translate evidence for environmental change tions were associated with conditions which became less wet in a to a human scale. With climatic amelioration they model a spread of stepwise fashion. Archaeologically sterile layers at the site contain ‘Sahel’ type vegetation through areas such as Arabia, which would sediments demonstrating an arid landscape and a paucity of have provided seeds, fruit, herbivores, etc. Along riverine corridors vegetation. additional resources such as both larger and small game, as well as Finally, in terms of papers in the volume focussing on biogeo- birds, and fish and various plants, would have been available. graphical and environmental data, Cordova et al. (2013) present a Conversely, during more arid periods the desert expanded, and geoarchaeological study of the Azraq Oasis, Jordan. Their study re- this seems to have been an unlikely time for hominin dispersals. peats the evidence for environmental fluctuation in the mid lati- Drake et al. (2013) present the first large scale comparison of tude arid belt described in other publications, but offers two palaeoenvironmental data from the Sahara and Arabia. They use a significant nuances. Firstly, they demonstrate that wet conditions probability density function (PDF) approach to understand the at Azraq are asynchronous with other environmental records and, temporal distribution of indicators of humid conditions and secondly, that the area appears to have acted as a refugium for geographical information system (GIS) analysis to understand hominin populations when surrounding areas became arid. Given spatial variation. While their analysis reveals a broad similarity be- the location of the Azraq Oasis, as a nexus of South–West Asia, their tween Arabia and the Sahara, it also shows some interesting differ- results have implications for the understanding of cultural and de- ences. Both areas show evidence for an MIS 3 pluvial, but this mographic factors in the Middle Palaeolithic. As regional climates occurred several thousand years later in the Sahara than Arabia. deteriorated it is logical to assume that hominin populations 4 Guest Editorial / Quaternary International 300 (2013) 1–12 contracted into areas which retained water and other critical re- as being similar to the Lupemban of sub-Saharan Africa. Other sites sources. These refugia have typically been postulated rather than include tanged artefacts and bifacial foliates, and are ascribed to the demonstrated, and while much more research needs to be conduct- Aterian. By extrapolation from sites such as Uan Tabu, they suggest ed at Azraq, as elsewhere, its importance has clearly been demon- that the Aterian in their area dates to MIS 4. strated. It must also be remembered that alongside ‘classic refugia’ Foley et al. (2013) describe the results of recent fieldwork in the it is probable that ‘cryptic refugia’ also played a role in determining Ubari sand sea and Messak plateau areas of central Sahara (Libya), patterns of hominin demography (Bennet and Provan, 2008). in the context of evolutionary and demographic processes of the wider African Middle Stone Age. North Africa was where MSA adap- 3. North African archaeology tations, hypothesised to have evolved in the East African centre of endemism for H. sapiens, were tested. A rich Middle Stone Age re- Several papers focus on the Middle Stone Age/Middle Palaeo- cord is present in their survey area, and indeed a majority of sites lithic of North Africa, offering analyses and descriptions of recent either included or were exclusively MSA, including many with surveys, collections and excavations as well as reinterpretations Aterian characteristics. They describe the excavation of the and applications of novel methodologies. Several lithic techno- MES11-T2 site. A number of different reduction strategies are complexes have been described in North Africa, but how these attested. Large blade production and façonnage methods are found vary and relate to one another is poorly understood. The analyses in the Messak assemblages and are described in detail. Foley et al. of lithic technology offered by these papers complement recent ad- (2013) suggest some similarities with Lupemban and Sangoan in- vances in our understanding of hominin fossil morphological vari- dustries found in Sub-Saharan Africa. The diversity of MSA assem- ability and arguments relating to ‘symbolic’ behaviour. blages can be taken as indicating the adaptive and technological Scerri (2013) presents a comparative analysis of six North Afri- flexibility of hominins, but improved chronological control is can lithic assemblages, which have previously been described as needed to substantiate such ideas. ‘Aterian’, ‘Nubian Complex’ and ‘Middle Stone Age’. Her analysis Reynolds (2013) presents a discussion of the lithic assemblages both seeks to cast light on the history and context by which the of Haua Fteah (Cyrenaica, Libya) (cf. McBurney, 1967). Reynolds Aterian was defined and then uses Principal Components and Cor- (2013) presents both a re-evaluation of the McBurney lithic archive respondence Analyses to compare the selected assemblages. She and insights from the recent fieldwork of the Cyrenaica Prehistory demonstrates that lithic variability in North Africa does not neatly Project. Following, McBurney’s classification, the two major phases articulate with traditional named industries. For instance, the of interest for the present volume are the ‘Pre-Aurignacian’ and Aterian in northeast Africa is more similar to the ‘Nubian Complex’ ‘Levalloiso-Mousterian’. The former is known from a small excava- in that area than it is to the Aterian in northwest Africa. From the tion into the deeper layers of the site. Reynolds (2013) argues that results of her multivariate analyses Scerri (2013) suggests that the the typology and technology of the Pre-Aurignacian are actually North African Middle Stone Age record reflects aspects of popula- broadly the same as those found in the younger Levalloiso- tion structure, which is both important in understanding demog- Mousterian, while features such as the presence of core manage- raphy in North Africa and in providing context to a possible ment elements in the Pre-Aurignacian, but not in the Levalloiso- source area of out of Africa dispersals. Her results contradict tradi- Mousterian, may indicate differences in how the site was used. Rey- tional narratives, which she argues reflects an “interpretation nolds suggests that the Haua Fteah lithics are similar to ‘Tabun-C’ before description” approach. Finally, Scerri’s paper illustrates the type assemblages from the Levant, which may reflect the existence utility of quantitative methods comparing multiple measures of of south–east Mediterranean biome/cultural area, or technological similarities and differences and the power of these methods to convergence. transcend traditionally qualitative and overly regional analyses. Goder-Goldberger (2013) presents the results of a detailed anal- Arzarello et al. (2013) offer new data on recently discovered ysis of the ‘Khormusan’ site of 1017, located near the Nile’s Second Middle Stone Age sites in the Tafilalt and Drâa Valley areas of the Cataract (see also Marks, 1968). As with other Khormusan sites, Moroccan Sahara. Their paper presents a description of the 1017 is an excavated site in a region dominated by surface scatters. different reduction sequences seen at the studied sites. Similar The chronology of the assemblage is, however, uncertain. Goder- reduction schemes – Système par surface de débitage alterné (an Goldberger argues that the Dibeira-Jer formation in which 1017 oc- opportunistic approach), Levallois, discoidal, core on flake and curs may date to around MIS 5a, somewhat older than previously laminar reduction methods were used at the Middle Stone Age sites suggested. Goder-Goldberger (2013) argues that 1017 and other in the Moroccan Sahara, but in varying frequencies. The Aterian as- Khormusan sites demonstrate the use of a wider variety of raw ma- semblages, for instance, feature low levels of discoidal debitage and terials than other Middle Palaeolithic industries in the area and that relatively high levels of laminar debitage, alongside the production there is a correlation between raw material types and the forms of of distinctive ‘tanged’ (pedunculated) tools for which the Aterian is technology used. most well-known. This study, along with several other papers in Finally, in terms of North African Middle Stone Age sites, Beyin this volume, shows the information which can be gathered from (2013) describes a new assemblage from coastal Eritrea, collected surface sites, which while lacking good chronological control, from a site called Asfet. Diverse core morphologies are present, possess desirable features such as excellent spatial visibility. and the greater numbers of blade than discoidal cores or Leval- Cancellieri and di Lernia (2013) describe and contextualise Mid- lois/prepared cores presents an interesting example of the dle Stone Age sites of the Messak plateau in southwestern Libya. techno-typological variability of the Middle Palaeolithic. Retouched The sites are again from surface contexts, so precise chronology re- tools from Asfet include both larger bifaces and small points. Beyin mains unclear. The spatial information of the surface record is again suggests that the evidence from Asfet indicates that the region prominent, and by conducting systematic surveys Cancellieri and di played a significant role as both a hominin refugium and part of a Lernia (2013) were able to discover hundreds of sites. Their clear dispersal corridor into southwest Asia. Clearly much more field- and explicit methodology offers a good example of a survey meth- work needs to be conducted in areas like Eritrea, but with the odology suitable to arid environments. As an example of the typo- recent discoveries described by Beyin (2013) the potential of the technological diversity of the Messak area, Cancellieri and di Lernia area has been demonstrated and the Asfet assemblage can now (2013) describe the site of AU 10/578. With its features such as a feature in debates on typological and technological variability and Nubian core, a bifacial foliate, and backed pieces, they describe it their implications. Guest Editorial / Quaternary International 300 (2013) 1–12 5

4. Southern Asian archaeology (‘Leptolithic’ and Holocene assemblages are closer still, giving a relative chronology). In compiling this volume a major aim was to attempt to Vahdati Nasab et al. (2013) present an analysis of lithics from the encourage a fusion of research in Africa and Asia, and for our basic site of Mirak, central Iran. The Iranian Middle Palaeolithic is, along contextual units to be biogeographical rather than modern- with the areas discussed above, poorly known. Most of what is political. Several papers in the volume present new information known is from the caves and rockshelters of the Zagros Mountains on Asian sites. It is hoped that over time researchers in Africa and area. They describe the Mirak assemblage as being focussed on Asia will move towards adopting similar nomenclatures and meth- flake production and being highly Levallois and, as has been previ- odologies, aiding comparisons through space and time. ously described for Iranian sites, featuring high levels of retouch. As Culley et al. (2013) present a major analysis of the ‘composi- more recent work (e.g. Olszewski and Dibble, 1993; Otte et al., tional integrity’ of the commonly discussed ‘B, C and D’ facies of 2009; Vahdati Nasab, 2011) transcends earlier descriptions (e.g. the Levantine Middle Palaeolithic, defined in the mid-twentieth Skinner, 1965), the variability of the Middle Palaeolithic in Iran is century by Dorothy Garrod (Garrod and Bate, 1937). In addition, becoming ever more apparent, and the information from Mirak the provision of their datasets as supplementary files constitutes adds another dimension to this. Although a surface site, Vahdati an extremely useful resource for future scholars. The character of Nasab and colleagues argue that Mirak has good spatial integrity. the Levantine facies has several implications for our understanding They argue for a ‘situational’ understanding of sites such as Mirak, of hominin evolution in South–West Asia. The ‘C’ type assemblages particularly in relation to factors such as differences in mobility. (e.g. Hovers, 2009) are found with fossils attributed to H. sapiens at Along with the distribution of other known sites, Vahdati Nasab sites such as Skhul and Qafzeh. ‘B’ type assemblages have been et al. (2013) suggest that Mirak lies on a dispersal corridor across found with Neanderthal fossils at sites such as Kebara and Amud. Iran. This extends from the north of the Zagros Mountains and The idea of a neat distinction between the facies has, however, skirts the Alborz Mountains and central desert. Alongside a route received criticism and it appears that diversity in the Levantine south of the Zagros Mountains, this may have been a major route Middle Palaeolithic is not merely temporal, but also spatial. As for hominin dispersal across Iran. Goren-Inbar and Belfer-Cohen (1998, 214) describe, almost the Blinkhorn (2013) presents a reanalysis and contextualisation of entire range of core variability is represented at most Levantine the site of 16R Dune, from the Thar Desert of western India. The sites. In such a situation simple qualitative distinctions between as- Thar Desert marks the eastern limit of the modern Saharo- semblages/facies are problematic, and the quantification of varia- Arabian biogeographic zone (e.g. Holt et al., 2013) and therefore a tion assumes paramount importance. To Culley et al. (2013), their zone of transition, and hence necessarily of hominin adaptation, results indicate that the C and B facies cannot be separated as to the ‘Oriental’ realm. The presence of the highland chain to the coherent and discreet industries. north is also likely to have channelled hominin dispersals in South Delagnes et al. (2013) discuss the character and context of the Asia into the environs of the Thar Desert. During periods of climatic MIS 3 (w55 ka) Middle Palaeolithic assemblages of Wadi Surdud, amelioration the Thar Desert would have acted as a gateway to the western Yemen, and particularly the site of Shi’bat Dihya 1. The mosaic environments of the Indian peninsula. 16R Dune is a character of faunal remains and the presence of gypsum precipita- frequently cited locality as one of the few examples of a South Asian tion and formation of calcretes both indicate that the environment sequence with multiple archaeological horizons and chronometric was semi-arid to arid. The Yemen Highlands, often cited as a age estimates. Blinkhorn (2013) reviews and synthesises the sedi- possible refugial area, are likely to have a critical role to play in mentary, archaeological and chronometric evidence from 16R hominin demographic processes in Arabia. Delagnes et al. (2013) Dune. A significant point to emerge is that archaeological material discuss the wider picture of MIS 3 lithic technological variation previously dated to 26 ka and previously referred to as ‘Upper across the Saharo-Arabian arid belt in MIS 3, a time of population Palaeolithic’ is actually of Middle Palaeolithic character, and dates contraction in contrast to the expansion and dispersals of MIS 5. to between 40 and 80 ka. Considering this against competing the- Usik et al. (2013) analyse recently discovered Middle Palaeo- ories of hominin dispersals, Blinkhorn (2013) argues that evidence lithic assemblages from Dhofar, south-western Oman. Virtually all from 16R and elsewhere in the Thar Desert does not support the of the identified Pleistocene sites in Dhofar come exclusively from idea of a post MIS-5 dispersal of H. sapiens associated with backed surface scatters. Usik et al. (2013) therefore focus their analysis and crescentic lithics and ‘symbolic’ material culture (Mellars, on particular assemblages which have good spatial integrity, as 2006). In contrast the evidence is what would be predicted given indicated by features such as the presence of refits, the similarity the dispersal of H. sapiens through the ameliorated environments of weathering and homogenous technology. From their collections of south Asia in MIS 5 (see also Boivin et al., 2013). Usik et al. (2013) were able to identify numerous refitting constel- lations which, along with an analysis of particular morphological 5. Discussion and technological features, they use to describe the main elements of core reduction variability in the ‘Nubian Complex’ sites of Dhofar. 5.1. Scales of analysis and the environmental context of adaptation To Usik et al. (2013) their assemblages fall within an “Afro-Arabian hypotheses Nubian Technocomplex” (cf. e.g. Guichard and Guichard, 1965; Van Peer, 1998; Rose et al., 2011). Within the Dhofar ‘Nubian Complex’ Developing our understanding of the relationship between Usik et al. (2013) argue for a distinction between ‘Classic Nubian’ environmental change and hominin behaviour, demography and sites and an industry they define as the ‘Mudayyan’. The Mudayyan dispersal necessitates advances in a number of fields, and as ever, material is both smaller, some very diminutive indeed, and features the question of scale is key. Fig. 2 contrasts modelled estimates of some morphological and technological differences with the ‘classic’ rainfall in MIS 5e and the Last Glacial Maximum. These demon- material, such as a flattening of debitage surfaces. They suggest that strate the significant differences in environmental characteristics the Mudayyan is a younger, derived form of technology flowing between arid and humid periods. With arid periods, for which from the earlier classic Nubian. The younger age is supported by the Last Glacial Maximum provides an example and analogue, the the consistently significantly reduced levels of weathering/patina- desert regions expanded to their maximum extent. Conversely, dur- tion seen on the Mudayyan material, and on geomorphological ing humid episodes such as the Last Interglacial, vast areas were grounds as the sites are closer to eroding sources of raw material transformed into desirable habitats for hominins. It must be 6 Guest Editorial / Quaternary International 300 (2013) 1–12

Fig. 2. Maps indicating modelled annual rainfall: a) during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) (above; following Braconnot et al., 2003); and b) during peak humidity of the Last Interglacial (Marine Isotope Stage 5e) (below; following Otto-Bliesner et al., 2006). Guest Editorial / Quaternary International 300 (2013) 1–12 7 emphasised that the models shown in Fig. 2 only reflect precipita- 5.3. Hominin adaptation to arid environments tion in particular areas, and other sources of humidity, such as rivers from neighbouring regions of greater rainfall, will also have A key theme this volume sought to address was the notion of played a role in environmental amelioration at a landscape level. hominin adaptation to arid environments In previous works on These models offer only the broadest scale picture of change in the archaeology of desert areas, for example the chapters in Veth these regions over the timescale of a glacial–interglacial cycle; et al. (2005) and Barker and Gilbertson (2000), it has mostly been beyond the scale of hominin experience, but are valuable to appre- argued that ‘adaptation’ to arid environments was essentially a Ho- ciate the dramatic nature of environmental change. locene phenomenon. Specialised technical solutions to the limited There is a clear need to move beyond simplifications, such as the availability of water developed in Holocene societies, it has been idea that ‘interglacials’ saw a uniform transformation of the desert suggested, while in the Pleistocene it appears that hominins tended into a desirable human habitat, while ‘glacials’ led to regional extinc- to track favourable environments (Finlayson, 2013). There are, how- tion. Within thousands of years of increased rainfall, what would the ever, complications to this narrative. As far back as the Early Pleis- effect of a few hundred years of climatic deterioration be? And how tocene, the sites of Bizat Ruhama and Nahal Hesi in the Negev may would such a temporary trend appear in environmental records? demonstrate occupation in open and semi-arid environments Likewise, a few hundred years of increased humidity in a generally (Yeshurun et al., 2011). At the palaeolakes of Bir Tarfawi and Bir arid period may not be much in palaeoenvironmental terms, but in Sahara in southwest Egypt repeated lake formation during humid such a time a human population could undergo dramatic demo- periods of the Middle and Upper Pleistocene correlates with a graphic expansions and, in theory, disperse for thousands of miles. rich archaeological record (Wendorf et al., 1993). At the site of Bir A significant limiting factor remains the coarse nature of our chrono- Sahara-12 (BS-12) several features described as ‘water holes’ were logical control, as error ranges of thousands of years make establish- identified, dug through several layers of sediment (Campbell, ing clear links between environmental changes and hominin 1992). Campbell (1992) argues against an explanation such as ani- demography problematic. Similarly, there is clear evidence for spatial mal burrowing on the grounds of the smooth sides of the features. variation in palaeoenvironmental records. This applies both at a The putatively human dug water holes were dug next to a basin in broad scale (e.g. Drake et al., 2013), a medium scale (e.g. Cordova marshy conditions, and may have acted as shallow wells to access et al., 2013) and at a localised level (e.g. Blinkhorn et al., 2012). seasonally fluctuating water. To Campbell (1992) the findings demonstrate Middle Palaeolithic adaptation to arid conditions. Outside the area this volume focuses on, such as in Australia, de- 5.2. The archaeological context of hominin adaptation bates continue on whether Pleistocene humans were occupying arid areas (e.g. Smith, 1987, 2013) or rather largely inhabiting envi- From the archaeological papers in this volume, many common ronmentally ameliorated landscapes (e.g. Hiscock and Wallis, themes are evident in terms of how hominin behaviour and hence 2005). Even if the early human occupation of arid areas in Australia ‘adaptation’ are understood. It is clear that a great proportion of the is firmly demonstrated, the specific characteristics of this area – archaeology of the desert occurs on the surface, reflecting a such as the character of the fauna there – mean that it is problem- frequent dominance of erosional over depositional processes in atic to generalise to the mid latitude arid belt. arid zones. While this has clear downsides, such as a lack of precise There are various ways in which ‘adaptation’ to aridity can be chronological context, several papers also describe the benefits understood, and archaeologists should aim to be more precise in including spatial visibility and the potential for refitting. It must their use of the term. The mere presence of hominins in an arid not be forgotten that virtually all Palaeolithic archaeological mate- environment can be taken as an indication of adaptation, but as dis- rial is initially deposited on the surface, and only some of it subse- cussed above the problem of the incongruence between the scales quently buried after variable lengths of time and after being subject of resolution of environmental changes and those of human soci- to numerous natural and cultural modifications. Recent develop- eties are currently hard to reconcile. We may see adaptation to ments in the archaeology of surface contexts show their great po- aridity in other ways, such as in terms of technological change, tential and the need to develop suitable methods (e.g. Fanning either in terms of a single ‘transition’, or in terms of change over et al., 2008). Some buried assemblages are more promising for time correlating with environmental variation. If there is a biolog- behavioural reconstruction than others. In contrast to taphonomi- ical basis to the ability of hominins to occupy arid environments, it cally complex caves and rockshelters, sites such as those in Wadi is perhaps more likely to be in terms of ‘pre-adaptation’ than adap- Surdud (Delagnes et al., 2013) appear to have been rapidly covered tation as such. The evolution of features such as extended working in alluvium shortly after formation and therefore have excellent memory and larger social networks would have aided in the colo- spatial preservation. nisation of arid environments. From such bases, contingent and The example of the Wadi Surdud is also pertinent in terms of repeated processes of cultural adaptation occurred which built research strategy. The choice to deliberately target the area be- on, but did not automatically flow from, the derived social and tween the Yemeni highlands which are largely stripped of sedi- cognitive features of hominins. Adaptation to aridity can be inter- ments and the lowlands which are largely covered in Holocene preted both in terms of the ability to survive arid conditions, and sediments rewarded the discoverers well. A combination of sys- to rapidly colonise them during periods of amelioration. The differ- tematic surveys and collections of surface material, anchored in ence between ‘adaptation’ in a ‘positive’ sense, i.e. an increase in terms of chronology and environmental contextualization offered the frequency of fitness increasing traits, versus ‘change’ in a by nearby excavated sites offers the best way forward for the eluci- neutral or negative sense, perhaps flowing from the isolation of dation of the archaeology of the Middle Palaeolithic of the desert. populations and decreases in population density, needs to be The chronology of the Khormusan and the Iranian Middle Palaeo- considered. ‘Change’ reflecting post MIS-5 isolation can perhaps lithic are examples of two key areas which urgently need to be be seen at Haua Fteah (Reynolds, 2013) and SD-1 (Delagnes et al., dated, and it is clear that a lack of good chronological control is 2013). currently a major limiting factor on our understanding of Middle Several papers in this volume address the question of hominin Palaeolithic variability. Most of the papers in the volume deal adaptation to arid conditions. Dennell (2013), for instance, criti- with lithic artefacts, and the diversity of approaches demonstrated cises the notion of ‘coastal adaptation’ in the Upper Pleistocene, show the numerous ways in which they can be approached. instead seeing inland routes as being key, in part aided by the 8 Guest Editorial / Quaternary International 300 (2013) 1–12 light body frame of tropically evolved H. sapiens. This may have 5.4. Hominin dispersals given H. sapiens a selective advantage over Neanderthals in marginal habitats, but Dennell argues that for our species adaptation The other central theme that many papers in the volume to deserts in a meaningful sense occurred in the Holocene, or address is the dispersal of hominin populations. With the rise of perhaps the Terminal Pleistocene. Finlayson (2013) argues that the ‘Out of Africa’ paradigm – particularly premised on genetic ev- the adaptation of H. sapiens needs to be understood in terms of idence, supplemented by fossil evidence and at least congruent a wider Homo adaptation, and that proximity to water was a with archaeological findings – dispersals assumed a key role in un- key part of this. The many similarities between the context and derstanding hominin evolution in the Upper Pleistocene. With features of sites occupied by H. sapiens and Neanderthals indicate recent discoveries, including evidence for the interbreeding of H. a similar niche as water dependent omnivores (Finlayson, 2013). sapiens and ‘archaic’ hominins, there is perhaps an emerging trend Like Dennell (2013), Finlayson (2013) and Boivin et al. (2013) crit- towards a less narrow focus on dispersals in narratives of Upper icise the recently popular idea of the special role of coasts in hu- Pleistocene hominin evolution. While fossil and genetic evidence man adaptation and dispersal (e.g. Stringer, 2000). Boivin et al. still suggests that H. sapiens originated in Africa, and that therefore highlight both the paucity of empirical evidence for the special dispersals retain a fundamental importance in explaining the ori- role of the coast, as well as theoretical reasons why it is likely gins of modern populations across the rest of the world, recent ad- to have been overstated. Boivin et al. (2013) suggest that dis- vances in understandings of mutation rates have severely persals out of Africa were associated with the expansion of terres- problematized many genetically derived ideas on dispersals. As trial habitats to which H. sapiens were already adapted. reviewed by Scally and Durbin (2012), direct measurement of mu- Several papers discuss the relationship of morpho-technological tation rates, in contrast to traditional very coarse estimates which characteristics of lithics to adaptation. Arzarello et al. (2013), for were then extrapolated to make very precise archaeological claims, instance, see the continuation of the basic methods of lithic reduc- suggest that many of the hominin biological processes of the Mid- tion, albeit in different frequencies, in the Moroccan Sahara as dle and Upper Pleistocene occurred rather earlier than often sug- perhaps indicating population continuity and technological change gested. The timing of the dispersal of H. sapiens out of Africa is through time. Cancellieri and di Lernia (2013) suggest that Aterian one area affected, and the new estimates are congruent with the assemblages in the Messak area of Libya may reflect an MIS 4 idea that a phase of dispersal correlated with the climatic amelio- contraction of hominins to highland areas. Foley et al. (2013) see ration of MIS 5 rather than occurring subsequently when humans the desert belt as a testing ground for MSA lithic adaptations, would have had to pass through extremely arid environments. although they also emphasise that dispersals into North Africa The latter might be taken as indicating a fundamentally different, may represent range expansions in a similar habitat during humid ‘modern’, type of human behaviour, while the movement through periods rather than adaption to desert as such. Industries such as familiar habitat types suggests a more ecologically ‘normal’ type the Aterian, Foley et al. (2013) argue, must be seen within the of dispersal process. Dispersals as a research theme are undevel- Mode 3 diversity of the Middle Stone Age. This diversity gave hom- oped in the study of human origins (but see Gamble, 1993), and inins flexibility, and in this sense any robust understanding of the the simplicity of many narratives has led to some criticism of dis- lithic technology of the desert belt must be rooted in the technol- persals in archaeological narratives (e.g. Clark, 1994). The founda- ogy of hominins in centres of endemism, such as East Africa. tions of hominin dispersal are broadly the same as for biological Goder-Goldberger (2013) sees the Khormusan as an example of organisms as a whole (e.g. Clobert et al., 2012), while more research an East African derived lithic adaptation where a greater correla- is needed to cast light on the uniquely hominin elements of tion exists between raw material and lithic types compared to dispersal. Given the global distribution of humans by the Holocene, some other Middle Palaeolithic industries. Along with the techno- an evolutionary process has clearly occurred in which hominins logical variability of the Middle Palaeolithic, Goder-Goldberger re- were able to disperse into various habitat types. Such ‘cosmopol- minds us that understanding raw material economy, is an aspect of itan’ behaviour is rare in nature. casting light on hominin adaptation, when most recent work focuses on reduction strategies. Scerri (2013) criticises the idea of 5.5. Beyond ‘Out of Africa 2’ the Aterian as an arid adaptation, and instead orientates its features more towards population structure and the role played by Boivin et al. (2013) make the pertinent point that the fossil evi- hafting in Middle Palaeolithic technology. Indeed, it could be dence of southern Asia, taken on face value, indicates that the argued that much of the character of the Middle Palaeolithic as a dispersal of H. sapiens was from east to west. They make this point whole reflects a shift to hafting lithics, and that this composite as a reminder of the problems of pre-Holocene fossil evidence, technology would have aided the survival of its users. The preva- which is rare over vast areas (e.g. Asia) and absent in many (e.g. lence of ‘Nubian’ technology in Dhofar (Usik et al., 2013) can Arabia). The distribution and characters of hominin fossils, like be seen as a reflection of adaptation to a perhaps marginal the genetic evidence, is telling a story, but it is one which has environment. perhaps been interpreted too directly. Rather than being overly We highlight in particular the importance of Delagnes et al.’s empiricist – for instance, downplaying preservation biases in fossil (2012, 2013) discoveries in Wadi Surdud, Yemen for discussions representation and demographic effects on genetic evidence – of Middle Palaeolithic hominin adaptability. The context of the sites more heavily modelled and theorised perspectives are needed. A in thick deposits of rapidly accumulated alluvium gives excellent robust approach roots archaeological, fossil and genetic evidences insights into the context of hominin occupation (see also Sitzia in terms of biogeography and palaeoenvironments, and uses the ev- et al., 2012). Given the excellent spatial preservation and palaeoen- idence from different disciplines to test hypotheses. vironmental reconstruction, in the case of Wadi Surdud it is clear Many contributors to this volume associate dispersals through that hominin occupation occurred in at least semi-arid conditions. the mid-latitude arid belt with periods of climatic amelioration. This may be evidence for the increased survivability of Middle As discussed above, the extent to which occupations of what are Palaeolithic compared to earlier hominins, and perhaps such sur- today arid areas reflect ‘adaptation’ is at present a poorly resolved vivability through dramatic environmental changes in part explains topic. Marine Isotope Stage 5 has been, in particular, highlighted the ability of hominins to successfully disperse through south Asia as a key time for dispersals in the mid latitude arid belt (e.g. in the Upper Pleistocene. Boivin et al., 2013; Delagnes et al., 2013; Usik et al., 2013), in Guest Editorial / Quaternary International 300 (2013) 1–12 9 contrast to regional contraction and population separation post- Eurasia is evident. In the case of the Levant we suspect that many MIS 5. This emphasis on MIS 5, however, is not incongruent with surprises lay in wait. That the Skhul and Qafzeh hominins represent both later (e.g. early MIS 3) and earlier dispersals, the latter perhaps a population dispersal from Africa in MIS 5, for instance, has occurring in MIS 6 (e.g. Frumkin et al., 2011) and/or MIS 7 (e.g. become an orthodoxy, but alternative narratives are possible and Dennell and Roebroeks, 2005). Jones (2012), for instance, suggests must not be rejected out of hand. that H. sapiens may have reached India by MIS 6. We sympathise Usik et al. (2013) interpret the Middle Palaeolithic assemblages with views which argue that several dispersals of H. sapiens across in Dhofar in terms of dispersals. To them the morphology and tech- southern Asia probably occurred (e.g. Dennell and Petraglia, 2012). nology of Nubian reduction are sufficient evidence to indicate pop- Dispersals are likely to have occurred at a variety of spatial and tem- ulation connections between NE Africa and Arabia. The significance poral scales. The papers in this volume suggest the need to move of some distinctive features of the Dhofar material in contrast to beyond the simplistic notion of ‘out of Africa’, or at least only to other areas, such as the prevalence of ‘Dihedral Chapeau du use this term in a loose and heuristic sense. In reality this process Gendarme’ striking platforms, remains to be understood. Nubian should, at a minimum, be divided into two components: 1) “into cores have been identified across a wide area (e.g. Beyin, 2013; the Saharo-Arabian belt”,2)“out of the Saharo-Arabian belt”/ Cancellieri and di Lernia, 2013; Foley et al., 2013; Goder- “into the Palaearctic/Oriental zones”. Goldberger, 2013; Scerri, 2013). Most authors in 2013 who discuss Dennell (2009, 2013) emphasises the idea of a post-MIS 6 Nubian technology at least broadly support the interpretation “scramble for Asia”. Much attention for this has focussed on the made by Rose et al. (2011) and Usik et al. (2013). dispersal of H. sapiens in MIS 5–3. He makes the significant point Boivin et al. (2013) criticise the notion of a single dispersal of one that Neanderthals were also dispersing into Asia to the extent population along the coast of Africa around 60 ka. They dispute the that late in their existence they were primarily an Asian species. evidence for this model from a variety of disciplinary perspectives This is a reminder of the complexity of the Upper Pleistocene world, and instead conclude that successful dispersal out of Africa prob- and that both hominin anatomy and behaviour were spatially and ably occurred earlier and by terrestrial routes. Rather than seeing temporally diverse. This complexity must provide the framework the occupation of the Levant as a fleeting and failed dispersal, as for the consideration of areas with little fossil evidence and diverse is often described, they see the tens of thousands of H. sapiens occu- lithic assemblages, such as Iran (e.g. Vahdati Nasab et al., 2013) and pation of the area as a window into the early and long term occu- India (Blinkhorn, 2013). pation of southern Asia. In highlighting difficulties with fossil and The implications of the evidence from North Africa for under- genetic evidence, Boivin et al. (2013) emphasise the importance standing population dispersal and continuity can be interpreted of archaeological data in multidisciplinary analyses of hominin in different ways. To Arzarello et al. (2013) the common technolog- adaptation and dispersal. Vahdati Nasab et al. (2013) present a ical substrate of Middle Stone Age sites in Moroccan Sahara number of potential continental dispersal routes across the Iranian assigned to different techno-complexes indicates technological, Plateau, supported by archaeological evidence that is currently and therefore presumably population, continuity. Cancellieri and lacking for coastal routes. Blinkhorn (2013) describes evidence di Lernia (2013), argue for a pre-MIS 5 dispersal of hominins with from India that is congruent with the early dispersal of H. sapiens a Lupemban type material culture (see also Foley et al., 2013) fol- out of Africa, while a young Middle Palaeolithic in South Asia lowed by, ultimately, contraction into upland areas by hominins does not fit neatly with the idea that a revolutionary chance in hu- with Aterian lithics in MIS 4. Goder-Goldberger (2013) also argues man behaviour led to population dispersal around 70–60 ka. for a northwards dispersal of Sub-Saharan hominins. Such exam- Fig. 3 shows various examples of Middle Palaeolithic cores from ples highlight the likely complexity of the Middle and Upper Pleis- North Africa and the Middle East. All but one is Levallois cores, of tocene in Africa, where dispersal and adaptation occurred. The role different forms. How should such lithic variability be interpreted? of interaction between populations is also likely to emerge as a key Considerably more research needs to be done to clarify which fea- topic, and it is probable that increasing evidence will emerge for the tures can be classed as indicating population dispersals, versus biological and cultural diversity of Middle and Upper Pleistocene those which reflect adaptation and drift. The connection between African hominins. the products of individual hominins and population wide techno- The dispersal related interpretation of the Khormusan advanced logical ‘concepts’, and how these relate to adaptation and by Goder-Goldberger (2013) is different to that previously stated dispersal, is not self evident. Idiosyncrasies are likely to offer evi- which sees it as a phase of an evolving ‘Nubian Complex’ in north- dence for dispersals, but to be robust these should be of a char- east Africa (e.g. Van Peer, 1998 ; Usik et al., 2013). Such examples acter which is not a desirable trait in an engineering sense. It is demonstrate the diverse ways in which the record can be inter- likely that from a common (i.e. ‘Mode 3’) technological substrate, preted, and the varying results which spring from alternative meth- various forms of technology were repeatedly reinvented. Those odologies. Scerri’s (2013) interpretation of lithic variability in North which gave a selective advantage, i.e. perhaps those which pro- Africa indicates population structure in North Africa (see also duced blanks which were strong, suitable for hafting etc., may Reynolds, 2013) and it may be in such population structure that have become a focus of reduction. Caution is needed in making pertinent factors relating to dispersals eastwards will be found. claims for dispersal and adaptation from lithic artefacts, but the The analysis by Culley et al. (2013), and specifically their claim potential of their study also needs to emphasised. Robust insights that the ‘C’ and ‘B’ facies of the Levantine Middle Palaeolithic should will be based on quantified approaches to spatially and temporally not be separated also has implications for our understanding of dis- representative samples. persals. These facies have been correlated with H. sapiens and Ne- anderthals respectively, so if Culley et al.’s results are accepted, 6. Closing remarks they perhaps challenge the notion of repeated dispersals into the Levant associated with particular forms of technology. Alterna- In this introduction we have sought to both describe the papers tively, they may say more about the character of Bordesian system- in this volume and consider their relationship to the heuristics atics. More widely Culley et al.’s work is a pertinent example of the of adaptation and dispersal. The volume highlights research which various ways even the record of the small area of the Levant can be brings together palaeoenvironmental scientists and Palaeolithic interpreted. When this is considered, the clear complexity of Mid- archaeologists. Considering the balance between adaptation dle and Upper Pleistocene hominin evolution across Africa and (broadly change through time) and dispersal (broadly change 10 Guest Editorial / Quaternary International 300 (2013) 1–12

Fig. 3. Examples of variability in Middle Palaeolithic core technology from the desert belt. All photos by H. Groucutt except 6 (courtesy of E. Scerri). 1 – Warwasi Cave, Iran; 2 – TH- 268; Oman; 3, 7 – Tor Faraj, Jordan; 4 – TH-205, Oman; 5 – TH-59, Oman; 6 – Garet Umm Ali, Algeria; 8 – 1010-8, Sudan; 9 – JSM-1, Saudi Arabia; 10 – JKF-1, Saudi Arabia.

through space) remains a central task. From the papers in this vol- desert belt, and archaeological sites dated and situated in terms ume some common threads have been repeated. Contributors are of palaeoenvironmental fluctuation. The mid latitude-arid belt agreed on the significance of environmental change on hominin has been established as a key zone for at least the later phases demography and behaviour. The importance of lithic artefacts, of hominin evolution and dispersal. The need to move towards un- which in arid environments often occur on the surface, has been derstanding the past based on spatially and temporally represen- reinforced by several of the papers. On the whole it seems that tative samples necessarily implies a move to greater research adaptation to aridity does primarily relate to the Holocene, but investment in the desert, whose potential the papers in this vol- improved survivability in at least semi-arid conditions and behav- ume clearly demonstrate. The archaeology of the desert impels ioural flexibility can perhaps be seen in terms of pre-adaptation us to move beyond simple notions of African versus non-African, and adaptation to semi-arid environments. The papers demon- and instead to see hominin behavioural change/adaptation and strate a move towards understanding dispersals in biogeographical population dispersal as two faces of the same evolutionary and terms, and an emphasis on interior over coastal routes. Consider- cultural process in which the mid latitude arid belt played a crucial ably more survey and excavation needs to be undertaken in the role. Guest Editorial / Quaternary International 300 (2013) 1–12 11

Acknowledgements Dennell, R., 2013. Hominins, deserts and the colonisation and settlement of continental Asia. Quaternary International 300, 13–21. Dennell, R., Roebroeks, W., 2005. An Asian perspective on early human dispersal We thank the Editor-in-Chief, Norm Catto, for his assistance from Africa. Nature 438, 1099–1104. throughout the production of this volume. We gratefully acknowl- Dennell, R., Petraglia, M.D., 2012. The dispersal of Homo sapiens across southern Asia: – edge the time and effort of the contributors and reviewers, as well how early, how often, how complex? Quaternary Science Reviews 47, 15 22. Dibble, H.I., Bar-Yosef, O., 1995. The Definition and Interpretation of Levallois Tech- as the attendees who made the Middle Palaeolithic in the Desert nology. Prehistory Press, Madison. conference in Oxford such a success. We owe particular thanks to Drake, N.A., Breeze, P., Parker, A., 2013. Palaeoclimate in the Saharan and Arabian Michael Petraglia. 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