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Papermaking, Its Introduction and Manufacture in the Medieval

Middle East: An Overview Jessica Lafrance

Student number: 10080230 Word count: 3,345 16 pages Papermaking, Its Introduction and Manufacture in the Medieval Middle East: An Overview

By the 8th century AD, paper had become an essential item in China and its neighbouring nations. Koreans were producing paper by the 3rd century AD, and the Japanese by the early

7th century, both using Chinese techniques introduced to them through Buddhism1. Paper production in the Middle East began in 751 AD in the city of Samarkand, and continued to spread west along the Silk Road, eventually reaching Spain, which had a well established papermaking industry by the 11th century. The manufacture of paper in the Arab world followed the Chinese tradition, with changes and modifications made to suit the economical and artistic needs of the user.

The Spread of Papermaking Through the Middle East

Paper production in the Middle East is said to have began in 751AD when the Chinese were defeated in battle at Talas2. Among the prisoners of war were a number of papermakers who were transported to Samarkand3 (Persia) and put to work in the trade.

There is some debate as to whether this is true, in the literature it has been suggested that a dramatic event (such as a battle) would have been required to spark this industry, especially when you consider the amount of land between the two locations, and the likelihood of

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recruiting and relocating a workforce of secretive Chinese papermakers peacefully4. However, the argument has also been made that paper was likely used in Samarkand and other locations in the Middle East decades before the battle. One example of paper in use before 751 AD is the archive of paper documents written in Arabic, Turkish, Sogdian and Chinese discovered at the site of Mount Mugh5, which were dated to 722 – 723 AD6.

As previously stated, paper was most likely brought to the city of Samarkand as a trade good along the silk road from China prior to the 8th century, and Hunter suggests that this could have been as early as 650 AD7. Paper was first manufactured in this location in 751 AD8, and due to the abundant natural resources available in the area, Samarkand quickly became a centre of production for the Middle East. Samarkand (also known as Khurāsān) paper was of a quality comparable to Chinese paper9;“In the city of Samarkand and a very fine paper is used that is found no where else except among the Chinese”10, and remained a highly desirable material for many centuries.

Other locations in greater Iran were also involved in papermaking as the demand for paper increased and trades people spread. It has been stated that; “This art had become so popular

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throughout Iran that there were some cities in which the entire population was engaged in paper- making”11

Papermaking continued to spread westward and Baghdad soon rivaled Samarkand in paper production, with the first mill established in 794-795 AD. It is possible that the rise of the papermaking industry in Baghdad was directly related to the city being the center of bureaucracy of the Middle East12. Although the papermakers of Baghdad did not significantly alter the methods or materials employed in the production of paper, they did institute the use of specific sizes of paper for certain tasks. These numerous paper sizes (which are outlined and discussed in detail in the works of Karabacek13, Bloom14, and Loveday15) were all reductions of two main and popular production sizes: Baghdadi full sheet (approx. 110 cm wide x 73 cm high), and Baghdadi half sheet (approx. 73 cm wide x 49 cm high).

From Bagdhad, papermaking travelled to Egypt (with Cairo as the centre of the industry) by the 9th century. As stated by Loveday; “With an established textile industry, Egypt was well suited for paper manufacture, and by the end of the 10th century AD, the country was well known for its paper”16.

The production of papyrus in Egypt had nearly come to a halt by the mid 9th century as demand dwindled, demonstrating the hold that paper had on the Middle East only a few

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centuries after its formal introduction. Bloom provides evidence of this, noting that of 441 documents dating from 950 – 1050 AD excavated at a site in Cairo in 1980, only 2 were of papyrus17.

The 9th century also saw the beginning of the papermaking industry in Syria, and by the 10th century Syrian paper was being exported to Egypt18 (to supplement needs) and Europe19. For many years it was believed that Syrian papermakers had been the first to introduce raw cotton fibre as a pulp material. Analysis later proved this false, and it was concluded that cotton fibres found in all Arab paper during the Middle Ages had been accidentally introduced through the rags used for pulp. Through Syria the people of North Africa and Spain were introduced to paper, and it continued onwards to Europe.

The Manufacture of Middle Eastern Papers

When paper was introduced to the Middle East, the Chinese were already experts in the craft.

In her articles 20 21, Rischel highlights the analysis of paper found at the site of Lou-Lan, China, to demonstrate this. Additives were used to alter the density and hygroscopicity of the paper,

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size and sheet formation aids were used, dipping molds had been introduced, raw fibres were being used and the variety of plant fibres increased. Combined with changes in the methods of maceration this all resulted in a very high quality and strong paper22. The people of the Middle

East continued using 8th century Chinese techniques, but altered the manufacture to suit the materials available to them, and the differences in the way paper was used.

Quraishi provides an excellent overview of paper production in Samarkand;

“After sorting, the rags were first unraveled and then they were softened by combing.

They were then soaked in lime water for a number of days until they had turned into a

soft substance which was then kneaded and left in the sun to bleach. This process was

repeated a number of times. The solution was then rinsed in water over and over again

for a week or more so that all the impurities were removed. When the lime was removed

and the pulp was dehydrated it was either pounded in a mortar or ground between

millstones, until the solution was even. It was then spread evenly on a sieve like screen

for moulding and the frame was left on a stone or a wooden board for drying. The sheets

of paper thus produced were then sized by coating them with a solution of wheat starch,

gum and various other substances. When dried the paper was polished with the help of

agate, onyx or a piece of glass to give it a shiny surface.”23

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The methods described above are very similar to what continued to be employed in

Samarkand and other locations as papermaking spread. Flax and hemp was abundant across the Middle East, especially in Persia and Egypt, and thus it is the most common recycled and raw fibre found in paper. Limewater, which was also used in China, aided in accelerating the degradation of the rags used for pulp, also imparted some continuing resistance to acidity. As an example of this, during a treatment carried out (c. 1991) by Don Baker, he noted the paper as having a pH of 6.424.

The millstones mentioned above were available in addition to other maceration tools, later in the middle ages, in some cases replacing hand maceration. Waterpower was being harnessed to run paper mills using undershot, overshot and horizontal water wheels, vastly increasing production. These wheels were installed along currents, or on floating barges as in the case of the Syrian city of Hama. 1150 AD has been suggested as the date of introduction for the water wheel in the Middle East, taking place in Xatavia, Spain25, which may be the same date of introduction for the millstone. However, as previously mentioned, in places like Egypt where the textile industry had been long established it could have been that waterpower was being used for paper maceration much earlier.

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The fibres seen in Middle Eastern paper are often long and smooth, some still whole, the distribution described visually as being similar to swirling clouds 26. The low degree of fibrillation results in a very soft and absorbent paper, with little strength coming from the cohesion of the fibres within. Had early papermakers beaten the pulp more thoroughly the need for sizing and burnishing would have been greatly reduced. Rischel suggests that the more gentle method of preparing the pulp developed as Arab papermakers were trying to reproduce the properties of parchment and papyrus27. However, considering human nature it is more likely that the quick pulping time was attributed to the desire to increase production volume and reduce production time as demand increased. Baker highlights advancements in papermaking in the 14th century resulting in thinner and harder paper in some regions, most notably Persia28.

Both wove and laid molds were used in the manufacture of paper, however due to the volume of paper being produced it can be assumed that laid molds were the predominant method, even though chain lines are not visible on paper from all areas. On the paper of Egypt and Syria chain lines are quite often visible, however they are rarely seen on Persian papers. The lack of chain lines on Persian papers may indicate the use of soft and thin materials to bind the reeds of the mold together, such as horsehair. Spanish papermakers were the only group to alter the

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molds to produce watermarking of any kind, imparting zig zags on the page, however this was quite late in the Middle Ages.

Once removed from the mold papers were pasted to walls, hung, or stacked to dry. A quote from Hills work, by Ibn Badis explains the process; “you transfer the sheet from the mould to the flat plate, and with the help of this, you place it on a clean, smooth wall where you leave it stuck until, once dry, it comes loose”29. The texture of the wall is often visible on the surface of finished paper. It is apparent that this method of drying was quite popular, in their works, Bloom and

Loveday both include an 11th century poem30 that draws a visual relationship between a snow covered desert and a workshop covered in paper.

As previously mentioned, the method of pulp preparation, and the nature of flax and hemp produced a very soft, absorbent paper. To reduce the papers absorbency and render the surface more suitable for writing with reed pens, (which requires a much stronger surface than Chinese papers, used for writing with brushes) size was applied by brush or through dipping. As this was most commonly applied as a paste or thick liquid penetration into the substrate was minimal, and if removed the soft fibres below are exposed. The preparation and application of size was well known, as evidenced by the writings of Sultan-Ali Mashadi;

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“Prepare the size (ahar) from starch, learn these words from an old man (repeating)

ancient words, first make a paste, then pour in water, then boil this for a moment on a hot

fire; Then add to this starch some glue. Strain [so that it is] neither too thin nore too thick,

spread it on paper and see that the paper should not move from its place; When you are

applying size to your paper moisten the paper slightly with water, carefully.”31

Starch from rice or wheat was most common, however, as identified by Barkeshli in her survey of Persian sizing materials, many other options were available to the papermaker: plant mucilage (from rice, fleawort seed, cucumber seed, marshmallow), fruit juice and syrup

(grape, melon), vegetable glue (gum Arabic, serish), and animal glue.32 The use of additives to the size, and the extent of application varied depending on intended use and location. As previously mentioned, the application of size was mainly a surface modification but it also provided strength to the paper. Arab paper found in collections today, which have lost the size layer from all or part of the surface, are often at risk of mechanical damage through exposure of the soft fibres, and are easily damaged by water. Rischel provides an excellent example of this in her article on paper permanence; while preparing samples for analysis she noted that a

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drop of water easily dissolved them33. Most of the sizing materials used remain water soluble, which has an effect on the longevity of the paper, and treatment options.

If a smooth, slightly glossy surface to the paper was desired this was achieved through burnishing with onyx, agate or glass. The fibres are compacted and pockets of air within the paper are reduced creating a smooth, more reflective surface. It can however result in the creation of two very different sides to a piece of paper34, and delamination between the two layers can occur over time.

Coloured, marbled, and decorated Chinese papers were available through trade, and the techniques were adopted and used in Arab manufacturing. Dyeing was carried out using a variety of colourants, identified by Loveday35 (see table 1), and applied through dipping or brushing for a variety of reasons. It should be noted that one of the greatest problems found in

Middle Eastern manuscripts is corrosion due to the inclusion of verdigris (copper corrosion products) as a colourant in the paper or the ink used. As stated by Scheper, there is no way of stopping the deterioration associated with verdigris and it limits the treatment options for papers as moisture accelerates the problem36.

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As papermaking spread across Europe and advancements were made, significant amounts of paper were imported into the Middle East. The papermakers across the Arab world could no longer compete with the foreign paper being introduced, in price or quality, and combined with political factors; the trade as it was could not survive in the region.

Not mentioned in this paper were the numerous other locations where paper was. The author von Karabacek identified some of the other centres of papermaking in the Arab world as

Tihama, Yemen Tripoli, Hama, Tiberia, Mamjib, Fez, and Tabriz37, but also stated himself that paper was made in more places than it was not in the Middle East.

Like other peoples introduced to paper making through the Chinese, the people of the Middle

East manufactured paper in much the same way that it was introduced to them. It has been said that Arab papermakers made no advancements in the craft, however modifications to the

Chinese method of production were made when necessary to achieve a product that was economically viable, and met the needs of the users. The resulting product is similar to other papers of the world, but the fibres, sizes, and decorative techniques result in a paper that is very unique in its own way.

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!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1Bloom, Jonathon M. Paper Before Print: The History and Impact of Paper in the Islamic World. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001 2 Talas (also known as Taraz) is a city located in modern day Kazakhstan, near the border of Kyrgyzstan. The city is known for its involvement in the battle at Talas in 751AD, which can be viewed as the point in which the Chinese empire stopped expanding westward. 3 Located in modern day Uzbekistan, Samarkand is one of the oldeset inhabited cities in the world and a UNESCO world heritage site. It is called the Crossroad of Cultures in light of the important role it played in trade along the silk road. It is also considered part of ‘greater Iran’, and was previously considered part of Persia. 4Loveday, Helen. Islamic Paper: A Study of the Ancient Craft. London: The Don Baker Memorial Fund, 2001. 5 Mount Mugh is a castle overlooking two rivers, 120km east of Samarkand, where 7th and 8th century Sogdian rulers took refuge. It was discovered in the early 1930’s by a shepherd, followed by extensive excavations, the bulk of the discoveries are now held in several institutions in St. Petersburg. 6Bloom, Jonathon M. Paper Before Print. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001 7Hunter, Dard. Papermaking: The History and Technique of an Ancient Craft. New York: Dover Publications, 1947. 8 Ibid. 9Loveday, Helen. Islamic Paper. The Don Baker Memorial Fund, 2001. 10Quraishi, Salim. "A survey of the development of papermaking in Islamic Countries." Bookbinder (Society of Bookbinders and Book Restorers) 3 (1989) (p.32) 11Barkeshli, Mandana. "Historical and scientific analysis of Iranian illuminated manuscripts and miniature paintings." Contributions to the Symposium on the Care and Conservation of Middle Eastern Manuscripts. Melbourne: The University of Melbourne, 2008. 74-88, (p.76) 12Bloom, Jonathon M. Paper Before Print. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001 13Karabacek, Joseph von. Arab Paper. Translated by Don Baker and Suzy Dittmar. London: Archetype Publications Ltd., 2001. 14Bloom, Jonathon M. Paper Before Print. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001 15Loveday, Helen. Islamic Paper. The Don Baker Memorial Fund, 2001. 16 Ibid, (p.20) 17Bloom, Jonathon M. Paper Before Print. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001. (p.74) 18Loveday, Helen. Islamic Paper. The Don Baker Memorial Fund, 2001.

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!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 19Karabacek, Joseph von. Arab Paper. Translated by Don Baker and Suzy Dittmar. London: Archetype Publications Ltd., 2001. 20Sven Hedin, a Swedish explorer, discovered Lou-Lan in 1901. The city, located in Xinjiang province, China, was long abandoned due to its location in the inhospitable Taklamakan desert. It was once a prosperous oasis along the silk road. 21 Rischel, Anna-Grethe "Bonds between Chinese and European paper technology - adaptation and innovation." Tradition and Innovation: proceedings of the 6th IDP conservation conference. Beijing: Internation Dunhuang Project, 2005. 22-36. 22 —. "Analysis of the Papermaker's Choice of Fibrous Materials ." Paper as a Medium of Cultural Heritage. Archaeology and Conservation 26th Congress - International Association of Paper Historians. Rome: Instituto centrale per la ptalogia del libro, 2004. 202-208. (p.202-203) 23Quraishi, Salim. "A survey of the development of papermaking in Islamic Countries." Bookbinder (Society of Bookbinders and Book Restorers) 3 (1989) (p.33) 24 Baker, Don. "The conservation of Jam' al-Tawarikh Al-Din (1313)." Arts & the Islamic World Spring 1991, no. 20 (1991): 32-33. (p.33) 25Hills, Richard L. "A Technical Revolution in Papermaking." Looking at Paper: Evidence & Interpretation : symposium proceedings, Toronto 1999. Ottawa: Canadian Conservation Institute, 2001. 105-111. 26 Baker, Don. "The conservation of Jam' al-Tawarikh Al-Din (1313)." Arts & the Islamic World Spring 1991, no. 20 (1991): 32-33. (p.33) 27Rischel, Anna-Grethe. "Analysis of the Papermaker's Choice of Fibrous Materials ." Paper as a Medium of Cultural Heritage. Archaeology and Conservation 26th Congress - International Association of Paper Historians. Rome: Instituto centrale per la ptalogia del libro, 2004. 202- 208. (p 202-203) 28 Baker, Don. "The conservation of Jam' al-Tawarikh Al-Din (1313)." Arts & the Islamic World Spring 1991, no. 20 (1991): 32-33. (p.33) 29Hills, Richard L. "A Technical Revolution in Papermaking." Looking at Paper: Evidence & Interpretation : symposium proceedings, Toronto 1999. Ottawa: Canadian Conservation Institute, 2001. 105-111. (p.110) 30 “The land from Balkh to Khavaran has become like the workshop of Samarkand / The doors, roofs and walls of that workshop are like those of painters or paper-makers.” Manuchiri, 11th century. Bloom, Jonathon M. Paper Before Print. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001 (p.62) 31Bloom, Jonathon M. Paper Before Print. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001. (p.69)

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!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 32Barkeshli, Mandana. "Historical and scientific analysis of Iranian illuminated manuscripts and miniature paintings." Contributions to the Symposium on the Care and Conservation of Middle Eastern Manuscripts. Melbourne: The University of Melbourne, 2008. 74-88. 33Rischel, Anna-Grethe. "Permanence and Durability of Paper: A Study Through the Microscope." Journal of Paper Conservation 10, no. 2 (2009): 25-30. (p. 28) 34Loveday, Helen. Islamic Paper. The Don Baker Memorial Fund, 2001. 35 Ibid. (p. 51) 36Scheper, Karin. "The Conservation of the Middle Eastern manuscript collection in the Leiden University Library: Results of a conservation assessment survey." Contributions to the Symposium on the Care and Conservation of Middle Eastern Manuscripts. Melbourne: The University of Melbourne, 2008. 66-73. (p. 71) 37Karabacek, Joseph von. Arab Paper. Translated by Don Baker and Suzy Dittmar. London: Archetype Publications Ltd., 2001. ! !

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Bibliography!

Baker, Don. "Arab Papermaking." Edited by Helen Shenton. The Paper Conservator (Institute of Paper Conservation) 15 (1991): 28-35. ! —. "The conservation of Jam' al-Tawarikh Al-Din (1313)." Arts & the Islamic World Spring 1991, no. 20 (1991): 32-33. ! Barkeshli, Mandana. "Historical and scientific analysis of Iranian illuminated manuscripts and miniature paintings." Contributions to the Symposium on the Care and Conservation of Middle Eastern Manuscripts. Melbourne: The University of Melbourne, 2008. 74-88. ! Bloom, Jonathon M. Paper Before Print: The History and Impact of Paper in the Islamic World. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001. ! Blum, André. On The Origin of Paper. New York: R.R. Bowker Company, 1934. ! Hills, Richard L. "A Technical Revolution in Papermaking." Looking at Paper: Evidence & Interpretation : symposium proceedings, Toronto 1999. Ottawa: Canadian Conservation Institute, 2001. 105-111. ! Hunter, Dard. Papermaking: The History and Technique of an Ancient Craft. New York: Dover Publications, 1947. ! J.W. Butler Paper Company. The Story of Papermaking. Chicago: J.W. Butler Paper Company, 1901. ! Karabacek, Joseph von. Arab Paper. Translated by Don Baker and Suzy Dittmar. London: Archetype Publications Ltd., 2001. ! Koretsky, Elaine. "The Archaeology of Industrial Paper." Paper as a Medium of Cultural Heritage, Archaeology and Conservation, 26th Congress - International Association of Paper Historians. Rome: Instituto centrale per la patologia del libro, 2004. 337-342. ! Library of Congress. Papermaking: art and craft; an account derived from the exhibition presented in the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., and opened on April 21, 1968. Washington: Library of Congress, 1968. Lafrance 15 Papermaking, Its Introduction and Manufacture in the Medieval Arab World: An Overview ! ! Loveday, Helen. Islamic Paper: A Study of the Ancient Craft. London: The Don Baker Memorial Fund, 2001. ! Quraishi, Salim. "A survey of the development of papermaking in Islamic Countries." Bookbinder (Society of Bookbinders and Book Restorers) 3 (1989): 29-36. ! Rischel, Anna-Grethe. "Analysis of the Papermaker's Choice of Fibrous Materials ." Paper as a Medium of Cultural Heritage. Archaeology and Conservation 26th Congress - International Association of Paper Historians. Rome: Instituto centrale per la ptalogia del libro, 2004. 202- 208. ! —. "Bonds between Chinese and European paper technology - adaptation and innovation." Tradition and Innovation: proceedings of the 6th IDP conservation conference. Beijing: Internation Dunhuang Project, 2005. 22-36. ! —. "Permanence and Durability of Paper: A Study Through the Microscope." Journal of Paper Conservation 10, no. 2 (2009): 25-30. ! Scheper, Karin. "The Conservation of the Middle Eastern manuscript collection in the Leiden University Library: Results of a conservation assessment survey." Contributions to the Symposium on the Care and Conservation of Middle Eastern Manuscripts. Melbourne: The University of Melbourne, 2008. 66-73. ! Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin. "Part 1: Paper and Printing." Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. 5. Edited by Joseph Needham. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. ! UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Samarkand - Crossroad of Cultures. 2012. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/603 (accessed October 19, 2012).

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