! ! ! ! ! ! Papermaking, Its Introduction and Manufacture in the Medieval Middle East: An Overview Jessica Lafrance Student number: 10080230 Word count: 3,345 16 pages Papermaking, Its Introduction and Manufacture in the Medieval Middle East: An Overview By the 8th century AD, paper had become an essential item in China and its neighbouring nations. Koreans were producing paper by the 3rd century AD, and the Japanese by the early 7th century, both using Chinese techniques introduced to them through Buddhism1. Paper production in the Middle East began in 751 AD in the city of Samarkand, and continued to spread west along the Silk Road, eventually reaching Spain, which had a well established papermaking industry by the 11th century. The manufacture of paper in the Arab world followed the Chinese tradition, with changes and modifications made to suit the economical and artistic needs of the user. The Spread of Papermaking Through the Middle East Paper production in the Middle East is said to have began in 751AD when the Chinese were defeated in battle at Talas2. Among the prisoners of war were a number of papermakers who were transported to Samarkand3 (Persia) and put to work in the trade. There is some debate as to whether this is true, in the literature it has been suggested that a dramatic event (such as a battle) would have been required to spark this industry, especially when you consider the amount of land between the two locations, and the likelihood of Lafrance 1 ! Papermaking, Its Introduction and Manufacture in the Medieval Middle East: An Overview recruiting and relocating a workforce of secretive Chinese papermakers peacefully4. However, the argument has also been made that paper was likely used in Samarkand and other locations in the Middle East decades before the battle. One example of paper in use before 751 AD is the archive of paper documents written in Arabic, Turkish, Sogdian and Chinese discovered at the site of Mount Mugh5, which were dated to 722 – 723 AD6. As previously stated, paper was most likely brought to the city of Samarkand as a trade good along the silk road from China prior to the 8th century, and Hunter suggests that this could have been as early as 650 AD7. Paper was first manufactured in this location in 751 AD8, and due to the abundant natural resources available in the area, Samarkand quickly became a centre of production for the Middle East. Samarkand (also known as Khurāsān) paper was of a quality comparable to Chinese paper9;“In the city of Samarkand and a very fine paper is used that is found no where else except among the Chinese”10, and remained a highly desirable material for many centuries. Other locations in greater Iran were also involved in papermaking as the demand for paper increased and trades people spread. It has been stated that; “This art had become so popular Lafrance 2 ! Papermaking, Its Introduction and Manufacture in the Medieval Middle East: An Overview throughout Iran that there were some cities in which the entire population was engaged in paper- making”11 Papermaking continued to spread westward and Baghdad soon rivaled Samarkand in paper production, with the first mill established in 794-795 AD. It is possible that the rise of the papermaking industry in Baghdad was directly related to the city being the center of bureaucracy of the Middle East12. Although the papermakers of Baghdad did not significantly alter the methods or materials employed in the production of paper, they did institute the use of specific sizes of paper for certain tasks. These numerous paper sizes (which are outlined and discussed in detail in the works of Karabacek13, Bloom14, and Loveday15) were all reductions of two main and popular production sizes: Baghdadi full sheet (approx. 110 cm wide x 73 cm high), and Baghdadi half sheet (approx. 73 cm wide x 49 cm high). From Bagdhad, papermaking travelled to Egypt (with Cairo as the centre of the industry) by the 9th century. As stated by Loveday; “With an established textile industry, Egypt was well suited for paper manufacture, and by the end of the 10th century AD, the country was well known for its paper”16. The production of papyrus in Egypt had nearly come to a halt by the mid 9th century as demand dwindled, demonstrating the hold that paper had on the Middle East only a few Lafrance 3 ! Papermaking, Its Introduction and Manufacture in the Medieval Middle East: An Overview centuries after its formal introduction. Bloom provides evidence of this, noting that of 441 documents dating from 950 – 1050 AD excavated at a site in Cairo in 1980, only 2 were of papyrus17. The 9th century also saw the beginning of the papermaking industry in Syria, and by the 10th century Syrian paper was being exported to Egypt18 (to supplement needs) and Europe19. For many years it was believed that Syrian papermakers had been the first to introduce raw cotton fibre as a pulp material. Analysis later proved this false, and it was concluded that cotton fibres found in all Arab paper during the Middle Ages had been accidentally introduced through the rags used for pulp. Through Syria the people of North Africa and Spain were introduced to paper, and it continued onwards to Europe. The Manufacture of Middle Eastern Papers When paper was introduced to the Middle East, the Chinese were already experts in the craft. In her articles 20 21, Rischel highlights the analysis of paper found at the site of Lou-Lan, China, to demonstrate this. Additives were used to alter the density and hygroscopicity of the paper, Lafrance 4 ! Papermaking, Its Introduction and Manufacture in the Medieval Middle East: An Overview size and sheet formation aids were used, dipping molds had been introduced, raw fibres were being used and the variety of plant fibres increased. Combined with changes in the methods of maceration this all resulted in a very high quality and strong paper22. The people of the Middle East continued using 8th century Chinese techniques, but altered the manufacture to suit the materials available to them, and the differences in the way paper was used. Quraishi provides an excellent overview of paper production in Samarkand; “After sorting, the rags were first unraveled and then they were softened by combing. They were then soaked in lime water for a number of days until they had turned into a soft substance which was then kneaded and left in the sun to bleach. This process was repeated a number of times. The solution was then rinsed in water over and over again for a week or more so that all the impurities were removed. When the lime was removed and the pulp was dehydrated it was either pounded in a mortar or ground between millstones, until the solution was even. It was then spread evenly on a sieve like screen for moulding and the frame was left on a stone or a wooden board for drying. The sheets of paper thus produced were then sized by coating them with a solution of wheat starch, gum and various other substances. When dried the paper was polished with the help of agate, onyx or a piece of glass to give it a shiny surface.”23 Lafrance 5 ! Papermaking, Its Introduction and Manufacture in the Medieval Middle East: An Overview The methods described above are very similar to what continued to be employed in Samarkand and other locations as papermaking spread. Flax and hemp was abundant across the Middle East, especially in Persia and Egypt, and thus it is the most common recycled and raw fibre found in paper. Limewater, which was also used in China, aided in accelerating the degradation of the rags used for pulp, also imparted some continuing resistance to acidity. As an example of this, during a treatment carried out (c. 1991) by Don Baker, he noted the paper as having a pH of 6.424. The millstones mentioned above were available in addition to other maceration tools, later in the middle ages, in some cases replacing hand maceration. Waterpower was being harnessed to run paper mills using undershot, overshot and horizontal water wheels, vastly increasing production. These wheels were installed along currents, or on floating barges as in the case of the Syrian city of Hama. 1150 AD has been suggested as the date of introduction for the water wheel in the Middle East, taking place in Xatavia, Spain25, which may be the same date of introduction for the millstone. However, as previously mentioned, in places like Egypt where the textile industry had been long established it could have been that waterpower was being used for paper maceration much earlier. Lafrance 6 ! Papermaking, Its Introduction and Manufacture in the Medieval Middle East: An Overview The fibres seen in Middle Eastern paper are often long and smooth, some still whole, the distribution described visually as being similar to swirling clouds 26. The low degree of fibrillation results in a very soft and absorbent paper, with little strength coming from the cohesion of the fibres within. Had early papermakers beaten the pulp more thoroughly the need for sizing and burnishing would have been greatly reduced. Rischel suggests that the more gentle method of preparing the pulp developed as Arab papermakers were trying to reproduce the properties of parchment and papyrus27. However, considering human nature it is more likely that the quick pulping time was attributed to the desire to increase production volume and reduce production time as demand increased. Baker highlights advancements in papermaking in the 14th century resulting in thinner and harder paper in some regions, most notably Persia28.