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Waving the Red, Black, and Green: the Local and Global Vision of the Universal Negro Improvement Association in Akron and Barberton, Ohio

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Waving the Red, Black, and Green: the Local and Global Vision of the Universal Negro Improvement Association in Akron and Barberton, Ohio WAVING THE RED, BLACK, AND GREEN: THE LOCAL AND GLOBAL VISION OF THE UNIVERSAL NEGRO IMPROVEMENT ASSOCIATION IN AKRON AND BARBERTON, OHIO by STEPHANIE THERESA SULIK DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History at The University of Texas at Arlington December, 2020 Arlington, Texas Supervising Committee: Kenyon Zimmer, Supervising Professor Delaina Price Paul Conrad W. Marvin Dulaney Erik McDuffie ABSTRACT Waving the Red, Black, and Green: The Local and Global Vision of the Universal Negro Improvement Association in Akron and Barberton, Ohio Stephanie Theresa Sulik, PhD The University of Texas at Arlington, 2020 Supervising Professor: Kenyon Zimmer This micro study of the Akron and Barberton, Ohio, Divisions of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) adds to the understanding the geographic diversity of the Garvey Movement’s expansive reach. It begins to uncover the importance of Garveyism in the Midwest and in Ohio, specifically, where the UNIA’s presence was larger than in any other Midwestern state. Black people in Akron and Barberton who, like millions of others around the world, joined Marcus Garvey’s global, Pan-African organization and embraced Garveyism’s holistic pursuit of Black liberation. Living in Midwestern rustbelt cities at the intersection of the Great Migration and the global rubber industry, they were uniquely linked to the Garvey Movement’s global initiatives and the transatlantic conflict between the UNIA and the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company in Liberia. Garveyites in these cities recognized their local organizing as part of a larger struggle against systemic antiblackness, white supremacy, and colonialism in Africa and asserted themselves as local, regional, and global actors. Through genealogy and family history research, this study looks beyond the UNIA’s international leaders to reconstruct the history of Garveyites, their families, and in turn their grassroots social movement. It also ii examines local intergenerational legacies of Garveyism and challenges the dominant narrative that the Garvey Movement died with its leader in 1940. This study demonstrates how Garveyism persisted through the lives of its members and their descendants. iii To Akron and Barberton’s Garveyites and their descendants iv CONTENTS Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... ii List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... vii List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... viii Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... ix Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1 The UNIA and Firestone in Liberia ............................................................................ 13 Chapter 2 The UNIA in Akron and Barberton............................................................................. 53 Chapter 3 Membership of the Akron and Barberton Divisions of the UNIA ............................ 110 Chapter 4 Liberty Hall and the Geography of the UNIA in Akron and Barberton ................... 155 Conclusion The Lasting Impact of the UNIA in Akron and Barberton ..................................... 182 Appendix A Timeline of the Akron and Barberton UNIA Divisions ........................................ 207 Appendix B UNIA Presence in Ohio ......................................................................................... 247 Appendix C Ohio’s UNIA Cities by Population, 1920.............................................................. 248 Appendix D Leadership of the Akron and Barberton Divisions................................................ 249 Appendix E Membership (Unedited) ......................................................................................... 252 Appendix F Membership (Cross-referenced) ............................................................................ 256 Appendix G Photographs of Akron and Barberton’s Garveyites .............................................. 259 Appendix H Supplementary Images: UNIA in the E. Center Street Neighborhood of Akron, 1921-1930 ....................................................................................................................... 267 v Appendix I Frequency of the name Marcus among African Americans ................................... 269 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................... 270 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. UNIA Presence in Ohio. ................................................................................................ 66 Figure 2. Eliza Porch, 1925........................................................................................................... 70 Figure 3. Second Baptist Church, 1948. ....................................................................................... 73 Figure 4. Officers of Ohio divisions in Cleveland Conference, 1928. ......................................... 88 Figure 5. Marcus Garvey’s tour schedule, February 1924............................................................ 95 Figure 6. Negro Patriot medal, 1925. .......................................................................................... 100 Figure 7. Akron UNIA officers and preamble, 1922. ................................................................. 117 Figure 8. Genealogical chart of family networks in the Akron UNIA’s 1922 leadership. ......... 120 Figure 9. Birthplaces of Akron and Barberton’s UNIA members. ............................................. 121 Figure 10. Residences of UNIA members in Akron, 1920-1941. .............................................. 158 Figure 11. UNIA in the E. Center Street neighborhood of Akron, 1921-1930........................... 165 Figure 12. Liberty Hall at 325 N. Howard Street. ...................................................................... 172 Figure 13. Residences of UNIA members near Howard Street, 1920-1941. .............................. 174 Figure 14. Residences of UNIA members in Barberton, 1920-1941. ......................................... 177 Figure 15. Liberty Hall on Wolf Street. ...................................................................................... 179 Figure 16. Liberian Delegation, 1944. ........................................................................................ 187 Figure 17. Locating Akron’s E. Center Street Neighborhood. ................................................... 267 Figure 18. Unobstructed aerial view of the E. Center Street Neighborhood. ............................. 268 Figure 19. Frequency of the name Marcus among African Americans in the US Census ......... 269 Additional photographs of Akron and Barberton’s Garveyites are included in appendix G. vii LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Age of UNIA members in Akron and Barberton in 1925 ............................................. 144 Table 2. Ohio’s UNIA cities by population, 1920 ...................................................................... 248 viii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many have assisted me during the course of this research, and I am forever grateful. Beginning with my own department, I am grateful for the guidance of my committee: Dr. Alusine Jalloh, committee chair who I started this journey with, and Dr. Kenyon Zimmer, Dr. Delaina Price, Dr. Paul Conrad, and Dr. W. Marvin Dulaney, who finished it with me. I would also like to thank Dr. Erik McDuffie for his support and encouragement and for serving as an outside committee member. I am also grateful to Dr. Andrew Milson, Dr. José Díaz-Garayúa, Dr. Charles Travis, and Professor Ahmed Foggie who offered suggestions on the GIS mapping in this project; to Dr. Christopher Morris and Darryl Lauster who nurtured my interdisciplinary research; and to Dr. Gerald Saxon who taught me the ins and outs of oral history and archival science. I would also like to thank all my professors at Coppin State University, especially those who continued to mentor me throughout this research project, Dr. Kokahvah Zauditu-Selassie and the late Dr. Ibrahim Kargbo. I am also grateful to Dr. Les Riding-In, Dean Elisabeth Cawthon, the College of Liberal Arts, the Office of Graduate Studies, the UTA History Department, and the UTA Libraries for supporting my research with financial resources that were essential to the completion of this study. Similarly, I am grateful to Dr. Randall Burkett who welcomed me in Atlanta and Emory University’s Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library for supporting me with a short-term fellowship to conduct research in its UNIA collection. I would also like to thank Archival Services of University Libraries at The University of Akron for funding to install and promote an exhibit on Akron and Barberton’s Garveyites. I would like to extend my gratitude to the archivists and librarians who provided tremendous support throughout this research. Thank you to the reading room staff who assisted ix me at the Schomburg Center, the National Archives, and the Charles H. Wright Museum for being extremely generous, knowledgeable,
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