J.S. Bach’s

By

Richard Lee-Thai (30024611)

Dr. Kenneth DeLong MUSI 233: 10 April 2017

1 | P a g e

The Goldberg Variations are the last installment of ’s

Clavierübung (Keyboard Practice) series and stands as one of the most substantial set of variations composed during the Baroque period. The historical context of its conception will be explored, followed by a detailed analysis of its musical structure.

The Goldberg Variations first appeared in 1741 with the title: “Keyboard Practice, consisting of an aria with diverse variations for the two-manual .”1 However, it came to be known as the “Goldberg Variations” due to a story passed down by Johann Nikolaus

Forkel, a German music historian. In 1802, Forkel published Ueber Johann Sebastian Bachs

Leben, Kunst und Kunstwerke (Johann Sebastian Bach: His Life, Art, and Work). This monograph on Bach is based on information received directly from Bach’s two eldest sons,

Wilhelm Friedemann and Carl Philipp Emanuel, and contains the origin story of the Goldberg

Variations.2 In November 1741, Bach travelled to , where he visited Count von

Keyserlingk and his young resident harpsichordist, Johann Gottlieb Goldberg. Supposedly, the variations were commissioned so that Goldberg could play the piece to the Count during his sleepless nights.3 The accuracy of this story has been called into question due to the lack of formal dedication to the Count on the title page or any known copy of the variations. Moreover, the technical demands of the piece hardly fit with the playing ability of the young Goldberg, who was only 14 years old at the time.4 Overall, the evidence suggests that the work was not composed as a commission. Despite this, the association with Goldberg has stuck and it is now commonly referred to as the Goldberg Variations.

1 David Schulenberg, The keyboard music of J.S. Bach (New York: Routledge, 2006), p. 369. 2 George Stauffer, “Forkel, Johann Nicolaus,” in Grove Music Online. 3 , Johann Sebastian Bach: His Life, Art, and Work, trans. Charles Sanford Terry (New York: Harcourt, 1920), p. 104-105. 4 Peter Williams, Bach: The Goldberg Variations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 5.

2 | P a g e

Looking at J.S. Bach’s original title of “Keyboard Practice, consisting of an aria with diverse variations for the two-manual harpsichord” brings up an interesting point about what

Bach meant by “practice”. At first glance, one might assume that the variations were written solely for pedagogical purposes, much like how musicians today are familiar with études. On a deeper look, there is another kind of practice, which musicologist Peter Williams explains is “the kind spoken of by lawyers and doctors as they ‘practice a profession’”.5 In context, this refers to

Bach’s demonstration of compositional techniques and music theory through his Clavierübung

(Keyboard Practice) series. The term Clavierübung can be traced back to Johann Kuhnau, who published two sets of harpsichord suites in 1689 and 1692, respectively.6 Both sets had the pedagogical value of instructing the buyer in keyboard dexterity, but also in the practical application of musical theory. For example, the first set contained suites in the major keys (C, D,

E, F, G, A, and Bb) and the second set contained suites in the minor keys (c, d, e, f, g, a, b).7

Bach would have been familiar with Kuhnau’s works because Bach was the immediate successor of Kuhnau as the Cantor at St. Thomas in , and he collaborated with him on some major organ-building projects.8 Therefore, when Bach published his Clavierübung series, it can be inferred that they serve both as practice for the performer and as a way for Bach to practice his profession as a composer. This can be seen through his systematic organization and exemplification of certain genre types in his four Clavierübungen. Elements from the first three

Clavierübungen will be briefly discussed in order to see how commonalities between these works help inform the creation of the Goldberg Variations.

5 Williams, Bach: Goldberg Variations, p. 14. 6 George Buelow, “Kuhnau, Johann,” in Grove Music Online. 7 Williams, Bach: Goldberg Variations, p. 14-15. 8 Williams, Bach: Goldberg Variations, p. 15.

3 | P a g e

The first installment of the Clavierübung series contains Bach’s six Partitas (CU1), which were first published separately, but then collected and re-published in a second edition under the title of Clavierübung in 1731.9 The partita was the most popular harpsichord genre at the time and comprised of a suite of dance movements and galanteries. The galanteries, such as burlesca and capriccio, are optional dances that fall outside of the core dances of the allemande, courante, sarabande and gigue.10 As in the earlier English Suites, each partita begins with a large-scale movement, each differently titled and each in a different style, such as a praeludium, sinfonia, fantasia, overture or toccata. Furthermore, the order of keys (Bb-c-a-D-G-e) is systematic in that the keys form a sequence of intervals going up and down by increasing amounts. Bb to c is an ascending 2nd, c to a is a descending 3rd, and so on until the leap of major 6th from G to e.11

This wedge-like pattern continues in Bach’s Clavierübung II (CU2) in 1735, which consists of an Italian in F major (down a major 7th from e minor) and finishes with a

French Overture in B minor (up an augmented 4th from F). The Italian Concerto and French

Overture were written to be representative of the most prominent styles at the time, as well as demonstrative of his ability to write music that is characteristic of the two national styles.12

The third part of the Clavierübung (CU3) was published in 1739 and consisted of a diverse group of organ works that are framed by a Prelude and Fugue in Eb. This is followed by nine chorale arrangements for Mass, twelve for the catechism, and four duets.13 Bach’s encyclopedic intentions are clearly seen through the range of styles, both archaic and contemporary, present in this work. This includes examples of stile antico, quasi-galant chamber

9 Schulenberg, Keyboard Music, p. 321. 10 Daniel Heartz and Bruce Alan Brown, “Galant,” in Grove Music Online. 11 Schulenberg, Keyboard Music, p. 324. 12 Christoph Wolff, “Bach,” in Grove Music Online. 13 Christoph Wolff, “Bach,” in Grove Music Online.

4 | P a g e trios, French and Italian idioms, as well as traditional German-Lutheran counterpoint.14 Thus, this work serves as a practical and extensive anthology of pieces for the organ.

Bach displays a systematic organization in these three Clavierübungen, such as through organization by keys or by framing a larger collection of works with a prelude and fugue, as seen in CU3. Furthermore, he exemplifies certain genre types in each Clavierübungen: dance suites in

CU1, the Italian concerto and French overture in CU2, and a comprehensive range of styles found in CU3. The idea of systematic construction and focusing on certain genre types is further developed in the last installment of the Clavierübung series, the Goldberg Variations.

Variation sets had been composed by other composers such as Corelli, Handel and Rameau, but Bach’s Goldberg Variations pushes the boundary on the tradition of writing in variation form.15

Bach demonstrates how to write in a multitude of styles over the same fundamental bass line, similar in a sense to a chaconne or passacaglia.

Example 1: Fundamental bass of the Goldberg Variations16

14 Williams, Bach: Goldberg Variations, p. 26. 15 Schulenberg, Keyboard Music, p. 370. 16 Williams, Bach: Goldberg Variations, p. 36.

5 | P a g e

However, the ostinato bass patterns in a chaconne or passacaglia are relatively short, ranging from a 2 to 8 bar pattern, whereas the fundamental bass of the Goldberg Variations is 32 bars long. Due to its extended length, any element of ostinato it may have had is removed and full and independent movements can be created.17

In terms of tonal organization, the 32 bars can be split into four 8 bar lines. The first and last lines are in the tonic (G), while the second line modulates to the dominant (D), and the third line modulates to the relative minor (E). The extracted fundamental bass shown above never occurs in this pure form, not even in the opening aria which first presents this bass pattern.

Despite this, it is this fundamental bass that acts as the harmonic framework for thirty variations.

Paralleling Bach’s encyclopedic intentions in CU3, the variations encompass many genres and they all have their own distinct character. Furthermore, in Bach’s Handexemplar (the author’s copy) of the Goldberg Variations, he writes an additional fourteen perpetual canons based on the first eight notes of the fundamental bass.18 Rather than concluding with the word Fine (end) after the 14th canon, Bach writes Etc., indicating that the series could potentially continue forever if he had wanted it to.19

The systematic construction found in CU1-3 are even more evident in the Goldberg

Variations. The overall form of the work consists of the opening aria, thirty variations, and the aria da capo. According to musicologist Peter Williams, the thirty variations can be broken down into ten smaller groups of three. Each contains a dance or clear genre-piece, followed by an arabesque-like movement (bright, usually requiring crossed hands on two manuals) and ending

17 Williams, Bach: Goldberg Variations, p. 38. 18 Christoph Wolff, “Bach's "Handexemplar" of the Goldberg Variations: A New Source,” Journal of the American Musicological Society 29, no. 2 (1976): p. 229 19 Schulenberg, Keyboard Music, p. 388.

6 | P a g e with a canon at successively rising intervals.20 In other words, every third variation is a canon, starting at the unison and going all the way to the ninth. The pattern is broken with Variation 30 being a quodlibet (Latin for ‘what you please’), a medley which blends German folktunes.21

Compared to the festive and energetic affect of the preceding variations, the quodlibet winds down and prepares for the restatement of the aria that wrap up the Goldberg Variations. The decision to repeat the aria suggests that the aria is not the theme of the work, but another one of the infinite possible variations that come from the realization of the fundamental bass.22

Example 2a: Bach, Goldberg Variations, Aria (m. 1-4)23

Example 2b: Bach, Goldberg Variations, Aria reduced to a simple sarabande (m. 1-4)24

The aria is a sarabande, a leisurely dance in triple time with an emphasis on the second beat. A characteristic rhythm of a sarabande is a quarter note, followed by a dotted quarter, eighth, and another quarter.25 Although this rhythm is hard to immediately see due to the ornamented melody, a simplification reveals the underlying sarabande rhythm. Further evidence that the aria

20 Williams, Bach: Goldberg Variations, p. 40. 21 Williams, Bach: Goldberg Variations, p. 89. 22 Schulenberg, Keyboard Music, p. 388. 23 See Appendix for full score. 24 Williams, Bach: Goldberg Variations, p. 55 25 Richard Hudson and Meredith Ellis Little, “Sarabande,” in Grove Music Online.

7 | P a g e is not the theme of the work is the fact that the melody never appears again in the thirty variations that follow, which each have independent thematic material.

Example 3: Bach, Goldberg Variations, Variation 13 (m. 1-3)26

Despite the aria melody never appearing again, a glimpse of the opening sarabande dance rhythm can be seen in Variation 13. The variation is also a sarabande due to its characteristic emphasis on the second beat in the melody and accompaniment. This piece provides the clearest variation on the original aria, but only its left hand part.27 Note the similar arpeggio figures in the opening bars of the aria and the sarabande: outlining the I chord in m.1, the V6 chord in m.2, and the viio6/V chord in m.3.

Recall that the thirty variations can be broken down into smaller groupings of a dance/genre-piece, an arabesque, and a canon. Since Variation 13 is the dance, it makes sense to analyze Variation 14 and 15 in order to illustrate this 3-group pattern present throughout the

Goldberg Variations.

Variation 14 is an arabesque, and thus features a lot of hand-crossing. It is important to briefly mention that in the official title of the Goldberg Variations, Bach indicates that a two- manual harpsichord should be used. This meant that there are sets of strings placed on keyboards at different height levels, called manuals. The typical 18th-century harpsichord had two sets of 8′ strings and one set of 4′ strings, with the 4′ strings being on a lower level and the 8’ strings being

26 See Appendix for full score. 27 Williams, Bach: Goldberg Variations, p. 67.

8 | P a g e on a higher level.28 Each variation indicates whether or not one or two manuals should be used (a

1 Clav. or a 2 Clav.). When two manuals are indicated, that means the player should use one hand on each manual. The use of two manuals allows the creation of dynamic contrasts and allowing free voice leading of equal, independent parts.29 As seen in Variation 14, Bach takes advantage of the two manuals by creating textural variety.

Example 4: Bach, Goldberg Variations, Variation 14 (m. 1-10)30

Each four-bar phrase is marked by a change in texture. For example, m. 1-4 features a jumping right hand, while hands are crossed in m. 5-8, and an alternating criss-cross pattern appears in m. 9-12.31 Rather than the term “arabesque”, other musicologists such as David

Schulenberg use the term “duet”.32 This also illustrates the intended independence and interplay of the right and left hand parts in the arabesque/duet variations.

28 Edwin Ripin, “Harpsichord,” in Grove Music Online. 29 Schulenberg, Keyboard Music, p. 376. 30 See Appendix for full score. 31 Williams, Bach: Goldberg Variations, p. 68. 32 Schulenberg, Keyboard Music, p. 371.

9 | P a g e

Example 5: Bach, Goldberg Variations, Variation 15 (m. 1-2)33

Variation 15 is a canon at the fifth, but in contrary motion. In the above example, the first voice enters in the right hand in m. 1 and is answered in the right hand in m. 2. Rather than descending like the first voice, the second voice begins at D (a fifth above G) and then proceeds in contrary motion. Also notable in this variation is the marking andante and the first appearance of G minor rather than G major. The lugubrious descending sixteenth note pattern that begins the piece is a recurrent motif in this variation and has been likened to a musical “sigh”.34 Taken as a whole, this variation has one of the most sorrowful affects thus far. It finishes quite inconclusively on an open fifth with both voices being separated by more than three octaves.

However, all of this is in preparation for the next variation.

Variation 16 is a French Overture. It begins with the biggest chord in the Goldberg

Variations so far, and fills in the empty middle register from the end of the previous variation. It may seem strange to have a French Overture in the middle, rather than the beginning of a series of pieces. However, this is not entirely strange as Bach also did this in CU2 where he placed the

French Overture after the Italian Concerto. On a more macro level, the decision to place the

French Overture as the 16th variation signifies that the thirty variations themselves can be divided into two large halves. It re-establishes the major key and is a grand restart compared to the

33 See Appendix for full score. 34 Schulenberg, Keyboard Music, p. 383.

10 | P a g e somber Variation 15. Moreover, it has been speculated that Bach was familiar with the rhetoricians’ notion that when giving an extended speech, it is effective to start again in the middle.35 Regardless of the true reasoning, Variation 16 presents all of the characteristic traits of a grand French Overture and serves as a semi-climax of the thirty variations.

Example 6a: Bach, Goldberg Variations, Variation 16 (m. 1-2)36

Example 6b: Bach, Goldberg Variations, Variation 16 (m. 16b-22)

The French Overture is divided into two halves, beginning with a stately duple section and followed by a faster fugal section in triple time. Example 5a shows dotted rhythms and tirades, fast runs to connect two principal melody notes, which are both characteristic of a French

Overture. In the fugal section, a particularly French feature is starting the fugal subject on a weak beat, as seen in beat 2 of m. 16b.37 Using stretto, the second entry of the subject appears in the beat 2 of m. 17. The third entry is seen in beat 2 of m. 20 in the left hand. Unlike the D major and

B minor Overtures in CU1 and 2, the fugue is succinct and does not proceed into the usual episodic middle section. Instead, Bach builds up layers of subsidiary motifs in order to achieve a sense of finality by the end of the overture.38

35 Williams, Bach: Goldberg Variations, p. 31. 36 See Appendix for full score. 37 Williams, Bach: Goldberg Variations, p. 71. 38 Williams, Bach: Goldberg Variations, p. 72.

11 | P a g e

The last variation of particular interest to analyze is Variation 25, an elaborate adagio.

Even more so than Variation 15, Variation 25 contains a pervasive pathos that makes it feel like the emotional high point of the variations. This is due to the large amount of chromaticism not found in any other variation. Furthermore, this is the third and final variation in G minor (with the other being Variation 21).

Example 7a: Bach, Goldberg Variations, Variation 25 (m. 1-6)39

Example 7a shows a florid treble part, similar to the ornate Variation 15, but it now has a stark amount of chromaticism. The rising minor sixth seen in beat 2 of m.1 and m.2 can be found in any cantata with a text of longing or languishing.40 Moreover, the fundamental bass of the

Goldberg Variations has been chromaticized:

Example 7b: Fundamental Bass of the Goldberg Variations (m. 1-4)

Example 7c: Bass of Variation 25 (m. 1-4) showing Chromatic Fourth41

39 See Appendix for full score. 40 Williams, Bach: Goldberg Variations, p. 82. 41 Williams, Bach: Goldberg Variations, p. 83.

12 | P a g e

The chromatic descent from G to D creates what is called a “chromatic fourth” and is commonly associated with laments. An example is the beginning of the ground bass from Dido’s

Lament in Purcell’s Dido and Aeneas.

Example 7d: Henry Purcell, Dido and Aeneas, Act III: Dido’s Lament (m. 9-12)

The chromatic fourth is a recurring motif in this variation and lends to the particularly lament-like affect of this variation. Especially in this variation, Bach demonstrates his expert ability to create a unique, self-contained piece by manipulating the Goldberg Variations bass- line. From Variation 25 to Variation 29, the variations build in intensity and energy before reaching the aforementioned quodlibet and aria da capo.

Not all of the variations in the Goldberg Variations can be analyzed due to the sheer amount of material, but the variations that have been analyzed are fairly representative of the piece as a whole. As with the previous Clavierübungen, the Goldberg Variations serves as valuable practice for any performer and is a way for Bach to practice his profession as a composer. The division of the thirty variations into ten groups of three, as well as two large halves show the systematic thought that went into the construction of this piece. Furthermore,

Bach shows the endless possibilities of a fundamental bass line by creating a comprehensive variety of pieces each with their own unique character. As a whole, it is clear that the Goldberg

Variations is one of the most substantial and innovative set of variations composed during the

Baroque period.

13 | P a g e

Bibliography

Buelow, George J. "Kuhnau, Johann." Grove Music Online. Available at: http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/subscriber/article/grove/musi c/15642 (accessed April 2, 2017).

Forkel, Johann Nikolaus. Johann Sebastian Bach: His Life, Art, and Work, trans. Charles Sanford Terry. New York city, NY: Harcourt, 1920.

Gouin, Pierre. Dido’s Lament from “Dido and Aeneas.” Québéc, Montréal: Les Éditions Outremontaises, 2006. Available at: http://imslp.org/wiki/Dido_and_Aeneas,_Z.626_(Purcell,_Henry)

Heartz, Daniel and Bruce Alan Brown. “Galant.” Grove Music Online. Available at: http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/subscriber/article/grove/m usic/10512 (accessed April 2, 2017).

Hudson, Richard, and Meredith Ellis Little. "Sarabande." Grove Music Online. Available at: http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/subscriber/article/grove/musi c/24574 (accessed April 9, 2017).

Ripin, Edwin M, et al. "Harpsichord." Grove Music Online. Available at: http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/subscriber/article/grove/musi c/12420pg1 (accessed April 8, 2017).

Stauffer, George B. "Forkel, Johann Nicolaus." Grove Music Online. Available at: http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/subscriber/article/grove/musi c/09979 (accessed April 1, 2017).

Schulenberg, David. The keyboard music of J.S. Bach. New York City, NY: Routledge, 2006.

Williams, Peter. Bach: The Goldberg Variations. Cambridge, GB: Cambridge University Press, 2001.

Wolff, Christoph. Aria mit verschiedenen Veränderungen. Germany, Kassel: Barenreiter Verlag, 1977. Available at: http://imslp.org/wiki/Goldberg_Variations,_BWV_988_(Bach,_Johann_Sebastian)

Wolff, Christoph, et al. "Bach." Grove Music Online. Available at: http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/subscriber/article/grove/musi c/40023pg10 (accessed March 21, 2017).

14 | P a g e

Appendix

15 | P a g e

16 | P a g e

17 | P a g e

18 | P a g e

19 | P a g e

20 | P a g e

21 | P a g e

22 | P a g e

23 | P a g e

24 | P a g e

25 | P a g e