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Council to comment more quickly on FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: determination, we first consider proposed activities and projects, and Krista Graham, NMFS, Pacific Islands whether a group of organisms enable the Council to work more Regional Office, (808) 725–5152; or constitutes a ‘‘species’’ under the ESA, effectively in addressing fish habitat and Kimberly Maison, NMFS, Pacific Islands then whether the status of the species ecosystem issues in our region. Regional Office, (808) 725–5143; or qualifies it for listing as either Chelsey Young, NMFS, Office of threatened or endangered. Section 3 of Special Accommodations Protected Resources, (301) 427–8491. the ESA defines ‘‘species’’ to include The meeting is physically accessible SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: ‘‘any subspecies of fish or wildlife or to people with disabilities. Requests for plants, and any distinct population sign language interpretation or other Background segment of any species of vertebrate fish auxiliary aid should be directed to M. On September 14, 2012, we received or wildlife which interbreeds when Jan Saunders, (302) 526–5251, at least 5 a petition from the Center for Biological mature.’’ On February 7, 1996, NMFS days prior to the meeting date. Diversity (Center for Biological and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Dated: August 19, 2015. Diversity, 2012) to list eight species of (USFWS; together, the Services) adopted pomacentrid reef fish as threatened or a policy describing what constitutes a Emily H. Menashes, endangered under the ESA and to distinct population segment (DPS) of a Deputy Director, Office of Sustainable designate critical habitat for these taxonomic species (the DPS Policy; 61 Fisheries, National Marine Fisheries Service. species concurrent with the listing. The FR 4722). The DPS Policy identifies two [FR Doc. 2015–20831 Filed 8–21–15; 8:45 am] species are the orange clownfish elements that must be considered when BILLING CODE 3510–22–P (Amphiprion percula) and seven other identifying a DPS: (1) The discreteness damselfishes: The yellowtail damselfish of the population segment in relation to (Microspathodon chrysurus), Hawaiian the remainder of the species (or DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE dascyllus (Dascyllus albisella), blue- subspecies) to which it belongs; and (2) National Oceanic and Atmospheric eyed damselfish (Plectroglyphidodon the significance of the population Administration johnstonianus), black-axil chromis segment to the remainder of the species (Chromis atripectoralis), blue-green (or subspecies) to which it belongs. As [Docket No. 130718637–5699–02] damselfish (Chromis viridis), reticulated stated in the DPS Policy, Congress damselfish (Dascyllus reticulatus), and expressed its expectation that the RIN 0648–XC775 blackbar devil or Dick’s damselfish Services would exercise authority with (Plectroglyphidodon dickii). Given the regard to DPSs sparingly and only when Endangered and Threatened Wildlife geographic ranges of these species, we the biological evidence indicates such and Plants; Notice of 12-Month Finding divided our initial response to the action is warranted. Based on the on a Petition To List the Orange petition between our Pacific Islands scientific information available, we Clownfish as Threatened or Regional Office (PIRO) and Southeast determined that the orange clownfish Endangered Under the Endangered Regional Office (SERO). PIRO led the (Amphiprion percula) is a ‘‘species’’ Species Act response for the seven Indo-Pacific under the ESA. There is nothing in the AGENCY: National Marine Fisheries species. On September 3, 2014, PIRO scientific literature indicating that this Service (NMFS), National Oceanic and published a positive 90-day finding (79 species should be further divided into Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), FR 52276) for the orange clownfish subspecies or DPSs. Commerce. announcing that the petition presented Section 3 of the ESA defines an substantial scientific or commercial endangered species as ‘‘any species ACTION: Notice of 12-month finding and information indicating the petitioned which is in danger of extinction availability of a status review report. action of listing the orange clownfish throughout all or a significant portion of SUMMARY: We, NMFS, announce a 12- may be warranted and explained the its range’’ and a threatened species as month finding and listing determination basis for that finding. We also one ‘‘which is likely to become an on a petition to list the orange clownfish announced a negative 90-day finding for endangered species within the (Amphiprion percula) as threatened or the six Indo-Pacific damselfishes: The foreseeable future throughout all or a endangered under the Endangered Hawaiian dascyllus, blue-eyed significant portion of its range.’’ We Species Act (ESA). We have completed damselfish, black-axil chromis, blue- interpret an ‘‘endangered species’’ to be a comprehensive status review under green damselfish, reticulated one that is presently in danger of the ESA for the orange clownfish and damselfish, and blackbar devil or Dick’s extinction. A ‘‘threatened species,’’ on we determined that, based on the best damselfish. SERO led the response to the other hand, is not presently at risk scientific and commercial data the petition to list the yellowtail of extinction, but is likely to become so available, the orange clownfish does not damselfish and, on February 18, 2015, in the foreseeable future. In other words, warrant listing under the ESA. We announced a negative 90-day finding for the primary statutory difference conclude that the orange clownfish is that species (80 FR 8619). between an endangered and threatened In our positive 90-day finding for the not currently in danger of extinction species is the timing of when a species orange clownfish, we also announced throughout all or a significant portion of may be in danger of extinction, either the initiation of a status review of the presently (endangered) or in the its range and is not likely to become so species, as required by section 4(b)(3)(A) foreseeable future (threatened). within the foreseeable future. of the ESA, and requested information When we consider whether a species DATES: The finding announced in this to inform the agency’s decision on might qualify as threatened under the notice was made on August 24, 2015. whether the species warranted listing as ESA, we must consider the meaning of ADDRESSES: You can obtain the petition, endangered or threatened under the the term ‘‘foreseeable future.’’ It is status review report, 12-month finding, ESA. appropriate to interpret ‘‘foreseeable and the list of references electronically We are responsible for determining future’’ as the horizon over which on our NMFS Web site at: http:// whether species are threatened or predictions about the conservation www.fpir.noaa.gov/PRD/prd_reef_ endangered under the ESA (16 U.S.C. status of the species can be reasonably fish.html. 1531 et seq.). To make this relied upon. The foreseeable future

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considers the life history of the species, the foreseeable future, throughout all of individually and collectively provide habitat characteristics, availability of its range. strong indicators of extinction risk. data, particular threats, ability to predict (3) The range of a species is Scientific conclusions about the threats, and the reliability to forecast the considered to be the general overall risk of extinction faced by the effects of these threats and future events geographical area within which that orange clownfish under present on the status of the species under species can be found at the time USFWS conditions and in the foreseeable future consideration. Because a species may be or NMFS makes any particular status are based on our evaluation of the susceptible to a variety of threats for determination. This range includes species’ demographic risks and section which different data are available, or those areas used throughout all or part 4(a)(1) threat factors. Our assessment of which operate across different time of the species’ life cycle, even if they are overall extinction risk considered the scales, the foreseeable future is not not used regularly (e.g., seasonal likelihood and contribution of each necessarily reducible to a particular habitats). Lost historical range is particular factor, synergies among number of years. In determining an relevant to the analysis of the status of contributing factors, and the cumulative appropriate ‘‘foreseeable future’’ the species, but it cannot constitute an effects of all demographic risks and timeframe for the orange clownfish, we SPR. threats to the species. considered the generation length of the (4) If a species is not endangered or NMFS PIRO staff conducted the status species and the estimated life span of threatened throughout all of its range review for the orange clownfish. In the species. Generation length, which but is endangered or threatened within order to complete the status review, we reflects turnover of breeding individuals an SPR, and the population in that compiled information on the species’ and accounts for non-breeding older significant portion is a valid DPS, we biology, demography, ecology, life individuals, is greater than first age of will list the DPS rather than the entire history, threats, and conservation status breeding but lower than the oldest taxonomic species or subspecies. from information contained in the breeding individual (IUCN 2015) (i.e., We considered this policy in petition, our files, a comprehensive the age at which half of total evaluating whether to list the orange literature search, and consultation with reproductive output is achieved by an clownfish as endangered or threatened experts. We also considered information individual). For the orange clownfish, under the ESA. submitted by the public in response to we estimated this to range between 6 Section 4(a)(1) of the ESA requires us our petition findings. A draft status and 15 years. We concluded that two to to determine whether any species is review report was then submitted to three generation lengths of the species endangered or threatened due to any three independent peer reviewers; comports with the estimated lifespan of one of the following five threat factors: comments and information received approximately 30 years for the orange The present or threatened destruction, from peer reviewers were addressed and clownfish (Buston and Garcia, 2007). modification, or curtailment of its incorporated as appropriate before Therefore, we conservatively define the habitat or range; overutilization for finalizing the draft report. The orange foreseeable future for the orange commercial, recreational, scientific, or clownfish status review report is clownfish as approximately 30 years educational purposes; disease or available on our Web site (see from the present. predation; the inadequacy of existing ADDRESSES section). Below we On July 1, 2014, NMFS and USFWS regulatory mechanisms; or other natural summarize information from this report published a policy to clarify the or manmade factors affecting its and the status of the species. interpretation of the phrase ‘‘significant continued existence. We are also Status Review portion of its range’’ (SPR) in the ESA required to make listing determinations definitions of ‘‘threatened’’ and based solely on the best scientific and Species Description ‘‘endangered’’ (the SPR Policy; 79 FR commercial data available, after The orange clownfish, A. percula, is 37578). Under this policy, the phrase conducting a review of the species’ a member of the Family Pomacentridae. ‘‘significant portion of its range’’ status and after taking into account Two genera within the Family contain provides an independent basis for efforts being made by any state or 28 species of clownfish (also known as listing a species under the ESA. In other foreign nation to protect the species. anemonefish). The number of words, a species would qualify for In assessing extinction risk of this recognized clownfish species has listing if it is determined to be species, we considered the demographic evolved over time due to inconsistent endangered or threatened throughout all viability factors developed by McElhany recognition of natural hybrids and of its range or if it is determined to be et al. (2000) and the risk matrix geographic color variants of previously endangered or threatened throughout a approach developed by Wainwright and described species as separate species in significant portion of its range. The Kope (1999) to organize and summarize the literature (Allen, 1991; Fautin and policy consists of the following four extinction risk considerations. The Allen, 1992, 1997; Buston and Garcia, components: approach of considering demographic 2007; Ollerton et al., 2007; Allen et al., (1) If a species is found to be risk factors to help frame the 2008; Thornhill, 2012; Litsios et al., endangered or threatened in only an consideration of extinction risk has been 2014; and Tao et al., 2014). All SPR, the entire species is listed as used in many of our status reviews (see clownfish have a mutualistic endangered or threatened, respectively, http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species relationship with sea anemones and this and the ESA’s protections apply across for links to these reviews). In this relationship has facilitated the adaptive the species’ entire range. approach, the collective condition of radiation and accelerated speciation of (2) A portion of the range of a species individual populations is considered at clownfish species (Litsios et al., 2012). is ‘‘significant’’ if the species is not the species level according to four Amphiprion percula is known by endangered or threatened throughout its demographic viability factors: many common English names. These range, and its contribution to the Abundance, growth rate/productivity, names include orange clownfish, clown viability of the species is so important spatial structure/connectivity, and anemonefish, percula clownfish, that, without the members in that diversity. These viability factors reflect percula anemonefish, orange portion, the species would be in danger concepts that are well founded in anemonefish, true percula clownfish, of extinction or likely to become so in conservation biology and that blackfinned clownfish, eastern

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clownfish, eastern clown anemonefish, (Heteractis magnifica; Stichodactyla seagrass beds. Although Fautin and and orange-clown anemonefish. gigantean; S. mertensii) (Fautin and Allen (1992, 1997) estimate that as The orange clownfish is bright orange Allen, 1992, 1997), though the orange many anemone hosts and symbiotic fish with three thick white vertical bars. The clownfish prefers shallower waters than live on sand flats or other substrate anterior bar occurs just behind the eye, those of false percula clownfish (Timm surrounding reefs as live on the reef the middle bar bisects the fish and has et al., 2008). itself, the symbiotic pairs are thought of a forward-projecting bulge, and the The orange clownfish and the false as reef dwellers because most diving posterior bar occurs near the caudal fin. percula clownfish have an allopatric and observations occur on reefs. Both The white bars have a black border that distribution, meaning their distributions symbionts reside in shallow coastal varies in width. Although this describes do not overlap. The orange clownfish is waters primarily in depths of 1–12 the type specimen, some polymorphism, found in the Indo-Pacific region of meters (m) (though the anemones can be or occurrence of more than one form or northern Queensland (Australia) and found in depths up to 50 m) and water morph, does occur with diverse Melanesia; the false percula is found in temperatures ranging from 25–28 °C geographic regional and local color the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the (77–82 °F) (Fautin and Allen, 1992, forms, mostly in the form of variation in Andaman Sea (east of India), Indo- 1997; Randall et al. 1997). the width of the black margin along the Malayan Archipelago, Philippines, Although anemonefishes have been white bars (Timm et al., 2008; Militz, northwestern Australia, and the coast of the subject of considerable scientific 2015). While there is no difference in Southeast Asia northwards to the research, less is known about the color pattern between sexes, dimorphic Ryukyu Islands in the East China Sea population dynamics or biology of the variation, or differentiation between (Fautin and Allen, 1992, 1997; Timm et anemones that serve as their hosts. males and females of the same species, al., 2008). Genetically, the two species There are over 1,000 anemone species is present in size as females are larger appear to have diverged between 1.9 but only 10 of them are known to be than males (Fautin and Allen, 1992, and 5 million years ago (Nelson et al., associated with anemonefish. 1997; Florida Museum of Natural 2000; Timm et al., 2008; Litsios et al., Anemones are able to reproduce both History, 2005). Maximum length for this 2012). sexually and asexually, but it is species is approximately 80 millimeters In the aquarium trade, the false unknown which form of reproduction is (mm) (Fautin and Allen, 1992, 1997), percula clownfish is the most popular more common. Anemones are likely but individuals up to 110 mm in length anemonefish and the orange clownfish slow growing and very long lived, living have been reported (Florida Museum of is the second most popular (Animal- decades to several centuries (Fautin, Natural History, 2005). Standard length World, 2015). The two species are often 1991; Fautin and Allen, 1992, 1997). To is reported as 46 mm for females and 36 mistaken for one another and be a viable host for anemonefish, an mm for males (Florida Museum of misidentified in the aquarium trade. anemone must be of a sufficient size to Natural History, 2005). However, size They are also often reported as a species provide shelter and protection from alone cannot be used to identify the sex complex (i.e., reported as A. ocellaris/ predators. of an individual because individuals in percula) in trade documentation and Clownfishes, including the orange different groups will vary in maximum scientific research due to the difficulty clownfish, are a unique group of fishes and minimum size. The total length of in visually distinguishing between the that can live unharmed among the a fish has been correlated with the two species. stinging tentacles of anemones. A thick mucus layer cloaks the fish from diameter of its host anemone (Fautin, Habitat 1992), with larger anemones hosting detection and response by anemone larger clownfish. The orange clownfish is described as tentacles (Rosenberg and Cruz, 1988; The orange clownfish very closely a habitat specialist due to its symbiotic Elliott and Mariscal, 1997a, 1997b). The resembles the false percula clownfish association primarily with three species symbiosis between the orange clownfish (A. ocellaris), and the two are of anemone: Heteractis crispa, H. and its host anemones serves as an considered sibling species. There are magnifica, and Stichodactyla gigantea effective anti-predation measure for several morphological differences that (Fautin and Allen, 1992, 1997; Elliott both symbionts. Predators of both may allow an observer, upon closer and Mariscal, 1997a; Ollerton et al., anemones and anemonefish are deterred examination, to distinguish between the 2007), although the species has also by the anemone’s stinging tentacles and two species. While the orange clownfish been reported as associating with the by the presence of territorial clownfish. has 9–10 dorsal spines, the false percula anemones S. mertensii (Elliott and In return, anemonefish swim through, clownfish has 10–11 dorsal spines Mariscal, 2001) and S. haddoni (Planes and create fresh water circulation for, (Timm et al., 2008), and the anterior et al., 2009). The distribution of these the stationary anemone, allowing it to part of the orange clownfish’s dorsal fin suitable host anemone species access more oxygenated water, speed up is shorter than that of the false percula essentially dictates the distribution of its metabolism, and grow faster clownfish. In addition, the orange the orange clownfish within its habitat (Szczebak et al., 2013). Anemonefish clownfish has a thick black margin (Elliott and Mariscal, 2001). Anemone also fertilize host anemones with their around its white bars whereas the false habitat for the orange clownfish, and ammonia-rich waste (Roopin and percula clownfish often has a thin or thus the range of the orange clownfish, Chadwick, 2009; Cleveland et al., 2011), even non-existent black margin, though is spread throughout northern leading to increases in anemone growth this is not always the case. The orange Queensland (Australia), the northern and asexual reproduction (Holbrook and clownfish has been described as more coast of West Papua (Indonesia), Schmitt, 2005). brilliant in color, and its orange iris northern Papua New Guinea (including Typically only one species of gives the appearance of very small eyes New Britain), the Solomon Islands, and anemonefish occupies a single anemone while the iris of false percula clownfish Vanuatu (Rosenberg and Cruz, 1988; at any given time due to niche is grayish-orange, thus giving the Fautin and Allen, 1992, 1997; De differentiation, although this is not appearance of slightly larger eyes Brauwer, 2014). always the case. The orange clownfish (Florida Museum of Natural History, Anemones and their symbiotic is a highly territorial species, likely due 2005). Ecologically, both species prefer anemonefish inhabit coral reefs and to intense competition for limited the same primary host anemone species nearby habitats such as lagoons and resources, with niche differentiation

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caused by the distribution, abundance, or sex change from male to female. This tropical trees, a means of locating island and recruitment patterns of competing occurs when the female and largest reef habitats, when searching for a species (Fautin and Allen, 1992, 1997; member of the group dies (or is settlement site. Innate recognition is Elliott and Mariscal, 1997a, 2001; otherwise removed) and the next largest also used and refers to the ability of Randall et al., 1997). Once male changes sex to become the anemonefish to locate a suitable host anemonefishes settle into a host, they dominant breeding female. The second without prior experience (Fautin and are unlikely to migrate between largest male subsequently becomes the Allen, 1992, 1997; Miyagawa-Kohshima, anemones (Mariscal, 1970; Elliott et al., dominant male (Rosenberg and Cruz, 2014). Studies indicate that imprinting 1995). 1988; Fautin and Allen 1992, 1997). on anemone olfactory cues Only the dominant pair contributes to Diet, Feeding, and Growth complements innate recognition, the reproductive output of a group leading to rigid species-specific host Anemonefishes are omnivorous and within an anemone. Non-breeders feed on a variety of prey items recognition (Miyagawa-Kohshima, within the social group do not have an 2014). consisting of planktonic algae and effect on the reproductive success of zooplankton, such as copepods and mating pairs (Buston, 2004; Buston and Fish acclimation to a host anemone larval tunicates (Fautin and Allen, 1992, Elith, 2011). lasts anywhere from a few minutes to a 1997). The orange clownfish also feeds Adult male and female orange few hours (Fautin and Allen, 1992, on prey remnants left over from its host clownfish form strong monogamous 1997; Arvedlund et al., 2000) as a anemone’s feeding activity as well as pair-bonds. Once eggs are laid, the male protective mucus coating develops on dead tentacles from its host (Fautin and follows closely behind and fertilizes the anemonefish as a result of Allen, 1992, 1997; Florida Museum of them externally. Clutch sizes vary interaction with the host anemone Natural History, 2005). widely between 100 to over 1000 eggs tentacles (Davenport and Norris, 1958; An anemone will typically host a laid (Fautin and Allen, 1992, 1997; Elliott and Mariscal, 1997a). Once female and male breeding pair and up Dhaneesh et al., 2009), with an average acclimated, the mucus protection may to four other subordinate, non-breeding of 324 eggs ± 153 (mean ± one standard disappear upon extended separation and non-related A. percula males deviation) recorded in Madang Lagoon, between host and fish. Continued (Buston, 2003a; Buston and Garcia, Papua New Guinea (Buston and Elith, contact with tentacles appears to 2007; Buston et al., 2007). Individuals 2011), depending on fish size and reactivate the mucus coat (Arvedlund et rarely stray beyond the periphery of previous experience. Larger and more al., 2000). Coloration of anemonefish their anemone’s tentacles to feed experienced mating pairs will produce usually also begins during this anemone (Buston, 2003c). A size-based hierarchy more eggs per clutch (Fautin and Allen, acclimation process (Elliott and develops within each group; the female 1992, 1997; Buston and Elith, 2011; Mariscal, 2001). Upon settlement, the is the largest (rank 1), the dominant Animal-World, 2015), and can produce entire metamorphosis from larva to male second largest (rank 2), and the up to three clutches per lunar cycle juvenile takes about a day (Fautin and non-breeding subordinate males get (Gordon and Hecht, 2002; Buston and Allen, 1992, 1997). progressively smaller as you descend Elith, 2011). the hierarchy (ranks 3–6) (Allen, 1991). After egg deposition and fertilization Longevity and Resilience Subordinates tend to be 80 percent of have finished, a 6–8 day incubation the size of their immediate dominant in period begins, with developmental rate Buston and Garcia (2007) studied a the hierarchy (Buston, 2003b; Buston varying with temperature and oxygen wild population of orange clownfish in and Cant, 2006). Subordinates likely content of the water (Dhaneesh et al., Papua New Guinea and their results regulate their growth to avoid coming 2009). Average hatch success recorded suggest that females can live up to 30 into conflict with their immediate in Madang Lagoon, Papua New Guinea, years in the wild. Although this life dominant, and thereby avoid eviction was estimated at 87 percent (Buston and expectancy estimate has not been from the social group (Buston, 2003b; Elith, 2011). Upon hatching, larvae enter empirically proven through otolith Buston and Wong, 2014). When a fish is a pelagic phase and are likely engaged examination, it is notably two times removed from the hierarchical social in active swimming and orientation, and greater than the longevity estimated for group structure (due to mortality or also transported by ocean currents any other coral reef damselfish and six collection), all smaller members grow (Fautin and Allen, 1992, 1997; Leis et times greater than the longevity rapidly, filling in the size gap, to the al., 2011). The larval stage of the species expected for a fish that size (Buston and point that they are once again 80 ends when the larval anemonefish Garcia, 2007). Their results are percent the size of their immediate settles into a host anemone consistent with the idea that organisms dominant (Fautin and Allen, 1992, approximately 8–12 days after hatching subjected to low levels of extrinsic 1997; Buston, 2003b). (Fautin and Allen, 1992, 1997; Almany mortality, like anemonefish, experience et al., 2007; Buston et al., 2007). Reproduction and Development delayed senescence and increased Anemonefish search for and settle longevity (Buston and Garcia, 2007). Spawning for orange clownfish can into a suitable host anemone using a occur year-round due to perpetually variety of cues. Embryos and newly Using a methodology designed to warm waters within the species’ range hatched juveniles may learn cues from determine resilience to fishing impacts, (Fautin and Allen, 1992, 1997). the host anemone where they hatched Fishbase.org rates the orange clownfish Spawning is also strongly correlated and respond to these imprinted cues as highly resilient, with an estimated with the lunar cycle, with most nesting when searching for suitable settlement minimum population doubling time of occurring when the moon is full or locations (Fautin and Allen, 1992, 1997; less than 15 months. Another analysis, nearly so (Fautin and Allen, 1992, Arvedlund et al., 2000; Dixson et al., using the Cheung et al. (2005) ‘‘fuzzy 1997). 2014; Miyagawa-Kohshima, 2014; Paris logic’’ method for estimating fish Like all anemonefishes, all orange et al., 2013). Dixson et al. (2008, 2014) vulnerability to fishing pressure, clownfish are born as males (Fautin and and Munday et al. (2009a) found that assigned the species a low vulnerability Allen, 1992, 1997). Females develop orange clownfish are responsive to score, with a level of 23 out of 100 through protandrous hermaphroditism, olfactory cues such as leaf litter and (Fishbase.org, 2015).

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Population Distribution, Abundance, variable across the species’ range. In an A. percula, we are left with small-scale and Structure assessment done throughout the Great meta-population connectivity studies as Clownfish first appeared and Barrier Reef, Australia, anemones, the best available information. Results diversified in the Indo-Australian including those that host the orange from studies in Kimbe Bay, Papua New Archipelago (Litsios et al., 2014). As clownfish, were quantified as Guinea, an area known for its high previously mentioned, the orange ‘‘common’’ (Roelofs and Silcock, 2008). diversity of anemones and anemonefish, clownfish is native to the Indo-Pacific On the other hand, Jones et al. (2008) indicate that A. percula larvae have the region and range countries include and De Brauwer et al. (in prep) note that ability to disperse at least up to 35 km northern Queensland (Australia), anemones occur in relatively low away from natal areas (Planes et al., northern coast of West Papua densities throughout the Indo-Pacific. 2009). In addition, there is evidence that Because it is difficult to generalize the (Indonesia), northern Papua New rates of self-recruitment are likely to be likely distribution, abundance, and linked with not only pelagic larval Guinea (including New Britain), the trends of anemones, it is therefore duration, but also geographical isolation Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu difficult to generalize these same (Jones et al., 2009; Pinsky et al., 2012). (Rosenberg and Cruz, 1988; Fautin and parameters for A. percula in coral reef Because of the size and distribution of Allen, 1992, 1997; De Brauwer, 2014). environments throughout its range; it is The distribution of suitable host A. percula’s range, there are likely areas likely to be variable and dependent on of higher and lower connectivity anemone species dictates the local environmental conditions. throughout, linked with the variability distribution of orange clownfish within We found no information on in geographic isolation across locations, its habitat (Elliott and Mariscal, 2001). historical abundance or recent creating significant spatial structure. The anemones Heteractis crispa, H. population trends for the orange This is, however, speculative because magnifica, and S. gigantea range clownfish throughout all or part of its no large-scale connectivity study has throughout and beyond the orange range. We also found no estimate of the been conducted for this species. clownfish’s geographic extent. current species abundance. With no Stichodactyla haddoni occurs in existing estimate of global abundance Summary of Factors Affecting the Australia and Papua New Guinea, but for the orange clownfish, we estimated, Orange Clownfish has not yet officially been recorded in based on the best available information, Available information regarding Vanuatu or the Solomon Islands, and S. a total of 13–18 million individuals for current, historical, and potential future mertensii officially has been recorded the species throughout its range. This threats to the orange clownfish was only from Australia within the orange estimate is derived from De Brauwer thoroughly reviewed in the status clownfish’s range (Fautin and Allen, (2014) who determined an average review report for the species (Maison 1992, 1997; Fautin, 2013). However, two density for the orange clownfish within and Graham, 2015). We summarize recent observations extended the known its range from 658 surveys across 205 information regarding the 12 identified distribution of S. haddoni, both sites throughout the species’ range threats below according to the five northward and southward, indicating (northern Papua New Guinea, Solomon factors specified in section 4(a)(1) of the they have the ability to expand in range Islands, Vanuatu, and northern ESA. See Maison and Graham (2015) for and facilitate the expanded occurrence Australia). He calculated the global additional discussion of all ESA section of commensal species (Hobbs et al., estimated mean density at 0.09 fish per 4(a)(1) threat categories. 2014; Scott et al., 2014). Anecdotally, 2 2 250 m , or 360 fish per km . In order to Present or Threatened Destruction, there are photo images and video extrapolate this average density to footage of S. haddoni and S. mertensii Modification, or Curtailment of Its estimate abundance, we used two Habitat or Range in the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and different estimates of coral reef area Papua New Guinea (e.g., Shutterstock, within the species’ range. De Brauwer Among the habitat threats affecting National Geographic, and Getty Images). (2014) estimated 36,000 km2 of coral the orange clownfish, we analyzed Species experts, however, have not reef area within the species’ range based anemone bleaching, anemone officially confirmed these reports. on Fautin and Allen (1992, 1997) and collection, and sedimentation and Although geographically widespread, Spalding et al. (2001). We also used nutrient enrichment effects. We found anemone species differ in their newer coral reef mapping data from the threats of anemone bleaching and preferred habitat (e.g., reef zonation, Burke et al. (2011) resulting in an anemone collection each to have a low substrate, depth (Fautin, 1981)). Hattori estimate of approximately 50,000 km2 of likelihood of contributing significantly (2006) found that H. crispa individuals coral reef area within the orange to extinction risk for the species now or were larger along reef edges and smaller clownfish’s range. We used both values in the foreseeable future. We found the in shallow inner reef flats. The larger to determine a range of estimated threat of sedimentation and nutrient anemones on reef edges experienced abundance (13–18 million) to reflect enrichment to have a low-to-medium higher growth, probably because deeper uncertainty. It is important to note that likelihood, meaning it is possible but (up to 4 m) reef edges provide more prey this may be an underestimate because it not necessarily probable, that this threat and lower levels of physiological stress. is based on coral reef area, which likely contributes or will contribute The author speculates that habitat and does not account for most of the non- significantly to extinction risk for the depth ideal for high anemone growth reef area where the species occurs species. will vary by study site and occur at throughout its range. Evidence, while limited, indicates depths where there is a balance between As for spatial structure and that thermally-induced bleaching can available sunlight to allow for connectivity, based on the best available have negative effects on orange photosynthesis and low physiological information, we conclude that the clownfish host anemones, which may stress, both of which are dependent on species is likely to have highly variable lead to localized effects of unknown site-specific environmental conditions. small-scale connectivity among and magnitude on the fish itself. Evidence It is difficult to generalize the likely between meta-populations, but thus far indicates high variability in the distribution, abundance, and trends of unknown large-scale genetic structure response of both anemones and anemone hosts throughout A. percula’s across its entire range. In the absence of anemonefish to localized bleaching range; these parameters are likely highly a broad-scale phylogeographic study for events. Susceptibility to thermal stress

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varies between different species of the host anemonefish (including those that breeders indicating several species have same taxon and is often variable within host orange clownfish); some species been successfully propagated (typically individual species; as a result of habitat decreased in abundance and/or size via asexual reproduction), but anemones heterogeneity across a species’ range, after bleaching events, while others typically thwart both scientific and individuals of the same species may showed no effect and recovered fully. hobbyist attempts at captive culture, develop in very different environmental When considering the effect of especially on a large scale. This is conditions. Hobbs et al. (2013) compiled anemone bleaching into the foreseeable primarily due to their slow growth and datasets that were collected between future, we evaluated the best available infrequent reproduction. While asexual 2005 and 2012 across 276 sites at 19 information on future projections of propagation has been successful in some locations in the Pacific Ocean, Indian warming-induced bleaching events, but cases, no study has yet addressed the Ocean, and Red Sea to examine also considered the existing information optimization of this practice (e.g., taxonomic, spatial, and temporal on the effects of previous bleaching determining the minimum size at which patterns of anemone bleaching. Their events on anemones. Evidence suggests an anemone can be successfully results confirm that bleaching has been that bleaching events will continue to propagated, the best attachment observed in 7 of the 10 anemone species occur and become more severe and technique, etc.) (Olivotto et al. 2011). As that host anemonefish (including 4 of more frequent over the next few decades such, the vast majority of anemone the 5 orange clownfish host species), (van Hooidonk, 2013). However, newer specimens in the trade are currently with anecdotal reports of bleaching in multivariate modeling approaches from wild collection. In the Queensland the remaining 3 host anemone species. indicate that traditional temperature marine aquarium fishery, Roelofs and threshold models may not give an In addition, they report anemone Silcock (2008) found that all anemone accurate picture of the likely outcomes bleaching at 10 of 19 survey locations species had low vulnerability due to of climate change for coral reefs, and that are geographically widespread. collection. While there was no effects and responses will be highly Importantly, the authors report information on anemone collection nuanced and heterogeneous across considerable spatial and inter-specific available from the Solomon Islands, space and time (McClanahan et al., variation in bleaching susceptibility Vanuatu, or Papua New Guinea (likely 2015). Although observed anemone across multiple major bleaching events because these countries tend to focus on bleaching has thus far been highly (Hobbs et al., 2013). Over the entire exporting fish vs. invertebrates), our variable during localized events, the assessment reveals that collection and timeframe and across all study areas, 3.5 overall effect of bleaching events on percent of all anemones observed were anemones globally (i.e., overall export of aquarium reef species, bleached, although during major proportion of observed anemones that including anemones, in these three bleaching events, the percentage at a have shown ill effects) has been of low countries is relatively small-scale at just given study area ranged from 19–100 magnitude at sites across their ranges, as a few sites scattered throughout large percent. At sites within the same study only 3.5 percent of the nearly 14,000 archipelagos. The industry appears area, bleaching ranged between as much observed anemones were recorded as limited by freight costs and other as 0 and 94 percent during a single bleached across 19 study sites and financial burdens (Kinch, 2008). As bleaching event. To further highlight the multiple major bleaching events (Hobbs such, it seems unlikely that collection variability and uncertainty associated et al., 2013). In summary, there are a would expand to other areas within the with anemone bleaching susceptibility, number of factors that, in combination, species’ range. There is no information Hobbs et al. (2013) report opposite indicate that the orange clownfish is to indicate that demand for wild patterns of susceptibility for the same likely resilient to bleaching effects that harvested anemones will increase over two species at the same site during two may affect their hosts both now and in the next few decades within the range different bleaching events. Additionally, the foreseeable future. These factors of the orange clownfish. Several studies the study reports decreased bleaching include the low overall effect of have provided valuable biological data with increased depth in most of the anemone bleaching thus far; the high on the reproductive biology (Scott and major bleaching events, indicating that amount of variability in anemone Harrison 2007a, 2009), embryonic and depth, in some cases as shallow as 7 m, susceptibility; the existence of depth larval development (Scott and Harrison offers a refuge from bleaching (Hobbs et refugia for anemones; the evidence of 2007b), and settlement and juvenile al., 2013). Some anemone species have potential acclimation in some species; grow-out (Scott and Harrison 2008). even been reported from mesophotic and the fact that the orange clownfish Although speculative, scientists and depths, including one A. percula host has been observed in the wild to hobbyists are likely to use this species (H. crispa) (Bridge et al., 2012). associate with at least five different information to continue to engage in These depths likely serve as refugia species of anemone, all of which have attempts to propagate anemones in from thermal stress. Although the shown different levels of susceptibility captivity, which may lead to lower capacity for acclimation or adaptation in to bleaching in different locations and demand for wild capture if successful. anemones is unknown, evidence from over time. As such, we conclude that While little information is available on one site indicated that prior bleaching the threat of habitat loss due to anemone the threat of anemone collection to A. history might influence subsequent bleaching has a low likelihood of percula globally, the aquarium trade likelihood of an anemone bleaching, as contributing significantly to extinction collection information from countries previously bleached individuals were risk for the orange clownfish now or in within the species’ range indicates that less likely to bleach a second time the foreseeable future. fisheries in general are relatively small (Hobbs et al., 2013). It is also of note With regard to anemone collection, scale, and tend to focus on fish rather that, similar to corals, bleaching does there is little information available on than invertebrates for export. Because not automatically lead to mortality for this threat to the orange clownfish there is some uncertainty and a lack of anemones. Hobbs et al. (2013) report globally. Thus far, there has been specific information associated with this variable consequences as a result of limited successful aquaculture of threat to the orange clownfish, we bleaching between and among species anemones for aquaria. Moe (2003) conclude that the threat of habitat loss and locations in their assessment of reports the results from a survey of from anemone collection poses a low bleaching for all anemone species that hobbyists, scientists, and commercial (instead of very low) likelihood of

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contributing significantly to the first few days of settlement when indicates that the threat is likely to extinction risk for the orange clownfish, mortality is still high for those that do affect the species negatively and may both now and in the foreseeable future. recruit to settlement habitat. As such, have visible consequences at the species Regarding the threat of sedimentation the overall effect of increased level either now and/or in the future, and nutrient enrichment to A. percula’s sedimentation at the population level is but we do not have enough confidence habitat, organisms in coral reef hard to predict. in the available information to ecosystems, including clownfish, are Land-based sources of pollution are of determine the negative effect is of a likely to experience continuing effects primary concern for nearshore marine sufficient magnitude to significantly from anthropogenic sources of this habitats in areas where human increase extinction risk. threat at some level as economies populations live in coastal areas and continue to grow. Indeed, exposure of engage in any or all of the following: Overutilization for Commercial, host anemones is likely to be variable Intensive farming and aquaculture, Recreational, Scientific or Educational across the range of A. percula, with urbanization and industrialization, Purposes effects being more acute in areas of high greater shipping traffic and fishing For the ESA factor of overutilization coastal development. There is very little effort, and deforestation and nearshore for commercial, recreational, scientific information available regarding the development, all of which are growing or educational purposes, we analyzed susceptibility and exposure of in Southeast Asia (Todd et al., 2010; the threat of collection for the aquarium anemones to sedimentation and Schneider et al., 2015) and the Indo- trade. We conclude that this threat has nutrients. In the absence of this Pacific (Edinger et al., 1998; Edinger et a low likelihood of having a significant information, we consider it reasonable al., 2000). The range of A. percula is effect on the species’ risk of extinction to assume that the susceptibility of largely outside of areas that are now or in the foreseeable future. corals as a direct result of their experiencing the most rapid growth and It is estimated that 1.5–2 million association with symbiotic algae industrialization, such as Indonesia and people worldwide keep marine aquaria, (described above) is an indicator of the the Philippines. Throughout the range including 600,000 households in the potential susceptibility of anemones, of A. percula, there are thousands of United States (U.S.) alone (Wabnitz et since they share a similar association islands, many of which are uninhabited al., 2003). Estimates place the value of with microscopic algal symbionts and or have small, sparse human the marine aquarium trade at because anemones are in the same populations leading traditional approximately U.S. $200–330 million phylum (Cnidaria) as corals and thus are lifestyles. These remote locations are per year (Wabnitz et al., 2003). The biologically related. While information unlikely to suffer from much exposure largest importers of coral reef fish, for anemones is sparse, we know that to increased sedimentation or nutrients. corals, and invertebrates for display in some coral species can tolerate complete However, there is evidence that some of aquaria are the U.S., followed by the burial in sediment for several days; these remote and otherwise pristine European Union, Japan, and China. The however, those that are unsuccessful at areas in countries like Papua New U.S. accounted for an average of 61 removing sediment may be smothered, Guinea and the Solomon Islands are percent of global imports of marine resulting in mortality (Nugues and targeted for intense or illegal logging aquarium species from 2000–2010 Roberts, 2003). Sediment can also and mining operations which may be (Wood et al., 2012). A tremendous induce sub-lethal effects in corals, such causing degradation of the nearshore diversity and volume of species are as reductions in tissue thickness, polyp environment, even in remote and involved in the marine aquarium trade swelling, zooxanthellae loss, and excess uninhabited areas (Seed, 1986; (Rhyne et al., 2012). It is estimated that mucus production (Rogers, 1990). In Kabutaulaka, 2005). every year, approximately 14–30 million addition, suspended sediment can Efforts to specifically examine the fish, 1.5 million live stony corals, and reduce the amount of light in the water direct and indirect effects of nutrients 9–10 million other invertebrates are column, making less energy available and sedimentation to the orange removed from coral reef ecosystems for photosynthesis (of symbiotic clownfish and its habitat throughout its across the world (Wood, 2001a,b; zooxanthellae) and growth. Again for range are lacking. Land-based sources of Wabnitz et al., 2003; Tsounis et al., corals, sedimentation and nutrient pollution on reefs act at primarily local 2010) although Rhyne et al. (2012) enrichment can have interactive effects and sometimes regional levels, with assert that the volume of marine fish has with other stressors including disease direct linkages to human population been overestimated. These include the and climate factors such as bleaching and land-use within adjacent areas. trade in at least 1,802 species of fish, susceptibility and reduced calcification Orange clownfish occur mostly in more than 140 species of corals, and (Ateweberhan et al., 2013; Suggett et al., shallow reef areas and rarely migrate more than 500 species of non-coral 2013). between anemone habitats as adults; invertebrates (Wabnitz et al., 2003; In addition to the potential effects these are traits that may make this Rhyne et al., 2012). Clownfish, from sedimentation and nutrient species more susceptible to land-based specifically A. ocellaris and A. percula, enrichment to host anemones, there sources of pollution in populated areas are among the top five most imported could be potential effects to A. percula. than other, more migratory or deeper- and exported species of marine Wenger et al. (2014) found in a ranging reef fish. To account for the aquarium fish in the aquarium trade controlled experiment that suspended uncertainty associated with the (Wabnitz et al., 2003; Rhyne et al., sediment increased pelagic larval magnitude of this threat, and consider 2012). duration for A. percula. A longer pelagic the species’ traits that may increase its Rhyne et al. (2012) reported a total of larval duration may reduce the number susceptibility and exposure, we 400,000 individuals of the species of larvae that make it to the settlement conservatively conclude that there is a complex A. ocellaris/percula were stage because of the high rate of low-to-medium likelihood that the imported into the U.S. in 2005. Of note mortality in the pelagic larval phase. threat of sedimentation and nutrient is that data for the two species were Conversely, in this study longer pelagic enrichment is currently or will combined and reported for the species larval durations led to larvae that were significantly contribute to extinction complex in this report due to common larger with better body condition, traits risk for the orange clownfish. Spanning misidentification leading to the inability that may confer advantages during the the low and medium categories to separate them out in the import

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records. More recently, the author are widely described among the protection from predators is one of the provided NMFS with updated estimates industry as an easily cultured aquarium primary benefits conferred to post- based on newer data from 2008–2011, species. A survey of marine aquarium settlement juvenile and adult orange which indicate the number of A. percula hobbyists in 2003 revealed that only 16 clownfish by their symbiotic alone imported into the U.S. was less percent of respondents had no concern relationship with host anemones. We than 50,000 per year (Szczebak and over whether they purchased wild vs. found no information to indicate Rhyne, unpublished). Notably, this cultured organisms; the majority of elevated predation levels due to estimate does not distinguish between respondents indicated a preference for invasive species or other outside wild-caught and captively-propagated purchasing captive bred specimens influences in any part of the species’ individuals from foreign sources. The (Moe, 2003). A more recent study range is a cause for concern. Moreover, Philippines and Indonesia account for reports that 76 percent of respondents to we did not find any information to 80 percent of A. percula imports into the same question indicated they would indicate that natural predation rates for the United States according to the new preferentially purchase cultured the species are of a magnitude that species-specific information from animals and an additional 21 percent would cause concern for their extinction Szczebak and Rhyne (unpublished said it would depend on the price risk now or in the foreseeable future. data); however, these countries are difference (Murray and Watson, 2014). There is some scientific evidence that outside the geographic range of A. Considering the estimated proportion indicates future levels of ocean percula, indicating that 80 percent or of the population harvested annually, acidification have the potential to more of the imported individuals were the principles of fisheries management negatively affect predator avoidance likely propagated in captivity and not and population growth, the ease and behavior for orange clownfish. However, collected from the wild, or popularity of captive propagation of the it is unclear if or how those effects may misidentified. Similarly, according to species, and the apparent consumer manifest themselves in the wild over the Tissot et al. (2010), the U.S. imports 50– preference for captively-reared fish for expected timeframes of increasing 70 percent of aquarium reef fish in the home aquaria, we have determined that acidification, and there is evidence that global trade. If we extrapolate the U.S. overutilization due to collection for the trans-generational acclimation will play import estimate to infer global wild aquarium trade has a low likelihood of a role in allowing populations to adapt harvest for the aquarium trade, the contributing significantly to the over time. While the future effects of number of globally traded wild A. extinction risk of the orange clownfish acidification are still unclear, we allow percula in 2011 was likely closer to now or in the foreseeable future. for the potential for effects to predator avoidance behavior from ocean approximately 70,000–100,000 Disease or Predation individuals, with as much as 80 percent acidification by concluding that the potentially originating from aquaculture We analyzed the threat of both disease likelihood of predation significantly operations and not actually harvested and predation to the orange clownfish. contributing to the extinction risk for from the wild (or misidentified if U.S. We conclude that disease has a very low the orange clownfish now or in the imports are considered representative of likelihood of having a significant effect foreseeable future is low (instead of very the global trade). If we conservatively on the species’ risk of extinction now or low). assume that 100,000 orange clownfish in the foreseeable future. We conclude that predation has a low likelihood of Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory are harvested from the wild annually Mechanisms (likely a vast over-estimate), this having a significant effect on the represents 0.0076 percent of our species’ risk of extinction now or in the Because the only threat that has a conservatively estimated wild global foreseeable future. low-to-medium likelihood (higher population size of 13–18 million The available information on disease relative to all other threats which are individual A. percula. in A. percula indicates that the spread low or very low) of significantly Orange clownfish are currently of some diseases is of concern in captive contributing to extinction risk for the collected at varying levels in three out culture facilities (Ganeshamurthy et al., orange clownfish is sedimentation and of the four countries in which the 2014; Siva et al., 2014); however, there nutrient enrichment, we need only species occurs. Papua New Guinea had is no information available indicating address the inadequacy of regulatory a fishery for this species, but does not that disease may be a concern in wild mechanisms that could alleviate this currently export for the aquarium trade. populations. Because this is a well- threat. A discussion of the adequacy of There is a small local aquarium studied species in at least parts of its regulatory mechanisms for all other industry, but collection for this purpose range, we find this compelling evidence threats can be found in the Status is likely minimal (Colette Wabnitz, pers. that disease does not currently pose a Review Report for the Orange Clownfish comm. 2015). Collection from the wild significant threat to the species. We (Maison and Graham 2015). appears relatively limited in Vanuatu, therefore conclude that the threat of Based on the reasoning provided the Solomon Islands, and Australia, disease has a very low likelihood of below, we conclude that the inadequacy according to U.S. import information. having a significant effect on the of regulatory mechanisms addressing While A. percula are targeted in these species’ risk of extinction now or in the sedimentation and nutrient enrichment aquarium fisheries, they are not the foreseeable future. also has a low-to-medium likelihood of most sought after species in most cases. Orange clownfish, like many reef fish contributing to extinction risk, meaning Additionally, anemonefish were species, are most susceptible to natural that it is possible but not necessarily among the first coral reef fish raised in predation during the egg, pelagic larvae, probable, that it contributes or will captivity throughout their entire life and settlement life stages. Natural contribute significantly to extinction cycle and now represent one of the most mortality for juveniles and adults is low, risk for the species. Spanning the low well-known and well-developed captive ranging from 2 percent (Elliott and and medium categories indicates that breeding programs for marine fish Mariscal, 2001) to ∼7 percent for ranks the threat is likely to affect the species (Dawes, 2003). While quantitative 1–3 (dominant breeding pair and first negatively and may have visible information is not currently available to subordinate male) and ∼30 percent for consequences at the species level either estimate the number of A. percula that ranks 4–6 (subsequent subordinate now and/or in the future, but we do not are propagated in captivity, clownfish males) (Buston, 2003a). Shelter and have enough confidence in the available

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information to determine the negative risk for the species now and in the activities, may be turned over to the effect is of a sufficient magnitude to foreseeable future. While some police. More specifically regarding significantly increase extinction risk. regulations exist to address land-based orange clownfish, findings suggest that Regulatory mechanisms for the four sources of pollution throughout A. the MPA network in Kimbe Bay, Papua countries within A. percula’s range that percula’s range, overall, there is little New Guinea, might function to sustain address land based-sources of pollution information available on the resident orange clownfish populations like sedimentation and nutrient enforcement or effectiveness of these both by local replenishment and enrichment are described in greater regulations. As such, it is difficult to through larval dispersal from other detail in the NMFS coral management determine the overall likelihood of the reserves (Almany et al., 2007; Green et report (NMFS, 2012b), but we inadequacy of regulatory mechanisms al., 2009; Planes et al., 2009; Berumen summarize them here. In Papua New contributing significantly to the et al., 2012). Guinea, most legislation does not extinction risk for this species. In specifically refer to marine systems, Other Natural or Manmade Factors analyzing whether regulatory Affecting Continued Existence which has generated some uncertainty mechanisms addressing this threat are as to how it should be applied to coral adequate, we conclude, from what little Among the other natural or human reefs. Also, laws relevant to different information we could find, that factors affecting the orange clownfish, sectors (e.g., fisheries, mining, although regulations do exist, there are we analyzed the potential future environmental protection) are not fully varying levels of efficacy and physiological and behavioral effects of integrated, which has led to confusion enforcement, and this is an ongoing ocean acidification and ocean warming. over which laws have priority, who is threat that is likely to increase as The orange clownfish, along with responsible for management, and the economies within the species’ range several other pomacentrid species, has rights of the various interest groups. In continue to grow. been the subject of several laboratory- the Solomon Islands, the Fisheries Act based studies on both ocean Marine protected areas are often of 1998 states that marine biodiversity, acidification and ocean warming. The categorized as conservation efforts but coastal and aquatic environments of the field of study is relatively new, but we because they are almost always Solomon Islands shall be protected and conclude that the threats of regulatory in nature (establishment and managed in a sustainable manner and physiological or behavioral effects from enforcement via regulations), in the calls for the application of the ocean acidification and ocean warming context of an ESA listing determination precautionary approach to the each have a low likelihood of having a conservation, management, and we evaluate them here in the significant effect on the species’ risk of exploitation of fisheries resources in ‘‘Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory extinction now or in the foreseeable order to protect fisheries resources and Mechanisms’’ section. Although we future. preserve the marine environment cannot determine the overall benefit to Research thus far has focused on the (Aqorau, 2005). In Vanuatu, each the species from the network of effects of acidification on two aspects of cultural group has its own traditional protected areas throughout its entire physiology for A. percula: (1) Growth approaches to management, which may range, the existence and enforcement of and development, and (2) sensory include the establishment of MPAs, a large number of MPAs throughout the capabilities that affect behavior. In one initiating taboo sites, or periodic species’ range is likely to confer at least study, increased acidification at levels closures. These traditional management some benefit and is unlikely to expected to occur circa 2100 had no schemes have been supplemented by contribute significantly to the extinction detectable effect on embryonic duration, various legislative initiatives, including risk for the orange clownfish now or in egg survival, or size at hatching and, in the Foreshore Development Act, which the foreseeable future. There is a fact, increased larval growth rate in A. regulates coastal development (Naviti significant number of (MPAs) of varying percula (Munday et al., 2009a). and Aston, 2000). In Australia, A. degrees of size, management, and Similarly, there was no effect on otolith percula occurs mostly, if not entirely, success that exist throughout A. size, shape, symmetry, or elemental within the Great Barrier Reef Marine percula’s range, including at least 22 chemistry when A. percula larvae were Park. In addition to the park, the MPAs in Papua New Guinea, MPAs in reared at CO2 levels predicted by the Australian government has developed a all 9 provinces of the Solomon Islands, year 2100 (Munday et al., 2011b). National Cooperative Approach to and over 55 MPAs in Vanuatu, and When it comes to behavioral Integrated Coastal Zone Management nearly all of A. percula’s range in impairment, laboratory research has (Natural Resource Management Australia is found within the Great shown more consequential results Ministerial Council, 2006). In response Barrier Reef Marine National Park. regarding the potential effects of future to recent reports showing declining While there are relatively little ocean acidification. An elevated CO2 water quality within the marine park, empirical data on the effectiveness of environment can affect auditory sensory the State of Queensland recently these particular MPAs other than for capabilities for juvenile A. percula, even developed and published a Reef Water Australia, the general consensus is that in the absence of effects on otolith Quality Protection Plan, outlining these MPAs do provide some growth. This indicates other possible actions to secure the health and conservation benefits for marine species mechanisms for this interference, such resilience of the Great Barrier Reef and (Day, 2002; McClanahan et al., 2006; as deterioration of neural transmitters or adjacent catchments (State of McCook et al., 2010). In Vanuatu, compromised processing of sensory Queensland, 2013). Hickey and Johannes (2002) report information (Simpson et al., 2011). Under the discussion of ‘‘Present or success of locally managed MPAs due to Auditory sensory capabilities guide Threatened Destruction, Modification, a variety of reasons, including larval fish during settlement as or Curtailment of its Habitat or Range’’ enforcement. The authors report that nocturnal reef sounds promote above, we evaluated the threat of there is an increasing use of state police settlement and daytime predator-rich sedimentation and nutrient enrichment to informally support decisions made by noises discourage settlement (Simpson on A. percula and determined that it has the village chiefs. Individuals who break et al., 2011). a low-to-medium likelihood of these village taboos, including taboos Increased CO2 levels may affect significantly contributing to extinction relating to marine resource management olfactory cues used by larval clownfish

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to identify anemones and avoid parental environment prior to night respiration invokes net CO2 predators. Larval clownfish use fertilization to influence offspring release into the surrounding sea water. olfactory cues, such as odors from reaction norms without requiring In fact, Ohde and van Woesik (1999) anemones, to locate suitable reef habitat changes in DNA sequence (Salinas and found one site that fluctuated between for settlement (Munday et al., 2009b). Munch, 2012). Trans-generational pH 8.7 and 7.9 over the course of a Larval A. percula reared at CO2 levels plasticity in CO2 resistance as a single day. comparable to those predicted by the potential adaptation for coping with Studies clearly show that in a end of this century showed no highly variable aquatic CO2 controlled setting, an increased CO2 observable response to olfactory cues of environments may be common (Salinas environment can impair larval sensory different habitat types, whereas those and Munch, 2012; Dupont et al., 2013). capabilities that are required to make reared in the control environment One recent study found that the effects important decisions during critical life showed a strong preference for anemone associated with rearing larval clownfish stages. However, a disconnect exists olfactory cues over other habitat (A. melanopus) at high CO2 levels, between these experimental results and olfactory cues (Munday et al., 2009b). including smaller length and mass of what can be expected to occur in the Newly hatched A. percula larvae also fish and higher resting metabolic rates, wild over time, or even what is innately detect predators using olfactory were absent or reversed when both currently experienced on a daily basis cues, and they retain this ability through parents and offspring were reared in on natural reefs. There is uncertainty settlement (Dixson et al., 2010). When elevated CO2 levels (Miller et al., 2012). associated with A. percula’s likely level tested for behavioral responses to These results show that non-genetic of exposure to this threat in the olfactory cues from predators, A. parental effects can have a significant foreseeable future given the uncertainty percula larvae raised in both the control influence on the performance of in future ocean acidification rates and environment (390 parts per million juveniles exposed to high CO2 levels the heterogeneity of the species’ habitat and current environmental conditions (ppm) CO2) and the lower of the two with the potential to fully compensate intermediate environments tested (550 for the observed effects caused by acute across its range. There is also evidence that susceptibility to acute changes in ppm CO2) showed strong avoidance of (within generation) exposure to ocean pH may decrease or disappear predator cues. However, larvae reared at increased CO2 levels (Miller et al., over several generations. Even though 700 ppm CO2 showed variation in their 2012). projections for future levels of responses, with half showing avoidance In addition to the potential for of predator cues and the other half acidification go out to the year 2100, we acclimation and trans-generational do not consider the effects of this showing preference for predator cues plasticity, it is difficult to interpret the (Munday et al., 2010). In this same potential threat to be foreseeable over results of laboratory studies of acute that timeframe due to the variable and study, larvae reared at 850 ppm showed exposure in terms of what is likely to strong preference for predator cues, uncertain nature of effects shown in happen in the foreseeable future in the laboratory studies versus what the indicating that 700 ppm may be a wild or to predict potential population threshold at which adaptation is species is likely to experience in nature level effects for a species. The acute over several generations. The best possible or natural selection will take nature of the exposure and acclimation effect because of the mixed responses to available information does not indicate in the studies above is noteworthy that ocean acidification is currently olfactory cues (Munday et al., 2010). because most species will not Additionally, Dixson et al. (2010) report creating an extinction risk for the experience changes in acidification so species in the wild through effects to that CO exposure at the egg stage does 2 acutely in their natural habitats. Rather, fitness of a significant magnitude. We not appear to affect olfactory sensory they are likely to experience a gradual therefore conclude that the threat of capabilities of hatched larvae, but these increase in average CO2 levels over physiological effects from ocean capabilities are affected when several generations, and therefore acidification has a low likelihood of settlement stage larvae are exposed to parental effects could be highly effective having a significant effect on the elevated CO . 2 in moderating overall effects. Moreover, species’ risk of extinction now or in the The results discussed above indicate there is ample evidence that coral reef foreseeable future. that ocean acidification associated with ecosystems naturally experience wide Regarding the threat of physiological climate change has the potential to fluctuations in pH on a diurnal basis and behavioral effects from ocean affect behavioral responses of A. percula (Gagliano et al., 2010; Gray et al., 2012; warming, the best available information to certain cues during critical life stages. Price et al., 2012). Price et al. (2012) does not indicate that ocean warming is However, if or how these effects will found that reefs experienced substantial currently creating an extinction risk for manifest themselves at the population diel fluctuations in temperature and pH the orange clownfish in the wild level in the natural environment similar to the magnitudes of warming through effects to fitness of a significant requires an understanding of additional and acidification expected over the next magnitude. In other words, the current factors. All of the aforementioned century. The pH of ocean surface water magnitude of impact from ocean authors acknowledge that the potential has decreased from an average of 8.2 to warming is likely not affecting the for acclimation or adaptation was not 8.1 since the beginning of the industrial ability of the orange clownfish to factored into their studies because it is era (IPCC, 2013). The pH of reef water survive to reproductive age, successfully generally unknown or hard to predict. can vary substantially throughout the find a mate, and produce offspring. Murray et al. (2014) assert that there is day, sometimes reaching levels below While it has yet to be studied mounting evidence of an important but 8.0 in the early morning due to specifically for the orange clownfish, understudied link between parent and accumulated respiration of reef researchers have begun to explore the offspring generations, known as parental organisms in shallow water overnight potential effect of increasing conditioning or trans-generational (Ohde and van Woesik, 1999; Kuffner et temperature on the physiology of other plasticity, which may comprise a short- al., 2007). Primary producers, including pomacentrid reef fish species. Dascyllus term adaptation mechanism to zooxanthellae in corals, uptake reticulatus adults exposed to a high environmental acidification. This type dissolved CO2 and produce O2 and temperature (32°C) environment in a of plasticity describes the ability of the organic matter during the day, while at laboratory setting displayed

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significantly reduced swimming and risk for A. percula now, or in the hosts, indicating that the species may be metabolic performance (Johansen and foreseeable future. resilient to this threat. Additionally, the Jones, 2011). Other results include species may exhibit resiliency and Extinction Risk Assessment reduced breeding success of adaptation to threats such as ocean Acanthochromis polyacanthus In assessing four demographic risks acidification and ocean warming via (Donelson et al., 2010) and increased for the orange clownfish—abundance, trans-generational plasticity. While it is mortality rates among juvenile growth rate/productivity, spatial unknown how much adaptation the Dascyllus aruanus (Pini et al., 2011) in structure/connectivity, and diversity— species will undergo, we anticipate such response to increased water we determined that the likelihood of threats to occur gradually over space temperatures that may be experienced three of these risks individually and time rather than acutely. later this century. However, multiple contributing significantly to the Of the 12 identified current and references on the subject state that the extinction risk for the species both now predicted threats, our two greatest effects of temperature changes appear to and in the foreseeable future is low concerns relate to the species’ be species-specific (Nilsson et al., 2009; (abundance, growth rate/productivity, susceptibility and exposure to Lo-Yat et al., 2010; Johansen and Jones, diversity), and unknown for the fourth sedimentation and nutrients, as well as 2011); therefore, these results are not (spatial structure/connectivity). On a the inadequacy of regulatory easily applied to orange clownfish. With local scale, spatial structure/ mechanisms to address this threat, regard to ocean warming effects to connectivity does not appear to be a especially since juveniles and adults respiratory and metabolic processes, cause for concern for this species but, occur in shallow water and are non- Nilsson et al. (2009) and Johansen and because global genetic structure is migratory once they have settled into a Jones (2011) compared results of unknown, we cannot assign a likelihood host anemone. Therefore, we exposure to increased temperatures that this factor is contributing conservatively assigned a low-to- across multiple families or genera and significantly to extinction risk for A. medium likelihood that both this threat species of reef fish. Both studies percula. and the inadequate regulatory We acknowledge that uncertainties reported negative responses, but the mechanisms to address this threat may exist regarding how these demographic magnitude of the effect varied greatly contribute significantly to the extinction risks may affect the species on an among closely related species and risk for the orange clownfish. individual and population level. genera. As such, it is difficult to draw Considering the demographic risks However, we conclude that the species’ analogies to unstudied species like analysis (three low, one unknown) and estimated wild abundance of 13–18 orange clownfish. As with acidification, the current and predicted threats million individuals is at a level Price et al. (2012) found that reefs assessment (one very low, nine low, two sufficient to withstand demographic low-to-medium), we have determined currently already experience substantial stochasticity. Moreover, productivity that overall extinction risk for the diel fluctuations in temperature similar appears to be at or above replacement orange clownfish is low, both now and to the magnitude of warming expected levels, rates of dispersal and recruitment in the foreseeable future. We recognize over the next century. In addition, trans- at the local scale appear sufficient to that some of the demographic risks and generational plasticity in temperature- sustain meta-population structure threats to the species may work in dependent growth was recently (although global genetic structure is combination to produce cumulative documented for two fish species, where unknown), and species diversity may effects. For example, increased ocean offspring performed better at higher allow for trans-generational adaptation acidification may affect the olfactory temperatures if the parents had to long term, global environmental and auditory sensory capabilities of the experienced these temperatures as well change. As such, even with species and potentially affect predation (Donelson et al., 2011; Salinas and acknowledgement of uncertainties, we rates; ocean warming may affect the Munch, 2012). conclude that these demographic risks aerobic capacity of the species or the There is epistemic uncertainty have a low or unknown likelihood of rates of disease; and harvest of sea associated with the threat of future contributing in a significant way to the anemones may eliminate habitat that is ocean warming to orange clownfish. extinction risk of the orange clownfish. essential for the species and potentially Susceptibility of reef fish that have been We also assessed 12 current and increase the likelihood of predation; and studied varies widely, but there is predicted threats to the species and therefore, interactions within and evidence that trans-generational determined that the likelihood of these among these threats may affect plasticity may play a role in acclimation individual threats contributing to the individuals of the species. However, over time, at least for some species extinction risk of the species throughout despite our acknowledged uncertainties, (Donelson et al., 2011; Salinas and its range vary between very low and even these synergistic effects that can be Munch, 2012). In addition, we cannot low-to-medium (one threat was very reasonably expected to occur from predict the exposure of the species to low; nine threats were low; and two multiple threats and/or demographic this threat over time given the threats were low-to-medium). We again risks are expected to be limited to uncertainty in future temperature acknowledge uncertainties in predicting cumulative effects on a local scale at predictions and the heterogeneity of the the breadth of the threats and the extent most and not anticipated to rise to the species’ habitat and current of the species’ exposure and response, level of significantly affecting the environmental conditions across its but we can assume that these threats are extinction risk for this species. While range. Further, we do not have sufficient reasonably certain to occur at some individuals may be affected, we do not information to suggest future ocean magnitude. For some threats, such as anticipate the overlap of these threats to warming will significantly affect the anemone bleaching, evidence indicates be widespread throughout the species’ extinction risk for orange clownfish in these events will become more severe range at any given time because all the foreseeable future. Therefore, and more frequent over the next few threats are occurring and will continue acknowledging these uncertainties, we decades (van Hooidonk et al., 2013). to occur with significant variability over conclude that the threat of ocean However, anemone susceptibility and space and time. Therefore, we do not warming has a low likelihood of response is variable, and A. percula is expect the species to respond to significantly contributing to extinction known to associate with five anemone cumulative threats in a way that may

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cause measurable effects at the in other cases it will make more sense other portions of the species’ range are population level. to examine the status of the species in largely unknown. Based on their pelagic Based on the species’ exposure and the potentially significant portions first. dispersal and variable levels of self- response to threats, resilient life history Whichever question is asked first, an recruitment, orange clownfish are likely characteristics, potential for trans- affirmative answer is required to arranged in meta-population structures generational adaptive capabilities, and proceed to the second question. Id. ‘‘[I]f like the ones studied in Kimbe Bay, estimated global wild abundance of 13– we determine that a portion of the range Papua New Guinea, throughout their 18 million individuals, it is unlikely is not ‘significant,’ we will not need to geographic range, thus providing that these threats will contribute determine whether the species is opportunity for genetic mixing. significantly to the extinction risk of the endangered or threatened there; if we orange clownfish. Therefore, we determine that the species is not After a review of the best available conclude that the species is not endangered or threatened in a portion of information, and because of the scale at endangered or threatened throughout its its range, we will not need to determine which most of the information exists, range. if that portion is ‘significant’ ’’ (79 FR there is no supportable way to evaluate demographic factors for any portions Significant Portion of Its Range 37578, at 37587). Thus, if the answer to the first question is negative—whether smaller than the entire population. We Though we find that the orange that regards the significance question or are unable to identify any particular clownfish is not in danger of extinction the status question—then the analysis portion of the species’ range where its now or in the foreseeable future concludes and listing is not warranted. contribution to the viability of the throughout its range, under the SPR Applying the policy to the orange species is so important that, without the Policy, we must go on to evaluate members in the portion, the species whether the species in in danger of clownfish, we first evaluated whether there is substantial information would be at risk of extinction, or likely extinction, or likely to become so in the to become so in the foreseeable future, foreseeable future, in a ‘‘significant indicating that any particular portion of the species’ range is ‘‘significant.’’ We throughout all of its range. We find that portion of its range’’ (79 FR 37578; July there is no portion of the species’ range 1, 2014). considered the best available The SPR Policy explains that it is information on abundance, that qualifies as ‘‘significant’’ under the necessary to fully evaluate a particular productivity, spatial distribution, and SPR Policy, and thus our SPR analysis portion for potential listing under the diversity in portions of the species’ ends. ‘‘significant portion of its range’’ range in the Indo-Pacific Ocean. We did Determination authority only if substantial information not find information indicating that any indicates that the members of the of these four factors show any type of Based on our consideration of the best species in a particular area are likely spatial pattern that would allow for available information, as summarized both to meet the test for biological delineation of portions of the species’ here and in Maison and Graham (2015), significance and to be currently range in order to evaluate biological we determine that the orange clownfish, endangered or threatened in that area. significance. The range of the species is Amphiprion percula, faces a low risk of Making this preliminary determination somewhat restricted to the eastern-most extinction throughout its range both triggers a need for further review, but portion of the coral triangle and now and in the foreseeable future, and does not prejudge whether the portion northern Australia. Abundance and that there is no portion of the orange actually meets these standards such that density of A. percula are highly variable clownfish’s range that qualifies as the species should be listed. To identify throughout the species’ range and are ‘‘significant’’ under the SPR Policy. We only those portions that warrant further likely highest in Papua New Guinea. therefore conclude that listing this However, we do not have information consideration, we will determine species as threatened or endangered on abundance and density in other whether there is substantial information under the ESA is not warranted. This is portions of the species’ range and were indicating that (1) the portions may be a final action, and, therefore, we do not only able to estimate an overall global significant and (2) the species may be in solicit comments on it. danger of extinction in those portions or population size of 13–18 million (based likely to become so within the on De Brauwer, 2014). We do not have References foreseeable future. We emphasize that information on historical abundance or answering these questions in the recent population trends for the orange A complete list of all references cited affirmative is not a determination that clownfish, nor can we estimate herein is available at our Web site (see the species is endangered or threatened population growth rates in any ADDRESSES). particular portions of the species’ range. throughout a significant portion of its Classification range—rather, it is a step in determining The best available information on whether a more detailed analysis of the spatial distribution indicates that the National Environmental Policy Act issue is required (79 FR 37578, at 37586; orange clownfish likely has variable July 1, 2014). connectivity between and within meta- The 1982 amendments to the ESA, in Thus, the preliminary determination populations throughout its range. We do section 4(b)(1)(A), restrict the that a portion may be both significant not have information on the global information that may be considered and endangered or threatened merely phylogeography of orange clownfish when assessing species for listing. Based requires NMFS to engage in a more and cannot delineate any particular on this limitation of criteria for a listing detailed analysis to determine whether portion of the species’ range that may be decision and the opinion in Pacific the standards are actually met (79 FR significant because of its spatial Legal Foundation v. Andrus, 675 F. 2d 37578, at 37587). Unless both standards distribution or connectivity 825 (6th Cir. 1981), NMFS has are met, listing is not warranted. The characteristics. Multiple reports of concluded that ESA listing actions are policy further explains that, depending geographic color variations at sites in not subject to the environmental on the particular facts of each situation, Papua New Guinea indicate there is assessment requirements of the National NMFS may find it is more efficient to genetic diversity at those sites. Levels of Environmental Policy Act (See NOAA address the significance issue first, but phenotypic and genetic diversity in Administrative Order 216–6).

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Authority SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: DLA upgraded and converted beryllium and The authority for this action is the completed an EA to address the to verify the continued integrity of the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as potential environmental consequences storage containers, the internal inert amended (16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.). associated with the proposed upgrade atmosphere status, and the product and storage of beryllium at the DLA quality for the duration of the long-term Dated: August 18, 2015. Strategic Materials Depot in Hammond, storage period. Samuel D. Rauch III, IN. This FONSI incorporates the EA by The proposed beryllium upgrade and Deputy Assistant Administrator for reference and summarizes the results of conversion would result in the creation Regulatory Programs, National Marine the analyses in the EA. of forms of beryllium that are highly Fisheries Service. Purpose and Need for Action: The compatible with the inputs required for [FR Doc. 2015–20754 Filed 8–21–15; 8:45 am] purpose of the Proposed Action is to current and future manufacturing BILLING CODE 3510–22–P upgrade and store a portion of the processes. The Proposed Action is also existing U.S. National Defense Stockpile required to ensure that the installation (NDS) of beryllium. DLA Strategic is able to meet its current and future DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE Materials has determined that a portion mission requirements. of the existing beryllium billets are not Description of the No Action Office of the Secretary in forms readily useable by the U.S. Alternative: Under the No Action Department of Defense (DoD) or its Alternative, DLA would not upgrade the [Docket ID: DoD–2015–OS–0032] subcontractors in times of national beryllium. The NDS beryllium stockpile emergency. The proposed upgrade would continue to be stored at the Notice of Availability for a Finding of would convert the existing beryllium Hammond Depot in its current billet No Significant Impact for the billets into one or more final products form. In the event the beryllium was Environmental Assessment that would meet current specifications needed to satisfy future critical U.S. Addressing the Upgrade and Storage for many modern DoD applications. The security, military or aerospace uses, it of Beryllium at the DLA Strategic upgraded and converted beryllium is would not be available in the forms Materials Depot in Hammond, IN also expected to be applicable to these required as input to current manufacturing processes, and the billets AGENCY: Defense Logistics Agency same manufacturing processes for the would likely require conversion at that (DLA), DoD. foreseeable future. Proposed Action and Alternatives: time. DLA Strategic Materials has ACTION: Notice of Availability (NOA) for Under the proposed action, the DLA obtained estimates that it takes about 10 a Finding of No Significant Impact Strategic Materials would have up to 20 weeks to turn beryllium billets into (FONSI) for the Environmental tons (18,140 kg) of the existing NDS powder. Hence, the usefulness of the Assessment (EA) Addressing the beryllium billets upgraded and beryllium in billet form would be Upgrade and Storage of Beryllium at the converted at one or more off-site questionable for any such future U.S. DLA Strategic Materials Depot in commercial facilities and then will critical needs. The No Action Hammond, IN. return the converted beryllium to the Alternative would not meet the purpose Hammond Depot for continued safe and of and need for the Proposed Action. SUMMARY: On April 10, 2015, DLA environmentally sound long-term Potential Environmental Impacts: No published a NOA in the Federal storage. significant effects on environmental Register (80 FR 19290) announcing the Each crate containing a single resources would be expected from the publication of the EA Addressing the beryllium billet would be removed from Proposed Action. Potential insignificant, Upgrade and Storage of Beryllium at the its storage location at the Hammond adverse effects on transportation, land DLA Strategic Materials Depot in Depot by forklift and loaded onto a use, water resources, and ecological Hammond, IN. The EA was available for truck located adjacent to the storage resources, air quality, and waste a 30-day public comment period that structure. The truck would then management could be expected. No ended May 11, 2015. The EA was transport the crate/billet to an off-site effects on environmental justice, prepared as required under the National commercial facility where the upgrade cultural resources, noise, recreation, Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of and conversion process would occur. socioeconomics, or aesthetics would be 1969. In addition, the EA complied with All such upgrade and conversion expected. Details of the environmental DLA Regulation 1000.22. No comments activities would be conducted at the off- consequences are discussed in the EA, were received during the public site facilities in compliance with all which is hereby incorporated by comment period. This FONSI applicable state, local and federal laws, reference. documents the decision of DLA to regulations, requirements and permits. Determination: Based on the analysis proceed with the Upgrade and Storage The upgraded billet would then be of the Proposed Action’s potential of Beryllium at the DLA Strategic returned and received for storage at the impacts to the human environment from Materials Depot in Hammond, IN. DLA Hammond Depot. DLA Strategic routine operations, it was concluded has determined that the Proposed Materials expects to complete the that the Proposed Action would Action is not a major Federal action beryllium upgrade and conversion produce no significant adverse impacts. significantly affecting the quality of the portion of the Proposed Action within a Human environment was interpreted human environment within the context five-year period and before the end of comprehensively to include the natural of NEPA and that no significant impacts calendar year 2020. and physical environment and the on the human environment are Under the Proposed Action, long-term relationship of people with that associated with this decision. storage of the upgraded and converted environment. No significant cumulative FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Ira forms of beryllium at the Hammond effects were identified. Implementation Silverberg at 703–767–0705 during Depot would then continue after that of the Proposed Action will not violate normal business hours Monday through date. A minimally intrusive inspection any Federal, state, or local laws. Based Friday, from 8:00 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. methodology would be employed by on the results of the analyses performed (EST) or by email: ira.silverberg@ DLA Strategic Materials for the periodic, during preparation of the EA, Ms. Mary dla.mil. on-going quality surveillance of the D. Miller, Director, DLA Installation

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