Notes

1 Introduction

1. Maxwell Confait was a male prostitute found asphyxiated after a house fire in Catford in 1972. Three youths were arrested, two of whom confessed to arson and one of whom confessed to Confait’s murder. However, subsequent evidence revealed that Confait had died some time prior to the house fire and the youths’ convictions were overturned. 2. However, as Reiner (2007a) argues, the officially recorded profile of offend- ers is likely to be biased misleadingly towards lower-status groups on whom police activity tends to bear most heavily (Reiner 2010). In this , the socio-economic characteristics of offenders in media stories may actually be closer to what Reiner describes as the ‘ultimately unknowable – “real” pattern’ (Reiner 2007a, p. 309) of offending. 3. The first film was released in 1971 and the most recent of the four sequels in 1988. 4. By comparison, it is worth noting that, although there had been some changes to police patrol work in terms of the introduction of radios and the patrol car in the 1960s, contemporary criminological studies still repre- sented the police as contending mainly with rain, boredom and tired feet (Cain 1973). 5. The consultant for Prime Suspect was a then serving Detective Inspector, Jackie Malton, whose real-life vicissitudes, I was told in a personal interview, formed the basis of many of the incidents in the first series written by Lynda La Plante. 6. Messiah is a British television drama series broadcast on BBC1 and made up of a series of occasional serials. It follows the investigations of DCI Red Metcalfe. 7. Wire in The Blood follows the Major Incident Team (MIT) of Bradfield ’s CID and the work of clinical psychologist and serial offender profiler Dr Tony Hill. 8. CSI: Crime Scene Investigation (referred to as CSI and also known as CSI: Las Vegas) is an American crime drama television series, which follows Las Vegas ‘Crime Scene Investigators’ as they use physical evidence to solve murders. Two spin-offs followed, CSI: Miami and CSI: NY, and at the time of writing a further spin-off is being considered, tentatively titled CSI: Cyber. 9. Known as Forbrydelsen in Denmark. 10. I was also a staff writer on Brookside between 1999 and 2001.

2 Research Methods

11. See Chapters 4 and 5 for a discussion of working practices on the show.

238 Notes 239

3 Inside the World of

12. Geoff McQueen (1947–94), best known for creating The Bill, but also creator of two other drama series, Big Deal and Give Us a Break, for the BBC. 13. According to the then executive producer, although ratings had reached a high point in 2002 of nine million, thereafter viewing figures fell steadily to a then low of five million in 2005, which prompted the decision by the ITV Network to relaunch the show. 14. See Waddington (1999), who argues the importance of police ‘storytelling’ as a way of giving purpose and meaning to inherently problematic occupa- tional experiences. 15. Similarly, as Loftus (2009) comments, new public management (NPM) has also had an impact on policing. New practices introduced by NPM include performance management and the concept of the public as ‘customers’ (McLaughlin et al. 2001).

4 The Origins of Story Ideas

16. The reasons behind the introduction of the ‘soap’ element are discussed in Chapter 5. 17. ‘PC’ is an abbreviation for ‘political correctness’, which the Oxford English Dictionary defines as ‘the careful avoidance of forms of expression or action that are perceived to exclude or insult groups of people who are socially disadvantaged or discriminated against’.

5 Influences on the Storyline

18. Greg Dyke, a British media executive who held Chief Executive positions at London Weekend Television, Pearson Television and Channel 5 during the 1990s and was Director-General of the BBC between 2000 and 2004. 19. ‘Scrote’: a contemptible person (from the Oxford English Dictionary). 20. See Fielding (1995) for a slightly different account. 21. The ‘Guildford Four’ were three men and a woman who were sentenced in 1974 to life imprisonment for the Guildford and Woolwich pub bomb- ings. However, evidence gathered by the Avon and Somerset Constabulary showed, in the words of the Lord Chief Justice, Judge Lane, that some of the Surrey officers investigating the bombings ‘must have lied’ at the trial of the four. The ‘Birmingham Six’ had been convicted in 1975 for the Birmingham pub bombings and were released in 1991. The ‘Tottenham Three’ had been convicted of the murder of a police officer, PC Blakelock, during riots on the Broadwater Farm estate in North London in 1986. How- ever, their appeal against their conviction was upheld on the basis of forensic evidence that the accused’s statements had not been recorded contempora- neously (as PACE requires). These investigations had supposedly taken place under PACE procedures (Reiner 2010, pp. 84–5). 22. However, Loader and Mulcahy (2003) take an opposing view and suggest that such changes in society, including the decline of deference, have triggered ‘growing or at least sustained identification with the police, particularly 240 Notes

among those who turn to it as a symbol of stability ...in an increasingly disorienting and threatening world’. 23. Waking the Dead is a BBC police procedural drama series featuring a fictional Cold Case unit, first screened in 2000. The most recent series was broadcast in 2011. 24. Trial & Retribution is an ITV police procedural drama series devised by Lynda LaPlante, first screened in 2007. The most recent series was broadcast in 2009. 25. NYPD Blue is an American police drama set in Manhattan, which ran from 1993 to 2005. 26. Tony Garnett is a television producer and screenwriter, well-known for his involvement with politically radical drama. Some of his most famous work includes Up The Junction (1965), which dealt with the subject of backstreet abortion, Cathy Come Home (1967), which dealt with homelessness, and Law and Order (1979), which examined the British judicial system. Other work includes Between the Lines, which is discussed elsewhere in this book. 27. However, while The Cops was a critical success, winning a BAFTA (British Academy of Film Television Awards) for Best Drama series in 1999 and 2000, it was not a success with audiences and was axed after three series. 28. ASBOs, or Antisocial Behaviour Orders, are civil orders made against some- one who has been seen to have engaged in anti-social behaviour. They were introduced in 1998 to correct incidents that would not normally have warranted criminal prosecution. 29. However, as I discussed in Chapter 1, Reiner (2007b) suggests that the pattern of offending represented in ‘official’ statistics may reflect the fact that police activity tends to bear most heavily upon ‘a relatively restricted group at the base of the social hierarchy’ (Reiner 2010, p. 177).

6 Creating the Story

30. Detective Vic Mackey, portrayed by Michael Chiklis, the main protagonist of the American police drama The Shield. Mackey was a corrupt detective in the Los Angeles Police Department who routinely beat suspects and committed murders.

7 Looking Beyond The Bill

31. Tony Blair, a Labour Party politician who served as British Prime Minister from 1997 to 2007. 32. The Police Staff College at Bramshill in Hampshire was the principal police staff training establishment for England and Wales, prior to the establish- ment of the College of Policing in 2012. 33. Jamshid Ali Dizaei (born 1962) is a former Commander in London’s Metropolitan Police Service and was formerly one of Britain’s more senior Muslim police officers. He was jailed for perverting the course of justice in February 2010. 34. Blue Peter is a British children’s television programme. It first aired in 1958. Notes 241

35. Law & Order is an American police procedural and legal drama television series, with plots often based on real cases. 36. ‘Sarah’s Law’ was named after Sarah Payne, who was murdered by a sex offender in 2000. The law allows parents to check if someone in contact with their child is a sex offender. In the US, ‘Megan’s Law’ required law enforcement authorities to make information available to the public regard- ing registered sex offenders following the rape and murder of seven-year-old Megan Kanka. 37. Joanna Yeates was a 25-year-old architect who was murdered in December 2010. 38. Law & Order UK (2009–present) is a police procedural and legal drama set in the UK and following the format of the US version. 39. Twin Peaks is an American television serial drama, It was screened in 1990 and follows an investigation headed by FBI Special Agent Dale Cooper into the murder of Laura Palmer. The show was notable for its strong sense of surrealism. 40. Mad Men is a US television period drama series set in the world of advertising in New York. It was first shown in 2007 and the final series will air in 2015. The Wire is an American crime drama television series set and produced in and around Baltimore, Maryland. It premiered in 2002 and ended in 2008.

8 The Function and Importance of the Television Police Show in Shaping Public Understanding

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access 117, 145, 150, 176, 178, 180, advantages of being an ‘insider’ 184, 187, 195, 205–9, 217, 218, in gaining access, 39–42, 220–2, 239 211–12 authenticity, 5, 28, 44, 121, 124, gaining access to the field, 5, 39–42, 160–1, 163, 176–9, 184, 187–8, 211–2 190–1, 196–9, 201–4, 215–7, accuracy of representation of police 219–37 procedure importance of accuracy to Bad Lieutenant,16 makers of BBC, 8, 18, 46, 47, 52, 58–9, 64, Bill, The, 5, 44, 53, 85, 87–8, 68, 70, 71, 105, 109, 113, 163, 100–1, 123, 125–7, 154–7, 169, 174, 175, 177, 178, 179, 216–17 185, 189, 190, 195, 199, 207, 209, Between The Lines, 163–5, 170–1, 212, 213, 219, 220, 225, 238, 177–8 239, 240 Cops, The, 165–7, 171–2, 177 BBC4, 18, 190, 199, 207, 209 Scott & Bailey, 189–93, 196–9, 227 Becker, Howard S., 2, 4, 5, 29, 34, 36, Spiral, 190–1, 193–4, 197 50, 102, 103, 133, 209, 234 importance of accuracy to police advisers, 87–8, 100–1, 125–7, Between The Lines, 5, 15, 17, 35, 53, 189–90, 192–3, 196–9, 115, 162–5, 169–71, 173, 175, 216–17, 227 177–9, 219–20, 226, 231, 233–4, 240 Actor-Network Theory, 27–30 advertisers, 19, 25, 26, 59, 60, 70, 75, Bill, The 90, 104–5, 107, 112–14, 121, 178, history of the show, 49–50 209, 218 working practices, 50–7, 77–102, American crime films and television 122–7, 134–61, 213–17 drama working culture, 57–75 influence of, 12, 16–17, 71, Blue Murder, 189 94–5, 101, 116, 138–9, 143–4, Born, Georgina, 22, 52–3, 58–60, 146–8, 169–70, 185–8, 207–9, 63–4, 69–71, 75–6, 90, 167, 218, 222 175–6, 179–81, 188, 204–6, audience 212–14, 219–21, 223, 225 appeal of crime drama, 229–32 Bridge, The, 28, 77, 93, 145, 148, need to attract specific 151, 173 demographic, 25, 71, 90, 113, Broadcasting Act 1990, 68 131, 132, 160, 180, 185, 207, Broadchurch, 19, 163, 195–6, 199–209, 208, 218, 222, 223 222–3 preferences in storylines, 107–9, Brookside, 26–7, 144, 150–1, 238 145–6, 184–7, 217, 222 budgets, impact on storytelling, 51, ratings, 50, 51, 59, 60, 69, 78, 89, 52, 54, 56, 60, 75, 103, 127, 137, 90, 95, 105, 107–9, 113, 116, 172, 176, 179–82, 184, 221

249 250 Index cable and satellite television channels, crime news, 7–9, 19–22, 33, 67, 78, impact on programming 82–4, 87, 92, 155, 202–23, 227–8, in the 1990s, 69, 74–6, 166–7, 175, 232–3 212–14, 220 crime, representation of, 3, 6, 8–10, in the 2010s, 207–9, 222–3 86–7, 98, 100–1, 116, 130–2, 160, Cagney and Lacey, 188–9 165–6, 183, 185–7, 215, 218, Carlton Television, 107 230–2, 235–7 Casualty, 115 Crimewatch, 229 CBC, 206 critical theory perspective, 19–20 changes in working processes on Crossroads,24 The Bill CSI, 17, 115–16, 185–8, 196–7, 218, hierarchy of those involved in story 222, 223, 238 development process in the cultural bureaucracy, features of, 1980s and 1990s, 51–5, 61–2, 59–68, 106, 174, 213, 219–20 213–14 hierarchy of those involved in story Dangerfield, 15, 17 development process in the Devereux, Eoin, 19–20, 22, 25–6, 2000s, 55–7, 213–14 61, 150 Dirty Harry, 12–13, 138, 158 Channel 4, input into The Ghost Dixon of Dock Green, 11, 82, Squad, 169–70, 221 122, 226 Channel 5, commissioning of Suspects, documentaries, 2, 4, 23–4, 104, 110, 186, 222 180, 223–4, 225, 233 Chibnall, Steve, 20–1, 66, 68, 84, 87, docu-soap, 179–80, 183–4, 222 99, 201 Du Gay, Paul, Hall, Stuart, Janes, circuit of communication, 31–3 Linda, Mackay, Hugh and Negus, circuit of culture, 7, 29–33, 77–8, Keith, 7, 29, 32–3, 77–8, 87, 87, 89, 104, 109, 121, 162, 89, 104, 109, 121, 162, 178, 187 178, 187 commercial bureaucracy, features of, Dyke, Greg, 107, 239 68–75, 213 Dynasty, 145, 200–1 commercial imperatives impact on storylines on The Bill, Elliott, Philip, 20, 22–4, 32, 61, 104–22, 213–19 106, 140, 148, 200, 211, 217, 224 impact on representation of the , 26, 97, 109 police on The Bill, 95–7, 101–2, Engrenages,seeSpiral 107–8, 110–13, 114–16, 116–19, ER, 115 132–3, 139–40, 140–59, 213–16, Ericson, Richard, Baranek, Patricia M. 217–19 and Chan, Janet B.L., 7, 19–22, commissioning document, 137 33, 38, 43, 66, 78, 82–4, 92–3, commissioning meetings on The Bill, 154–5, 159, 227 37, 75, 137, 157–9 ethnic minorities, representation of, content analyses of patterns of 129–32 representation about the police, ethnography, 3, 19, 22, 28, 34, policing and crime, 3, 8, 10 35–41, 43, 46–8, 129, 133, 149, Cops, The, 16–17, 36, 115, 163, 165–7, 212, 225 171–2, 177, 220, 233–4, 240 executive producer, 1, 26, 39–41, 49, Coronation Street, 26, 56, 97, 109, 188 51–2, 54–6, 60–4, 70, 72–4, 79, 80, Cra$h & Burn,28 83–5, 89, 92, 96, 99, 100, 106, Index 251

100–13, 115–20, 122, 124, 129, Intintoli, Michael James, 22, 25–6, 131, 135–8, 164–7, 171, 180–1, 5161, 96, 106, 131, 140, 150, 184–7, 213–15, 226, 239 169–70, 186, 195, 206 ITV Network, input into The Bill, 26, fieldwork, 42–3, 212 41, 50, 55, 79, 90, 94, 105, 107, format 110, 119, 135, 138–9, 175, changes in format on The Bill, 185, 187 49–50, 55, 213–14 effect of changes on representation Judge John Deed, 101 of the police on The Bill, Juliet Bravo,13 112–13, 116–18, 127–32, 217–19 Kennedy Martin, Troy, 88, 172 effect of changes on working Killing, The, 18, 162–3, 199, 207–8 practices on The Bill, 63–76, Kojak, 101, 139 89–102, 122–7, 215–16 Fremantle Media, 69 Lam, Anita, 3, 8, 27–30, 53, 77, 85–7, 93, 97, 106, 108, 110, 123, 126, Garnett, Tony, 115, 240 133, 145–6, 148–9, 151, 154, 158, genre and sub-genre, 11–13, 15–17, 161, 170, 172–3, 176–8, 183, 22, 25, 53, 59, 139, 140, 163, 166, 186–7, 191, 193–7, 204, 206, 208, 167, 169, 179–81, 184, 199, 211, 215–6, 221, 224–6, 234 213, 222, 227 Lancashire Police, 167, 172 Gentle Touch, The,13 Last Detective, The,16 Ghost Squad, The, 5, 46, 162, 169–70, Law and Order (1979), 101, 165, 240 173–6, 178, 221, 233–4 Law & Order (1990–2010), 200–1, 241 Gitlin, Todd, 39, 45, 73, 195 law and order politics, impact on Glenroe, 25–6 crime drama, 12, 13, 115, Greater Manchester Police, 17, 139, 201 171–2, 189 Leishman, Frank and Mason, Paul, 5, Gripsrud, Jostein, 106, 13–16, 49, 53, 86, 128, 154, 145, 200 163–5, 171, 177, 220 liberal pluralist perspective, 19–20 Hall, Stuart, 7, 30–3, Life on Mars, 16, 17, 96, 139–40 77, 162 long-term meetings on The Bill, 56, Heartbeat,16 57, 135–6 Henderson, Shirley, 4, 22, 26–7, 50, 57, 61–2, 70, 95, 104–6, 144–5, Mawby, Rob C., 7, 11–12, 15–16, 21, 150–1, 156, 158, 160 66–7, 84 hero, importance of in police drama, McCallum,15 132, 139, 151, 155, 158, 164, 165, media loop, 96–7, 101, 183, 215 166, 170, 217, 219, 228, 229, media, mass 231–2 over-reporting of serious crime, 3, Hobson, Dorothy, 22, 24, 61, 91, 98, 9–10 105, 135 Messiah, 16, 17, 185, 238 Metropolitan Police Service, 7, 9, 12, ideologies of makers, 20, 24, 26, 31, 15, 35, 44, 54, 66, 78, 83–5, 87, 111–12 99–101, 108, 111, 112, 117, 118, Independent Broadcasting 131, 143, 151, 167, 170, 171, 174, Authority, 68 188, 201, 215–17, 220, 226, 240 252 Index myth and elements of mythic Reiner, Robert, Livingstone, Sonia and structure in the police drama, Allen, Jessica, 3, 9–10, 18 173, 232 representations, of police changing representations in police network input on other police shows, drama 95, 121, 184, 195, 209 of crime, 3–4, 8–10, 11–12, 15–17, New Tricks, 16, 17 49–51, 63, 79–82, 86–7, 91, Newman, G.F., 101, 165 98–102, 108, 115–19, 125, News of the World, 201 129–32, 137, 139, 157, 163, NYPD Blue, 115, 240 165, 168, 172, 183–7, 214, 218, 221–2, 225 Only Way is Essex, The, 181 of policing, 49, 79–82, 87–9, 93–101, 106–13, paleo-symbolism, 230, 235 115–19, 127–8, 135, 142–61, Pearson Television, 69, 110, 239 162–84, 187–91, 192–4, Pilgrim Street, 225 196–9, 203–9, 215–19, 223, planning document, 149–50, 225–32 153–4, 157 of the ‘vigilante’ cop, 10, 13, planning meetings on The Bill, 37, 16–18, 118, 134–62, 231 136–7, 153–7, 158 researcher, The Bill, 55, 57, 93, police advisers, 28, 37, 42, 44–6, 51, 100–1, 123, 135, 136, 144, 53–7, 65–8, 73, 75, 78–9, 83, 85–8, 154–5 95, 100, 111, 123–7, 149, 153–6, rewriting process, 62, 123, 128 160, 162–3, 170–4, 177, 183, 189, 191, 194, 196–8, 201, 203, 213–16, 236 Schlesinger, Philip and Tumber, police and news media relations, 66, Howard, 21, 84 84, 87, 201 Scott & Bailey, 5, 46, 163, 188–90, political economy perspective, 19, 20, 192–9, 206, 222, 223, 226, 227, 25, 26, 29 234–5 Prime Suspect, 14–15, 115, 191–2, 238 script editor, 1, 42, 51–6, 61, 63, 65, Prior, Allan, 172 73, 80, 83–5, 87–9, 100, 106, 111, producer, 1, 5, 23, 26, 28, 39–41, 43, 115, 116, 122, 123, 127–8, 130, 45, 46, 49, 51–56, 59–64, 70–74, 135–6, 153, 155–7, 160, 163, 79, 80, 83–85, 88, 89, 91, 92, 96, 171, 215 99, 100, 105–108, 110–113, sensationalism, 9, 130, 218 115–120, 122, 124, 126, 129, 131, serials, 16, 24, 40–1, 50, 54, 55, 71, 132, 135–8, 142, 145–6, 148–9, 75, 89, 91–2, 96, 98, 113, 116–7, 151, 153–9, 161, 162, 164–7, 171, 119, 122, 123, 128, 130, 137, 157, 173, 176, 180–1, 184–7, 194–5, 158, 169, 214–16, 218, 221, 200–1, 203, 209, 212–15, 217–18, 238, 241 223–4, 226, 234, 239, 240 series script editor, 51–2 Shield, The, 116, 146–8, 153, 169–70, realism, 176, 177, 190, 191, 193, 220, 187–8, 218, 240 224, 225, 232 showrunner, 148, 173, 176, 200–1 Reiner, Robert, 2–3, 7–13, 15–18, 58, Silent Witness, 15, 17 66–7, 76, 79, 82, 113–5, 129–31, Silverstone, Roger, 22–4, 39, 104, 179, 138–9, 161, 201, 211, 224, 237, 210, 223 238, 239, 240 Sky Atlantic, 208–9 Index 253 soap operas, 13, 23–6 , 50, 75, 91, 110, 122, 145, 149, 154, 170, 173, 97–8, 104, 109, 121, 131, 135, 175, 176–7, 179, 200, 206, 213, 137, 144–5, 150, 156, 160, 181, 215, 224–5, 227 188, 200, 239 suspension of disbelief, 28, 126, 176, Softly Softly, 122, 123 204, 221, 225, 227 Sopranos, The,71 Sweeney, The, 12–14, 54, 79, 81, 82, 88, Sparks, Richard, 10, 17, 108, 139, 153, 122, 127, 139 227, 230–3, 235–7 Special Branch, 171 Target,12 Special Branch,12 technical advisers, 55–7, 135–6, 154, Spiral, 5, 46, 163, 190–1, 193–4, 196–7, 177, 216 222, 226 Thames Television, 55, 59, 68–70, 76, sponsorship, 24, 25, 70, 78, 90, 104, 105, 107, 100, 213 209, 218 Trial & Retribution, 115, 240 ethnographic, 39 tripartite structure, 4, 30 story consultant, 55, 57, 100, 124, True Crimes, 5, 46, 162, 179–88, 135, 153 206, 221 story editor, 55, 56, 73, 91, 94–6, 104, Tulloch, John and Moran, Albert, 22, 119, 123, 130, 135–7, 142–7, 24, 55, 61, 63 153, 160 story ideas, sources of on The Bill, universal themes, 148, 161, 168, 77–102 173, 204 story premise, 53, 54, 61, 122 story producer, 39–41, 43, 55, 56, 64, verisimilitude, 54, 100, 127, 176, 216 91, 100, 135–6, 142, 145–6, 148, 153–9, 173, 214 Vice, The, 5, 35, 46, 162, 167–9, 172–3, story team, 41, 43, 44, 56, 72–4, 91–8, 175, 177, 220, 231, 234 120, 123, 135–8, 140, 143–5, victims, 3, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 18, 27, 50, 148–51, 153–9, 161, 173–4, 178, 79, 84, 87, 94, 118, 130–1, 141, 182–3, 187, 191, 213–4 152–3, 163, 168, 181, 199–202, storyline, 24–8, 37, 39, 44, 50, 54, 57, 218, 228 91–3, 100–1, 104–5, 109, 115, 117–23, 126, 130, 132, 134–8, Waking the Dead, 115, 240 140, 144–5, 148–51, 153–7, Wire in the Blood, 16, 17, 100, 185, 159–61, 163, 172, 173, 177, 178, 197, 238 183–4, 187, 191, 193, 195, 215, Without Motive, 16, 17, 53, 202 217–8, 221, 236 , 13, 49 storytelling, 3–5, 11, 16, 23, 25, 26, 49, writers on The Bill, 1, 5, 35, 37, 40–2, 51, 92–4, 103–4, 106, 108–9, 115, 45, 48, 51–7, 61–8, 71–6, 78–89, 121, 127, 131, 154, 187, 188, 211, 91–4, 97–8, 101, 104, 108–9, 111, 215, 217, 219–20, 223, 226, 239 113, 122–31, 134–8, 144, 153–4, studies of media production, 3–4, 157–61, 212–16, 218 7–11, 19–30, 33, 39, 50, 58, 59, 64, 70, 73, 77, 78, 82, 86, 106, Z Cars, 11–12, 82, 88, 122, 123, 172