1 2 / Rajasthan History Congress ISSN 2321-1288 presence of seasonal water courses such as the Ghaggar, the Sahibi, Dohan, Krishnawati, Sota and so on. Contrary to this, there are seasonal as well as perennial water courses in the southern half. Among the Presidential Address perennial rivers mention may be made of the Chambal and Banas. On the other hand there are a number of seasonal water courses such as Early Culture Identity Formations in Khari, Berachm Khothari, Gambiri, Luni and others. Rajasthan: Emerging Perspectives Professor Ram Chander Thakran
Respected Fellow Delegates, Ladies and Gentlemen, I am grateful to the executive committee of The Rajasthan History Congress for electing me as the General President of the 30th session being organized by the colleagues at the Department of History under the auspices of Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Udaipur. I am humbled by this decision of the executed committee and I hope I may be able to meet the aspirations of all the members through this presentation. The topic Early Culture Identity Formations in Rajasthan: Emerging Perspectives of this address may appear somewhat unfamiliar to the delicates because it is primarily on Early Archaeological Cultures of the state. Before coming to the main theme A Brief Survey of the natural features of Rajasthan is attempted in the following lines. The state of Rajasthan is bounded by the state of Haryana in the north by the state of Gujarat in the west, by the state of Madhya Pradesh in the south and southeast and by the state of Uttar Pradesh in the east. The state of Rajasthan is geographically divided into two Map – 1, After V. N. Misra broad units – the Marwar is west of the Aravallis and the Mewar is in The contrast between the two sub-regions is further attested its east. The former is partly forms part of the Haryana plains and to in the prevailing rainfall patterns. In the western sub-region the partly, especially in the western area, comprising of the Thar Desert. average rainfall is low. While the eastern sub-region receives higher Whereas the eastern sub-region is consisting of the extension of the annual precipitation. Almost seventy to eighty percent of the annual Malwa plateau mainly in its southern parts, and its northern part is an precipitation is received only during the monsoon season while rest of intermediary zone between the Thar in the west and the Yamuna plains the rains are distributed over the non-monsoonal months. Light to in the east. (Map-1) moderate winter showers are integral to the precipitation pattern and The quality of ground water in the western and northern section such showers prove very useful for the growth and maturity of the is broadly brackish to saline while it is fresh in the southeastern parts. rabi crops in both the sub-zones. In the western sub-region surface water bodies are usually saline The soils of this state present an equally interesting landscape. whereas in the eastern sub-region we notice presence of fresh water In the Marwar region these are largely aeolian sandy soils, though in bodies. Besides there are water courses of varied nature, forms and the extreme northwestern parts of this region, especially along the denominations in the sub-regions. In the western sub-region we notice Ghaggar bed, there is a presence of the clayey soils. The aeolian sandy 2 ISSN 2321-1288 Rajasthan History Congress / 3 4 / Rajasthan History Congress ISSN 2321-1288 soils are consisting of plain surface usually known as tals, interspersed these natural forces assume any dominant position at any stage of with stable as well as mobile sand dunes of varied denominations and human history for shaping the destiny of the people? This would be shapes. The combine of the two presents an undulating surface which one of endeavours in this presentation. is a normal feature and also very crucial to offer a range of opportunities Like the aforesaid natural features of the state of Rajasthan the to the people of this area for their sustenance contrary to what generally floral scenario is very interesting. The natural vegetation cover is broadly appears from to a layman. Likewise the clayey soils of the Ghaggar in tune with the prevailing conditions. The normal vegetation is broadly bed are usually flanked by sandy soils dotted with some sand dunes in uniform in all the sub-regions of this area. It is primarily deciduous between. These clayey soils are composed of very fine clayey silt and sparse. Vast stretches of land are devoid of any reasonable cover brought down along the river water from the areas of its origin, of plants and trees. Among the trees one normally encounters, Khejri, dispersed and deposited along its course by river water action. These Pilu, Babul, Pipal, Neem and so on. Likewise we have evidence of are considered to be the most fertile soils which offer a host of small, squat and thorny bushes without or with tiny leaves. Season- subsistence opportunities in all seasons. These, in fact, are comparable wise different grasses and other small plants are also encountered in to the other best soils of Haryana and Punjab. With the result perhaps varied frequencies. Some of these plants offer a very good green as the highest population density in the state is marked in these very well as dry fodder to the animals. Consequently, animal husbandry areas, though both the quantity and quality of ground water is not enjoy a very high position among subsistence practices until now. Its always good in and along the course of the river even in the shallow aquifers1. viability needs to be assessed in regard to the remote ancient times as well. The soils in the Mewar region are also a mix of sandy and clayey soils. However in the northern and northeastern parts of this The fauna of this area is consist of wild as well as domesticated zone we experience low frequency of sand dunes and also low animals. Among the wild animals there is a presence of nilgai, deer, percentage of sand in comparison to its western counterpart. Primarily hare, jackals, pig, woolf whereas the domesticated animals include surface undulation is also less. On an average the fertility quotient is sheep, goat, cow, buffalo, horse, donkey, camel among others. Some higher than the aeolian sandy soils of the Marwar region in the west. of these domesticated animals have been a constant source of energy Accordingly the polulation density in these areas is also relatively higher and traction power to the people. While both wild and domesticated than its western counterpart and it would be very interesting to find animals constituted fairly reliable source of food through historical out if this bears any resonances in the context of the ancient societies period. This food base was enriched by the addition of aquatic fauna. as well. It would be very interesting to investigate if these natural resources In the southern and southwestern parts of the Mewar region contributed in any measure in the culinary tastes of the people in the the soils are largely different for this being part of the Malwa plateau. Prehistoric and Protohistoric past also. It is in this backdrop desired Hence the soils predominantly form part of the black cotton soil of to trace the beginning of human life in these areas in order to make the Malwa. These are dotted with rocky formations and dissected by out the cultural antecedents of this area and also identify the problems a number of water courses, both perennial and seasonal. The landscape and issues that confronted these early settlers. is largely plain but uneven also as after regular intervals it is Beginning of Human Life: The Palaeolithic Evidence interspersed with contrasting natural formations. The black cotton In order to trace the Prehistoric cultural antecedents of soils of this region are very fertile, especially when combined with its Rajasthan archaeological activities to this affect were, especially surface water bodies, higher rains and harnessing capabilities of the undertaken by archaeologists in the early fifties of the last century2. people. In the following discussion it is intended to explore if this Since then over ninety locations have been found bearing Acheulian combine of the natural resources experienced any shift in settlement tool types of the lower Palaeolithic period produced by the Homo concentrations/population densities over the ancient past. Further, did erectus. These tool bearing locales are dispersed over the districts of 3 ISSN 2321-1288 Rajasthan History Congress / 5 6 / Rajasthan History Congress ISSN 2321-1288 Jhalawar3 and Jodhpur4 with one each, Bharatpur with only presence of choppers (olduwan tools) from a stratified independent two5,Jaisalmer6, Kota7 and Pali8 with three each, Jaipur with five9, context. This suggests, as of now, that the people of the second stage Ajmer with six10 Bhilwara11, Nagpur12 and Udaipur with seven each13 of the lower Palaeolithic did not evolve locally from the early stage of and Chittaurgarh with thirty seven14 (Map-2). Almost fifty percent of human evolution, i.e. the period of the Homo-habilis. On the contrary the known sites are produced by the Chittaurgarh district alone of the the Acheulian people seem to have arrived here from some other areas. twelve site bearing districts. More than fifty percent of the total It is, therefore, significant to identify the area they migrated from. districts are devoid of any presence of human activities during this Besides, the density of human activities was low and sparse, and was phase of human history. Further the locational analysis of these also circumscribed by a host of forces. settlements makes it amply clear that these tools are obtained only The period of the lower Palaeolithic was succeeded by the middle from the hills and their margins primarily because of the availability of Palaeolithic. About seventy locales have produced tools (points, borers, raw material for the tools and the minimum basic life sustaining essential etc) of this sub-period. These tool bearing locales are shared by the resources. Perhaps these were the only areas conducive to human districts of Jodhpur with only one16, Jhalawar with two17, Ajmer with presence in this early stage of human life. Further the evidence of four18, Badmer with five19, Pali with six20, Chittaurgarh21 and Nagaur 22 stone tools belongs only to the second stage of the lower Palaeolithic with nine each and Jaisalmer with four23 (Map-3). These fool bearing which is indicative of the fact that human life only began in the later locales are from only eight districts in comparison to the twelve half of the lower Palaeolithic, i.e. during the phase of the Homo-erectus districts of the lower Palaeolithic phase. These locales are strictly rather than in the sub phase of the Homo-habilis. Of the five excavated restricted to the similar kind of hilly landscape despite the fact that 15 sites (Jayal, Chhajoli, Indola-Ki-Dani, Singhi Talav and 16-R , there the tools are different in their shape, size, technique and functions is no evidence of the than the previous ones. These tools also enhanced the functional capacity of the people, albeit in a limited manner, in carrying out the same hunting and gathering subsistence activities, which was but natural with the presence of Homo-sapiece (the wise or intelligent man with still higher brain capacity) yet the geographical sphere of the human activities did not experience any change. However the advancement in tools is surely indicative of the growing experience and the crannial capacity of the people, the both are signs of human evolution. Nevertheless the pace of social, biological and technological development signals a very slow and gradual process in tune with the general growth pattern during this phase. In the successive phase of the upper Palaeolithic the general pattern of development appears to be a somewhat different than what has been witnessed hitherto in the preceding phases since the number of the tool-bearing locations is only eight here in comparison to the over ninety of the lower Palaeolithic and over seventy of the middle Palaeolithic phases. It is not known whether this drastic reduction in the number of sites in this phase is the result of lack of fieldwork or otherwise. The location of the tool-bearing locations is restricted to only three districts rather than the tweleve of the lower Palaeolithic Map – 2 and the eight of the middle Palaeolithic phases. As per the settlement 4 ISSN 2321-1288 Rajasthan History Congress / 7 8 / Rajasthan History Congress ISSN 2321-1288 share of the districts, the district of Nagaur contains only one site 24, odds with the help of their greater experience and improved tools in Jodhpur two25 and Ajmer five26 (Map-3). These evidences are coming order to safeguard their mere existence. Perhaps prospective researches from non-contiguous areas. Here the interesting point is the familiar may help explain the reduction in the number of their settlements geographical plane for their existence. satisfactorily. As of now the limited evidence surely points to the continued human life in the area. The Mesolithic Evidence This phase was followed by the Mesolithic period both in terms of chronological order and cultural evolutionary pattern. One hundred sixty sites have produced remains of this cultural period. The district- wise spatial distribution of these sites is as follows. The Jhalawar27 and Sirohi districts28 are with one site each, Jodhpur with two29, Dhaulpur30 and Kota with three each31, Barmer32, Jalor33, Pali34 and Tonk35 with five each, Sikar with six36, Jaisalmer with seven37, Nagaur with eight38, Ajmer with twelve39, Jaipur with fourteen40, Chittaurgarh with sixteen41, Bhilwara with nineteen42 and Udaipur with twenty six43 (Map-4).
Map – 3, After V. N. Misra Evidences of the earlier phases have been gathered from the similar hilly landscape. However the mere presence of the eight sites makes it amply clear that the region was at least not completely blank as human presence is concerned. Further the people of this phase used the blade and burin tools which are the products the improved tool-technology as it being a general phenomenon of this phase with the arrival of the Homo-sapience sapience, the most intelligent man. These tools are smaller in size, better in their look, efficacy and functions for being product of a higher expertise. This is also the stage when a new type of raw material in the form of bones has not only allowed them more flexibility in regard to the geographical mobility but also in the field of their functional range. Surprisingly the Map – 4 constriction of their settlements and the area of their activity both are In comparison to the three phases of the Palaeolithic period not not in agreement in this case with the general advancement of this only the number of tool bearing locales has gone up but also the phase. The only consolation is that these people could, withstand the geographical activity area is expanded many fold during this period. 5 ISSN 2321-1288 Rajasthan History Congress / 9 10 / Rajasthan History Congress ISSN 2321-1288 These tools are not only coming from seventeen districts but from geographical regions of Marwar and Mewar. These cultural groups more and more fresh areas within the districts. Besides, these people are the early Harappan/Sothi cultural complex in the northwestern produced a new type of tools which are usually tiny in size and cannot parts, the Ganeshwar-Jodpura cultural complex in the northeastern be used independently as a tool until or unless these are fixed in either parts and Black and Red Ware Cultural Complex (hereafter BRW) in a bone or wood handle with the help of some fixing material. Thus on the southern parts of Rajasthan. These cultural groups bear their the basis of their size these are popularly known as microliths and distinct identity though they also display some cultural, spatial and composite tools for their functional nature. These tools are made of a temporal overlap. These three cultural groups deserve independent variety of stones and also of bones. With the availability of these tools analysis in the following lines. the working capacity of the people increased considerably in In the northwestern parts of Rajasthan human activities appear comparison to the people of the three phases of the preceding period. to have begun in the early third millennium B.C. with the occurrence This enhanced further the confidence of the people to harness better of seventeen early Harappan village settlements from this area. These the natural resources of the diverse locales they were placed in and settlements broadly seem to be located in the Ghaggar basin through a thereby also introduced a sense of security as well as stability in their map (Map-5) but on minute scrutiny of the location of these settlements lives which is so well reflected by the cultural deposits exposed from the emergent picture is altogether different. These settlements are the excavated sites of Bagor, Tilwaida, and Ganeshwar in Rajasthan44. located as far away as seventy kilometre from the river bed as is in This is further corroborated by the cultural deposits exposed from a the case of Dabari52 and Karanpura53 in Ganganagar/Hanumangarh number of sites in the middle Ganga plain45. In addition, the rock art district of Rajasthan and Siswal54 in Haryana. Likewise there are a from the middle Ganga plain46, Madhya Pradesh47 and Rajasthan further number of other such settlements also. supports this point. Sites like Harsona and Kali Pahari in Alwar district48, Bijak-Ke-Pahare, Bhimji-Ki-Doogri, Ganesh-Doongre49, Bhainswal50, Brahma-Kund-ki-Doongri, Budhi Gangaur and Bainari Bandh51 in Jaipur district have produced Mesolithic rock-art evidence. This demonstrates that the people of this period occupied more and more prestine areas and thus human presence expanded geographically than ever before. This, however, brings us to the next chronological stage of human progression, i.e. the Neolithic period. Interestingly we do not have so far any evidence of this period from Rajasthan. This cultural vacuum is presenting an interesting problem in the evolutionary cultural process and the gap demands a fresh look by scholars. However, in the meanwhile, one observation in this context is that the Mesolithic period appears to be late in terms of time period, it continued in a staggered manner and finally before reaching to the stage of the Neolithic period it was overtaken by the Contemporary diverse cultural people from the adjoining areas. This cultural phenomenon is unfolding in different pockets during this period in Rajasthan and the emerging cultural scenario is presented below. Protohistoric Evidence: The Chalcolithic Complex Map – 5, After V. N. Misra During the post Mesolithic period three different independent Thus the locational analysis of the known sites presents a cultural zones emerged distinctly cutting across the frontiers of dispersed settlement pattern rather than a linear one55 along the river. 6 ISSN 2321-1288 Rajasthan History Congress / 11 12 / Rajasthan History Congress ISSN 2321-1288 More over all the settlements are small in size and rural in character. the mature Harappan remains are succeeded by the settlements of There is no sign of urbanization. The early settlers appear to have Painted Grey Ware (hereafter PGW), albeit with a distinct cultural arrived in these areas from outside of these areas because there is no gap in a stratified form between the two. The settlements of this evidence of human presence in the preceding period to correlate it to cultural group will be discussed in its appropriate chronological order that and also trace the evolutionary stages. Therefore the people in alongwith the other settlements of this cultural period subsequently. the early Harappan levels seem to have come from the Trans-Indus In the meanwhile the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura cultural complex is areas where there is a continous sequence of human habitations from discussed. the preceding levels of the far more antiquity. Broadly the people of The settlement remains of the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura cultural this cultural group subsisted on animal husbandry, small scale group are primarily located to the east and northeast of the Harappan agricultural activities supplemented by gathering, hunting and fishing. zone. There are about ninety sites of this group which are dispersed Later in due course of time the process of development was in the areas of Jaipur and Sikar districts69. Ganeshwar and Jodhpur accelerated considerably to reach to the mature Harappan phase. In have been excavated in a limited manner. There are about a dozen 56 the process the early village settlements of Kalibanga along the left sites in Jaipur districts70 and over seventy sites in Sikar district. Its 57 bank of the seasonal Ghaggar in Rajasthan and Banawali in Haryana, main area of concentration is Sikar district and chronologically it is also on the left bank of the Ghaggar, attained an urban stage in the said to have been contemporary to the early Harappan of the mature Harappan period along with several other settlements of northwestern parts of the state71. Its further chronology has not been Rakhigarhi58, Farmana59 and Balu60 in Haryana only. There are also worked out yet clearly and therefore there is no evidence to suggest changes in the field of production (agricultural as well as non- the presence or absence of its succeeding phase comparable to the agricultural), Construction, building plan and material, trade among mature Harappan phase of the northwestern parts. There is, however, others. This has been proved through the excavations at Baroor61 and other sites belonging to this cultural group which have been formed Chak-8662 in the Ganganagar district of Rajasthan. During this phase as the Ochre Coloured Pottery (hereafter OCP) sites72. These are there is commonality in context of cultural assemblage to a great extent temporarily comparable to the late Harappan period encountered in at the rural as well as at the urban settlements. This has been Haryana at a number of sites73. The number of these sites is about one corroborated by the recent excavations at Dabari63, Karanpura64 and hundred fifty. These are spread over the districts of Swai Madhopur Binjor65 in the area (Map-5). The semblance of uniformity in cultural with one74, Jaipur with five75, Bharatpur76 and Jhunjhunu77 with seven material from the rural hinterland to the urban centers appears to be each and Sikar78 with over eighty sites (Map-5). A very heavy outcome of an intence two way interaction. There is, however, a concentration of the sites is seen in Jaipur and Sikar districts. None cultural gap in the succeeding period of late Harappa because so far of these explored late sites has been excavated so far and therefore no no settlement belonging to this phase has been either explored or identified in the excavations in these parts. Interestingly in the Cholistan evidence is retrieved from the stratified contexts. Nevertheless on the region, the southwestern part of the west Punjab of Pakistan and the basis of the surface findings these appear to be small-sized rural erstwhile Bahawalpur state, has been explored about forty Cemetery settlements with limited and simple cultural equipments. H sites by Mughal66 from here which are considered chronologically Besides, there are twenty sites with the evidence of Copper as well as culturally equivalent to the late Harappan sites67. Although Hoards. These are discovered in the districts of Ajmer79, Bharatpur80, evidence of their eastward expansion is generally absent in the form Bundi81, Chittaurgarh82, Jalore83, Pali 84, Sirohi85 and Udaipur86 with of independent settlements, yet a sprinkle of ceramic ware is noticed one site each while districts of Alwar87, Bikaner88, Nagaur89 and Tonk90 at a number of contemporary OCP sites from the areas under debate. contain two sites each. In contrast Jaipur is the only district which Further its presence is also attested as far east as Sanauli in the western has produced four sites91. The cultural and chronological association parts of the upper Ganga doab68. However in the area of discussion of the Copper Hoard sites has always been debatable since these have 7 ISSN 2321-1288 Rajasthan History Congress / 13 14 / Rajasthan History Congress ISSN 2321-1288 not been discovered from stratified archaeological contexts so far. On the basis of their look, shape, size, technique, raw material and probable functions these are usually associated with a very broad time period ranging from Protohistoric period to early historical period. In this case also the lack of information about their archaeological context precludes us to make any observation. However it can safely be suggested that some of the Copper Hoard sites were contemporary to the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura cultural complex if the commonality of copper tools from here and the Copper Hoard sites is any pointer in this case. In addition some others can also be associated with the Later OCP sites. This contention is supported by the continued presence of the Copper Hoards and use of these tools during these levels as has been marked at Atranjikhera among other92 in western Uttar Pradesh among other sites and Mitathal II B93 in Bhiwani district of Haryana. This can further be corroborated by the other axuliary evidences in the form of the knowledge of copper deposits in the Aravallis of this area and the likely presence of itinerant copper artisans on the pattern of the ethnographic itinerant iron artisans operating in the areas94. While the possibility of some other Copper hoard sites being associated with the later periods is not ruled out, especially in the light of the relevance of their functional value afterwards as well. Let us now move on to the succeeding cultural period which is represented by the PGW sites that are either found superimposed on the OCP deposits or on a natural soil. But the fact remains that this cultural group succeeds the OCP in these areas as well as in the western Map – 6, After V. N. Misra Uttar Pradesh. This, however, deserves a discussion along with other sites of this group from the southern parts of the Mewar region. In It is clear from the above distribution of sites that the core area the meanwhile we need to take into account the beginning and of this culture is comprising of Chittaurgarh, Udaipur and Bhilwara districts that share the large majority of settlements whereas a sprinkle development of human life in the areas of the Mewar before emergence of sites is noticed in rest of the districts mentioned above. Thus the of the PGW settlements, which is as follows. Ahar culture is the culture of Mewar. Majority of the sites are located The third cultural zone is in the southern part of Mewar and the along small or big water courses. However still others, especially cultural complex of the zone is popularly known as Ahar after the important among them being Gilund, Balathal and Ojiyana, are located 95 type site , also known as Banas Culture after the river. Over one along local natural depressions. Furtherthese sites are also located hundred sites belonging to this culture have been discovered from near or under modern village habitations which is very significant in 96 this area . Primarily these sites are located in the Mewar region. These more ways than one. This locational analysis underlines the fact that are distributed over the districts of Dhaulpur with one97, Ajmer98 and the choice of site selection is consistent through the historical process Jaipur99 with four each, Tonk with five100, Dungarpur with six101, of cultural development. The continuity is also a reflection on the Bhilwara with twenty four102, Udaipur with twenty five103 and uniformly of natural landscape at least, if not completely, in respect to Chittaurgarh with forty one104 (Map-6). the cultural and functional planes. 8 ISSN 2321-1288 Rajasthan History Congress / 15 16 / Rajasthan History Congress ISSN 2321-1288 Information on the composition of the Ahar culture primarily better ground water and rain water facility, natural conditions but the comes from Ahar105 and Balathal106 in the district of Udaipur, Gilund in pace of development could not be pushed beyond a point. This points Rajsamand107 and Ojiyana108 and Lachhura109 in Bhilwara. Almost all towards the absence of optimum working capacity of people to realize these settlements are made for the first time only during the Chalcolithic the full potential of the extant natural resources. period or Ahar culture. The cultural composition is very interesting. It is very interesting to note that after the Chalcolithic period The dominant ceramic industry is popularly known as Black and Red there is absence of human habitations at the Chalcolithic settlements Ware (here after BRW). This cultural group presents three stages of in particular and in its geographical area in general. This absence of development. The earliest phase contains handmade as well as wheel human activities, it is said, continued for more than a thousand years. thrown, plain, thick and rough BRW alongwith a number of other The long span of this desertion is based on the premise that the ceramic wares as at Balathal A. this phase is placed around 3000 BC beginning of the Chalcolithic period placed in the early part of the by Shinde110. In the second phase the ceramic ware is well fired with third millennium BC. Later the Chalcolithic habitations continued in lusterous surface and white paintings. This is called the mature phase this area for more than one thousand years. And thus its termination for the alround development and is assigned a period between 2500- is suggested to have been around the middle of the second millennium 2000 BC. In the third phase paintings and the fine finish are absent BC. Around this time a general desertion of all the Chalcolithic sites is while incision forms the normal decoration pattern. This phase is suggested and these sites seem to have remained deserted until these placed between 2000-1800 BC. The principal shapes are dishes, bowls, were reoccupied only in or around the middle of the first millennium jars, vases and other pots. BC. by the people using the Northern Black Polished Ware (hence Gilund appears to be the largest site with ten hectare size among forth NBPW) and iron objects. The habitational deposits of this cultural the Chalcolithic sites followed by Balathal with six hectares. The period are found in excavations in these areas. Thus there is a period cultural deposit at Ahar is thirteen metre, eight metre at Gilund and of interregnum, as suggested, between the end of the Chalcolithic seven metre at Balathal. period and the beginning of the NBPW habitations. House building activities at these sites are moticed which are The aforesaid gap, however, is not beyond any doubt because made of stone, mud, mud bricks. Even use of kiln burnt bricks is of the following considerations. One, there is a presence of Harappan noticed at the site of Gilund alone. More over the sites of Gilund and influence on the Chalcolithic pottery. Two, Harappan seals are present Balathal experienced construction of public, private and defence in the Chalcolithic material in the Balathal – B levels among other structures. The last contains a wall which is encircling the two mounds aspects. This makes, at least, the two contemporary to each other, of Gilund. These are small high mound on the east and the low big especially during the mature levels of the two, which are placed mound on the west unlike the Harappan pattern111. This is further between C. 2500 to 2000 BC. while on the other hand a ghat-shaped significant to note that the largest Chalcolithic site is also located along bead and iron are discovered from the BRW levels at the site of Noh112 a local natural depression and not on any seasonal perennial river. in Bharatpur. Both the things are characteristics of the PGW cultural Likewise the other important site of Balathal is also located beside a assemblage and these findings make the Chalcolithic BRW and the similar water body. Further no settlement of this Chalcolithic period PGW contemporary to each other, atleast, in some measure. This is irrespective of its location either being on a river, seasonal or perennial, borne out during the excavations at Donder Khera, a BRW and PGW or along a local water body could reach to the stage of urbanization. site in Dhaulpur district where in the early layers eight, seven and six This drives home the point that access to constant abundant water from bottom upward there is an overlap between BRW and PGW113. alone was not the main driving force. The people of Chalcolithic culture Further it is still more important to note that no gap or sterile layer is were having the benefit of copper deposits in their close vicinity, discovered between the Chalcolithic of the Period-I and the iron age knowledge of copper technology and a number of copper objects deposits of Period-II at the site of Ahar in Udaipur district of including tools in combination with relatively fertile black cotton soil, Rajasthan114. More over the geographical extent of the PGW is extended 9 ISSN 2321-1288 Rajasthan History Congress / 17 18 / Rajasthan History Congress ISSN 2321-1288 upto the central parts of Madhya Pradesh, which includes the areas of the total pottery is brought from other contemporary sites. A number of Mewar for being situated between the site of Noh and Madhya of other ceramic wares from here points to in this direction only. The Pradesh. This sounds both geographical as well as cultural overlap local handmade rough and simple ceramic technique was transformed between the two. In this situation the PGW automatically becomes a under the inputs from the advanced pot making technique of the valid candidate for being the logical cultural successor of the Harappans. During the Balathal – B phase the level of interaction is Chalcolithic period, atleast, in the Mewar region of Rajasthan instead further enhanced as shown by the greater presence of the mature of the NBPW of the early historical period. With the result the so- Harappan objects. Thus the developed nature of the Chalcolithic cultural called long cultural interregnum between the Chalcolithic and the early assemblage appears to be an outcome with impetus from the advanced historical period is completely elimated or reduced drastically. cultures around. This is what is emerging from the available There appears to be some problem in regard to the beginning of archaeological evidence. The absence of evidence on the evolutionary the Chalcolithic period locally, especially in the given situation of the process from Ahar-Ia strengthens this viewpoint further. available archaeological evidences. It is a fact that there are large The Beginning of Iron: The Emerging Cultural Complex numbers of Mesolithic settlements in this area and some of these All the three culture zones of the Harappan in the northwest settlements have also been excavated but there is no distinct overlap region, the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura in the north and northeastern areas between the Mesolithic and the Chalcolithic deposits. And the Neolithic and the Chalcolithic of the eastern and southern parts of Mewar are is absent completely from these areas which compounds the problem under human occupation in one form or the other during the succeeding further. Thus the gap (cultural and temporal) between the preceding period of the PGW. More than one hundred twenty settlements of this Mesolithic and the succeeding Chalcolithic widens considerably. The cultural group are reported from the three cultural regions. The diverse latter appears to be a fairly large cultural group spread over a huge cultural regions came under the influence of one cultural group for geographical expanse and also a reasonably developed village culture. the first time during this period-This type of unification is not seen The substantially thick cultural deposit, ranging in several metres, earlier, at least, in these areas. The District-wise distribution of the speaks of their stability over a considerable time period. The cultural explored settlements is as follows. objects right from the beginning of the habitation are fairly rich and The districts of Ajmer and Tonk are represented by only one advanced which is enigmatic and not in tune with the proposed scheme site each115, Alwar by two116, Jhunjhunu by four, Dhaulpur by nine, of things. The evolutionary stages or processes are not seen in the Jaipur by seventeen117, Ganganagar (jointly with Hanumangarh) by early levels of the habitations at the excavated sites. There is no twenty one118 and Bharatpur by sixty four119. Although no site is yet evidence of cultural transition from the preceding to the succeeding reported from the southern parts of Mewar region yet the geographical cultural deposits except those at Bagor which are not distinctly clear. extent of the PGW is well known from sites of Madhya Pradesh120 The kind of evolved cultural evidence witnessed is possible only in (Map-7). There is a possibility of its discovery from these areas through specific situations, especially when less developed cultures come in future explorations as well as excavations. Thus both type of soil contact with more advanced cultural groups in their vicinity. The zones (the aeolian sandy of the northeastern areas and black clayey chance or deliberate interactions between this type of contemporary soils of the southern parts of Mewar are occupied for the first time groups accelerate the pace of development, especially in context of by one cultural group, though the intensity of the settlements is greater the less developed one, to reach to the advanced stage by jumping the in the northeastern parts. Was it because of the better and relatively normal sequential growth pattern because this type of external impetus open soil types combined with rains and ground water in pockets? Or stimulates the growth in exponential manner which is contrary to the was it impacted by the higher working capacity for the application of gradual development at local level in a natural fashion. This interaction iron tool-technology that shaped the pattern of settlements? It appears is supported by the presence of the Reserved Slipped Ware in the that the last combine played an important role in this context. When Balathal – A levels it has further been pointed out that sixty one percent this format is applied to the southern parts of the Mewar to understand 10 ISSN 2321-1288 Rajasthan History Congress / 19 20 / Rajasthan History Congress ISSN 2321-1288 the sparse presence of PGW settlements in these areas, it is found not offer good dry surface for both movements as well as for living that effective to increase the number of settlements here. The simple purposes. On the contrary the black clayey soils become very muddy explanation for this diverse frequency of settlements is that the use of and sticky during the monsoon season. Further these soils do not iron was limited because the technical expertise was rudimentary. absorb water as quickly as is done by the aeolian sandy soils. With the result limited and simple tools were produced. Obviously the Consequently it becomes inimical to all types of movements during limited application of the simple iron tools was put against the hard this period. More over these soils loose moisture very quickly after clayey soils of this part which did not allow the people to harness the the monsoons, experience wide cracks and become difficult to break potential of the natural resources in any appreciable manner. As a with simple tools. The semi-arid soils are, of course, very hot and result the appeal of this landscape to the people was not as lucrative hostile during the day in summer season but these cool down in the as was in the case of the other half. Therefore fewer evenings to make them pleasant at nights in the open. In contrast the situation is not conductive in case of the black clayey soils for the sun heat absorbed by these soils is not released that quickly and as a result these do not cool down that fast. Perhaps people in the past could take due cognizance of these contrasting features and accordingly seem to have responded in corresponding degrees. The choice of the selection of residential sites is an interesting part of analysis. Out of the one hundred twenty sites over thirty sites are preceded by the Chalcolithic sites of BRW. Of these thirty sites eight possess still anterior remains of the OCP. Besides four of the thirty sites do possess remains of the OCP only prior to the PGW. This shows the continuous commonality in regard to the exercise of their choice of site selection from the OCP to BRW and to PGW. This points towards consistency in the properties of the landscapes through these periods. On the contrary the capacity of the people to harness the natural resources to their advantage is constantly being transformed which is demonstrated by the increasing site frequency from one stage of development to the other. Although the change in the working capacity demands a micro study of the operative variables, yet as of now the increased number of the total settlements suggests increase in the working capacity, subsistence base and demographic levels as well. This trend appears to have been further strengthened in the succeeding levels of the early historical period where the number of Map – 7, After V. N. Misra such sites is increased many fold which is being discussed below. pockets were found convenient for making their settlements and eking The next cultural period is represented by the early historical out their subsistence. Besides, the semi-arid areas from the settlements. The number of these settlements is one hundred fifty northwestern parts to the eastern limits of the state are more convenient two and there is a possibility of its going beyond it. These sites are for terrestrial movement of men, material and animals alike during all consisting of the NBPW and the Rangmahal sites. The district wise as the months of the year, especially in the monsoon season also. Because well as geographical zone-wise distribution of the sites is very important the aeolian sandy soils of these areas absorb rain water instantly and and therefore it is as follows. 11 ISSN 2321-1288 Rajasthan History Congress / 21 22 / Rajasthan History Congress ISSN 2321-1288 The share of the district of Dausa121, Dungarpur122, Jhalawar123, coins facilitated the trading activities during this period. Kota124, Nagaur125, Pali126 and Swai Madhopur127 is one each, Nagaur two128, Ajmer three129, Bundi130 Udaipur131, Tonk six132, Bhilwara seven133, Dhaulpur nine134, Sikar ten135, Jaipur twenty three136, Alwar thirty137, Jhunjhunu thirty two138, Bharatpur thirty three139 and Ganganagar/Hanumangarh seventy three140. This distribution shows that more districts (twenty) of the state came under human occupation for the first time in this period (Map-8 and 9). Two, many new sites have been made by breaking new grounds while old sites also remained inhabited from the previous to this period. Third, some districts such as Alwar, Bharatpur, Ganganagar/Hanumangarh, Jaipur, Jhunjhunu, Sikar and Dhaulpur appear to be more attractive in the light of the available data on settlements from these areas. No matter in comparison to the respective total area of the districts their settlements share is not inclined to present any intense density of population. Nevertheless this demonstrates surely a relatively very high increase in the number of settlements in comparison to the one hundred twenty sites of the preceding period. Fourth, on an average the size of the settlements is bigger than the average size of the sites of the previous Map – 8, After V. N. Misra period. These overtly points towards a substantial upward swing in the population size at the individual settlement level as well as at the The cultural assemblage during this period is very rich in regional level. Fifth, the benefit of this upward swing is largely comparison to the preceding period. The pottery (NBPW) is superfine, restricted to the northwestern and southeastern areas as was the case red ware is also found in a large number. Dishes, basins, bowls, cups, in context of the preceding PGW levels. The areas of the Mewar small pots, carinated pots, lamps etc constitute the dominant shapes. region did not perhaps appeal to the people in the same measure for Rangmahal red ware is very superior in its shapes, surface treatment making their settlements in that part despite these areas being traversed and decorations. A number of terracotta objects are gathered during by the perennial rivers, having fertile black cotton soil and fresh ground excavations as well as explorations. Terracotta drainage pipe, ring water in pockets. This skewed settlement distribution could also be wells from Balathal are significant to suggest development of drainage an outcome of less intense field survey and this picture may change and sanitary facilities. A terracotta seal with bullock cart design and with more comprehensive survey in the future. However this needs to another seal with Brahmi inscription are important specimens from be explained by situating all the operative variables in their proper the same site. A large number of iron arrow-heads, sickles, adzes and contexts and will be touched upon a little later. Sixth, in the meanwhile an iron working furnace among other objects from different sites there has been further a marked continuity stratigraphically between speak of superior technical expertise, greater frequency of iron objects 142 the habitations of the PGW and NBPW at a number of excavated and local production of these objects . Copper remained in constant settlements (Sumari in Jhunjhunu district, Bairat in Dausa district use and few objects of gold, Semi precious stone objects are also among others). Seventh, a number of settlements have also produced available. Punch-marked (Rairh, district Tonk)141 and kushana coins during field This advancement is attested to in house building activities as surveys. The introduction of coinage was, of course, a very well. The raw material for the houses is in the form of stone, especially revolutionary development as a product of growing technological for foundations, mud bricks as well as kilm burnt bricks. The houses expertise and being requirement of the growing economy. The use of are well structured and based on a plan. There are small as well as big 12 ISSN 2321-1288 Rajasthan History Congress / 23 24 / Rajasthan History Congress ISSN 2321-1288 houses. All these developments speak of economic development and Authorship of Harappan Civilization it was caused by better realization of the natural resources with the There are some important arguments about the name, authors help of superior technology and intense human efforts. Once again and determinants of the Harappa civilization. It is said that majority of urban character is achieved by the people through their conscious the known settlements of this civilization are located in the areas of hard efforts. Evidence of fortification is also coming from the site of the Ghaggar/Saraswati river, that rises from the Sub-Himalayas near Nagari eighteen kilometre north of Chittaurgarh in the same district143. Kalkaji in Haryana and traverses through parts of Haryana, Punjab, It is a well known fact that the first urbanization in the Indian Rajasthan (northwestern) and Cholistan region in Pakistan, and Subcontinent occurred during the Harappan civilization in the third therefore the civilization needs to be called Saraswati civilization144. millennium BC and the second urbanization was developed in the This surely sounds well and appeals to our patriotic feelings also. Gangetic plain in the second half of the first millennium BC. Likewise This, however, does not go well with the logical analysis of the available the impact of these urbanizations is seen in parts of Rajasthan also in settlement data. It is true that the majority of these settlements of the the respective time periods. There are urban centres of the first phase civilization are located in Punjab and Haryana. It is on the contrary in the northwestern parts of Marwar (Kalibanga, Baroor and Karnpura) equally true that the majority of these settlements are located away and urban centres of the second phase are witnessed in the second from the Ghaggar watercourse in upland areas where no river water phase in eastern and southeastern parts (Bairat, Nagar, Nagari, Rairh is accessible in any form whatsoever145. Ground water quality in these and Sambhar) of Mewar. In between the two urban periods a very areas is salty and saline, completely unfit for consumption and long time period of one and a half million years supported subsistence agriculture purposes. Rain water is also not available all the time based settled rural and mobile pastoral groups only. With regard to because the rains are highly erratic, unpredictable and undependable these urbanizations diverse conflicting factors are credited with for in these areas. Like the Harappan settlements modern village settlements their happening in the manner they were shaped. A synoptic view of are also present in a very high density and perhaps this was the case them is as follows. in historical period also. There is no network of rivers or streams to offer surface water to the modern residents of these villages in the upland areas. Rains and ground water are no different. There was no official arrangement of drinking water supply till yesterday in most of the villages. However irrespective of the fresh water inaccessibility there are large number of villages teeming with life. It is a fact that at least availability of potable water, if not fresh water always, is a dire necessity. The question is how did these very villagers make arrangement of potable water for their survival in these water deficient areas. Ethnographic information from these villages suggests that each and every village possesses a number of village ponds (locally known as Johads). These are cleared and deepened religiously during summers so that more of rain water is harvested and stored in them to serve the people in the coming months of the year. These formed the life line for the survival of the people in these areas in the recent past. In addition almost all the village wells in these areas are located on or along the banks of these ponds. These wells offer some quality of fresh water for the people. Fresh water in a limited quantity and depth depending upon the low rate of fresh water leaching from the ponds Map – 9, After V. N. misra to the soil profile. Thus the two manmade sources formed the main 13 ISSN 2321-1288 Rajasthan History Congress / 25 26 / Rajasthan History Congress ISSN 2321-1288 life line for the modern villagers. A fresh survey of the Harappan sites of very high rain in its zones, it may assume very powerful proportions in the light of this ethnographic information revealed presence of a and vice-versa. It being a non-Himalayan, especially non-snow-capped number of depressions of varied denominations around the Harappan Himalayan, river it remained a seasonal river only. With the result the settlements. These depressions receive and retain rain water for several kind of river sand generated by river water through its friction with months of the year. Hence there is a strong possibility of their being the Himalayan stones is non-existent here149. In the light of this active repository of water during the civilization period which perhaps irrefutable evidence the argument of its being mighty and perennial in formed the major source of water supply. Therefore partly man made the ancient past is not valid. and party non-riverine natural sources served the people for their water As regards the question of its being called a par-excellence river requirements. It is not logical to give any undue importance to the in the Rigveda, the epithet always does not signify only its physical river/s for sustaining a large number of Harappan settlements in these strength. It, in fact, covers physical attributes as well as nourishing areas, especially in the ancient past. Rivers have not been significant value which underline its relevance in the life of the people. More for the majority of the people before the introduction of the modern over the Saraswati of the Rigveda is also being equated with the canal system146. Harakhawati of Avesta and the refence of the river in the Rigveda The other argument is that the seasonal Ghaggar River was a points to its importance for the Aryans in their life in those areas150. mighty perennial river in the ancient past, especially during the life The river here being seasonal and primarily dependent on rain water time of the civilization. This line of argument emanates from the fact assumes very dangerous proportions only in seasons/periods of that the present nature and character of the river are not good enough exceptionally high rains. This upward swing is sustained so long as to evoke a confidence for its prime role in the development as well as the intensity of rains continues. This, however, cannot normally in sustaining the civilization147. Secondly, the river has been called continue for months because the rains are not persistent for a longer par-excellence (Nadiottam) in the Rigveda. In order to assess the time period in this landscape. By all means the river upward swing is viability of these arguments a survey of the modern mighty perennial reverted in due course of time which presents a very interesting natural rivers such as the Sutlej, Yamuna and Ganga was undertaken. Two scenario where vast open geographic expanses are available with signatures of these water courses have been identified – a very thick enriched soil fertility for agro-pastoral activities151.Since the river is sheet of river sand deposit and a huge ground water reserve, on the also known as the river of lakes and pools in the Rigveda, this fact of basis of presence of these signature the argument of the presence of the river is ignored consciously in this type of academic discourse, a river of this nature can easily be accepted and vice-versa. Here in these lakes retained river water during the months after monsoons to case of the Ghaggar river these signatures are completely absent all serve the requirements of men and grazing animals for almost all along its course from Kalkaji in Haryana to the Indo-Pakistan border months of the year. More over this type of seasonal rivers do not in Rajasthan, near Anupgarh, and beyond in Cholistan, Pakistan. To a preclude movement of men, material and animals across the water depth of about four hundred feet water bearing stratum as well as any course for long unlike the mighty perennial rivers. The facility of sign of river sand are totally absent. What is gathered is a fine clayey movement across the water course is enabling people to harness the silt of the origin and character of the clayey silt present in the hillocks resources and making use of the facilities on its both sides. Keeping of the Sub-Himalayas near Kalkaji in Haryana. Only this type of clayey in view the aforesaid opportunities offered by this seasonal water silt deposit is noticed in its entire bed148. Therefore the river has been course it would appeal more to the people than a precluding mighty only a seasonal river from ancient period onwards. river. Therefore, this river seems to have enjoyed a high respect The question of its might is subject to the volume of water it referred to in the Rigveda. receives. Since its origin lies in the Sub-Himalayas it is always fed by In regard to the authorship of the Harappan civilization there rain water only. The volume of water it receives strictly depends upon has always been a scope for speculation, especially in the absence of the nature of precipitation in a season in its catchment areas. In seasons written records, non-decipherment of the script of the short 14 ISSN 2321-1288 Rajasthan History Congress / 27 28 / Rajasthan History Congress ISSN 2321-1288 inscriptions and when shallow emotions of nationalism overshadow well-developed rural as well as urban pattern of settlements, developed rationality. It is believed that the Aryans are the original inhabitants of agriculture and food surplus, a fairly high degree of non-agricultural this area. More so when the Ghaggar is equated with the ancient production, regional and trans-regional trade by land as well as water, Saraswati and it is traversing through these very areas. This river is use of standard weights and measures, a structured defence and perceived as the epicenter of activities of the Aryans. There is however sanitary system, tools and technological expertise, a very advanced no other evidence of Human habitations here except that of the early knowledge of constructing private and public structures, use of Harappan and mature Harappans. And these very settlements are thus standard mud brick and burnt bricks, application of interlocking system perceived and projected as those of the Aryans. Hence the Harappan and diverse mortars for making walls, use of a very rich ceramic civilization is named as the Aryan civilization152. This is the general ware across a vast geographical spectrum in upland zones, among a line of argument in favour of this view. This argument is, however, host of other features in contrast to the Aryan culture. The Aryan not free from inherent weaknesses. It is a fact that the early Harappan society on the other hand is primarily rural in nature, subsisted largely settlements are the first habitations of the area and thereby the on pastoralism, fairly mobile in the areas of the upper Indo-Gangetic occupants of these settlements were the first settlers in the light of divide. The knowledge of horse is common with them while its nominal the available archaeological evidences. Now the question is whether presence is marked in late phase of Harappa civilization154. Aryans use the residents of these settlements were the original inhabitants of these chariots with spoked wheels whereas the Harappans used bullock carts areas or they came here from some other place/s. If they are accepted fitted with solid and hubbed (centre) wheels. The spoked chariots are as the original inhabitants, then the question is where is the evidence faster than the solid wheeled bullock carts. The use of spoked wheels of their evolutionary stages from these areas? facilitates their fast movement, especially on smooth surface. The As of now there is no evidence of anterior habitations to trace use of solid wheels in bullock carts can help absorb Shocks on rugged the trajectory of human evolution at the local level. Not to talk of uneven natural tracks. The two types of wheels are products of these areas alone there is no evidence of Neolithic activities from the different technologies155. Of late it is claimed on the basis of discovery state of Rajasthan itself153. Likewise there is no evidence of any early of solid wheels with spokes decorated on them156 that the Harappan village settlements prior to the early Harappans. In this given situation knew use of the spoked wheels. The difference between a wheel with of the available evidence on the development of human history in these decorated spokes like lines and an actual spoked wheel is universally areas how the settlers of the early Harappan settlements can be taken known, the former cannot be taken as an actual spoked wheel. The as the original inhabitants of this area? They can, at best, be accepted Harappan people practiced burial in contrast to the cremation practice as the first settlers, which implies that they came here from somewhere being followed by the Aryans. More over it is very curious that the and settled in the area. If this is so, the next question is where did rich and advanced Vedic texts failed to record names, at least, of the they come from? To trace their antiquity, ancestory, movement from important urban settlements with their allied details. Hence the Aryan and orientation of the presence of antecedent settlements is to be authorship of the Harappan civilization is not based on facts and their located among the presently known preceding settlements from the rational analysis. The two are independent cultural groups separated areas around. There is only one area, as of now, where the qualifying culturally, temporally and spatially. settlement data on preceding human history is known from. This area The foregoing discussion brings out clearly some important is situated in the Trans-Indus region of Baluchistan and around. These points. Human life began sometime in the second stage of the lower have produced evidence on the history of human activities from the Palaeolithic and it continued during the middle Palaeolithic and the early Harappan rearwards to the Neolithic and beyond in antiquity. upper Palaeolithic, especially in the last phase a reversal in the number Thus the orientation of human expansion is from west to east. of sites as well as population size is very prominent. During the The cultural composition of the Harappan and the Aryans is succeeding Mesolithic period the growth in the number of sites, spatial also not similar, a well known fact. The Harappans are known for expansion and cultural assemblage is more than visible. However during 15 ISSN 2321-1288 Rajasthan History Congress / 29 30 / Rajasthan History Congress ISSN 2321-1288 the succeeding Neolithic period total absence of human activities is 14. IAR, 1954-55, p. 58; 1955-56, p. 10; 1956-57, pp. 5 and 8 beyond comprehension and underlines a regressive process. It needs 15. Misra, V. N. Rajasthan: Prehistoric And Early Historic Foundations, New Delhi, to be examined if this was a local phenomenon. The succeeding period 2007, pp. 73-75 16. IAR, 1958-59, pp. 40-42, 74; 1963-64, p. 91; 1976-77, p. 46; 1979-80, p. 67 is phase of the emergence of the three regional cultures (the early 17. IAR, 1958-59, 74; 1963-64, p. 91; 1976-77, p. 46; 1977-78, p. 46 Harappan/Sothi in the northwestern parts of the state, the Ganeshwar- 18. IAR, 1958-59, p. 42 Jodhpur in the northern and northeastern parts, i.e. Mewar), which 19. IAR, 1958-59, p. 74 are known as the chalcolithic cultures. Only the first of them could 20. IAR, 1958-59, p. 42; 1960-61, p. 31 attain urban status for an interesting combine of social and natural 21. IAR, 1956-57, pp. 5-8; 1963-64, p. 29; 1982-83, p. 67 22. IAR, 1980-81, p. 59 forces. An intractable regressive trend once again was set in respect 23. IAR, 1979-80, p. 67; 1984-85, p. 73; 1989-90, p. 94 of all the three cultural groups. Trends of constriction as well as 24. IAR, 1980-81, pp. 59-61; 1981-82, pp. 56-58 spatial expansion are noticed in this period. It seems stability is reduced 25. Allchin, et al, The Prehistory and Palaeogeography of the great Indian Desert, and seasonal mobility is increased considerably. Later during the PGW 1978, pp. 181-82; 212-14 levels all the three cultural zones are embraced by this cultural group 26. Ibid. pp. 123, 130-31, 155. as a result of the introduction of iron technology, though even now 27. IAR, 1956-57, p. 69; 1958-59, p. 74; 1976-77, p. 46; 1977-78, p. 46 28. IAR, 1977-78, p. 49 balance of power favoured the northern and the northeastern parts. 29. IAR, 1958-59, p. 74; 1976-77, p. 46; 1977-78, p. 46. This trend resulted into the development of second urbanization in 30. IAR, 1991-92, p. 96. due course of time with the growing use of better iron tools. Thus the 31. IAR, 1957-58, p. 69; 1984-85, p. 152 trajectory of cultural growth presents a series of swing on either side 32. IAR, 1967-68, pp. 39-42; 1968-69, pp. 26-28; 1977-78, p. 46 depending upon turns in the working capacity of the people through 33. IAR, 1967-68, p. 68; 1977-78, p. 46 34. IAR, 1959-60, p. 40 time and space. 35. IAR, 1958-59, p. 45 Notes And References: 36. IAR, 1978-79, p. 20; 1979-80, p. 64; 1987-88, p. 101 1. A village to village Archaeo-Hydrological survey was carried by the author along 37. IAR, 1976-77, p. 45; 1979-80, p. 67; Allchin et al, op.cit. pp. 201-08 the Ghaggar in Rajasthan during 2001-05 and it was observed that potable water 38. IAR, 1964-65, p. 76; 1965-66, p. 83; 1979-80, pp. 67-68 was available only in shallow depth. 39. IAR, 1958-59, p. 45; 1965-66, pp. 82-83; 1977-78, p. 46 2. Ghosh, A. ‘The Rajputana Desert-Its Archaeological Aspects’ Bull. National 40. IAR, 1962-63, p. 70; 1978-88, p. 100; 1990-91, p. 60 Institute of Science of India, No. 1, 1952, pp. 37-42; Rao, S. R. IAR, 1954-55, p. 41. IAR, 1956-67, p. 8; 1957-58, pp. 44-45; 1982-83, pp. 66-67. 58; Deshpande, M. N. IAR, 1953-54, p. 37. 42. IAR, 1957-58, pp. 44-45; 1967-68, pp. 41-42; 1970-71, p. 31; 1979-80, p. 62 3. IAR, 197071, p. 31. 43. IAR, 1956-57, pp. 6, 8; 1962-63, pp. 18-19 4. Misra, V. N. IAR, 1958-59, p. 42 44. Lukacs, J. R. et al, Bagor And Tilwara: Late Mesolithic Culture of Northwest 5. Dimri, D. N. IAR, 1985-86, p. 69 India, Deccan College, Pune, 1982; Agrawala, R. C. ‘Ganeshwar Culture - A 6. Vijay Kumar, IAR, 1983-84, p. 71 review’ Jr. of the Oriental Institute, XXXIV, 1-2, 1984, pp. 89-95 7. Misra, V. N. and M. Nagar ‘The Stone Age Sites on the River Chambal, Rajasthan’, 45. Pal, J. N. ‘Mesolithic Settlements in Ganga plain’, ME, XIX, 1-2, 1994, pp. 91- Bull. of the Deccan College Research Institute, XXII, pp. 156-69 102; Misra, B. B. ‘The Mesolithic Culture of the Belan Valley’, Misra, V. D. and 8. Misra, et al, IAR, 1958-59, p. 42; 1977-78, p. 46 J. N. Pal eds. Mesolithic India, Allahabad, 2002, pp. 216-36; Misra, V. D. ‘Origin, 9. IAR, 1961-62, p. 38, 1962-63, p. 70; 1983-84, p. 71; 1978-88, p. 100 Chronology and Transformation of the Mesolithic Culture in India’, Misra, V. D. 10. IAR, 1958-59, p. 42; 1984-85, pp. 72-73 and pal, Ibid. pp. 447-64 11. Misra, V. N. IAR, 1958-59, p. 42 46. Pal, 1994 12. IAR, 1980-81, p. 59; 1981-82, pp. 58-69; 1982-83, p. 69; 1983-84, p. 72; 1984- 47. Thakran, R. C. ‘Central Mesolithic Rock Art: Engendering Subsistence Activities’, 85, pp. 73-74 paper Presented at the Joint Indo-French Seminar on Rock Art in India and 13. Sankalia, H. D. ‘Nathwara: a Palaeolithic Site in Rajputana; Jr. of the France, organized by ICHR, Bhopal, 2006 Palaeontological Society of India, No. 1, pp. 99-100; Misra, V. N. IAR, 1953-60, 48. IAR, 1990-91, p. 59 pp. 39-40; 1962-63, p. 19 49. IAR, 1962-63, p. 70 16 ISSN 2321-1288 Rajasthan History Congress / 31 32 / Rajasthan History Congress ISSN 2321-1288 50. IAR, 1990-91, p. 59 79. Misra, V. N., Op.cit., 2007, p. 379 51. Ibid, p. 60 80. Ibid 52. This site was excavated by the author and Amar Singh in 2007. Early Harappan 81. Ibid and mature Harappan remains were discovered. 82. Ibid 53. This site was explored by the author in 2003 and later excavated by the V. N. 83. Ibid Prabhakar ‘Excavation of a Harappan Settlement at Karanpura, Rajasthan’, 84. Ibid Puratattva, 43, 2013, pp. 90-99 85. Ibid 54. Suraj Bhan Mitathal Excavations and Other Explorations, Kurukshetra University, 86. Ibid kurukshetra, 1975 87. Ibid 55. Thakran, R.C. ‘Protohistoric Settlement pattern in Haryana’ Shrimali K. M. ed. 88. Ibid Reason & Archaeology, New Delhi, 1999, pp. 43-67. 89. Ibid 56. Lal, B. B. ‘A New Indus Valley Provincial Capital Discovered: Excavations at 90. Ibid Kalibangan in Northern Rajasthan’ Illustrated London News, March 24, 1962; 91. Ibid Idem The Saraswati Flows On: The Continuity of Indian Culture, New Delhi, 92. Gaur, R. C. Excavations at Atranjikhera, New Delhi 2001 93. Suraj Bhan, Op.cit., 1975 57. Thakran, R. C. ‘Protohistoric Settlements and Subsistence patterns in the Bhangar, 94. Such artisans move on from one place to the other by providing their services to Haryana’, PIHC, Delhi, 1991-92 the people even today. 58. Amarendra Nath and Tejas Garge ‘Site Catchement Analysis of the Harappan 95. Possehl, G. L. et al ‘The Ahar-Banas Complex and the BMAC’, ME, XXIX, 2, site of Rakhigarhi, District Hissar, Haryana’, ME, XXXIX, 1, 2014, pp. 33-45; 2004, pp. 18-29. Idem ‘Rakhigarhi: 1999-2000’, Puratattva, 31, 2000-01, pp. 43-66 96. Misra, Op.cit., 2007, p. p. 363-367 59. Shinde, V. Personal Communication with Vasant Shinde 97. IAR, 1991-92, p. 94 60. Arun Kesarwani, ‘Balu: A Fortifield rural Settlement in Haryana’, Puratattva, 31, 2000-01, pp. 140-152 98. IAR, 1984-85, p. 67; 1958-59, p. 45 61. Personal Communication with the excavators. 99. IAR, 1954-55, p. p. 14-15; 1958-59, p. 45; 1961-62, p.p. 45-50 62. Trivedi, P. K. and J. K. Patnaik ‘Tarkhanwala Dera and Chak 86 (2003-04), 100. IAR, 1958-59, p. 45 Puratattva, 34, 2003-04, pp. 30-34 101. IAR, 1979-80, p. 62; 1991-92, p. 94 63. Thakran R. C. and Amar Singh, Op.cit. 2007 102. IAR, 1957-58, p. p. 44-45; 1979-80, p. 62; 1983-84, p. 71; 1998-99, p. p. 138- 64. Prabhakaran, op.cit., 2013, pp. 90-99 141 65. Personal Communication with Syed Jamal Hasan, Director ASI, New Delhi 103. IAR, 1957-58, p. p. 44-45; 1979-80, p. 65; 66. Mughal, M. R. ‘The Geographical Extent of the Indus Civilization During the 104. IAR, 1957-58, p. p. 44-45; 1962-63, p. 18; 1979-80, p. 62 Early, Mature and Late Harappan Times’, South Asian Archaeology Studies, 105. Possehl, G. L. et al, Op.cit., 2004 New Delhi, 1992, pp. 123-140; Idem, The Early Harappan Period in The Greater 106. Misra, V. N. ‘A New Prehistoric Ceramic from Rajasthan’, East and West, 23, Indus valley and Northern Balluchistan (C. 3000-2400 B.C.) Ph.D. Thesis, 1970 324, 1973, p.p. 295-305; Idem ‘ Balathal: A Chalcolithic Settlement in Mewar, 67. Sharma, et al ‘Sanauli: A Late Harappan Burial Site in the Yamuna-Hindon Doab’ Rajasthan, India: Results of First Three Seasons Excavations’ , South Asian Puratattva, 34, 2003-04, pp. 35-44 Studies, 13, 1997, p.p. 251-273 68. Ibid 107. Das Gupta, Debasri ‘A study of Site Catchment Analysis of Gilund: a Chalcolithic 69. IAR, 1979-80, p.p. 63-65; 1978-79, p.p. 20 Settlement in the Banas Basin, Rajasthan’ ME, XXXXI, No. 2, 2006, pp. 70-74 70. IAR, 1962-63, p. 70; 1990-91, p.p. 59-60 108. Mani, B. R and Alok Tripathi ‘Further Excavations at Ojiyana’, Puratattva, 31, 71. Mughal, Op.cit., 1970 2000-01, pp. 73-78; Idem ‘Excavations at Ojiyana’ Puratattva, 30, 1999-2000, 72. IAR, 1972-73, p.p. 28-29; 1973-74, p.p. 23-29; 1979-80, p 62 pp. 67-73 73. Suraj Bhan, Op.cit., 1975 109. IAR, 1983-84, p. 71 74. Misra, V. N. 2007, p. p. 371-379 110. Shinde , V. ‘The Origin and Development of the Chalcolithic in Central India’, 75. IAR, 1973-73, pp. 28-29; 1973-74, p. 23; 1975-76, p. 77; 1979-80, p. 62 Indo-Pacific Prehistory: The Melaka Papers, 3, Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific 76. IAR, 1963-64, [[. 28-29; 1965-66, p. 38; 1966-67, pp. 30-31 Prehistory Association, 19, 2000, pp. 125-136 77. IAR, 1979-80, pp. 20, 63; 1980-81, p. 56 111. In Harappan context the high mound is located on the west and the low mound 78. IAR, 1978-79, pp. 20, 79-80; 1980-81, p. 62; 1981-82, pp. 61-62 (residential) is located on the east 17 ISSN 2321-1288 Rajasthan History Congress / 33 34 / Rajasthan History Congress ISSN 2321-1288 112. IAR, 1963-64, pp. 28-29; 1964-65, pp. 34-35; 1965-66, p. 38; 1966-67, pp. 30- 145. Thakran, R. C. ‘Was the Saraswati a Mighty Perennial River? An Archaeo-geo- 31; 1970-71, pp. 31-32; 1971-72, pp. 41-42 hydrological; Social Science Probings, New Delhi, December 2009, pp. 1-18. 113. Misra, Op.cit., 2007, p. 266 146. Thakran, R. C. ‘The Myth of Saraswati Civilization-A Locational Analysis of 114. IAR, Op.cit., 1971-72, pp. 41-42 Harappan Sites;, PIHC 2003, pp. 44-64 115. IAR, 1958-59, p. 45; 1971-72, p. 41 147. Lal, Op.cit., 2001 116. IAR, 1954-55, p. 61; 1976-77, p. 79 148. Thakran, Op.cit., 2003 and 2009 117. IAR, 1964-65, p. 35; 1991-92, pp. 93-96; 1992-93, p.87; 1958-59, p. 74; 1962- 149. Ibid 63, p. 31; 1972-73, pp. 28-29; 1973-74, p. 24, 1987-88, p. 100; 1977-78, p. 47; 150. Sharma, R. S. ‘The Aryan Problem and the Horse’, Social Scientist, 1993, pp. 3- 1978-79, p. 20 16; Idem. Looking for Aryans, Madras, 1995 118. Dalal, K. F. ‘A Short History of Archaeological Explorations in Bikaner and 151. Thakran, Op.cit., 2003 and 2009 Bahawalpur along the Lost Saraswati River’, Indica, 17, 1, 1980, pp. 1-40; Idem 152. Gupta, S. P. ‘River Saraswati in History, Archaeology and Geology’, Puratattva, ‘RD 89: A New Hakra Ware Site?’, ME, V, 1981, pp. 77-86; ‘Binjor 1 - A Pre- 31, 2000-01, pp. 30-38; Idem ‘Longer Chronology of the Indus-Saraswati Harappan Site on the Indo-Pak Border’, Pande, B. M. and B.D. Chattopadhyay Civilization’, Puratattva, 23, 1992-93, pp. 21-29; Lal, Op.cit., 2001 eds. Archaeology and History: Essays in Memory of Sh. A. Ghosh, 1987, pp. 75- 153. Misra, V. N., op.cit., 2007 111.; Idem Early Historical Settlements of Southern Rajasthan, Mewar with Special 154. Very limited remains of horse have been recorded only from the late Harappan Reference to Balathal: An Artefactual Approach, Ph.D. Thesis, Pune University, levels. Its figurines (clay) also come from these levels. Pune, 2001 155. Ratnagar, S. ‘Does Archaeology hold the Answers’, Bronkhorst, J. and M. M. 119. IAR, 1962-63, p. 18; 1971-72, p. 41; 1980-81, p. 55; 1984-85, p. 71 Deshpande eds. ‘Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia’, Cambridge, 1999, pp. 120. Lal, B. B. ‘Did the Painted Grey ware Continue up to Mauryan Times’, Puratattva, 207-38; Idem ‘Agro-Pastoralism and the Migrations of the Indo-Iranians’, Romila 9, 1977-78, pp. 64-80 Thapar et al eds. India: Historical Beginnings and the Concept of the Aryan, 121. Misra, Op.cit., 2007, P. 387 NBT, New Delhi, 2006, pp. 157-92; Idem. ‘The Revisionist at Work’ 122. IAR, 1956-57, p. 83 156. Rao, L. S. ‘The Harappan Spoked Wheels Rattled Down the Streets of Bhirrana, 123. IAR, 1958-59, p. 74; 1960-61, p. 66; 1972-73, pp. 28-29 District Fatehabad, Haryana’, Puratattva, 36, 2005-06, pp. 59-67 124. IAR, 1953-54, p. 38 125. IAR, 1981-82, p. 100 126. IAR, 1980-81, p. 93 127. IAR, 1971-72, p. 41 128. IAR, 1981-82, p. 100 129. IAR, 1958-59, pp. 45, 73; 1962-63, p. 19 130. IAR, 1973-74, p. 23 131. IAR, 1954-55, pp. 14-15; 1956-57, p. 8; 1993-94, pp. 93-97 132. IAR, 1971-72, p. 41; 1973-74, p. 23 133. IAR, 1958-59, p. 45; 1980-81, p. 55; 1984-85, pp. 67-68 134. IAR, 1991-92, p. 94; 1992-93, pp. 85-87 135. IAR, 1987-88, p. 101; 1988-89, p. 76 136. IAR, 1972-73, pp. 28-29; 1973-74, p. 24; 1987-88, p. 100; 1988-89, p. 76 137. IAR, 1976-77, p. 79; 1981-82, p. 55; 1984-85, p. 79 138. IAR, 1977-78, p. 47; 1978-79, p. 20; 1980-81, pp. 55-56 139. IAR, 1962-63, p. 18; 1965-66, p. 38; 1966-67, p. 68; 1970-71, p. 31; 1971-72, p. 41; 1979-80, p. 68 140. IAR, 1972-73, pp. 61-62 141. Misra, Op.cit., 2007, p.79 142. Ibid, pp. 273-275 (Pl 11.6) 143. Ibid, p. 311 144. Lal, B. B. ‘The Saraswati Flows On: The Continuity of Indian Culture, New Delhi, 2001 18 36 / Rajasthan History Congress ISSN 2321-1288 (a) to support British rule with all their forces; (b) to submit their mutual differences to their arbitration.1 Charles Metcalfe, the then Resident of Delhi, had already expressed his view that the States of Professor G.N. Sharma Memorial Lecture Rajputana should be taken under British protection and in case protection was not afforded when it was solicited, it might not be British Relations with Jaipur State accepted when offered.2 Subjected to pay a handsome amount of tribute under the Company and the Crown : in lieu of British protection for peace in Jaipur, it was hoped that the State would not be a liability to the Company. On 2 April 1818, a A Critical Appraisal treaty was concluded between the Company and the State amidst an Dr. Anju Suri opposition from a faction of the Thakurs seething with anti-British feelings, incapacity of the State to pay the proposed amount of tribute It is, indeed, a matter of great honour for me to deliver Professor and pressure from the Holkar, the Sindhia and Amir Khan. Gopinath Sharma Memorial Lecture as a part of 30th Session of Article 1 of the said treaty provided for perpetual friendship Rajasthan History Conference at MLS University Campus, Udaipur. between East India Company and Maharaja Jagat Singh of Jaipur, his Professor Gopinath Sharma was an eminent and erudite scholar whose heirs and successors. The friends and enemies of one party would be works on history of Rajasthan speak volumes of his acumen and ability friends and enemies of both. By Article 2, the British protection would of being a great academician. The Conference offers us all an be extended to Jaipur against its enemies. Article 3 made it obligatory opportunity and occasion to pay a befitting tribute to Professor for the ruler and successors of Jaipur to act in subordinate cooperation Sharma’s laudable contribution to the discipline of History as a with the British Company while acknowledging the latter’s supremacy. dedicated researcher and a devoted teacher. I am very grateful to the By Article 4, the Maharaja and his successors would not enter into organizers for extending me the invitation and making me a part of negotiations with any Chief without the knowledge and sanction of this academic event. The topic of my lecture is, ‘British Relations the British Government. Article 5 demanded a commitment from Jaipur with Jaipur State under the Company and the Crown : A Critical to submit disputes between Jaipur and other States to the arbitration Appraisal’. of the British Government. Article 6 provided for payment of high Situated in the north-east and east of Rajputana with an area of amount of annual tribute by the Jaipur Darbar. The tribute was to be 15,579 square miles and surrounded by States of Rajputana and Punjab, gradually enhanced and fixed at rupees eight lakhs. If the Darbar’s Jaipur was the fourth largest State of Rajputana. A number of Thakurs income exceeded forty lakhs of rupees, the Darbar would deposit 5/ or feudatory chiefs of autonomous and semi-autonomous estates such 16th of excess as an additional amount of tribute besides eight lakh as Samod, Uniara, Diggi, Shekhawati etc. around Jaipur either paid rupees in the treasury. By article 7, the Maharaja was bound to furnish regular tribute to the Maharaja of Jaipur or prepared soldiers for him troops, whenever required, to the British Government. Article 8 gave as a mark of their allegiance to him. assurance on behalf of the British that the Maharaja and his successors At the advent of Earl of Moira (later, Marquess of Hastings) in would remain absolute rulers and British civil and criminal jurisdiction 1813, the situation for East India Company was precarious on account would not be introduced into their territory. Article 9 stated that the of a great danger posed to the Company’s supremacy by the Maratha prosperity of the State would be favourably considered and attended Chiefs – the Peshwa, the Bhonsla, the Gaekwar, the Sindhia and the to, so long as the Maharaja remained faithful to the British Government.3 Holkar as well as the Pathans and the Pindaris. To secure the Similar treaties were concluded between the British Company Company’s position and assert British paramountcy on Native States and 18 other Rajputana States including Jodhpur, Udaipur, Bikaner, of India, Hastings held a strong opinion that the States might be made Kota, Bundi, with all the Articles in common except one pertaining to to perform atleast two great feudatory duties to the British authorities, the tribute to be levied on Jaipur State. The ardent desire of the British 19 ISSN 2321-1288 Rajasthan History Congress / 37 38 / Rajasthan History Congress ISSN 2321-1288 Resident, David Ochterlony to improve upon the state of political between him and the Regent Rani. Raper quit the city once in order to anarchy that had emerged out of conflict between the Jaipur Maharaja pressurize the Rani to submit to his decision. Captain Low, the next and the Thakur, led him to intervene in the State in violation of the Political Agent also stood in opposition to the Regent Rani and reserved treaty of 1818. In the special meeting of the Thakurs held in the the right of conducting British relations with her to himself especially presence of the Maharaja, the former were made to put their signatures in matters of ascertaining revenue collections of the State and securing on a paper laying down the fundamental rules regarding their relations the due share of the British Government. His activities, however, were with the Maharaja. restricted by Charles Metcalfe, the then Resident. Dueto the evil The British relations under the Company with Jaipur State were influence of Jhota Ram and others on the Regent Rani, the marked by perpetual British intervention which was explicitly observed administrative efficiency of Jaipur had been seriously affected. This in the matter of succession that came to the fore at the death of led Captain Low to call an assembly of the Thakurs at his residence in Maharaja Jagat Singh on 21 December 1818. Of the various claims to the presence of the minor Maharaja which decided to remove the Rani the succession, the British recognized the claim of a minor of nine from the regency.6 But Charles Metcalfe’s authoritative intervention years named, Mohan Singh which was rejected by the queens and the at this time set Captain Low’s efforts at naught. nobles and which drifted the State to a situation where a civil war The death of the young Maharaja Jai Singh III in February 1835 looked imminent. However, this was averted at the discovery of the was followed by accession of two years old, Ram Singh to the throne. news that the Bhattiani queen of Sawai Jagat Singh was pregnant. Maharaja Ram Singh’s rule extended from 1835-51. During his minority After she gave birth to a son on 25 April 1819, he was installed on Rani (Maji/Maharani) Chandrawat, his mother acted as his Regent. At gaddias a legitimate ruler with the name of Jai Singh III. His claim on British intervention, Jhota Ram was replaced by Bairisal as Mukhtiar throne was recognized at once by the British Government and the (P.M.) of Jaipur against the wishes of the Maharani. This measure 4 nobles; his mother was recognized as his Regent. “marked the beginning of the process of depriving the Regent Rani of Since there was corruption and misgovernment during the her ascendancy in the State”.7 In a sudden attack by Jaipur crowd on regency rule of the Rani from 1819-1838, a need was felt in 1821 to Major Alves (the AGG at Ajmer), Martin Blake and others, Major Alves appoint a British Political Agent at Jaipur. As such Captain J. Stewart was seriously injured and Martin Blake was got killed. The court on was appointed as the first Political Agent to stay at Jaipur, intervene in behalf of the British authorities awarded punishments on the culprits its internal administration for the purpose of guarding British interests ranging from death sentence to life imprisonment. Rawal Shiva Singh and ensuring the regular payment of the tribute. On Stewart’s succeeded his father Bairisal at his death in July 1838, as the next insistence, the Resident refused to appoint Rani’s men Jhota Ram and Minister. The new Minister was given full support and cooperation by Amar Singh to handle revenue matters. Instead, Ganesh Narain was Major Ross who became Political Agent in 1838. The authority of appointed for the assistance of Prime Minister Rawal Bairisal and Regent Maharani was undermined and in 1839 she was excluded from Captain Stewart to improve finances of the State. The agitated Rani administrative affairs. To carry the administration during the minority succeeded in getting Ganesh Narain’s appointment cancelled from the of the Maharaja, a Council of Regency of ‘Five Sirdars’ with British Governor-General. She then removed Rawal Bairisal from the office Political Agent as its President was constituted. Virtually the rule of and replaced him by Megh Singh of Diggi as Prime Minister. The Political Agent had now been established in Jaipur and the Regency British Agent, Stewart and the Resident, David Ochterlony got the Council played a second fiddle to him in all administrative matters. necessary orders from the Governor-General to reinstate Rawal The Political Agent had the right either to remove any member from Bairisal. They compelled Jhota Ram to leave Jaipur in April 1823 and the Council on the ground of his misconduct and incompetence or 5 warned him that he might be arrested if he was seen again in Jaipur. associate additional members in the Council. The period of two On 23 April 1824, Major Raper succeeded Captain Stewart as successive Political Agents, Major Thoresby (1839-44) and Captain the next Political Agent. Mutual hatred and hostility marked the relations Ludlow (1844-47) was the period of peaceful progression in the 20 ISSN 2321-1288 Rajasthan History Congress / 39 40 / Rajasthan History Congress ISSN 2321-1288 administration of Jaipur. Thoresby was instrumental in his efforts to Maharaja, however, was required to conduct the State Administration get annual tribute of the State reduced from rupees eight lakhs to during his minority with the consultation and assistance of a Council rupees four lakhs. It should be keenly observed that the British of six influential nobles as well as the British Political Agent at Jaipur. Government before this time had been rigid in realizing full amount of The Maharaja continued to rule as per arrangements made by the annual tribute even at times of financial stringency of the State. In British. It is surprising to observe that the Majaraja even after attaining 1851, Maharaja Ram Singh became a major of eighteen years. The the age of twenty-one years in September 1882 and assuming full Regency Council was now abolished and the Maharaja was invested ruling powers was bound to seek the advice of the Political Agent till with full ruling powers. The dominance of Political Agents, Rickards 1886 in all important administrative matters and obtain his concurrence and Burton, however, continued unabated in the administration of the before altering decisions of the Council taken previously during his State. minority. The British Government under the Crown expressed the hope During the revolt of 1857, Maharaja Ram Singh rendered the that the Maharaja would always rely on the goodwill of the Resident most loyal and meritorious services to the British authorities which and give due weightage to his advice in future too. Doubtless to say were rewarded by the grant of the pargana, Kot Kasim to the Maharaja. that the British Agent or the Resident had been playing a dominant role Also the right of adoption was conferred upon him. After the revolt, in the affairs of the State. The Government of India generally accepted there was a marked change in the British policy in India. The the recommendations of the Resident or the Agent to the Governor- government and revenues of India were assumed by the British Crown General (AGG), Rajputana unless they were too unfair or unreasonable. under the Government of India Act, 1858. As far as British policy The tributes levied on the Princely States served as a mark of towards Princely States was concerned, the policy of annexation of recognition of British paramountcy and also formed a significant source States was abandoned once for all. It was further laid down that the of revenue to the British exchequer. The Article 6 of the treaty of existing treaties between the British and the States would be 1818 between the British and the Jaipur State had laid down that in ‘scrupulously maintained’ and the Princely Rights, Dignity and Honour lieu of British protection, the State would be exempted from tribute in would be duly respected.8 In actual practice, however, the Paramount the first year whereas in 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th year rupees two lakhs, Power, in response to its growing requirements, intervened perpetually four lakhs, five lakhs, six lakhs, seven lakhs, eight lakhs respectively in matters concerning succession, fiscal, economic matters and others would be charged. Rupees eight lakhs would continue as amount of of the States in violation of existing treaties, engagements and sanads tribute annually until the State’s revenue exceeded rupees forty lakhs and Jaipur State was no exception. in which case, the State would deposit 5/16th of the excess as the The British intervention in succession matters of Jaipur State additional amount of tribute.9 The term was quite unfair as the high continued to be a marked feature of British relations with the State amount of tribute had been fixed on the wrong estimate of the State’s under the Crown as was the case hitherto under the Company. Maharaja income and the tribute had to be raised by the State not without Ram Singh at his death on 18 September 1880 did not leave behind a difficulty. The mismanagement of the State led to its impoverishment natural or an adopted son to succeed him. Dr. Hendley, the incharge and hence the accumulation of arrears. It was impossible for the State of Eastern Rajputana State Agency, who was present at the death-bed to come out of the situation of debt. The Maharani, the Regent Rani of the Maharaja very tactfully procured the Maharaja’s statement in of minor Jai Singh III, in these circumstances proposed to seize money favour of nomination of nineteen year old, Kaim Singh as his successor from all those subjects who possessed it irrespective of the fact they in presence of notable nobles and officials. It is noteworthy to point owned the debt to the State or not. The British Political Agent, Captain out here that the British Government charged nazranaor the succession Low, however, refused to sanction her proposal. In 1828, the request fee before they recognized the succession of a Princely Chief. The from the royal Darbar of Jaipur to reduce the exorbitant amount of assumption of gaddi by Kaim Singh in name of Maharaja Madho Singh tribute from eight lakhs to four lakhs of rupees was rejected by the in September 1880 was recognized by the British Government. The Political Agent. It was Major Thoresby, the Political Agent at Jaipur 21 ISSN 2321-1288 Rajasthan History Congress / 41 42 / Rajasthan History Congress ISSN 2321-1288 and the President of Council of Regency who realized “the colossal and royalty at rate of 20 percent on the price per maund if the salt financial burden under which Jaipur was groaning” and the fact that sold exceeded 8,25,000 British maunds.11 The establishment of Sambhar the State had been deprived of a large part of annual income on account Lake Court and abolition of the Inland Customs Line for removal of of taking over of the Sambhar Lake by the British in 1835. On his impediments to internal trade followed soon. recommendations, the Government of India in 1842 reduced the amount By yet another Salt Agreement concluded on 31 January, 1879, of tribute from rupees eight lakhs to rupees four lakhs with the Maharaja of Jaipur agreed to suppress and absolutely prohibit and retrospective effect from 1 November 1840 and remitted previous prevent the manufacture of salt within any part of Jaipur State whether arrears of the tribute amounting to rupees forty-six lakhs of rupees. overtly or in form of salt petre or other saline products, except at But the obnoxious clause in Article 6 of the treaty of 1818 having Sambhar Lake and Kuchor-Rewasa Surr and destroy all other existing provision of enhancement of tribute of rupees eight lakhs, if the State salt works. th revenues exceeded forty lakh rupees, by 5/16 of excess amount, The two aforementioned salt agreements of 1869 and 1879 continued to exist until supplementary treaty was concluded between respectively were detrimental to the interest of the State. The salt the British Government and the State during the Viceroyalty of Lord business of the State was seriously affected and the process of Mayo on 31 August 1871, and the said clause was removed. Maharaja improverishment of the State set in following the objective of British Ram Singh on his behalf promised to spend a considerable sum annually monopoly of salt. To fulfil their objective, the British either successfully upon works of irrigation and improvement with a view to enhance took control of principal salt works or suppressed manufacture of prosperity of his State.10 salt. The imperial government did pay compensation to the Jaipur With an aim to equalize salt duties throughout India and acquire State but the compensation paid was too inadequate. Certainly, the monopoly of salt, the British Government under the Crown in post- salt policy of British Government had augmented its fiscal resources 1858 period considered it necessary to establish complete control over and proved detrimental to the economic interests of the Jaipur State. principal salt sources in Rajputana State, suppress manufacture of In defence of British salt policy, it may be argued that as a result of salt elsewhere for the purpose of elimination of competition, and abolish uniform salt policy, salt duty in 1882 could be equalized at rupees two transit duties on salt in Princely States. To this effect, the British per maund throughout the country and salt began to be supplied at Government signed a treaty with Jaipur Darbar on 7 August, 1869 by cheap rates to all the people. which the Darbar agreed to lease to the British Government its right To introduce uniform coinage in India in post-1858 period, the of manufacturing and selling salt within limits of territory bordering Government of Crown began negotiations with the rulers of the Native on the Sambhar Lake. The lease would continue until such time as the States for abolition of mints. Captain Eden, the Political Agent at Jaipur British Government desired to relinquish it with an advance notice of intimated to the Supreme Government that Maharaja Ram Singh (1835- two years. The British Government had the right to enter, search, 88) had expressed a desire to discontinue his current coin bearing the arrest or punish the persons acting in violation of rules and regulations name of Bahadur Shah and issue a new currency bearing some laid down by British Government regarding manufacture, sale, removal reference to Her Majesty, the Queen. His proposal was accepted and or smuggling of salt etc. The British Government reserved the right to his ‘graceful offer’ was appreciated by the Government.12 fix the price to be offered for sale of salt . In lieu, the Jaipur A decade later in 1868, the queston of short weight counterfeit Government would receive salt for its consumption (not exceeding copper coins was reported from Khetri, a dependency of Jaipur State. 172000 maunds) at rate of 9 annas per maund. Of the stocks held It was learnt that 13 mints in Chirawa and 19 mints in Surajgarh, both jointly by Governments of Jaipur and Jodhpur, Jaipur would transfer in Khetri, were in active service where copper pice was manufactured its half share to the British Government for which British Government by Sahukars. These Sahukars had their agents at Agra, Mathura, Ajmer, would pay to Jaipur two half-yearly instalments, an annual rent of Gwalior etc. who were involved in counterfeiting of the coins. After rupees 1,25,000 for share of Jaipur in the salt sold within its limits investigation it was found by Colonel Keatinge, the then Political Agent 22 ISSN 2321-1288 Rajasthan History Congress / 43 44 / Rajasthan History Congress ISSN 2321-1288 at Jaipur, that counterfeit pice in Khetri was carried on without the Jaipur did not compete with opium of British India, the export of illicit knowledge of the Raja. It was pointed out that Jaipur ruler had no opium from Jaipur into British territories could be effectively checked sovereign rights in Khetri, the Raja exercising complete civil and and a considerable amount of income could be drawn by the British criminal jurisdiction within his own territory. Therepon instructions Government from revenue of opium. were sent by the Government of India to Agent to Governor-General, Goaded by the desire to have full and exclusive control over Rajputana that mints must be established and worked only at capitals the means of transport and communications throughout India, the of the rulers having right to exercise soverign power and that mints in British Government under the Crown had to come to an understanding territories of subordinate and feudatory chiefs and nobles should with the Princes of Native States for necessary arrangements for henceforth be abolished. After the said orders of the Supreme constructon of railways, roads, postal and telegraph communications. Government, the Khetri mints were closed down. The railways had a great commercial value for the British as they The Native Coinage Act IX of 1876 empowered the Governor were useful in collection and export of raw materials for British General-in-Council to declare coins of Native States of same fineness industries as well as exploring untapped markets for English and weight, a legal tender in British India13 and authorized Native States manufacturing goods. Apart from these, railways were useful in to send their metal to the Mints of Government of India for coinage. strengthening defences of the British Empire and catering to the moral The states of Alwar and Bikaner availed themselves of this opportunity and material progress of the nation.16 Since the territories of the British in 1877 and 1893 respectively. Jaipur, however, continued to have its India were interconnected with the Princely States, the cooperation ownJhar Shahi coins. Besides gold Mohurs, the Maharaja issued a of the latter was essential for successful completion of railway lines. large number of silver and copper coins. The rate of exchange between As a matter of rule, all railway projects in the Natives States were to Jaipur and British currency varied from time to time. In 1899, Jaipur be reported to the Government of India. The native Princes were rupee was worth about 12 annas of British rupee, but towards end of required to cooperate with imperial government by providing lands 1904, 102 Jhar Shahi rupees exchanged for 100 British rupees.14 free of cost in their respective States for the constructon of railway The opium policy of the British Government under the Crown lines and by ceding full jurisdiction on these lands to the Supreme aimed at preventing Native States from adopting measures which might Government. harm the interests of the Paramount Power.15 For making the opium In 1865 direct communication with North-Western Provinces arrangements with the States of Rajputana and Central India, the pass and Punjab was sought for undertaking a railway project. Since the system had been introduced since 1830. Though the cultivation of line was to pass through many Rajputana States including Jaipur, the poppy or manufacture of opium within these States was not interfered Jaipur Darbar was asked (a) to cede land measuring 200 feet in breadth with, but import of opium, into or transport through British territories for the purpose free of cost, (b) to surrender to the British Government was prohibited, except under passes granted by the British officers full jurisdiction short of sovereignty rights in such land, (c) to surrender on payment of heavy duty. right of levying all transit and other duties on goods passing through As far as opium arrangements with Jaipur are concerned, a railway land. Maharaja Ram Singh expressed some early doubts Memorandum No. 5 had been appended with the Salt Treaty of 1879 regarding the cession of rights for the proposed railway project but which in a response to an enquiry from Maharaja clearly stated that he promised to render all possible assistance as soon as the operations the import of intoxicating drugs including bhang, ganja, opium etc. were commenced in his territory.17 On 13 July, 1867, he submitted a into British India had been strictly forbidden. The Jaipur Darbar was memorandum of atleast twenty conditions to the Agent to Governor- requested to assist the British Government in prohibiting the export of General for Rajputana. While a majority of the conditions were such articles from the State by issue of notifications and by arrest concurred including final approval of the Jaipur Darbar of the line and punishment of the offenders. The objective of the opium policy fixed by survey and avoidance of private property and city of Jaipur, of the Paramount Power in Jaipur was fulfilled because opium of the condtion such as careful avoidance of religious edifices during 23 ISSN 2321-1288 Rajasthan History Congress / 45 46 / Rajasthan History Congress ISSN 2321-1288 the course of construction of line was considered to be absurd by the States.”20 In justification of a uniform British railway policy, it may be Paramount Power as the line could not be diverted for one and every argued that the extension of railways intended to bring benefits to the temple that fell its way.18 subjects of both British India as well as Princely States. Also railways It goes to the credit of Maharaja Ram Singh that he was the proved useful for military defence and economic development of the only chief in the whole of Rajputana to have prepared and presented country. The assumption of full and exclusive jurisdiction of railway to the British Government, the memorandum with the sole objective land by the British Government ensured the safety and justice to the of safeguarding the interests of the State. The Supreme Government travellers. The British railway policy, however, was meant to serve on its part accepted most of his conditions and declined those which economic interests of the imperial government. The fat salaries and were found to be incompatible with general railway policy of the British the privileges of the European employees on railway put a constant Government. On 5 February, 1868, the Maharaja agreed to withdraw strain on Indian finances and contributed to India’s drain of wealth to his conditions. Thereupon, he ceded the required land free of cost Great Britain. Moreover, the instances of racial discrimination towards and defrayed all necessary compensation for loss caused to the owners native passengers travelling by trains were no less pronounced as had of land, houses etc. Further he made over full jurisdiction in the land been pointed out in Rajputana Gazette time and again.21 ceded short of soverign rights, absolutely to the British Government Apart from railways, a network of roads was laid down and surrendered all transit and other goods passing through at prevailing connecting Jaipur with other cities of the State and cities of British rates or at tarrif to be fixed later.19 India and neighbouring States. All roads had been placed under the For the constructon of proposed Rajputana State Railway in charge of Public Works Department and were maintained by the State. 1869 from Sambhar to Delhi and Agra, which essentially had to pass All roads except one from Agra to Ajmer were constructed entirely at through Jaipur, the Maharaja granted to the British Government the cost of the State. Of the important roads constructed, mention may portions of land forming Rajputana State Railway alongwith full be made of 127 miles long Agra to Ajmer road, road to Sambhar via jurisdiction on them to the British Government. In 1904, the land was Bajru, road from Agra district to Bandikui, Jaipur-Tonk road, Kurali- acquired from the Jaipur Darbar for the Rewari-Phulera Chord Railway Mandawar road etc. Also a large number of old roads were repaired. and the Darbar was asked to cede jurisdiction over the section of the In December 1882, Jaipur Darbar abolished all transit duties on feeder said railway which traversed the Jaipur State. The Form with regard roads leading to Rajputana-Malwa railway within Jaipur territory with to cession of jurisdiction short of soverign rights was also revised at the exception of duty on opium. These efforts of the Darbar paved this time. The Agreement of 1906 between Jaipur Darbar and the the way for development of trade and commerce throughout the Bombay, Baroda and Central Indian Railway Company for working of country without any hindrance. Jaipur State Railway between Sanganer and Sawai Madhopur was to For the purpose of ensuring efficient working of Imperial postal be guided by Indian Railway Act of 1890 under which all necessary system, cooperation was sought by the British Government from the appliances for working of Jaipur Railway Line were to be provided by Princes of the Native States. In July 1866, the Government of India the Darbar. Also the alterations and additions which might be required issued Resolution asserting the absolute responsibility of the States in future would be carried out at the cost of the Darbar. The Darbar for mail robberies occurring within their territories and Jaipur was no further agreed to maintain a force of police for protection of the said exception. In 1897, a circular22 was issued by Deputy Post Master line and of property in the trains and at each station thereof. General, Rajputana to all postal officials in Rajputana circles to escort The British Government under the Crown certainly had no legal the mail in territories of Rajputana States. In response to this circular, right to acquire land free of cost from any Native State and assume the Jaipur State Council made arrangements for providing adequate full police, civil and criminal jurisdiction on railway lines traversing escort to secure safe passage of parcel mails on the mail lines. Jaipur the territory of a State. As such the assumption of such jurisdiction Darbar had been cooperating with British authorities in constructing “manifestly marked an inroad on the judicial independence of Indian or giving on rent the buildings for British post and telegraph offices 24 ISSN 2321-1288 Rajasthan History Congress / 47 48 / Rajasthan History Congress ISSN 2321-1288 and permitting placing of letter boxes in various towns of the State. 1932, pp. 74-77. In 1890s, with permission of Jaipur Darbar, the combined Post and 12. Govt. of India to AGG, No. 170, dated 26 Feb. 1858 cited in C.L. Tupper Telegraph Offices began to be opened in towns of Jaipur. By 1906, (Comp.), Indian Political Practice, Vol. I, Calcutta, 1895, p. 126. 13. C.L. Tupper, op.cit., para 108, pp. 128-29. there were 32 Imperial Post Offices and no less than 112 Raj or State 14. Imperial Gazetteer of India, Vol. XIII, Oxford, 1908, p. 395. Post Offices in Jaipur State. The Darbar after having introduced various 15. A.C. Arora, British Policy towards the Punjab States, 1858-1905, Jalandhar, reforms in its own Postal Department in 1904 thereby raising the 1982, p. 184. standard of efficiency of its postal system, made repeated requests 16. Imperial Gazetteer of India, Vol. III, London,1909, p. 66. for a convention between Imperial and Raj Postal Departments for 17. Political Agent, Jaipur to AGG, No. 139-71G, dated 9 Oct., 1865, Foreign 23 Department, General A, Jan. 1866, No. 30. exchange of correspondence. At last in July 1908, the Imperial 18. Kharita from AGG to the Maharaja of Jaipur, dated 11 Sept. 1867, Foreign Government accepted the principle that a postal convention might be Department, General A, Oct. 1867, No. 21 and its Encl. negotiated with the State. The significance of the postal convention 19. Foreign Department, General A, March 1868, Nos. 24-27. with Jaipur State enhances in view of the fact that such conventions 20. K.M. Panikkar, Indian States and the Government of India, London,1932, pp. had been concluded with six other States – Gwalior (1885), Patiala 75-76. (1884), Nabha (1885), Jind (1886), Faridkot (1886) and Chamba 21. The Rajputana Gazette of 1 Dec. 1895, Selections from the Vernacular (1886). Besides many telegraph offices and telephone systems were Newspapers, p. 57, and of 8 Feb. 1896, p.37. extended in Jaipur with a twin aim to promote the imperial interests 22. Circular No. 23/23, dated 1 July 1897. and serve the people. 23. Senior Member of Jaipur State Council to Resident, Jaipur, No. 99, dated 17/19 May 1906, Jaipur Agency Records, Part I, Post and Telegraph, File No. 74/1906, In fine, it may be said that British relations with Jaipur State pp. 168-69. under the Company and the Crown were marked by perpetual British intervention in the State, so that the British paramountcy could be well asserted and imperial interests could be well served. On most of the occasions the paramountcy was asserted in violation of existing treaties, engagements and sanads with Jaipur State and at the cost of sacrifice of native interests. References: 1. The Private Journal of Marquess of Hastings, Vol. I, London, 1858, pp. 54-55. 2. John William Kaye, The Life and Correspondence of Charles Lord Metcalfe, Vol. I, London, 1858, p. 320. 3. C.U. Aitchison (Comp.), A Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Sanads, Vol. III, Calcutta, 1939, pp. 66-67. 4. James Tod, Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, edited by W. Crooke, Vol. III, London 1920, Reprint Delhi, 1994, pp. 1375-78. 5. Foreign Department, Political Consultations, 21 March 1823, Nos. 32-37. 6. Foreign Department, Political Consultations, 24 Nov. 1826, No. 11. 7. Vijay Kumar Vashishtha, Rajputana Agency, 1832-1858, Jaipur, 1978, p. 154. 8. Queen’s Proclamation, A.C. Banerjee (ed.). Indian Constitutional Documents, Vol. II, Calcutta, 1961, pp. 27-28. 9. C.U. Aitchison, op.cit., Vol. III, Calcutta, 1932, p.68. 10. Kharita from Maharaja Ram Singh of Jaipur to Viceroy and Governor-General of India, dated 29 Aug. 1871, Foreign Department, Political A, Oct. 1871, No. 121. 11. See Artices 1-13 of the Treaty of 1869, C.U. Aitchison, op.cit., Vol. III, Calcutta, 25 50 / Rajasthan History Congress ISSN 2321-1288 Hkkxksa esa foHkDr dj viuh ckr dks vki rd igq°pkus dk iz;kl fd;k gSA izFke Hkkx tgk° Lo- izks- vkj-ih- O;kl ds thou pfj= ,oa O;fDrRo ij dsfUnzr gS ogha f}rh; Hkkx esa muds d`frRo] bfrgkl txr dks jgs muds vonku rFkk muds 'kks/k vuqla/kku izksQslj vkj-ih- O;kl Le`fr O;k[;ku deZ ,oa ys[ku ;k=k dh 'kks/kijd ehekalk dh x;h gSA r`rh; Hkkx esa muds l`tu] muds bfrgkl ys[ku dh leh{kk rFkk muds bfrgkl n'kZu ds oSf'k"V~;ksa dh foospuk bfrgkldkj izks- vkj-ih- O;kl ,oa ,oa fo'ys"k.k djus dk ,d oLrqijd iz;kl fd;k x;k gS ftlls ;g rF; eq[kfjr mudk bfrgkl&ys[ku gksdj lkeus vkrk gS fd izks- vkj-ih- O;kl] 'kks/kijd ekSfyd lksp vkSj fopkj j[kus izks- f'ko dqekj Hkuksr okys ,d iwokZxzg eqDr xEHkhj fo'ys"kd] fu"i{k rF; xos"kd] fn'kk izorZd vkSj vizfre bfrgkldkj Fks rFkk jktLFkku ds bfrgkl ,oa laLd`fr fo"k;d ys[ku esa mudk bfrgkl foHkkx] eksguyky lq[kkfM+;k fo'ofo|ky;] mn;iqj ds rRoko/kku loZFkk ekSfyd ,oa vfoLej.kh; ;ksxnku jgkA esa vk;ksT; jktLFkku fgLV™h dkaxzsl ds 30osa vf/kos'ku esa ns'k Hkj ls i/kkjs bfrgkldkjksa] I 'kks/kosRrkvksa rFkk 'kks/kkfFkZ;ksa_ eapklhu lEekuuh; yC/k izfr"Btu_ jktLFkku fgLV™h 12 vxLr] lu~ 1922 dks tks/kiqj uxj ds ,d lqlaLdkfjr] lEHkzkUr fdUrq dkaxzsl ds leLr vkWfQl&fc;jlZ ,oa ,DthD;wfVo ds lEekfur lnL;x.k rFkk lnu ikjEifjd iq"dj.kk czk„.k ifjokj esa Lo- vkbnkl ,oa Jherh bUnj dkSj O;kl ds esa leqifLFkr fo}ku lkfFk;ksa ,oa ftKklq lq/kh JksrkvksaA eSa] loZizFke jktLFkku fgLV™h rstLoh vkSj Louke/kU; iq= ds :i esa tUes Lo- jke izlkn th dh izkjfEHkd dkaxzsl vkWfQl fc;jlZ ,oa ,DthD;wfVo rFkk fo'ks"kr% blds rstLoh ,oa ≈tkZoku f'k{kk&nh{kk lqtkux<+] jrux<+ esa rFkk mPp f'k{kk tks/kiqj uxj esa lEiUu gqbZ FkhA lSÿsVjh izksQslj ,esfjV~l izks- ,l-ih- O;kl dks vius ‚n; ds xgu ry ls lk/kwokn tloUr dkWyst] tks/kiqj ls viuh mPp f'k{kk izkfIr dh ;k=k 'kq:vkr dj os 'kSf{kd nsuk pkgwaxk] mudk dksfV'k% vfHkuUnu djuk pkgwaxk ftUgksaus ns'k ds pksVh ds bfrgklK {ks= esa ,d ds mijkUr ,d miyfC/k;ka vftZr djrs pys x, vkSj bfrgkl fo"k; esa rFkk jktLFkku ds bfrgkl ,oa laLd`fr ds izk.k iq#"k ,oa jktLFkku fgLV™h dkaxzsl ds vf/kLukrd dj mUgksaus dkuwu esa ,y-,y-ch- dh mikf/k vftZr dhA v/;;u iw.kZ vxz.kh lw=/kkjksa esa ls ,d jgs Lo- izks- vkj-ih- O;kl dh Le`fr dks v{kq..k cuk, j[kus djus ds mijkUr vkius jktiwr gkbZ Ldwy] pkSikluh esa ,d f'k{kd ds :i esa vius ds fy, mudh iquhr Le`fr esa jktLFkku fgLV™h dkaxzsl vf/kos'kuksa esa izks- vkj-ih- O;kl dSfj;j dh 'kq:vkr dhA rnuUrj] ,d dkWyst f'k{kd ds :i esa vkius ÿe'k% ,l- Le`fr O;k[;ku&ekyk dh 'kq:vkr dhA eSa] jktLFkku fgLV™h dkaxzsl dh leLr ,e-ds- dkWyst] tks/kiqj_ jktdh; egkfo|ky; MhMokuk ,oa ljnkj'kgj esa v/;kiu ,DthD;wfVo rFkk izks- ,l-ih- O;kl dk vR;Ur vkHkkjh gw° fd vkius eq>s bl vR;Ur fd;k vkSj lu~ 1962 esa tks/kiqj esa fo'ofo|ky; dh laLFkkiuk ds lkFk gh fo'ofo|ky; izfrf"Br ,oa xfjeke; O;k[;ku&ekyk ds izFke ,oa laLFkkiu O;k[;ku ds fy, ds bfrgkl foHkkx esa ,d f'k{kd ds :i esa izfo"V gq, vkSj ogha dk;Zjr jgrs gq, vkeaf=r fd;k vkSj vki egkuqHkkoksa ls #c: gksus dk lqvolj iznku fd;kA esjk n`<+ ,lksf'k,V izksQslj ,oa foHkkxk/;{k (bfrgkl) ds :i esa 31 vxLr] lu~ 1982 dks fo'okl gS fd bl O;k[;ku&ekyk ds varxZr gksus okys fo}rkiw.kZ O;k[;kuksa ls Lo- lsokfuo`Ÿk gq,A izks- O;kl ds pfj=] O;fDrRo] d`frRo ds ewY;kadu o bfrgkl txr dks muds vius 32 o"kks± ds Lukrd ,oa LukrdksŸkj Lrj ds v/;kiu vuqHko rFkk vizfre ;ksxnku ij Vhdk&fVIi.kh ,oa ehekalk ds lekukarj jktLFkku ds bfrgkl ,oa yxHkx nks n'kd ls vf/kd le;kof/k ds 'kks/k dk;kZuqHko ls ;qDr izks- vkj-ih- O;kl laLd`fr fo"k;d 'kks/k ,oa vuqla/kku ds u;s vk;ke iz'kLr gksaxs rFkk ,sfrgkfld 'kks/k vius lexz dSfj;j ds nkSjku ,d /khj&xEHkhj rFkk ifjJeh bfrgkl f'k{kd ds txr dks ,d uohu fn'kk feysxhA pwafd vkt dk ;g O;k[;ku bl ‹k`a[kyk dk izFke lekukUrj ,d mRd`"V 'kks/kosŸkk Hkh jgsA fo'ofo|ky; ds bfrgkl foHkkx dks ,d vkSj laLFkkiu O;k[;ku gS blfy, ;g fopkj cuk fd bls Lo- izks- vkj-ih- O;kl vkSj l'kDr ,oa xfjeke; Lo:i iznku djus esa vkius vR;Ur egŸoiw.kZ rFkk ldkjkRed muds bfrgkl ys[ku ij gh dsfUnzr fd;k tk, rkfd bldh lehphurk vkSj izklafxdrk Hkwfedk fuHkkbZ vkSj yxHkx ik°p o"kksZa rd foHkkxk/;{k in ij jgrs gq, fo'ofo|ky; bl O;k[;ku&ekyk ds 'kqHkkjEHk ls LFkkfir gks lds vkSj ;g O;k[;ku bl ‹k`a[kyk ds bfrgkl foHkkx dks ;Fkksfpr ≈°pkbZ rd igq°pk;kA ns'k ds [;kruke bfrgkldkjksa ;Fkk Hkkoh O;k[;kuksa dks ,d fn'kk iznku dj ldsA vLrq] eSaus vius O;k[;ku dks rhu izks- ch-ih- lDlsuk] izks- n'kjFk 'kekZ] MkW- ds-,l- yky ds lkfUu/; esa v/;kiu vkSj 26 ISSN 2321-1288 Rajasthan History Congress / 51 52 / Rajasthan History Congress ISSN 2321-1288 vuqla/kku deZjr jgs izks- vkj-ih- O;kl us u dsoy muds lkFk viuh fo}rk vkSj lsehuklZ rFkk dkWU›sUl vkfn esa Hkkx ysdj ogk° vius 'kks/k&i= izLrqr dj pqds10 rFkk vdknfed mRd`"Vrk dks gh lk>k fd;k oju~ ,d l?ku vkSj fpjUru 'kks/k ;k=k ds ntZuksa lsehuklZ] laxksf"B;ksa] dkWU›sUl rFkk vdknfed dk;Zÿeksa ds vk;kstd jg pqds ekxZ ij Hkh bl dnj vxzlj gq, fd mUgksaus fQj dHkh ihNs eqM+ dj ugha ns[kkA izks- O;kl bf.M;u fgLV™h dkaxzsl_ vesfjdu fgLV™h dkaxzsl_ bf.M;u fgLVksfjdy fo'ofo|ky; esa v/;kiu ds nkSjku phQ izksDVj] Nk=la?k ijke'kZnkrk] phQ okMZu] fjdkMZ deh'ku_ lsUVj QkWj jktLFkku LVMht] jktLFkku fo'ofo|ky;] t;iqj_ ,u-lh-lh- vkWQhlj] LiksV~lZ bapktZ tSls O;Lrrk;qDr egŸoiw.kZ nkf;Roksa dk fuoZgu egkjktk ekuflag iqLrd izdk'k] tks/kiqj_ izrki 'kks/k izfr"Bku] mn;iqj_ esgjkux<+ iw.kZ dŸkZO;fu"Brk ls djus ds lekukarj bfrgkl fo"k; ds v/;;u] v/;kiu ,oa E;wft;e ,.M V™LV tks/kiqj_ baLVhV~;wV vkWQ fgLVksfjdy LVMht] dydŸkk_ 'kks/k vuqla/kku deZ ls Hkh vki lnSo iw.kZ euks;ksx ls xEHkhjrkiwoZd tqM+s jgsA izks- O;kl] laLFkku] pkSikluh] tks/kiqj_ xtsfV;j fMikVZesaV] xouZesaV vkWQ jktLFkku] t;iqj_ tks/kiqj fo'ofo|ky; ds bfrgkl foHkkx ds izFke ih&,p-Mh- Fks vkSj mUgksaus izks- ch- jktLFkku fgUnh xzaFk vdkneh] t;iqj vkfn laLFkkvksa vkSj muds }kjk le;≤ ij ih-lDlsuk ds ekxZn'kZu esa ^jksy vkWQ uksfcfyVh bu ekjokM+ (1800&1873 ,- lek;ksftr vdknfed ,oa 'kks/k lEcU/kh dk;Zÿeksa@izdk'ku ;kstukvksa ls vusd Mh-)* fo"k; ij viuk ;g 'kks/k dk;Z lEiUu fd;k Fkk tks vius vki esa loZFkk vuwBk nkf;Roksa lfgr layXu vkSj lEcº jgsA vkSj ,d ekud 'kks/k&dk;Z FkkA lu~ 1969 bZ- esa izdkf'kr gq, bl 'kks/k&xzaFk ds bfrgkl fo"k;d vius mRd`"V vuqla/kku@'kks/k dk;ksZa rFkk ys[ku ,oa fofo/k izdk'kukFkZ fo'ofo|ky; ds }kjk izdk'ku vuqnku Hkh iznku fd;k x;k FkkA 'kks/k dk;Z vonku ds pyrs izks- vkj-ih- O;kl dks thoui;ZUr yxHkx 12 lEeku@iqjLdkj vkfn rFkk 'kks/k dk;Z ekxZn'kZu ds izfr jgs buds #>ku vkSj leiZ.k Hkko dk vuqeku ek= bl izkIr gq,11 tks buds vizfre ;ksxnku ,oa vonku ds lk{kkr izek.k FksA lsokfuo`fr ds rF; ls yxk;k tk ldrk gS fd buds ekxZn'kZu esa yxHkx vk/kk ntZu mRd`"V mijkUr Hkh izks- O;kl dh lrr~ lfÿ;rk esa dksbZ deh ugha vkbZ rFkk mUgksaus vkbZ-lh- ih&,p-Mh- 'kks/k dk;Z lEiUu gq, FksA1 ,sfrgkfld 'kks/k ,oa vuqla/kku deZ ds ^VkWpZ ,p-vkj-] ubZ fnYyh rFkk ;w-th-lh- ds egŸoiw.kZ fjlpZ izkstsDV~l ij dk;Z fd;k] fc;jj* jgs izks- O;kl tgk° lu~ 1967 esa laLFkkfir jktLFkku fgLV™h dkaxzsl ds laLFkkid dfri; 'kks/kiw.kZ d`fr;ksa dk iz.k;u fd;k vkSj ys[ku o 'kks/k dk;Z ds vykok lnL; jgs ogha ckfydk f'k{kk ,oa lkekftd ljksdkj ds l'kDr iSjksdkj ds :i esa lkekftd ljksdkj ds dk;ksZa esa Hkh viuk Hkjiwj ;ksxnku nsrs jgs rFkk foÿe fo'ofo|ky;] vki Jh t;ukjk;.k O;kl f'k{k.k laLFkku] tks/kiqj rFkk efgyk ih-th- egkfo|ky;] mTtSu esa QSyks izksQslj ds :i esa tqM+s jgsA fo'ks"kr% jktLFkku ds bfrgkl ,oa laLd`fr tks/kiqj ds laLFkkid lnL; jgs rFkk bu Hkwfedkvksa dk fuoZgu djrs gq, o"kksZa iwoZ ij dsfUnzr mudh ;g 'kks/k deZ ,oa bfrgkl ys[ku ;k=k fcuk Fkds fujUrj vkSj vkius tks ikS/k yxkbZ Fkh vkSj mUgsa fujUrj lhapk Fkk] vkt os oVo`{k dk :i /kkj.k dj fpjUru rc rd pyrh jgh tc rd fd vius thou ds 91 clUr ns[kus ds mijkUr pqds gSaA 25 tqykbZ] 2013 dks bl egku bfrgkldkj dh vkRek ije rŸo esa foyhu ugha gks yxHkx nl 'kks/kiw.kZ d`fr;ksa@xzaFkksa ds iz.k;udrkZ2_ pkj ikB~;iqLrdksa ds ys[kd3_ xbZ vkSj dky ds xky ij vius vfoLej.kh; ;ksxnku dh ,d vfeV Nki NksM+ xbZA i=&if=dkvksa o tuZYl vkfn esa izdkf'kr 'krkf/kd 'kks/k&i=ksa@'kks/k& ys[kksa ds 'kks/ II kdrkZ&ys[kd4_ jktLFkku fgLV™h dkaxzsl dh N% izkslhfMaXl ,oa dfri; vU; izkslhfMaXl jktLFkku ds bfrgkl ,oa laLd`fr fo"k;d muds ekSfyd 'kks/k ,oa vuqla/kku ds lEiknudrkZ_ xtsfV;lZ] fMD'kujh vkWQ us'kuy ck;ksxzkQh fuekZ.k esa ;ksxnku deZ] bfrgkl ys[ku ds {ks= esa muds d`frRo] ;ksxnku rFkk vonku dh leh{kk] drkZ5_ vusd iqLrdksa ds fjO;wt ys[kd rFkk leh{kd6_ izkDdFku ys[kd_ pSIVlZ foospuk ,oa fo'ys"k.k vius vki esa ,d lexz rFkk lkaxksikax fo"k; gS tks vius vki jkbVj7_ vusd v/;{kh;@cht Hkk"k.k@foLrkj O;k[;kunkrk8 jg pqds izks- vkj-ih- esa ftruk fo'kn~ o o`gr gS mruk gh xgu rFkk xos"k.kk iz/kku ,oa 'kks/kijd HkhA bl O;kl us bf.M;u dkSafly vkWQ fgLVksfjdy fjlpZ] ubZ fnYyh rFkk fo'ofo|ky; n`f"V ls foospuk dh fn'kk esa vxzlj gksrs gh gesa muds izFke vkSj loZFkk fojy ,oa vuqnku vk;ksx] ubZ fnYyh }kjk vf/kLohd`r dfri; izfrf"Br fjlpZ izkstsDV~l ij Hkh ekSfyd 'kks/k dk;Z ^jksy vkWQ uksfcfyVh bu ekjokM+ (1800&1873 bZ-)*12 dks dk;Z fd;k FkkA9 jktLFkku fgLV™h dkaxzsl (chdkusj lS'ku] lu~ 1984) rFkk mlds mº`r djuk gksxkA bl 'kks/k dk;Z dh leh{kk ,oa foospuk ge blh O;k[;ku ds r`rh; 25osa flYoj tqcyh ls'ku (tks/kiqj ls'ku] lu~ 2009) ds v/;{kh; mn~cks/ku ns pqds Hkkx esa djsaxs fdUrq ;gk° ij ;g mYys[k lehphu gksxk fd 1969 bZ- esa izdkf'kr ;g izks- O;kl us ntZu Hkj izfrf"Br O;k[;ku ekykvksa ds varxZr ns'kHkj esa LFkku&LFkku ij 'kks/k&xzaFk laLFkkRed v/;;u dh n`f"V ls jktLFkku ds bfrgkl fo"k;d vuqla/kku ds vius fo}rkiw.kZ Hkk"k.k fn,A ipkl ls vf/kd jk"V™™h; ,oa varjkZ"V™h; laxksf"B;ksa] {ks= esa ,d uokpkj Fkk] ftldk 'kks/k txr esa loZ= tksjnkj Lokxr fd;k x;k vkSj 27 ISSN 2321-1288 Rajasthan History Congress / 53 54 / Rajasthan History Congress ISSN 2321-1288 'kh?kz gh esgjkux<+ E;wft;e V™LV] egkjktk ekuflag iqLrd izdk'k 'kks/k dsUnz] tks/kiqj fla?koh14] jktLFkku ds yksd uk;d t;ukjk;.k O;kl15] egkjk.kk izrki16] dks bls iqueqZfnzr djuk iM+k FkkA mYys[kuh; gS fd bl d`fr ds izdk'ku ds mijkUr gh eFkqjknkl ekFkqj] }kjdknkl iqjksfgr17 vkfnA ;g dguk u rks dksbZ vfr'k;ksfDr vxys o"kZ lu~ 1970 esa izks- O;kl dk p;u tks/kiqj fo'ofo|ky; esa jhMj ds in ij gksxh vkSj u gh vfrjatuk fd bu bfrgkl iq#"kksa ds O;fDrRo] pfj= rFkk d`frRo dk gqvk FkkA izks- O;kl }kjk iz.khr nwljs ekSfyd 'kks/k xzaFk ds :i esa ^egkjk.kk jktflag ewY;kadu rFkk fo'ys"k.k djrs le; izks- O;kl us ,d fu"i{k] iwokZxzg jfgr lkis{k vkWQ esokM+* dks mº`r fd;k tk ldrk gS] tks lu~ 1984 esa izdkf'kr gksdj 'kks/k bfrgkldkj dh Hkwfedk dk fuoZgu fd;kA mUgksaus vius f'k"; ekaxhyky e;ad dk txr ds le{k vk;kA jktLFkku fo'ofo|ky;] t;iqj }kjk vius LukrdksŸkj flyscl vlkef;d fu/ku gks tkus ij muds }kjk iz.khr fdUrq v/kwjs jg x;s xzaFk ^fgLV™h vkWQ esa vuq'kaflr fd, x, bl xzaFk dk jhfizaV miyC/k gS vkSj bls vius fo"k; dk ,d tSlyesj* ds rhu v/;k; fy[k dj ml d`fr dks ftl :i esa iw.kZrk iznku dh og izkekf.kd xzaFk ekuk tkrk gSA miyC/k ewy iqjkys[kh; lzksr&lkexzh vk/kkfjr 'kks/k dk;Z mls bfrgkl ys[ku dh dlkSVh ij [kjk izekf.kr dj ikbZA18 jktLFkku fgLV™h dkaxzsl gksus ds dkj.k ;g d`fr viuk ,d fof'k"V egŸo j[krh gSA esokM+ ds izkjfEHkd dh N% izkslhfMaXl dk ftl ifjJe vkSj bfrgkl&cks/k;qDr n`f"V ls mUgksaus lEiknu bfrgkl ds izkekf.kd v/;;u rFkk jktflag&vkSjaxtsc lEcU/kksa ds xgu v/;;u dh fd;k og mudh mRd`"V lEikndh; {kerk dk vglkl djkrk ,d Toyar mnkgj.k n`f"V ls bl d`fr dh egŸkk vius vki esa vlekukarj gSA bl d`fr esa egkjk.kk&eqxy FkkA mUgksaus] ^fczfV'k ikWfylh VwoM~lZ fizalyh LVsV~l vkWQ bf.M;k* 'kh"kZd ls ,d lEcU/kksa dh leh{kk ftruh xgurk ls dh xbZ gS mruh gh xEHkhjrk ls egkjk.kk vkSj vU; iqLrd dk Hkh lEiknu fd;k FkkA19 ;g ,d lsehukj izkslhfMax Fkh ftldh muds mejko oxZ ds ikjLifjd lEcU/kksa dks Hkh foosfpr ,oa fo'ysf"kr fd;k x;k gSA lEikndh; mRd`"Vrk ,oa xq.koŸkk blds mº`r fd, tkus ;ksX; oSf'k"V~; gSaA vk/kqfud mUgksaus bl d`fr esa esokM+ dh dyk] laLd`fr rFkk iz'kklfud O;oLFkk ij tks dqN jktLFkku ds bfrgkl ds fofo/k i{kksa ij mUgksauss vusd 'kks/k i= fy[ks tks ;=&r= fy[kk gS og cgqr gh izkekf.kd ,oa mi;ksxh cu iM+k gSA izdkf'kr gq, vkSj bfrgkl txr esa O;kid ppkZ ds dsUnz fcUnq cusA mUgksaus xtsfV;j jktLFkku fgUnh xzaFk vdkneh] t;iqj ds }kjk izdkf'kr ,oa izks- vkj-ih- O;kl vkWQ bf.M;k&tks/kiqj fMfLV™DV esa vius rF;ijd ,oa xos"k.kkiz/kku v/;k; ys[ku_ iz.khr ^vk/kqfud jktLFkku dk o`gr~ bfrgkl (1707 ls 1950 bZ-)* nks [k.Mksa esa] fMD'kujh vkWQ us'kuy ckW;xzkQh dks rS;kj djus esa vius ys[kdh; ;kssxnku_ fofo/k izks- O;kl }kjk jktLFkku bfrgkl ys[ku dks ,d ,slk vonku gS] ftlus mUgsa bl {ks= iqLrdksa ds fjO;w ys[ku_ vusd d`fr;ksa ds izkDdFku ys[ku_ jktLFkku fgLV™h dkaxzsl ds esa ys[ku dk ,d vrqyuh; eqdke iznku fd;kA bldk izFke [k.M] ^vk/kqfud v/;{kh; mn~cks/ku ys[ku rFkk bfrgkl iznhi] Hkkjr dk jktuhfrd o lkaLd`frd jktLFkku dk o`gr~ bfrgkl (1707&1818 ,-Mh-)* 'kh"kZd ls lu~ 1986 esa izdkf'kr bfrgkl] fo'o dk bfrgkl rFkk Hkkjrh; bfrgkl dh :ijs[kk 'kh"kZdksa ls fy[kh gqvkA bldk f}rh; [k.M] ^vk/kqfud jktLFkku dk o`gr bfrgkl (1818&1950 ,- ikB~;iqLrdksa ds ek/;e ls u dsoy izknsf'kd oju~ jk"V™™h; bfrgkl txr dks ckjEckj Mh-)* lu~ 1995 bZ- esa izdkf'kr gqvkA jktLFkku ds vk/kqfud dky ds bfrgkl ij xkSjokfUor gksus ds volj iznku fd, FksA ;|fi dkQh 'kks/k&dk;Z gq, fdUrq mudk Qyd bruk fo'kn~ Fkk vkSj os bruk lu~ 1967 esa laLFkkfir jktLFkku fgLV™h dkaxzsl ds laLFkkid lnL;_ baLVhV~;wV fc[kjko fy, gq, Fkh fd bl dky ds ,d ,sls xqaFks gq, izkekf.kd bfrgkl ys[ku dh vkWQ fgLVksfjdy LVMht] dydRrk ds tks/kiqj esa lu~ 1970 esa lEiUu vkBosa egrh vko';drk cM+h f'kÌr ls eglwl dh tkrh jgh Fkh ftlesa bu leLr 'kks/k vf/kos'ku ds vk;kstu lfpo_ lu~ 1967 ls 1970 rd jktLFkku fgLV™h dkaxzsl ds dk;ksZa dk lekos'k izkIr ewy lzksr&lkexzh ds vk/kkj ij ;Fkksfpr leh{kk ,oa fo'ys"k.k lg lfpo ,oa rnuUrj lu~ 1970 ls 1976 rd lfpo_ lu~ 1969 ls 1980 rd ds lkFk djrs gq, mls oLrqijd ,oa lexz