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Fried Rice (Simplified Chinese: 炒饭; Traditional

Fried Rice (Simplified Chinese: 炒饭; Traditional

A INSPECTORʼS GUIDE TO ETHNIC IN MICHIGAN

Lillian G. , Ph.D Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

Asian and Mexican Foods

A Food Inspector’s Guide to Ethnic Foods in Michigan

Asian and Mexican Foods

Lillian G. Po, Ph.D Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition Michigan State University

Developed with funding from the Michigan Department of Agriculture

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This project would not have been made possible without the grant from the Michigan Department of Agriculture Food Industry/Regulator Education Fund to Michigan State University.

I would also like to thank the following MDA officials from the Food and Dairy Division for their valuable insights at the start of the project: Katherine Fedder, Director; Gerald Wojtala, Deputy Director; Kevin Besey, Manager Food Section) and Rebecca Peterson, Supervisor, Food Service Program.

I also appreciated the input provided by the members of the Ethnic Advisory Board convened by the MDA at the start of the project, and for their review of the draft: Abbie Harding, Bridget Kohler, Cathy Martin, Vijaya Pandit, Rebecca Peterson, Charles Yet and Sean Dunleavy. Special thanks to Abbie for sharing photos on Mexican processing, to VJ for sharing the presentation, and to Charles for his thorough review of the draft.

I also thank members of the MSU Advisory Committee (Drs. Leslie Bourquin, Joe Levine, Susan Smalley, Whitney Mauer and Barbara Fails) for their interest and support, particularly Joe, for his insights.

I am deeply grateful to the following for their valuable contributions:

Jonars Spielberg for his assistance in the research of some of the materials; food preparations and demonstrations;

Edgar Po for the production of the CDs, photos and layout and assistance during the pilot training;

Linda Young for attending to all the details of the preparations for the training;

Terri Rose, Chief of Food, Shelter, and Prevention; and Deborah McArthur, Supervisor, for providing the leadership for the pilot-test of the training module and resource guide with the Oakland County Health Department;

Trent Wakenight, Kay Sunthanont and Tan Chow for reviewing sections on Communicating with Japanese, Thai and Chinese cultures, respectively.

PREFACE

‘A Food Inspector’s Guide to Ethnic Foods in Michigan: Asian and Mexican Foods ‘ was designed to serve as a resource guide on popular ethnic foods. It also serves as the manual for the Training on Ethnic Foods in Michigan: Asian and Mexican Foods.

An accompanying CD contains the electronic version of the Resource Guide/Manual, the powerpoint presentations during the training, as well as some for Mexican and Asian foods.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction 1

Communicating with Asians and Mexicans 3

Understanding Asian and Mexican Food Cultures 16

Food Safety Issues and Challenges with Ethnic Foods 29

Ingredients and Dishes 98

Processing of Mexican and Asian Foods 125

Glossary of Terms 132

References 151

INTRODUCTION

As ethnic and international foods become increasingly available and even mainstream in food establishments across the , food safety professionals are increasingly required to evaluate the safety of foods unfamiliar to them. Science-based inspection requirements and resources and training materials that focus on ingredients, preparation methods, storage, and potential hazards of these foods are not widely available (Simonne et al., 2004). A national online survey of food safety professionals found that food safety professionals throughout the United States encountered a variety of ethnic-food establishments and ethnic foods for which they lacked ethnic-food safety resources, especially at the local level. They identified the need for training and educational resources on food and ingredient characteristics, handling, preparation methods, storage and potential hazards associated with these ethnic foods (Mauer et al, 2006).

Personal communications with some local food safety professionals revealed that they encounter food handling and food preparation practices in ethnic food establishments that they do not quite understand, including the utilization and consumption of internal organs and other parts not ordinarily considered fit for consumption in the Western culture. They cited food handling practices that are considered unsafe under the Food Code. There is an expressed desire for food safety inspectors to learn more about cultural, social and/or religious practices that may impact or influence food handling and preparation practices. A better understanding of what are unfamiliar and sometimes perceived as “unsafe” ethnic practices will help improve communication between food safety inspectors and ethnic food establishments in the implementation of the Food Code. Further, this enhanced understanding will enable food safety inspectors to discuss and work with ethnic food establishments to effect any needed changes in food handling and preparation practices, to ensure sustained, safe ethnic foods.

Asian is the leading ethnic food in the menu category, followed by Mexican. However, Mexican food ranks no. 1 in increasing popularity. Total outbreaks associated with ethnic foods have been reported to have an increasing trend, from 3% to 11% from 1999 to 2000 in the U.S., with most frequent outbreaks representing Mexican (41%), Italian (39%) and Asian (20%) foods. The highest numbers of outbreaks were reported to have occurred in (43%), private (21%) and schools (7%), in the following top 5 states: Florida, California, New York, Maryland, and Michigan (Simonne et al., 2004). The recent nationwide Salmonella food outbreak traced to tomatoes involved an ethnic fast-food chain. Two of the more recent Michigan outbreaks associated with Norovirus involved Carrabba’s Italian Grill (Delta Township) which affected more than 400 persons (January 2006), and Bravo Cuccina Italiana (May 2006).

1 The development of the “A Food Inspector’s Guide to Ethnic Foods in Michigan” resource was funded by the Michigan Department of Agriculture (MDA) Food Industry/Regulators Food Safety Fund for 2007. It focused on Mexican and Asian foods, the top two categories most frequently associated with ethnic food outbreaks in the U.S. This resource guide is by no means a comprehensive listing, but it prioritized a) the ethnic foods most associated with ethnic food outbreaks; b) ethnic foods identified as of public health concern; and c) ethnic foods unfamiliar to food inspectors.

2 Communicating with Asians and Mexicans A different cultural background of the owner and/or food handler from that of the food inspector can magnify communication problems. What is being said by the food inspector may be understood quite differently from what was actually meant, even with an interpreter. Although each culture presents a different communication challenge, this Section provides some useful tips when interacting with other cultures in an official capacity.

Cultural Values of Caucasian, Asian and Hispanic/Latino Americans

Value Caucasian Asian Americans Hispanic/Latino Americans Americans World View Personal control, Fate, Spirituality, Fate, Spirituality, Materialism, Harmony with Harmony with Mastery over nature Nature Nature Time Orientation Future Past-Present Past-Present People Relations Individual Collateral (kinship) Collateral (kinship) Thinking Linear Circular Circular Eye Contact Direct Fleeting Indirect Conversational Arm’s length Farther than whites Closer than whites Distance Self-disclosure Self-disclose Modest, do not open do not open up to up to strangers strangers Family relationship Nuclear, Egalitarian Extended, Extended, patriarchal patriarchal Time Perception Punctual Flexible, Chinese & Flexible Japanese are punctual Verbal Interrupt frequently, Non- Non- Communication speak loudly, fast confrontational, confrontational, rate Self-deprecating Speak softly

Adapted from Ethnic Foodways in Minnesota: Handbook of Food and Wellness Across Cultures (2002)

A. Language

If the owner/food handler has limited knowledge of English, speak slowly in short sentences using simple words, and leaving a bit of space between the words. Avoid idioms, jargon and slang. Listen actively. Be careful about your use of humor. It is often difficult to understand jokes outside one’s culture. Unless the culture does not permit it, watch the eyes to see if you are being understood. Avoid asking questions that can be answered with a simple “yes” or “no”. Many people of other cultures wish to avoid embarrassing you or themselves by such an

4 answer. For example, if you ask whether you were understood, the answer will almost be yes or a positive nod of the head, even if the client did not understand. Having appropriate visual aids and handouts written in their language may be helpful.

B. Body language

Various movements that are a normal part of your interacting may be misinterpreted by other cultures. Body language can have a strong impact. Some actions are considered rude by Asians, such as using the forefinger to motion someone to approach. Try to withhold judgment about behaviors that appear unfamiliar to you. It can be easy to misinterpret non-verbal cues such as gestures, eye contact and greeting rituals. Smile! It is validating.

C. Tone of Voice

It is considered rude in Asian culture for a person in authority to speak in a loud voice when talking to another person, or speaking in a demanding voice. Food inspectors and regulators are viewed as people of authority.

D. Values Regarding Time

• Promptness is taken very loosely by Mexicans. If you have a scheduled appointment, do not be surprised if your Mexican associates arrive up to half an hour late. This is not considered rude, and should not be taken as such. Agendas are rarely stuck to. Anticipate discussing other issues or topics. The issue of time is also a concern with the Filipino culture, who, like Mexicans, have been influenced by the Spanish regard for time.

• On the other hand, punctuality is considered extremely important, and is considered almost a virtue in . Arrive a few minutes early if possible. Arriving late is considered an insult.

E. Language and Thought

Think about the communication styles of the organization or culture as a whole, and ensure that your communication skills are tailored to fit how the organization works.

Interrelationships Between Language and Thought

Activities Description Culture Linear Activities Plan, schedule, organize, Germans, Swiss pursue action chains, one at a time

5 Multiactives Lively, loquacious people Americans, Indians who do many things at Italians, Arabs once, planning priorities according to the relative thrill or importance that each appointment brings Reactives Prioritize courtesy and Chinese, Japanese respect, listening quietly and calmly and reacting carefully to the other side’s proposals

Source: Yeakley and Fiebrich (2007)

Reactive people are introverted, distrust excessive words, and are adept at nonverbal communication through subtle body language which compensates for the absence of frequent interjections. They tolerate silences and regard them a very meaningful, almost refined part of communication. They do not take opinions of the other party lightly, nor do they dismiss them with a snappy or flippant retort.

Linear-active people find reactive ways hard to understand, since they do not fit into the linear question/reply, cause/effect system.

Multiactive people who are extroverted find linear-active people inscrutable because they give little or no feedback.

Mexicans

• Mexicans emphasize hierarchical relationships and respect authority. Rank is important, and those above you in rank must always be treated with respect. • Demonstrating trustworthiness, sincerity, and integrity are crucial to relationships. • Never call a Mexican by his/her first name until invited to do so. • Men shake hands using a gentle grip, until they become more acquainted, at which point they hug or slap each other on the back. Mexican men are warm, friendly and may initiate physical contact, like touching the shoulders or holding the arm of another. While this is unlikely to occur during a regulatory role, be aware that withdrawing from these affectionate gestures can be perceived as an insult. If you are a female inspector, it is acceptable to initiate a handshake with a Mexican male. • Women greet each other by patting each other on the right forearm or shoulder. However, those who have lived in the U.S. for sometime are accustomed to shaking hands.

6 If you are a male inspector, let a woman initiate the handshake; if she does not, a polite smile and nod will suffice.

• Conversations tend to occur at a much closer distance. Moving away to establish distance is considered unfriendly, and they may step foreard and close the distance again. • Mexicans may not make much or direct eye contact as a sign of respect. This should not be misconstrued as a sign of dishonesty or as an affront. • The “O.K.” gesture with the thumb and index finger is considered vulgar • If you are a man, avoid standing with your hands in your pockets or on your hips • Questions about your personal background, family and life interests are not considered rude, so do not take offense and answer accordingly. Mexicans value openness and authenticity. • Mexicans take pride in recognition of their efforts, so certificates (ex. food handling training) of training completion are usually put up on the

It will also help to distinguish characteristics of different categories of Mexicans based on the length of time spent in the U.S. The traditional ones would include those who have just migrated to the U.S. and retain their traditions and values. Those who have started to acculturate belong to two worlds – they have assimilated into the U.S. culture, yet have retained many of their traditional foods and cultural practices. The Mexican-Americans who were born and grew up here in the U.S., share more characteristics with Americans than with Mexicans – they prefer American foods and have adapted to the American culture.

Characteristics of Mexicans/Mexican-Americans

Characteristics Traditional Of Two Worlds Mexican-American Years in the U.S. Recent Immigrant; In the U.S. for 10- Born in the U.S. Migrant workers 20 years Language Speaks Spanish only Speaks Spanish at English dominant or strongly prefers , English at Spanish work or school Food Cooks traditional Both traditional & Greater variety of dishes from scratch modified dishes foods, but still enjoys traditional foods & enjoys with family Shopping for Food Bodegas, Primarily at mainstream supermercado, American_style supermarket chains carnecerias, chain supermarkets panaderias that have a variety of Hispanic products & discount stores

7 Acculturation Strong ties to Still has ties to Has distant ties to country of origin country of origin country of origina Adapted from Pugesek (2007)

Asians who immigrated to the U.S. tend to adapt or adjust to the norms here in the U.S. The younger generation, especially those who were born here in the U.S., try to fit or blend in. The following guidelines apply more to the more traditional or elderly.

Chinese

• The Chinese society is very structured. They value harmony and balance, so never cause a commotion or raise your voice. Always be aware of your actions (your body posture, facial expression, etc.) and how the Chinese may perceive them.

• Greetings are formal, with the younger greeting the older first. Handshakes are the most common form of greeting, with eyes looking toward the ground.

• A Chinese person may not smile when being introduced, rooted in the Chinese attitude of keeping feelings inside rather displaying them openly It is nothing to be concerned if they do not smile when introduced

• Address the Chinese by their last name. If they want to move to a first-name basis, they will advise you which name to use.

• Appearance is particularly important to Chinese people who are fastidious about their own appearance and expect it from others This is especially expected from persons of authority such as the food inspector.

• Business cards are exchanged after the initial introduction. Hold the card in both hands when offering it. When accepting a business card, examine it before putting it away in a place of importance such as a wallet, purse or briefcase, not a pocket! Avoid writing on the card unless so directed.

• Non-verbal communication is very important in . Facial expression, tone of voice and posture are used to determine how one feels. Do not frown when someone else is talking; this is assumed to mean that you disagree with the person talking. Also, avoid staring into other people’s eyes. This is considered disrespectful, and an invasion of one’s privacy. Avoid making expansive gestures and unusual expressions.

• A Chinese restaurant’s manager generally has control over the front-of- personnel which includes wait-staff, busboys, cashiers and bartenders. However, the head is in-charge of the and its workers.

8 While food inspectors will generally deal with the owner/manager for compliance issues in the facilities, it is necessary to ensure acceptance and buy-in from the head Chef to gain compliance. He is the unspoken in-charge.

• The Chinese do not use their hands when speaking, and may become annoyed with someone who does

• Use your whole hand rather than your index finger to point.

• Chinese, especially those who are older and in positions of authority, dislike being touched by strangers. Avoid any prolonged contact.

• Avoid using your feet to gesture or move articles around

• Do not speak too loudly or act impatient or hurried.

• Outright disagreement is considered rude. A better way of expressing dissent is through silence, which allows the other person to save face, or by changing the subject to avoid a confrontation. It is critical for them to avoid losing “face” or causing the loss of “face” at all times, because this translates to loss of “honor” or “respect.” Try not to embarrass them in front of others, especially employees.

• In Chinese culture, gender bias is non-existent in business.

Koreans

• Formality should always be observed, especially when meeting with someone for the first time.

• Some will bow first and then shake hands. It is okay for a Western female to offer to shake hands with a Korean man or woman, but it is usually not okay for a Western man to offer to shake hands with a Korean woman. If a Korean shakes hands, it is customary to hold their with their other hand out of respect. When greeting (and saying bye to) an elder, they keep both legs straight and together, put both arms stiffly by the side, keep the back straight, and bend from the waist. The head is kept down instead of looking at the elder. While bowing, they say, “an nyung hah sae yo” (the greeting phrase). Bow is not too fast or slow.

When shaking someone’s hand, use both hands. You shouldn’t squeeze hard when shaking hands; a limp handshake is best. A slight nod or bow is appropriate unless they offer to shake hands with you first.

9 • Present your business card using both hands, making sure the writing faces the recipient. Examine any business card you receive carefully. Kepp their business card in a business card case, portfolio or other “official” place. Never put a business card in your pocket, or write on someone's business card in their presence.

• If it is the first time meeting the person, give a detailed introduction about yourself.

• In Korean names, the family name comes first, followed by the two-part given name.It is rude to call someone by his or her first name unless encouraged by them to do so.

• Prolonged eye or staring is considered rude.

• When talking or laughing, keep your voice as quiet as possible.

• Koreans often use smiling or laughter to mask embarrassment, fear and other feelings of distress.

• Beckoning a person by moving an index finger toward you is considered very rude. The best way to get someone's attention is to face the palm of your hand down, and move your fingers in a scratching motion.

• Pointing with your index finger is also considered rude. Point with an open hand.

• Never touch, pat, backslap or grip a Korean that is not your relative or close friend.

• Never touch or push anything with your feet.

• Avoid standing with your hands in your pockets.

• Koreans avoid saying “no”, so “yes” may not mean, “yes.” This should not be considered dishonest. Koreans simply like to be accommodating, and saying no is viewed as a failure on the host’s part.

• Never talk about Korean culture, even if it is complimentary, in earshot of a Korean.

• Pass and accept things with your right hand, with your left hand supporting the wrist.

10 Japanese

• Their traditional form of greeting is the bow, although most Japanese expect to shake hands in America. Bow slightly while shaking hands to show that you respect their culture. This might help you to establish a positive rapport with the owner or management Shake hands with a light grip; a firm handshake is considered aggressive.

• Bows are also used for farewells, expressing appreciation, and making apologies and requests. Bows convey both respect and humility.

• Only family amd close friends use the first name. Avoid addressing them by the first name unless they ask you to.

• Business cards are given and received with two hands and a slight bow. Examine any business card you receive very carefully to show interest.

• Japanese people prefer maintaining personal space. Try not to stand close to them, and avoid touching them. Sit towards the edge of a chair to show proper respect. Leaning back connotes closeness (such as a childhood friend).

• Meanings are read into the slightest gestures. Avoid unusual facial expressions or motioning in ways that are dramatic or expansive. The American “O.K.” sign (thumb and forefinger shaped into “O”) means money in .

• It is considered very impolite to interrupt when someone is talking. Be quiet and listen until they are finished before talking.

• Try to maintain a low-key and polite manner at all times. Avoid leaning against anything, a chair, a wall, a , etc. Standing up straight and stiffly, especially for men, is considered proper. Always keep your hands in plain view. It is rude to talk to someone with your hands in your pockets.

• Pointing is considered rude. Wave your hand instead with the palm facing up.

• While sitting, avoid showing the bottom of your shoes.

• Chewing gum while conducting business is considered impolite.

• For the Japanese-born person, smiling or laughter may indicate embarrassment,

11 distress, anger, or disappointment rather than amusement. Covering one’s mouth when laughing is common among Japanese, especially women

To really impress you hosts, learn even a little Japanese before you visit

Thailand

• A Thai custom is the wai, a gesture showing greeting, farewell, or acknowledgment, it comes in several forms reflecting the relative status of those involved, but generally it involves a prayer-like gesture with the hands and a bow of the head. • Thais greet everyone with a smile and an endearingly gentle manner. • Thai people smile to express gladness, to thank for small services, to return the wai of children and an excuse for small inconveniences. • Hospitality is the essence of Thai nature, so in the restaurants, you will always be served cold even before you order. • Pointing at or touching something with the feet is also considered rude. • Touching someone on the head may be considered rude. • The young are taught to pay respect and follow the admonitions of parents, elders, and teachers. • Any display of strong emotions in public, especially loud speaking or noisy arguing, is considered disrespectful.

Indian

• The traditional way of greeting in is performed by holding your palms together, as in praying, and saying 'Namaste' [nah-mas-tay] or 'Namaskar' [nah- mas-kar], with a slight bow.

• Shaking hands is also an acceptable way to greet Westernized Indians. However, a man shaking hands with a woman is not universally accepted in Indian society since it involves physical touch.

Shake hands with someone of the opposite gender only when it is offered.

• Business cards are exchanged after the initial handshake and greeting. Use the right hand to give and receive business cards. Use the right hand as much as possible and the left hand sparingly.

• Avoid pointing with your index finger or feet. When you wish to point, use your chin, the full hand, or maybe the thumb. Pointing with a single finger is used only with inferiors.

12 • The best way to signal attention toward something or someone is with the full hand.

• The acceptable way to beckon someone is to hold your hand out, palm downward, and make a scooping motion with fingers. Beckoning someone with a wagging finger, with the palm upward is viewed as an authoritarian/ condescending signal, and will be perceived as an insult.

• Standing erect with your hands on your hips is likely to be viewed as an aggressive and dominating posture.

• Folded hands, or hands in one's pockets while talking are likely to be perceived as arrogant gestures.

• Gesticulating with one’s hands is common among Indian people and therefore accepted.

• The head is considered a sacred part of the body. Therefore, do not touch an Indian person on the head, including patting a youngster on the head.

Vietnamese

• While some Westernized Vietnamese shake hands when greeting or saying goodbye, many do not, especially with the opposite sex. Vietnamese women may be more inclined to bow than shake hands with a man.

If a Vietnamese male or female does not offer their hand to you, clasp your hands together at waist level and bow slightly. If a Vietnamese person does offer to shake hands, clasp their hand with both of yours and slightly bow your head as a show of respect.

• The order for a Vietnamese name is family name, middle name, and given name. When referring to someone, use his or her family name with the appropriate title, such as Mr., Madame, etc.

• Present your business card using both hands, making sure the writing faces the recipient. Examine carefully any business card you receive. Keep their business card in a business card case, portfolio or other “official” place. Never put a business card in your pocket, or write on someone's business card in their presence.

• Speaking loudly or making excessive gestures is considered rude.

13 • In order to avoid confrontation or disrespect, many Vietnamese people will not vocalize disagreement. Instead of relaying negative communication, they may simply refuse to answer a question.

• Vietnamese people often use smiling or laughter to mask embarrassment, fear and other feelings of distress.

• Beckoning a person by moving an index finger toward you is considered very rude.

To get someone's attention, face the palm of your hand down, and move your fingers in a scratching motion.

• Vietnamese people generally do not like to be touched by people they do not know Avoid a friendly slap on the back, a hand on the shoulder or any similar gesture.

• The head s believed to be the spiritual center of a person, so avoid touching a Vietnamese person on the head, especially a child.

• Avoid pointing the soles of your feet at anyone while sitting with crossed legs.

• Avoid crossing your arms or placing your hands on your hips, as these gestures may be perceived as a sign of aggression.

Philippines

• emphasize hierarchical relationships and respect authority. Those above you in rank must always be treated with respect.

• Avoid calling a Filipino by his/her first name until invited to do so.

• Men shake hands using a gentle grip,

• It is not uncommon for women to greet each other with a kiss on the cheek . However, those who have lived in the U.S. for sometime are accustomed to shaking hands. If you are a male inspector, let a woman initiate the handshake; if she does not, a polite smile and nod will suffice.

14

• Filipinos may not make much or direct eye contact as a sign of respect. This should not be misconstrued as a sign of dishonesty or as an affront.

• Beckoning a person by moving an index finger toward you is considered rude.

• Outright disagreement is considered rude.

• Filipinos take pride in recognition of their efforts, so certificates of training completion are usually put up on the wall

The various characteristics of Mexicans/Mexican-Americans summarized in the previous table apply to other cultures as well – one needs to distinguish between the traditional, those who have been acculturated to the U.S. ways, and those who were born in the U.S. Cultural differences are also influenced by educational and economic circumstances, and the degree of assimilation or acculturation into various regional cultures in the U.S. Hence, when targeting a particular ethnic or diverse group for educational food safety programs, one should be mindful of these differences and distinctions.

15 UNDERSTANDING

Asian and Mexican Food Cultures

Since the of a country is influenced by its climate, topography, geography as well as by its history, society and religious customs, one has to understand the people and their cultures to appreciate a country’s cuisine. . Regional similarities as well as differences exist. The purpose of this Section is to provide an overview of the various factors which have influenced Mexican and Asian , to help the food inspector appreciate why certain food handling, preparations, cooking and storage practices are carried out.

MEXICAN FOOD CULTURE

Geographical Influence

Cuisine in varies by region because of local climate, geography and ethnic differences among the indigenous people, and also because these different populations were influenced by the Spaniards in varying degrees. In the central region of Mexico, food is heavily based on moles and other like dark red . Southern Mexico food consumption is similar to the central region but incorporates more use of wild greens such as amaranth, lamb, and various and , and known for its spicy and -based dishes. has lighter foods, fresh and spices, and also known for its production and meat dishes. , a product, is common in Monterrey and regions. Southern Mexicans use black , Northern Mexicans prefer pinto beans.

Historical Influence

When Spanish conquistadores arrived, they found that the people's diet consisted largely of corn-based dishes with and herbs, usually complemented with beans and squash. The conquistadores eventually combined their imported diet of , beef, , chicken, , and with the indigenous foods of pre-Columbian Mexico, including , , , , , , , chile pepper, beans, squash, sweet , and .

Economic Influence

There are popular dishes which call for the use of other parts of the animal and internal organs, including buche, , sesos, lengua and . The origin is not exactly known, but some accounts claim for instance that menudo (a made with beef intestines and hominy), was invented during war times when the cattle in villages were slaughtered and the meat given to Mexican soldiers, leaving only the remains (organs, hooves, tail, etc.) for the villagers. Other stories attribute it to wealthy landowners taking the desirable meat for themselves and giving what was left of the carcass to their poor

17 farm workers. Not wanting to waste any part of the carcass, the poor took the entrails (and sometimes the feet) and made a from them. To make the soup palatable, they spiced it up with chiles and added hominy to it.

Religious Influence

Mexico is predominantly Catholic as a result of Spanish colonization. Fiestas which characterize their food culture, are celebrations in honor of patron saints and other special Holydays designated by the Roman Catholic Church. For instance, the feast of Our Lady of Guadalupe, Mexico's most popular religious and one of its most famous cultural images, is widely celebrated by Mexicans here in the U.S. on December 12. Image of the Virgen de Guadalupe on a car in St. Joseph, Michigan Note: It is probably a good idea to avoid conducting food inspections during this day

Socio-Cultural

Mexicans favor corn and amaranth, and consumers of Mexican descent eat nearly six times more beans than non-Hispanic whites (Hollingsworth, 2003). Open markets and street foods are very popular in Mexico, where marketing can be done daily to ensure freshness of foods. Small stores specializing in both prepared and fresh authentic foods are not uncommon in large Hispanic communities in the U.S., including carnecerias ( shops), bodegas (corner stores) and panaderias ().

Mexican Cuisine in the U.S.

‘Americanized’ Mexican restaurants serve dishes that are popular among non- Hispanic Americans, including , , , tostadas, chile rellenos, , . However, restaurants catering to people of Mexican and Central American heritage, prepare these dishes in a more authentic way, as well as serve traditional foods such as , , , carntias, buche (pork stomach), lengua (beef ), and menudo (a stew made with beef intestines and hominy).

Often mistaken for authentic Mexican food are Cal-Mex (Californian-Mexican), "Tex Mex" (Texan-Mexican), New Mexican and Nuevo Latino cuisines. Cal-Mex and Tex-Mex cuisines are fusion cuisines resulting from the combination of with the cuisine of southwest United States. Tex-Mex combines Mexican, Native American, Asian and European Influences. , USA is the source of New Mexican cuisines. Nuevo Latino blends cuisine from , the and Mexico. The food is ‘Americanized’ through the addition of nontraditional ingredients and cooking methods. Pan Latin cooking combines various Latin regional cooking styles. Nuevo New York, New California and Floribbean are other mutations (Hollingsworth, 2003).

18 CHINESE FOOD CULTURE

Geographical Influence

Chinese cuisine is characterized by four regional styles of cooking:

• The Southern is referred to as food. dishes originated here. Emphasis on , , and ; It is not a highly seasoned food, hence the wide use of and sauce. Dishes: Cantonese , , sweet and sour chicken, roast duck//chicken, and egg rolls, beef in , bird’s nest/ egg drop and won ton soup, stewed fried pork.

• Eastern Cuisine is associated with : delicate and sweet , light, and not oily or greasy; “red-cooking,” meaning cooked in ; generally sweet , but also sweet, sour, salty, and savory. Dishes: Yang chow fried rice, Shanghai , spareribs with sweet and sour sauce, ball soup, in egg whites, hairy , light , paper-wrapped foods, shredded pears with crystal fruit.

• Northern (Beijing/Peking) cuisine is associated with elegant dishes, but also with stewing and steaming, , and deep-frying. The cuisine is characterized as strong, spicy and generous use of garlic and . foods are popular, such as steamed and steamed or baked buns, even noodles; use of nuts; flavors; mutton; noodles; large producer of and . Dishes: Peking duck, Peking ribs, sautéed , beef, lamb in sauce, shaomai; sweet and sour recipes

• Western Chinese cuisine is associated with Szechwan and , and is associated with hot, strong and spicy flavors; spicy, due to heavy use of chili peppers, spices, and herbs; food is characterized as sour and/or salty; very complex cooking methods, including double- or triple-cooking; also described as oily, ex. juicy and fatty ducks and river fish; , beverages and dishes with herbal ingredients that are also medicinal or healing in nature are popular. Dishes: , Szechuan chicken, twice-cooked pork, , stewed ’ fin, spiced beef.

Socio-Cultural Influences

Food is an expression of culture, and the mixture of ingredients is the basis of Chinese culinary art. There is also a belief that food and medicine are one and the same, a philosophic balance, harmony, and division between foods and health conditions (e.g, concept of yin – relaxing, cooling, decongesting, and yang – warming, stimulating ). Often, Chinese physicians will suggest changes in diet to remedy illnesses : treat yin illnesses with yang foods (rice dates, ), and vice versa. Tea is considered a medicinal brew

19

About 60-90% of the Chinese diet consists of staple (in Chinese, fan) such as rice and wheat or millet products. Foods that flavor fan are called cai and are second in importance and includes sauces, fermented foods, spices, vegetables, fruits, , etc. It is important to create a balance and mixture of sweet, sour, bitter, pungent, and salty flavors Chinese mostly cook their foods, and do not go for raw foods. Cooking often tenderizes and other foods that would otherwise be unpleasant to eat and digest. all water has been practice since ancient times. Chinese cuisine often includes vegetables, and the use of the necessitates cutting of foods thinly or diced, since size and heat transmission are critical. The official language is Mandarin, although there are over 1,000 spoken dialects. Note: It is important to remember when translating educational materials in written Chinese that there are two basic forms: • Traditional Chinese (classical) • Simplified Chinese (modern)

Teachers are well respected in China. Note: It might help reduce tension if you are able to convey to food establishments that you are there to be their teacher rather than viewed as a food police.

Economic Factors

Floods and droughts are very common in China, which often made food scarce and increased appreciation for food when it was available. The Chinese have a long tradition of making sure no part of an animal goes to waste. Chinese cuisine is well- known for not wasting any part of an animal. It is therefore not uncommon in Chinese cuisine to prepare dishes which called for the use of , brain and other internal organs. China is a developing country, hence, like other developing Asian countries, the following should be appreciated:

• There is limited running water or sewers • No utilities • No “Regulation” - Food regulations are not as well established as in the U.S. • Education is highly valued especially because they pay for schooling

The lack of refrigeration, particularly in rural areas, required daily marketing in open markets. Freshness of the food was important, and processed foods are rare. The practice of cooking the rice over firewood in a dirty kitchen resulted in scorching at the bottom of the pot/over-drying the rice. This practice might be more functional, because it resulted in over-dried rice which appeared to keep longer due to its lower moisture content.

20 JAPANESE FOOD CULTURE

Geographical Influence

Japan is surrounded by the sea which supplies Japan with a variety of fish, , and seaweeds. The Japanese cook foods as lightly as possible to preserve their nutrients, so many foods are left raw or just slightly cooked to highlight freshness. Japanese view the best way of eating fresh fish is eating it raw, hence the popular and sushi dishes. Only the freshest fish can be used for sashimi, and service should be prompt to ensure food safety. There is great skill involved in cutting correctly with exactly the right knife. Sushi preparation is also an art, involving selection of lovely and delicate ingredients to be arranged alongside vinegared rice.

Socio-cultural Influence

Rice is the base of most meals. Other popular rice-based products include (rice made for New Year celebration); (sweet ) and (strong rice wine fermented to 15-17% alcohol). are also prominent in Japanese cooking and diet as ( ), (fermented ) and (powdered, dried pulp byproduct of tofu production). Vinegared and (grated ) are favorite . are also an important part of the . is a made with katsuo-bushi (dried fillet of bonito) and konbu (dried kelp). Suimono is a clear soup garnished with a rind or a bit of shrimp, and can vary by addition of tofu, shoot, or . is served for with a bowl of rice, pickles and . Noodles are also a vital part of the diet, with the (wheat ) and (buckwheat flour), and are politely sucked into the mouth, accompanied by an audible sound and appreciative slurping around. Vegetables are pickled () and served as accompaniment during meals. (ex. shitake) are used in their dried form. ( squash), (giant white ), gobo (Burdock), cucumbers and spinach are popular. Sunomono (vinegared ) are also served at meals. is a dish featuring very thinly sliced beef and generous amounts of Japanese vegetables cooked together with soy sauce, mirin and dashi. Presentation involves a variety of small dishes, where several individual small dishes are served accompanied by sauces to highlight the flavors. Chopsticks are used, but soup may be sipped from the diner’s bowl.

Japanese Cuisine in the U.S.

While Japanese food has become increasingly popular among Americans, many authentic establishments still cater solely to native-born Japanese customers. Japanese cuisine is famous for its simplicity and uncluttered, yet elegant presentation. The most

21 popular Japanese restaurants in the U.S. are the Hibachi () style establishments, and sushi restaurants.

Photos courtesy of US-FDA, Atlanta, GA

There are over 5,000 sushi bars restaurants which have mushroomed in the U.S. over the last couple of years. Sushi is quite popular among the young people, and sashimi is becoming a feature in the menus of even non-Japanese high-end restaurants. It is even featured in several of the food shows on tv’s Food Network Channel

22 KOREAN FOOD CULTURE

Korean cuisine is widely known for its spicy flavors and the large number of side dishes (up to 20) served with meals. The basic staples of Korean food are rice, vegetables, tofu, fish and seaweed. Soup plays a large role in the typical Korean diet, as does (fermented vegetables). There are over 4,000 Korean restaurants in the U.S.

Geographical and Socio-Cultural Influences

Pickling of vegetable crops and storing in large crocks for use over the long winter enabled Koreans to have vegetables in their diets. The huge crocks might be buried in the ground or stored in a cool spot. Production of the annual supply provided an opportunity for plenty of sociability while chopping vast quantities of and other vegetables to be pickled. The final product is the world-famous kimchi (kimchee). Rice is commonly boiled short rice served in individual bowls. Rice is popular especially during breakfast, sometimes mixed with red beans, bean sprouts or other vegetables. from sweet is used in making rice balls and rice that serve as . Seas surrounding the peninsula explains the inclusion of fish and seafood in the diet – crabs, , clams, , bream, cod and . Laver (edible -like seaweed) is brushed with seed oil and toasted until crisp and used to wrap several different vegetables and other fillings with soy sauce as a dip. A traditional meal, sang- chi-sam, involves diners adding various tidbits to a lettuce leaf, from the many dishes on the table and rolling the lettuce into a bundle to eat. Meat dishes are prepared typically as a , or shredded to flavor vegetables and soups to serve more people. The well-known dishes are kalbi and . Kochujang (red pepper and bean paste) is often served as a of ingredient in meat or vegetable mixture. Noodles and tea play an important role in the Korean diet. and buckwheat are used to make noodles boiled in soups or in other dishes. Ginseng tea may be brewed for its health benefits.

23 INDIAN FOOD CULTURE

Indian cuisine is best known for its use of spices, the most common of them being , , , red pepper, , , , , ginger, and mace. Indian food tends to be quite spicy. Because so much of their diet is vegetarian, many Indian restaurants are strictly vegetarian.

Religious Influence

The food pattern in India reflects the religions that dominate the people, as well as its social identity, with varying taboos and preferences (ex., a segment of the Jain population eats no or subterranean vegetable). Vegetarianism is common within sections of India's Hindu and Jain communities, partly because of religious and partly economic factors.

Historical Influence

Around 7000 BCE (before the common or Christian Era), sesame, , and humped cattle had been domesticated in the Indus Valley. By 3000 BCE, turmeric, cardamom, and mustard were harvested in India. Many recipes first emerged during the initial Vedic period, when India was still heavily forested and agriculture was complemented with game hunting and forest produce. A normal diet consisted of fruit, vegetables, meat, grain, dairy products and . Over time, some segments of the Brahmin caste embraced vegetarianism, facilitated by a variety of fruits, vegetables, and grains which can easily be grown throughout the year. A food classification system that categorized any item as saatvic, raajsic, or taamsic developed in Ayurveda. Each was deemed to have a powerful effect upon the body and the mind. from , Arabia, the , Persia, and others had a deep effect on Indian cooking. Influence from Arab and Chinese traders, and invaders such as the Mongols, Turks, British and Portuguese, further diversified subcontinental cuisine. Tomato, chilli, and potato, are relatively recent additions. Islamic rule introduced rich , pilafs and non-vegetarian dishes such as , resulting in . The Nizams of state developed and perfected their own style of cooking including . The Portuguese introduced foods from the New World such as potatoes, tomatoes, squash, and chilies.

Socio-Cultural Influence

Legumes and cereals are major components of the meal. and flavors include turmeric, ginger, , mint, , coriander, , pepper, cardamom, saffron, poppy seeds, , chilies, , mace and nutmeg. The blend of spices is masala. A basic blend, garam marsala, contains cardamom, cloves, cumin, cinnamon, nutmeg, saffron and other spices ground together and stored for use in many different dishes.

24

SOUTHEAST ASIAN FOOD CULTURE

Rice is the main staple among the various countries in (SEA), the type varying from long grain, fluffy grain to sticky or glutinous rice used in rice cakes. It may be served at breakfast as rice gruel called . Curry variations are popular, using spices such as turmeric, peppers, ginger and saffron. Other flavoring ingredients popular in this region are lemon grass, , mint, coriander, garlic, green onions and . Various sauces and condiments include ’s nuoc mam (fermented, salted ) and nuoc cham (chili peppers, lime or other citrus juice, garlic, onions and ); ’s nam pla ( sauce) and kapi ( paste); Chinese soy sauce is used throughout the region; Filipinos have their patis (fermented fish sauce) and (salty fermented ).

Religious Influence

Meats served are influenced by religious dictates of the dominant religion. For example, pork is avoided where is practiced, whereas beef is not eaten by . Buddhists generally avoid meats and even fish. Hence, the extensive use of soy products as a source of , including mungbean and other and pulses as meat substitutes. Peanut oil is the preferred .

Historical Influence

Various conquerors and traders of these countries also influenced the foods. For example, the satays (Indian version of shish ) and of Thailand, and must have resulted from trade with neighboring India. Filipino , , menudo, (), and flan clearly reflect Spanish influence. French in Vietnam, and is an influence of French rule. Thailand was never conquered, so it developed its own unique cuisine and beautiful food presentations.

THAI FOOD CULTURE

Thai cuisine is characterized by the balance of the four flavors of sweet, salty, sour and spicy in a dish. The famous noodles, for instance, has the contributing the sourness, saltiness from the fish sauce, spiciness from the chili, and the coming from .

25 Geographical Influence

Thailand’s food culture and tradition is diverse among the different regions of the country. Traditionally, Thai dishes are often extremely hot so that only a small amount of the food mixed with rice is needed to satisfy the appetite. However, because of abundance, there was no need for Northern food to be hot and intense in flavor. However, Northern food is distinctive in its bitterness produced by leaves and roots. Foods are rarely eaten raw, and are often deep-fried. , steaming, , braising, and stir-frying are used. Soups are simple broths and curries are boiled. and such as cured pork and Chiang Mai are very popular. Traditionally, the meal was eaten formally with the dishes served on a platter with a fingerbowl of perfumed water so that the food could be eaten with hands. Desserts were served afterwards on a small platter. In the Northeast region, long-grain rice and coconut is served in larger cities, while in the countryside, glutinous rice is preferred. Deforestation has resulted in scarcity of fuel, so food is often eaten raw or cured, including pickled or raw fish, or a of minced meat or fish called larp dip. Fresh herbs are used and are hot and salty. and buffalo are often part of the menu. Food is served similarly in the Northern region but with sticky rice. The South serves the spiciest dishes in Thailand because of the extensive variety of chilies used. Coconut is often used and balanced with turmeric, chilies, sour fruit, and salted/fermented relishes. Seafood such as , clams, oysters, , , crabs, and fish are major ingredients, as well. The stir-fries are hot and the curries are boiled and are mostly fish-based with a sour ingredient. The Central Plains, or the “park glang”, has the most complex cuisine of the country, but is the Thai cooking most common to foreigners. There is a strong Chinese influence; which is noticeable in the stir-fries and rice dishes. Long-grain rice is preferred, and pork, chicken, and duck are the most common meats. Prawns, freshwater fish, crabs, and mollusks are also popular. Fish sauce and shrimp are the salty seasonings, and curries are boiled and stock-based. Salads are also popular.

FILIPINO FOOD CULTURE

Historical Influence

Its history and colonial experience - trading with the Chinese in the 9th century, under for almost four hundred years, and the United States for forty years, transformed its into a . The first public eateries were Chinese establishments that served indigenized comida China (Chinese food) in restaurants called carinderia.. To accommodate the Spanish patrons, the food had Spanish names, such as adobo (chicken or pork cooked in vinegar with Spanish seasonings and soy sauce), aletas de tiburon ( fins), de cangrejo ( omelet), camaron rebozado (battercoated shrimps). Some Filipino restaurants in the U.S. still carry the carinderia style of serving food.

26 Filipinos indigenized Chinese, Spanish-Mexican, and American dishes through the use of native ingredients and cooking by native cooks. Some of these dishes adapted to local are Spanish (, ) with eggplant or squash relishes; the Mexican transformed from a corn wrapped in corn husks into a rice snack wrapped in a leaf; a Chinese porridge cooked with chicken and kasubha (a saffronlike ); unhatched eggs (); beef with soy and chopped onions; and marinated in soy sauce and Philippine lime juice () before grilling. Popular Spanish-influenced dishes include lechón (whole roasted pig), longanisa (native sausage), (beef ), (), adobo (chicken and/or pork braised in garlic, soy sauce, and vinegar or cooked until dry), ( in tomato stew), (beef or pork cooked in ), pochero (beef in and tomato sauce), (chicken cooked in tomato sauce and vegetables), kare-kare ( and vegetables cooked in ), (deep-fried pig's foot), (pork sweetened in pineapple sauce), (pork, fish, or shrimp in tamarind stew), (stir-), (fresh or fried spring rolls). Obviously, many of these dishes are also served in Spanish-influenced Mexico.

VIETNAM FOOD CULTURE

Geographical Influence

Vietnamese cuisine is often divided into three main categories, based on the three main regions, north, central and south. It is mainly based on rice, soy sauce, and fish sauce. Its characteristic flavor is sweet (sugar), spicy (Serrano peppers), and flavored by a variety of mints. Different regions invented different types of noodles, varying in shapes, tastes, colours, etc. Phở , a soup consisting of and beef soup, originated from North Vietnam and has reached a level of worldwide popularity. It can be served for breakfast, lunch or dinner. Although Vietnam lies geographically in Southeast Asia, long periods of Chinese domination and influence has resulted in the emergence of many East Asian characteristics in Vietnamese culture, and generally Vietnam is said to be part of the East Asian cultural sphere, known widely as Chinese cultural sphere.

Socio-cultural Influence

Vietnamese phở restaurants usually retain the cultural practice of not delivering the bill to a customer's tables, since it is considered rude—in Vietnamese culture, it is seen as a way of trying to rush the customer out the door. Most tables usually have a numbering system and have chopsticks, spoons and condiment dispensers. It is customary to take a napkin and wipe off the chopsticks and spoon that are about to be used. There are also and available for dipping meat.

27 Comments from the Author

• Regarding observations about questionable food handling practices

Many operators of smaller ethnic food establishments must have come to the U.S. with no or very limited knowledge of English. The communication barrier poses a real challenge for the complete understanding of the food regulations in the U.S. if not translated in their language. Or, if there is a translation, there is a real danger of not translating it accurately, compounding the problem. Without complete comprehension of what is at stake, it is difficult to expect these operators to internalize and implement Most of the small operators probably do not have experience operating food establishments in the country of origin, or if they had prior experience, chances are, food regulations there were not as well established. Chances are, food recalls, food outbreaks and foodborne illnesses are not well documented, so the importance of food safety does not have as much impact. This adjustment to regulations poses another challenge for people who regard cooking as an art, not a science. If this is the case, it is difficult to instill in them the appreciation or the critical need to observe and follow food regulations, even the concept of cooking and holding temperatures. Open and wet markets and street foods are common features in their cultures. Sanitation and cleanliness are real challenges in these areas, particularly if no running water or sewers. Hence, if these are what these food operators were used to, then it is not a surprise that some of their food practices are below the standard expected of food establishments. Add to this their social status, impacting their level of education and exposure. They bring with them old food habits and practices. However, since these food operators are conducting their business here in the U.S., they have to abide by the food regulations. Addressing the issue of implementation and enforcement takes several stakeholders to play a role. Trust needs to be established for to take place. There have been some positive initiatives that could serve as models, including faith based groups getting involved in training operators who belong to their churches or faith groups, or involving liaisons like Chambers of Commerce or perhaps even the Michigan Restaurant Association.

• Regarding questionable food preparation and cooking practices

Some food preparation and cooking practices have been handed from generations. It is important to understand the principles of cooking involved to be able to understand why foods are prepared a certain way, and to assess how these practices may be modified to make it safer. This is easier said than done. Associations who can serve as liaisons can facilitate communication. Collaborative efforts between the community and academe/research are needed to pursue research to characterize the functional and microbiological properties of various ethnics foods. Then research results need to be extended and conveyed to food operators by extension educators who also need to be educated.

28 FOOD SAFETY Issues and Challenges with Ethnic Foods Ethnic Foods of Concern and Exotic Ethnic Foods

This Chapter will focus on some of the ethnic foods associated with ethnic food outbreaks, and the unfamiliar and exotic (sometimes regarded as “bizarre”) ethnic and specialty foods. Understanding how and why these foods are prepared a certain way will help food inspectors determine the potential sources of contamination. They can then help identify critical control points and HACCP measures to recommend to food establishments. The temperatures indicated here are based on the 2005 Food Code.

Ethnic Foods Associated with Ethnic Food Outbreaks, Identified as Unfamiliar or of food safety concern by food inspectors.

Type of Fooda,b,c Ethnic Origin A. Associated with Ethnic Outbreaksa Fried Rice Asian Egg rolls Asian Chow mein Asian Salad Asian Soups Asian Seafood Asian Tacos Mexican Burritos Mexican Chili Mexican Mexican Enchiladas Mexican Mexican Mexican Mexican

B. Ethnic Foods of Public Health Concernb Sushi, Sashimi Japanese Peking Duck Chinese Balut Filipino, Vietnamese, Cambodian Rice Cakes Asian Kimchee Korean Ethnic Mexican Whole Roasted pig Filipino, Mexican, Chinese soup Vietnamese Ceviche Mexican

C. Unfamiliar to food inspectorsc and chicken feet Chinese Internal organs Asian, Mexican

Source : a Simonne et al., 2004 ; b Mauer et al., 2006 ; c Personal communication with food inspectors

30 FRIED RICE and OTHER RICE DISHES

Fried Rice – Asian Region

Description Preparation and Cooking

It is made from cold leftover rice sauteed Fried rice is usually made from rice with other fresh or leftover ingredients. which has already been cooked by Although it originated as a home made boiling. Left-over rice is refrigerated. dish from China, variations are served in The wok is heated with oil until it starts most Asian countries, each with their . Minced garlic is sauteed own variation of ingredients. In the before adding the cold rice which is West, Chinese restaurants catering to stirred quickly and uniformly to prevent non-Chinese clientele have invented burning, and to coat the rice grains with their own varieties of fried rice including oil to prevent sticking. The rice is egg fried rice. The most common form is flavored to and stirred thoroughly, a basic fried rice, often with some then the other ingredients are added. Bits mixture of eggs, scallions, and of scrambled egg provide color in many vegetables with chopped meat or tofu. dishes. It can be seasoned with black pepper, soy sauce, which also gives its brown color and taste, or fish sauce. Popular garnishes include fried or raw green onions, sprigs of , diced , or sliced chillis. Common Varieties of Fried Rice

• Canton (or Mui Fan) fried rice - Cantonese fried rice served with sauce or • Yangchow (or ) fried rice - Fried rice consisting of shrimp, scrambled egg, along with barbecued pork. This is the most popular fried rice served in Chinese restaurants, referred to as "special fried rice" or "house fried rice." • Yuan yang fried rice - Fried rice dish topped with a savory white sauce on one half, and a red tomato-based sauce on the other half. • Thai fried rice - Flavor from various additions not found in . • or kimchi bokeumbap - A popular variety of fried rice prepared with Korean pickled cabbage, kimchi, and other ingredients. • Garlic fried rice - Known as sinangag, this Filipino version only contains garlic • Bimbimbap - Korean "mixed rice" topped with vegetables, beef and egg, and served with a dollop of paste. A variation of this dish, , is served in a heated stone bowl, in which a raw egg is cooked against the sides of the bowl.

31 Sizzling Rice - Chinese

Description This is rice that has been dried and deep-fried and then served sizzling hot as an ingredient in a variety of dishes. The most common way to serve is in sizzling rice soup, which usually has a chicken base. It is also used in stir-fry meals in which the rice sizzles as hot sauce is poured over it. Although restaurants prefer to make their own, Asian markets sell packaged rice cakes which some establishments might substitute for the dried rice.

Preparation

Sizzling rice preparation involves several steps. First, rice is cooked by steaming or boiling. Once the rice is cooked, the residue that is stuck to the bottom of the pan is what is used to make sizzling rice (it can also be made from regular steamed rice). The rice is scraped out, into a thin layer and then dried. Once a sizzling rice dish is ordered, the rice is deep-fried in a hot wok and taken immediately out to the table where it is added to soup or sauce, thus creating the ‘sizzling’ effect. Courtesy of US-FDA-Atlanta,GA

Mexican - Rice

Description

Rice is a Mexican staple served as a or as a filling for . Versions vary according to the ingredients and the preparation.

Preparation

The rice is first soaked to remove the , rinsed and sautéed in a large saucepan or skillet over medium heat until the rice begins to brown. It is then added to sautéed chopped garlic, onions and tomatoes and further cooked. After a few minutes, water, tomato sauce and spices are added and the mixture is brought to a boil, then covered and simmered until tender.

32 Risk Factors and Regulatory Concerns for Rice Dishes

Inadequate Cooking Temperatures

Many food establishments take rice directly from the refrigerator to the steam table without first reheating the product. Because the rice is very dense, it is difficult to get it to proper temperature. The rice must be reheated to 165°F before placing on the steam table. Once on the steam table, it must be held continuously at 135°F or above. Many food establishments also hold rice cooked for lunch or dinner service out of temperature control for longer than 4 hours prior to placing it on the steam table.

Improper Holding Temperatures

Leaving rice at temperature is a violation of the Food Code. Rice is mainly starch, a very effective medium for fermentation. Also a concern in fried rice is the incorporation of protein ingredients in the form of eggs and meat, which are quite susceptible to food spoilage and a risk factor for . If is improperly held at room temperature, Bacillus cereus may grow and produce a heat stable toxin in the product which may cause illness when consumed. Rice is usually prepared in large quantities and then often left out at room temperature. This practice of leaving rice out may be due to the following factors: - Food establishments may be reluctant to refrigerate the warm rice due to the possibility of fermentation or (U.S.- FDA, 2007). Advise them to pack in smaller containers to cool faster. - This is a practice in many rural areas due to lack of refrigeration facilities - The practice of cooking the rice over firewood in a dirty kitchen resulting in scorching at the bottom of the pot/over-drying the rice. The resulting over- dried rice appears to keep longer due to its lower moisture content.

Cross Contamination

Some food establishments place trays or pans of rice outdoors to dry in the sun, which exposes the product to environmental contamination and microbial proliferation. To prevent the growth and possible toxin formation of Bacillus cereus, the rice should be dried in an that would maintain the rice temperature during drying at 135°F or above, or dried uncovered in the refrigerator. Once the rice is completely dried, it should be properly cooled and stored in an air-tight container or refrigerated until used. If a facility wants to dry the rice at room temperature or below 135°F in an oven, they must obtain a variance and prepare the rice under an approved HACCP plan.

33 Control Measures for Rice

Sizzling Rice

Observe or ask the establishment to describe their method of drying rice used in sizzling rice dishes.

Verify that rice used for sizzling rice is dried in an oven or refrigerator. Any rice being held at room temperature must be discarded, or should have an approved HACCP plan that is implemented for drying rice.

Confirm that the dried rice has a water activity (A ) of 0.85 or below, or is held at w 41°F or below.

Mexican and Fried Rice

Cold Holding

Observe the cooling procedures for rice. Typical problems to look for are rice kept in large stock pots. If the food establishment claims to be cooling the rice in smaller containers and then placing them back in the larger container, suggest that they keep a log of the procedure. Rice must be cooled from 135°F to 41°F within six hours as described in the Food Code, provided that it is cooled from 135°F to 70°F within the first two hours. If the procedure is not getting the temperature to 41° F in six hours, the food inspector should assist in making changes in the cool-down procedures, such as using an ice bath, smaller containers or thin layers on sheet pans.

Hot Holding

Observe the reheating procedure for rice. It must be reheated to 165°F within two hours before placing on the steam table for hot holding.

Observe the hot holding procedure. Reheated rice must be hot held at 135°F or above.

34 Egg Rolls – Chinese, Vietnamese, Filipino

Description

A form of filled with vegetables (could be bean sprouts, cabbage, or green papaya) and deep- fried. Meat and or shrimp can also be added. Other Asian countries like Vietnam and the (lumpia), have the equivalent springrolls made of rice paper roll (Refer to Section on Noodles and Dumplings).

Preparation and Cooking

Vegetables commonly used are bean sprouts, minced or shredded cabbage mixed with grated carrots, or for the Filipino lumpia, grated green papaya or of palm, with pork. The vegetables and cubed or shredded meat are cooked ahead. A scoop of the mixture is placed in the wrapper which is rolled enveloped-style and sealed with an egg wash. The rolls are then deep-fat fried. In the case of springrolls, they can also be served fresh, as in the case of the Filipino lumpia and the Vietnamese fresh .

Risk Factors and Regulatory Concerns for Egg Rolls

Inadequate Cooking Temperatures

The vegetables and meat are usually prepared ahead and cooked, made into egg rolls and kept in the refrigerator until ready to deep-fat fry. The vegetables must be heated to 130oF; the pork and beef should heat to 145oF, and if comminuted, the mixture must be heated to 155oF. The egg rolls must be cooked and/or reheated to 165°F.

Improper Holding Temperatures

Once on the steam table, egg rolls must be held continuously at 135°F or above. Many food establishments hold egg rolls cooked for lunch out of temperature control for longer than 4 hours. Some retail establishments sell egg rolls held at room temperature for several hours. Egg rolls must be cooled from 130oF to 70oF within 2 hours, and from 70oF to 41oF within 4 hours. They can be kept chilled for 4 days at 45oF if prepared with meat or shrimp.

Contamination

The egg rolls are ready-to-eat after deep-fat frying, and should not be handled with bare hands.

35

Critical Control Points for Egg Rolls and Spring Rolls

Check that the cooking temperatures are observed: - 140oF for 15 seconds for the shredded vegetables -145oF for 15 seconds for the pork and beef; 165oF for 15 seconds for chicken - 155oF for 15 seconds if comminuted - 165oF for 15 seconds for cooking the egg rolls

Egg rolls must be cooled from 135°F to 70°F within 2 hours, and from 70oF to 41oF within 4 hours.

If egg rolls are prepared ahead of time, they should be kept at 41oF for 7 days, and at 45oF for 4 days.

Egg rolls prepared ahead of time and kept in the walk-in cooler must be reheated to 165°F for 15 seconds before hot holding.

Avoid bare-hand contact of the RTE deep-fat rolls.

36 Noodles – Chinese, Thai, Korean, Japanese, Vietnamese & Filipino

Description

Asian noodles are ribbon-type . Various types of noodles result from different used to prepare the . It is commonly referred to as chow mein in Chinese, and pansit in Filipino.

Preparation and Cooking

Most dried Asian noodles are best soaked in hot water for several minutes prior to further preparation, to soften the noodle strands, separate the bundles, and allow noodles to cook more evenly. Dried rice can be fried in hot oil without presoaking. Egg noodles are sold as fresh or dried; fresh “nests” are available in the refrigerated sections of Asian markets, and should be shaken prior to use. Fresh rice noodles are packaged cooked and wet in wide, pliable “hanks”, and are cut into ribbons without unwinding and stirred into a dish. Japanese somen are fine, glossy and white in appearance and sold dried in various colors and flavors. Udon are wide, flat, ribbonlike noodles available dried, fresh or precooked in a variety of widths (Refer to Section on Noodles and Dumplings for various types of noodles). Vegetables including shredded Chinese cabbage or bokchoy, julienned carrots, bean sprouts or even green beans are prepared ahead. Minced garlic is heated in a little oil in a hot wok. The vegetables and then the softened noodles are added and sautéed. Shrimp and/ or slices of meat (pork, chicken or beef) or tofu are usually incorporated. Chopped garlic onions and julienned red and green peppers are used for garnishing.

Risk Factors and Regulatory Concerns for Noodle Dishes

Contaminated Vegetables

The vegetables, including green onions, must be thoroughly washed before chopping or shredding.

Inadequate Cooking Temperatures

The noodle dish must be heated to 165°F for 15 seconds before placing on the steam table.

37

Improper Holding Temperatures

Once on the steam table, the noodle dish must be held continuously at 135°F or above.

Improper Cooling

Some establishments just leave the cooked (blanched) noodles at room temperature after cooling, to be used and mixed with other ingredients later when an order for the dish has been placed.

Control Measures

Ensure raw vegetables are thoroughly washed, including the green onions. Check that the temperature for cooking the noodle dish is at least 165oF for 15 seconds. Any meat added should be cooked to at least 145oF for pork and beef, and 165oF for chicken. Shrimps must be cooked until they turn pink Check that the noodle dish is hot held at 135oF or above

38 Burritos and Tacos and Tostadas – Mexican

Description

Burrito is a large flour or with a variety of fillings, such as beans, beef, or pork.

Taco is a fried corn tortilla, topped with a variety of ingredients, including beans, meat, , onions, lettuce, tomatoes, sour cream or guacamole. The wheat version can also be served as “soft ”.

Preparation and Cooking

To make a , meat is grilled and sliced into thin strips and placed on the tortilla, mixed with onions, shredded lettuce, diced tomatoes, and topped with shredded cheese, sour cream, salsa or guacamole. The tortilla is wrapped around the filling and rolled in the shape of a log. The taco or contains the same fillings and toppings, except that the tortilla is not rolled like the burrito. The tortilla can also be fried (tostada), and in the U.S., the shell is shaped into a pocket to hold the filling.

Risk Factors and Regulatory Concerns for Burritos, Tacos and Tostadas

Inadequate Cooking Temperatures

The fillings and toppings are usually prepared ahead. The meat should be grilled to the recommended temperatures : beef to 145oF, and chicken to 165oF.

Improper Holding Temperatures

Once on the steam table, the grilled meat must be held continuously at 135°F or above. They should be held from 130oF to 70oF within 2 hours, and from 70oF to 41oF within 4 hours.

Contamination

The vegetables should be washed well prior to chopping using a clean chopping board. Since the product is a ready-to-eat food, there should be no bare hand contact.

39 Critical Control Points for Burritos and Tacos

Food handlers should wash hands properly and should wear disposable gloves when handling the fillings.

Check that the cooking (grilling) temperatures are observed:

• 145oF for 15 seconds for beef; • 165oF for 15 seconds for chicken;

Fillings must be held at 135oF or above in the steam table.

Sauces must be kept chilled in the serving line, as well as stored in the refrigerator after use

Fillings must be cooled from 135°F to 70°F within 2 hours, and from 70oF to 41oF within 4 hours.

40 Chile Rellenos – Mexican and Filipino

Description Photos courtesy of US-FDA, Atlanta, GA is a roasted and peeled pepper (traditionally, a poblano pepper) that is stuffed with beef, pork or cheese, dipped in a light egg and fried or oven roasted, served as a main entrée with rice and beans. In less traditional Mexican establishments, it is a ground beef patty shaped into a ball with pieces of pepper and covered with a flour, egg and cheese batter. Most restaurants prepare them in-house from scratch, but some purchase frozen, precooked chile rellenos from suppliers.

Preparation and Cooking

The meat filling used in the chile relleno is ground beef usually prepared daily and held on the steam table or stovetop and also utilized in other entrees such as tacos and burritos. The meat is browned, drained, and onions, garlic, and tomatoes added, and the mixture further cooked (baked or sautéed). The peppers are roasted, the skin and seeds removed and stuffed with the meat filling and coated with a batter made from eggs, and flour. Some establishments encase the pepper in an egg roll wrapper instead of coating it with the egg batter. The rellenos are then oven roasted or deep fried. They may be served plain or with a light tomato sauce or melted cheese. The patty-type of chile relleno may be prepared 1-2 weeks in advance of service. The preparation method involves shaping ground beef into a ball with pieces of pepper, then covering it with a cheese, egg and flour coating. The product is then flash fried in a deep fryer long enough to melt the batter around the ground beef, and held frozen until needed.

Risk Factors and Regulatory Concern for Chile relleno

Improper Holding Temperatures

If authentic chile rellenos are precooked days in advance, they must be properly cooled and held until used. For chile rellenos that are made to order, each potentially hazardous ingredient, including peppers, should be maintained at required temperatures. Some establishments will hold the roasted peppers at room temperature. The patty-type of chile rellenos are taken from the freezer each day and placed in the cooler or held on the countertop for thawing. Establishments will often leave them out at room temperature to warm up the product so it takes less time to heat it during the lunch and dinner rush. When ordered, some operators will heat the chile relleno in the microwave first, then cover it with cheese and place it on a plate with rice and beans in the oven. Others will put it directly on the plate in the oven.

41 Inadequate Cooking

If a chile relleno is fully cooked, it can be served at any temperature. If it is partially cooked and then cooled, the product must be cooked throughout to the minimum internal temperature for ground beef prior to service.

Control Measures

Confirm that cooked peppers are hot held at 135°F or above or cooled properly and cold held at 41°F or below.

Verify that the patty-type chile relleno is cooked to 155°F.

Ensure that the chile rellenos are cooled properly and held at 41°F or below prior to use, or time as a public health control with proper documentation is implemented, then discarded if not served within 4 hours.

42 Salsa – Mexican

Description

In the U.S., salsa usually refers to the spicy, often tomato-based hot sauces typical of Mexican cuisine, particularly those used as dips. As a result of America's openness to ethnic foods, salsa has now overtaken as the number one manufactured condiment.

Preparation

Mexican salsas were traditionally produced using the mortar and pestle-like molcajete. Well-known known salsas include:

• , "red sauce": used as a condiment in Mexican and southwestern U.S. cuisine, and usually made with cooked tomatoes, chili peppers, , garlic, and fresh cilantro. • Salsa cruda ("raw sauce"), also known as ("'s beak"), salsa picada ("chopped sauce"), salsa mexicana ("Mexican sauce"), or salsa fresca ("fresh sauce"): made with raw tomatoes, lime juice, chilli peppers, onions, cilantro leaves, and other coarsely chopped raw ingredients. • , "": Mexican version made with tomatillos. Sauces made with tomatillos are usually cooked. • Salsa taquera, "Taco sauce": Made with tomatillos and morita chili. • Salsa ranchera, "ranch-style sauce": made with tomatoes, various chilies, and spices. Typically served warm, it possesses a thick, soupy quality. Though it contains none, it imparts a characteristic flavor reminiscent of black pepper. • Salsa brava, "wild sauce": a mildly spicy sauce, often flavored with paprika.

Picante sauce is a term coined by condiment maker David Pace for his own version of salsa. Picante sauce is usually a little more pureed than bottled salsa, but is chunkier than fresh red salsa. Picante is a Spanish adjective that derives from picar, which means "to sting". Pace Picante Sauce is a brand frequently mistaken as a salsa.

Risk Factors and Regulatory Concerns for Salsa

Contamination

Raw vegetables and fruits not properly washed, or contaminated by uncleaned hands.

43 Storage Temperature not Adequate

Many grocery stores in the United States also sell "fresh," refrigerated salsa, usually in plastic containers. Care should be taken in the preparation and storage of salsa due to the fact that many raw-served varieties can serve as a good growth medium for potentially dangerous bacteria, especially when unrefrigerated. In a 2002 , it was found that 66% of the sauces tested (71 samples tested) from restaurants in Guadalajara, and 40% of those from Houston, Texas, were contaminated with E. coli bacteria, although only the sauces from Guadalajara contained the types of E. coli that cause diarrhea. The researchers found that the Mexican sauces from Guadalajara more frequently contained fecal contaminants and higher levels of the bacteria than those of the sauces from Houston, possibly as a result of more common improper refrigeration of the Mexican sauces.

Not enough acidity

There are fresh all-natural jarred salsa products produced regionally that do not use artificial ingredients or chemicals to enhance shelf life. Among the most well known are Jack's Special made by Garden Fresh Salsa in Ferndale, Michigan, El Pinto Salsa made by The Salsa Twins and Jim & John Thomas in New Mexico. Fresh salsa has a shorter shelf life than canned or jarred salsa, and may or may not contain vinegar. It should be noted that salsa spoils faster than other condiments and may be purchased more often than condiments with longer shelf lives.

Control Measures

Wash hands properly before handling fresh vegetables and fruits Wash all fresh vegetables and fruits to be used Use clean chopping board separate from those used for cutting meat Fresh salsas should be refrigerated within two hours after preparation, especially if there is no vinegar added. Discard any fresh salsa left sitting at room temperature for more than two hours. Processed salsas should be refrigerated after containers have been opened.

44 – Mexican

Description

Filled and rolled tortillas placed in a , then layered with sauce and cheese and chopped onions or , sour cream, lettuce, chili peppers, and fresh cilantro. Fried eggs or cecina (salted, cooked strips of meat like ) may be added or as a side dish.

Preparation and Cooking

This dish is made with a corn (maiz) tortilla dipped briefly in hot or oil to soften then dipped in the chosen enchilada sauce. The traditional enchilada sauce is prepared using dried red chile peppers soaked and ground into a sauce with other seasonings. Red enchilada sauce is tomato-based with red chiles, while green enchilada sauce is made of tomatillos and green chiles. may also serve as enchilada sauce. American, or Southwestern Style Enchiladas use raw corn tortillas instead of fried, and stacked flat. They are placed in a casserole dish, and alternately layered with cooked, parceled chicken breast, chili strips, and grated Cheddar and Monterey Jack Cheese. The stack is covered with cream of and topped with grated cheese, and baked uncovered until done. It is served with a ring of shredded lettuce and chopped tomatoes. A more traditional found in and New Mexico have individual tortillas dipped in red chile sauce and stacked like , with each layer sprinkled with cheese and minced onion. The stack is topped off with fried egg, which is also smothered in red chile.

Risk Factors and Regulatory Concern for Enchiladas

Source of Vegetables

The raw vegetables including lettuce, green onions, chile peppers, and tomatoes might come from contaminated sources. The vegetables might also not be washed properly/thoroughly, or get contaminated during the chopping procedure.

Improper Holding Temperatures

Since the filling and sauce are prepared before assembling the enchiladas, baking in an oven serves to heat through rather than cook the dish. The enchilada sauce and the filling if made in large quantities may be left sitting out at room temperature to cool. If prepared ahead of time, they may be taken directly from the refrigerator to the steam table without first reheating the product.

45

Control Measures

Verify the raw vegetables were obtained from reliable sources, and that they have been thoroughly washed. Verify the cooling procedure for the sauce and the filling. It must be cooled from 135°F to 41°F within 6 hours, provided that they are cooled from 135°F to 70°F within the first two hours. Confirm the reheating procedure for the chilled sauce and filling must be 165°F within 2 hours before placing on a steam table or other hot holding unit. Once on the steam table, verify that the sauce and the filling is at 135°F or above during hot holding. The sauce and filling may also be reheated and held at room temperature using time as a public health control with documentation.

Safety Notes - 2003 Hepatitis A outbreak

In autumn 2003, four elderly people died and about 660 others were sickened by Chi-Chi's food. Initially, they could not find any violations that could have caused the outbreak. Eventually, public health authorities traced the food poisoning outbreak to hepatitis A virus on green onions.

46 Mexican

Refried beans (frijoles refritos)

Description

Cooked and mashed beans which is a traditional staple of Mexican, Latin American and Southwestern United States cuisine. It is served as a side dish or as a filling for various tortilla preparations. They may also be served as a side dish accompanying a larger meal, or rolled in a tortilla to form a bean burrito. In the US, they have become a very popular dip for corn tortilla chips. They are a primary ingredient in many tostadas, , and pupusas recipes. In addition, they are a typical ingredient in layered dips, such as seven layer dip, in nachos, and are especially implied when a dish is referred to as nachos grande.

Preparation and Cooking

Either black or pinto beans are soaked for several hours or overnight and then boiled, drained of most of the remaining liquid, converted into a paste with a bean masher and fried with lard or , typically in a cast iron pot. Onion, garlic, and spices are sautéed in the oil before the beans are added. The cooked beans are partially or completely mashed into a smooth paste.

Risk Factor and Regulatory Concern

Photos courtesy of US-FDA, Atlanta, GA Improper Holding Temperatures

Refried beans are usually made in large quantities and often left sitting out at room temperature to cool. Food establishments may be reluctant to refrigerate the beans in large quantities while still hot, concerned that the product will sour or ferment. Many food establishments take refried beans directly from the refrigerator to the steam table without first reheating the product. Because the beans are very dense, it is difficult to get them up to proper temperature.

47

Control Measures

Verify the cooling procedures for refried beans. Refried beans must be cooled from 135°F to 41°F within 6 hours, provided that they are cooled from 135°F to 70°F within the first two hours. If refried beans are being cooled and stored in refrigerators in bus pans and large stock pots, advise operators to cool large containers in an ice bath, by using a chill stick, or by placing the beans in shallow pans before refrigerating. Times of inspections should be varied so that different phases of cooling can be observed.

Confirm the reheating procedure for refried beans. Beans must be reheated to 165°F within 2 hours before placing on a steam table or other hot holding unit.

Once on the steam table, verify that beans are maintained at 135°F or above during hot holding.

The beans may also be reheated and held at room temperature using time as a public health control with documentation.

48 Nachos – Mexican

Description

This dish is just tortilla chips covered in melted cheese. First created in 1943 by Ignacio "Nacho" Anaya, the original nachos consisted of fried tortilla chips covered with melted cheese and jalapeño peppers.

Preparation

A traditional version consists of a quartered tostada topped with a layer of refried beans and/or various meats and a layer of shredded cheese. Additional toppings include ground beef or chicken, Jalapeño pepper slices, other spicy or mild peppers, onions, salsa, guacamole, refried beans, sour cream, lettuce and/or tomatoes and olives.

Processed cheese is often used in place of freshly shredded cheese in institutional or large-scale production settings, such as schools, movie theaters, sports venues, and convenience stores, or wherever using freshly grated cheese may be logistically prohibitive. Such processed cheese is referred to informally in the United States as "nacho cheese", though the term "nacho cheese" does not denote any particular variety of cheese. In Memphis, Tennessee, barbecue nachos are served in most barbecue restaurants, with part of the toppings. A similar dish is found in Tex-Mex restaurants where small bowls of chili con queso and/or, more commonly, salsa, are served with baskets of warm tortilla chips as appetizers.

Risk Factors and Regulatory Concerns for Nachos

Contamination

If food handlers are not wearing gloves when handling the fresh toppings, contamination is likely to occur since this is a ready-to-eat food.

Undercooking/Improper Hot Holding Temperature

Meat used as topping may not be properly cooked or hot held at the recommended temperatures. If the cheese used is fresh cheese, it may have been made from raw milk

Cold Holding

Cheeses and other fresh vegetables may not be held at a temperature of 41oF or below before utilization.

Control Measures

49 Verify that if fresh cheese is utilized as topping, that it is not made from raw milk Verify that the meat toppings have been cooked and hot held at the recommended temperatures.

Since this is a ready to eat product, verify that there is no bare contact from the food handlers

50 Guacamole – Mexican

Description

Guacamole is usually any sauce where the main ingredient is ripened avocado mixed with diced tomatoes, lemon/lime juice, onion, and cilantro. It is usually served as a topping for tacos, burritos, and enchiladas.

Preparation

Ripe are chopped to create a coarse consistency, and mixed with diced tomatoes and chopped onions. It is garnished with cilantro and lime/lime juice is added both for flavor and to prevent the avocados from turning brown.

Risk Factors and Regulatory Concerns for Guacamole

Contamination

Avocadoes and tomatoes not properly washed, or contaminated by uncleaned hands.

Storage Temperature not Adequate

Many grocery stores in the United States also sell "fresh," refrigerated guacamole usually in plastic containers. Care should be taken in the preparation and storage of fresh guacamole because it can serve as an effective medium for bacteria especially when unrefrigerated.

Control Measures

Wash hands properly before handling fresh vegetables and fruits Wash all fresh vegetables and fruits to be used Use clean chopping board separate from those used for cutting meat Fresh guacamole should be refrigerated within two hours after preparation. Discard any fresh guacamole left sitting at room temperature for more than two hours. Processed guacamole should be refrigerated after the container has been opened.

51 RAW FISH and

Sashimi - Japanese

Description

Sashimi is delicately sliced raw seafood served with only a . Popular main ingredients for sashimi include : Sake (); Ika () ; Ebi (Cooked Shrimp) ; Maguro (); Saba (Mackerel); Toro (Fatty Tuna); Hamachi (Yellowtail) ; () and Tako (). Wrappings include (dried seaweed); soybean skins (thin strips of tofu); rice paper; thinly sliced sheets of cucumber and : thinly cooked sweet omelet.

Preparation

Sashimi is prepared using very fresh raw fish sliced into bite-sized pieces and garnished. Grated daikon (radish) or wasabi (Japanese horseradish), which add a pungent flavor, are provided along with a small side bowl of dipping sauce (soy sauce reduced with sake taste) for the fish slices. Tataki ("pounded") is a type of sashimi where sliced onion is placed on top of the uncut fish piece and tapped with the side of the cutting blade to transfer the flavor. It is quickly and lightly seared outside, leaving it raw inside. Some ingredients (ex. octopus) are sometimes served cooked due to its chewy nature. Less common sashimi ingredients are vegetarian items such as yuba (bean curd skin) and raw red meats (beef, , or chicken).

Sushi - Japanese

Description

In the U.S., sushi is used to describe sticky vinegar rice that is shaped into bite- sized pieces and topped with raw or cooked fish, or formed into a roll with fish, egg or vegetables and wrapped in seaweed. Fish commonly used in sushi includes salmon, snapper, tuna, mackerel and yellowtail. Seafood also includes fish , , ,

52 , and . Additional ingredients include , avocado, cucumber, mushrooms and seaweed.

Types of Sushi

Nigiri-sushi is little fingers of rice topped with a fillet of raw or cooked fish or shellfish and sometimes dipped in wasabi. Maki-sushi is rice and seaweed rolls with fish and/or vegetables. Most maki places the nori on the outside. Types of maki-sushi chu maki: middle sized rolled maki sushi with multiple ingredients futo maki: thick rolled maki sushi with several ingredients hoso maki: thinly rolled maki sushi with typically only one ingredient

Chirashi-sushi ( "scattered sushi" ) is a bowl or box of sushi rice topped with a variety (usually nine) of sashimi. Temaki-sushi is a hand-rolled cone of sushi rice, fish and vegetables wrapped in nori

Inari-sushi is fried tofu pouches stuffed with sushi rice.

Preparation

In Japan, one must train for more than ten years before earning the title of master sushi chef or ‘shokunin’. Sushi is made with white, short-grained, mixed with a dressing made of , sugar, salt, nori and sake. Once it is cooked, it is cooled to body temperature before being used. There are regional variations in the preparation of sushi rice. Most of the variations are in the rice vinegar dressing; some contain more salt, others are made with more sugar.

Some sushi are cooked (shrimp, crab, octopus) and others are served raw. It is always served with wasabi (a very spicy green horseradish paste), soy sauce and pickled ginger. was supposedly created by sushi chefs in Los Angeles restaurants in the 1970’s for American diners who were squeamish about eating raw fish. It consists of cooked crab, cucumber and avocado where the seaweed is placed on the inside.

Risk Factors and Regulatory Concerns for Raw Fish and Seafood

Food From Unsafe Sources

53 Fish that is not purchased from an approved source may not be properly acquired or handled prior to shipping and can contain toxins harmful to humans: Ex. ciguatera and scombroid toxins.

Ciguatera is an illness caused by eating fish that contain toxins called ciguatoxins, produced by a marine algae microorganism. The toxin is acquired by the fish through the food chain and mostly affects fish that feed close to tropical reefs, including red snapper, , triggerfish, jacks and barracuda, even salmon. The larger the fish, the more likely they are to contain the toxin. Cooking does not prevent ciguatera. People who have ciguatera may experience nausea, vomiting, and neurologic symptoms such as tingling fingers or toes. They also may find that cold things feel hot and hot things feel cold.

Improper Holding Temperatures

Scombroid toxin is formed when bacteria present on the fish produces the enzyme histidine decarboxylase which converts histidine that is naturally in the fish’s flesh to histamine, which is toxic to humans upon eating the fish. The infective dose is not known. Histamine poisoning causes allergic reactions such as itching, rashes and shortness of breath. The presence of the toxin does not make the fish smell bad or otherwise appear spoiled. Once histamine is present, neither freezing nor cooking the fish will eliminate it. The only control for scombroid toxin is prevention, by maintaining proper temperature of the fish from harvest through service. The fish most frequently affected by scombroid poisoning include mackerel, tuna, mahi-mahi and bluefish.

Raw seafood must be frozen in order to destroy parasites. Parasitic worms live in many species of fish. When live worms are consumed in raw fish flesh by humans, they can cause acute abdominal pain, and in some cases have to be surgically removed from the stomach lining. Cooking or freezing fish to required temperatures will destroy them.

Many sushi establishments are acquiring fresh fish that have never been frozen, and therefore have not undergone parasite destruction. Most refrigerators in retail facilities are unable to freeze fish to the temperatures required to destroy parasitic worms. Operators who have equipment capable of freezing the fish to proper temperatures must keep records on how long they froze the fish and to what temperature(s) the fish was frozen. These records must be maintained for 90 days. If they cannot prove that they are able to freeze the fish adequately in-house, they must have a written agreement or statement from the supplier stipulating that the fish supplied are frozen to a temperature and for a time capable of destroying parasites. Most tuna species, aquacultured fish such as salmon and molluscan shellfish, are exempt from freezing (3-40211).

Signs of Temperature Abuse in Frozen Fish

• Sour odor • Off color • Sunken eyes

54 • Ice crystals formed on fish • Paper wrapping is moist, slimy or discolored

pH above 4.2

Sushi rice typically includes vinegar and sugar in the recipe. Laboratory tests have indicated that sushi rice made in the traditional method has a pH of 4.2 or less, and does not require time-temperature control for safety. As a result, sushi restaurants and markets that make their own sushi and wish to hold the rice at room temperature can do so if they receive a variance from the regulatory authority and operate under a HACCP plan. They must also have a pH meter, routinely calibrated against a known buffer, or test strips to regularly check the pH of the product. If the establishment does not want to apply for a variance, they can use time as a public health control for the rice. This requires that each batch of rice be identified with the time, that, is 4 hours past the point in time when the rice was removed from temperature control, should be used or discarded.

Poor Personal Hygiene

Sushi, even if not made with raw fish, is a ready-to-eat product because it is consumed in that form. No bare hand contact is allowed during preparation or service at any point. Sushi chefs must wear protective gloves or use other utensils or implements while working to prevent contacting sushi with hands.

Control Measures

Seafood restaurants and operators should only purchase fish from reputable suppliers who can ensure that the fish are not harvested at or near reefs.

The fish must be properly frozen and must be maintained below 41ºF after receipt in food establishments to reduce the risk of exposure to scombroid toxin.

The Food and Drug Administration recommends HACCP controls to enhance safety at the processor/supplier level.

Determine whether the raw fish has been frozen to destroy parasites in-house or at the supplier. Review documentation that raw, raw-marinated, partially cooked, or marinated-partially cooked fish meets the following:

Frozen and stored at -4°F or below for a minimum of 7 days in a freezer Frozen at -31°F or below until solid, and stored at -31°F or below for a minimum of 15 hours or Frozen at -31°F or below until solid, and stored at -4°F or below for a minimum of 24 hours. If the fish is frozen in-house, check freezers to verify that they are capable of maintaining the product at the specified freezing temperatures.

55 Confirm that the fish is stored at 41°F or below prior to service and that prepared sushi is held at 41°F or below or time as a public health control is implemented with proper documentation.

Determine whether fish is fresh by checking for the following signs:

Signs of Freshness in Fish • Eyes are clear and not sunken • Bright red gills • No slime on fish’s body • Scales do not come off easily • Belly area is firm and elastic • No fishy smell

Verify that sushi rice is being prepared under an approved HACCP plan and has a pH of 4.2 or below, is held at 135°F or above, or the facility is using time as a public health control with proper documentation.

Observe the preparation of sushi to ensure that it is prepared with no bare hand contact.

Due to difficulty in cleaning, verify that bamboo mats used to roll sushi are covered/lined with a food grade plastic wrap.

Confirm that the establishment has a consumer advisory that discloses to consumers which items contain raw or undercooked animal food and warns the consumer of the risk of consuming these products.

Safety Note:

Sushi chefs are among the most highly regarded professions in Japan, and they take great pride in their culinary art. It is rare for a sushi restaurant to serve products that are not fresh. However, be especially aware of the holding conditions for sushi in non-Japanese restaurants where it is not unusual for sushi to be left sitting out at room temperature all day. It is also important to monitor the holding procedures for rice because non- Japanese restaurants typically do not prepare rice in the unique way that makes Japanese sushi rice safe at room temperature.

Korean Raw Seafood

Hoe

56 Dish consisting of thinly sliced raw fish and other raw seafood usually dipped in a spicy (spicy Korean condiment from fermented rice) -based sauce called chogochujang or wasabi sauce, and usually wrapped in lettuce and Korean leaves. It is often served on top of a of uncooked .

Sannakji

A South Korean dish which consists of live nakji — Octopus (Octopus) minor, a small octopus — that has been cut into small pieces and served immediately, usually lightly seasoned with sesame and .

RAW MEAT DISHES

Yukhoe - Korean

Dish consisting of raw seasoned ground beef topped off with the yolk of a raw egg, very similar to . It can be seasoned with soy sauce, gochujang, green onion, garlic, sesame seed, sesame oil, sugar, black pepper and nashi pear. The dish is also popular in Japan.

Control Measures for Raw Meats

Become familiar with these specialty foods Review menus and/or products offered Ask how it is prepared, do not assume you know how it is made. Consumer Advisories are available

Sushi - Korean

Description

Korean sushi is known as ‘kim ’. ‘Kim’ means‘seaweed’, ‘bap’ means‘rice’. While similar to Japanese sushi, the following are key differences:

• Korean sushi uses sesame oil and salt, not vinegar. • Korean sushi does not use raw ingredients except for vegetables. • Korean sushi is always wrapped in seaweed and is more of an everyday food, often eaten for lunch or as a snack. • Preparation

Korean sushi is prepared by taking slivers of various ingredients and stacking them on top of a layer of rice. These are then rolled in seaweed and sliced. Typical

57 fillings include thinly-sliced sautéed beef or sausage, crab, fried eggs, carrots, cucumber and pickled radish. It is typically served with kimchi.

Risk Factors and Regulatory Concern for Korean Sushi

Improper Holding Temperatures

The chief regulatory concern with Korean sushi is the rice. Korean sushi rice is made with sesame oil and salt. It is not acidified like the Japanese rice, and therefore must be held at proper temperature or held using time as a public health control.

In addition to kim bap, many Korean eating establishments also prepare Japanese- style sushi using Korean-style rice, so the same regulatory concerns apply. In many cases, not only rice, but also completely prepared sushi rolls are left sitting out at room temperature. The same regulations that apply to the rice also apply to the sushi rolls.

Poor Personal Hygiene

Since Sushi is a ready-to-eat product, employees must not contact the food with their bare hands. They must wear protective gloves or use other utensils or implements while working to prevent possible contamination of the sushi.

Control Measures

Confirm that rice is held at 135 ºF or above

Confirm that prepared sushi is held at 41°F or below.

If time control is implemented, the food establishment must mark the item to show the time 4 hours past the time it was taken out of temperature control and must be used or discarded. Time as a public health control should be implemented with proper documentation.

Monitor sushi preparation to ensure that there is no bare hand contact with ready-to-eat food.

58 Peking Duck – Chinese

Description

This is a famous Beijing dish with a thin, crispy skin, also referred to as Peking Roast Duck, Beijing Duck or Beijing Roast Duck . Most Chinese restaurants will make two dishes out of one duck -- one with thin slices of skin with a small layer of fat, or none at all underneath, and a stir-fried duck meat dish.

Preparation and Cooking

It requires a White Pekin Duck with its head and feet still attached. The duckling must be without blemish. It is first inflated with a pump, separating the skin from the body (in ancient times someone with strong would achieve this by blowing through a straw). Then the skin is scalded with boiling water to make it drier and tauter and brushed with molasses so that it acquires a dark, rich color with the slight aroma of caramel during the subsequent cooking process. After drying for half a day, the duck is hung by its neck in a hot oven where it is roasted for an hour or more, during which time the fat of the duck melts off and the skin becomes crispy. It is customarily eaten in a restaurant or bought already prepared at shops or restaurants and taken home to eat. Due to the unavailability of specially reared ducks outside China, regular ducks are often used. In addition, chefs find creative ways to either remove the fat during the skin separation step or cut strategically placed holes near the bottom of the duck to let the grease drip away during cooking. However, the removal of the fat will affect both the texture and taste of the duck. Traditionally, the duck's crispy skin with a small amount of meat attached is shaved off at the table. Pieces of duck skin are placed on steamed "lotus leaf pancakes", along with the sweet noodle sauce and slivered green Chinese scallions. The is rolled up and eaten. The rest of the duck meat, as well as the extremities, are served separately. In restaurants, dripped grease from the duck and the remaining bones are prepared for the patron to take away and use in cooking at home. Alternatively, the bones can be used to make a broth. Variations in the serving of Peking duck exist in the West. Some Cantonese restaurants serve the skin separately from the meat. Mu xu pancakes are often used. Other restaurants use pocket bread or (steamed bun) in place of pancakes. A piece of cucumber is sometimes served along with the scallions to balance the strong flavor and grease.

Risk Factors and Regulatory Concerns for Peking Duck

Contamination

Contamination can occur if duck preparation is not done in a cold room, and food contact surfaces are not frequently cleaned and sanitized. The drying step can also be a

59 source of contamination especially if temperature is conducive for the growth of microorganisms, and the duck is exposed to the environment for a period of time.

Improper Cooking/Holding Temperature

The temperature of roasting may not reach the recommended cook temperature of at least 165oF for 15 seconds, especially in the thickest part. If not immediately served, hot holding temperature in display cases may not reach 135oF.

Control Measures

Verify that the ducks were obtained from approved sources

If preparations are not done in a cold room, verify that there is frequent cleaning of food contact surfaces

Check that final cook temperature of the meat reaches at least 165oF for 15 seconds.

Check that hot holding temperature of display cases is at least 135oF or more.

If held at room temperature using time as a public health control, verify that there is proper documentation and the food discarded

60 Balut - Vietnamese and Filipino

Description

Photos courtesy of US-FDA, Atlanta, GA and Wikipedia

Balut is a fertilized duck egg with a nearly-developed embryo inside that is boiled and eaten straight from the shell. They are considered in Vietnam, Philippines, and Cambodia. Considered a high-protein, hearty snack and believed to be an aphrodisiac, balut is mostly sold while still very hot by street vendors at night right after they have been cooked. They are eaten at home and often served with . The age of the egg before it can be cooked is a matter of local preference. In the Philippines, the perfect balut is 17 days old, at which point it is said to be balut sa puti ("wrapped in white"). The chick inside is not old enough to show its beak, feathers or claws and the bones are undeveloped. However, the Vietnamese prefer their balut matured from 19 days up to 21 days, when the chick is old enough to be recognizable as a baby duck and has bones that will be firm but tender when cooked.

Preparation and Cooknig

In producing balut, fertile duck eggs are incubated for approximately 18 days at a temperature of 108.5°F in incubators with a relatively high humidity. If chicken eggs are used, the incubation period is shorter, 14 days at 99°F. After incubation, baluts are usually held at room temperature until cooked, and often found held at room temperature in retail food establishments. Refrigeration keeps the balut from deteriorating. After being boiled for approximately 20 minutes, the balut is ready to eat. The shell is cracked and the balut is eaten right out of the shell, sometimes with a sprinkling of salt and/or vinegar. The embryo inside is recognizable as a baby duck and may have tiny feathers, which are eaten along with the rest of the balut. Everything is eaten, exept for the hard white chunk (the bato or "rock") that is found in the bottom.

Penoy - Filipino

Duck eggs that are not properly developed after nine to twelve days are sold as penoy in the Philippines. They look, smell and taste just like a regular hard-, and are occasionally scrambled, fried, and served with salt or a vinegar dip. Penoy is usually sold together with balut by street peddlers at night.

Risk Factor and Regulatory Concerns for Balut and Penoy

Improper Holding Temperatures

61 Baluts are subjected to incubation temperatures for a period of time less than necessary for the embryo to hatch, resulting in a partially formed embryo within the shell. Typically, an egg is considered adulterated if it has been incubated. However, baluts are specifically exempted from inspection as eggs in 9 CFR 590.5. During incubation, conditions are conducive for the potential growth of Salmonella enteritidis within the shell, and an increase in pathogenic organisms on the shell itself. Baluts were deemed as a food requiring time-temperature control for safety in the 2005 Food Code, and therefore must be properly held prior to and after cooking. Some scientists argue that balut is a living organism and should not be refrigerated.

Control Measures

If cooked on-site, confirm that baluts reach an internal temperature of 165 ºF.

Verify that baluts are held at 41ºF or below

62 Kimchi - Korean

Description Courtesy of US-FDA, Atlanta, GA

Kimchi (also ‘kimchee’) means ‘pickled vegetable’, and is the national food of . Kimchi is served as a side dish, salad, on , in soups or stews and as a main dish with rice or noodles. The basic kimchi is fermented Chinese cabbage spiced with garlic, chili peppers, green onion, ginger and sometimes . Variations include ingredients such as daikon (), cucumbers, spinach, , eggplant, peppers, sesame leaves, scallions, turnips, carrots and bean sprouts.

Preparation and Processing

A Chinese cabbage is cut in half lengthwise and salted sprinkled between the leaves. In restaurants,a 5-gallon plastic bucket or traditional kimchi pot is filled about two-thirds full with water and rock salt added. The cabbage is soaked in the brine mixture for up to 8 hours, then drained. Some establishments rinse the cabbage at this point, while others do not. More salt is sprinkled over the cabbage, in between the inner leaves. The cabbage is left at room temperature until wilted, usually 5-7 hours. Once the cabbage is wilted, other seasonings are added between the leaves. Seasonings may include red chili pepper, garlic, ginger, scallions and salt. Other flavorings may include soy sauce, soybean paste, rice wine, mustard, fruit or ‘chotkal’, a mixture of anchovies, oysters, baby shrimp, baby squid or shellfish. After several hours, the kimchi is tasted and water or spices are added to achieve the right flavor. The mixture is placed in a fresh brine/water solution and left at room temperature anywhere from several days to several weeks until it begins to ferment. It is then refrigerated. For best quality, kimchi should be kept at a constant temperature of about 41°F to prevent freezing or excessive fermentation. Under these conditions, homemade kimchi will last 4-6 weeks.

Risk Factors and Regulatory Concern for Kimchi

Contamination / Cross Contamination

The basic preparation procedure for making kimchi is safe as long as it is fermented under sanitary conditions. Beneficial microorganisms, including Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus brevis, through enzymatic action, convert the and naturally present in vegetables into the natural preservatives lactic and acetic acids. The process also results in a slightly acidic environment conducive to the further proliferation of beneficial microorganisms. The action of enzymes and lactic acid during the fermentation process produces the typical kimchi flavor.

63 The key issues for food inspectors are understanding that the fermentation process is safe at room temperature, making sure the process is being conducted under sanitary conditions and that the kimchi is kept refrigerated once the fermentation process is completed. Many establishments use concrete blocks, bricks or stones as weights to push down the kimchi ingredients and keep them from floating to the top of the liquid brine solution. Using these items as weights is prohibited. Establishments must use sanitary, food grade materials to keep the ingredients from floating. Kimchi must not be stored in areas where contamination may occur. Areas that are not approved for food storage include , mechanical rooms, under unshielded sewer lines, stairwells or outside the facility. Kimchee is traditionally stored underground.

Control Measures

Understand that the basic fermenting process for kimchi is safe and that it may be left at room temperature during this stage of preparation.

Verify that kimchi is kept refrigerated once the fermentation process is completed.

Verify that kimchi is processed and stored under sanitary conditions.

64

Ethnic Cheeses – Mexican, Indian, Filipino

Description

The most frequently encountered Mexican cheeses include fresh cheeses (, queso and queso and requesón); soft cheeses (Queso añejo, Queso Oaxaca/quesillo) and semi-soft cheeses (Queso asadero, Queso , Queso jalapeño). The dairy industry is not well developed in many of the Southeast Asian and East Asian countries, except perhaps in India. is the most common Indian cheese.

Preparation and Processing

The various preparations of the Mexican and Indian cheeses are described in detail at the end of this section. Basic preparation is not much different from the preparation of cheeses here in the U.S., except perhaps for the ingredients and ageing involved. Other may be used as source of milk, especially buffalo and goat. It is not uncommon to use raw or unpasteurized milk to make the cheeses.

Risk Factors and Regulatory Concern for Ethnic Cheeses

Use of Raw Milk

The milk is not pasteurized and utilized in the preparation of the fresh and soft cheeses. Growth of Listeria monocytogenes may be conducive.

Contamination

Cleanliness and hygiene may be issues in small operations especially if raw milk is utilized and the preparations are not done in a cold room.

Control Measures

Verify if the milk was obtained from approved sources and if it has not been pasteurized Verify that frequent cleaning of food contact surfaces is done if preparations are not done in a cold room Confirm that the establishment has a consumer advisory that discloses to consumers which items contain raw or unpasteurized milk and warns the consumer of the risk of consuming the product, especially by pregnant women and immunocompromised.

65 Roasted Pig – Mexican, Filipino

Description

The process involves the whole pig or slowly roasted over charcoal all day-long, leaving a crispy skin and very moist meat inside. It is also referred to as 'Lechón’, the Spanish word for . It is served in Mexico and the Philippines as the centerpiece of the food table during fiesta celebrations and special occasions like birthdays, weddings and anniversaries. Lechón de leche refers to suckling piglet, and usually commands a higher price because the meat is tender and moist.

Preparation and Cooking

The pig should be scalded and dehaired for best results. It should be cooked to the proper degree of doneness in the thickest part of the carcass, usually the inside of the shoulder. The carcass or suckling pig is usually roasted on a spit in an enclosed or in a temperature-controlled oven or smokehouse. A portable pig roaster is a commonly used.

A meat thermometer should be used to check that the internal temperature reaches 160°F for fresh pork and 155°F for cured pork. The variance in thickness of muscle groups will result in a variation in speed of cooking. The side area will cook more rapidly than the or shoulder.

The traditional way of roasting was having the carcass skewed in a bamboo pole held above the ground, and slowly turned over and cooked from smoke from hot charcoals in a pit until the skin was crisp. Roasting can take a whole day depending on the size and thickness of the carcass. Another version of lechón, called lechón kawali, involves boiling then frying pieces of pork. Leftover in the Philippines becomes easily recycled into another dish, called na Lechon, which involves boiling the left over lechon in vinegar with spices (, peppercorns) and sugar, making the meat moist and the skin very soft.

Risk Factors and Regulatory Concerns for Whole Roasted Pig

Contamination

If the carcass preparations are not done in a cold room, the food contact surfaces and utensils are not frequently cleaned, contamination may occur. If pit cooking is the method used, contamination with dirt or sand may occur.

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Undercooking

If roasted on a pit, the irregular shape of the carcass may result in uneven cooking Small establishments may rely on visual or sensory rather than use of a thermometer when determining doneness of the roasting.

Hot Holding

The roasted pig can be cut-up into different parts and held on display cases which may not reach a temperature of 135oF. Or, in some cultures, leaving the roasted pig at room temperature for several hours during a celebration, is common.

Control Measures

Verify that the carcass was obtained from approved sources

If preparations are not done in a cold room, verify that there is frequent cleaning of food contact surfaces

Check that final cook temperature of all parts of the meat (reaches at least 165oF for 15 seconds.

Check that hot holding temperature of display cases is at least 135oF or more.

If held at room temperature using time as a public health control, verify that there is proper documentation and the meat is discarded.

67

Soup - Vietnamese

Description Photos courtesy of US-FDA, Atlanta, GA

Soup can serve as the entire meal, with a variety of side dishes that the diner can add, including bean sprouts, cilantro, , chili peppers, lime slices and green onions. Vietnamese soups are also accompanied by a variety of sauces used to flavor the soup, or can serve as dipping sauces for meats and vegetables. The types of sauces include nuoc mam (fish sauce), chili-garlic, peanut and hoisin sauce, or the Thai hot sauce, . Nearly all main course soups include noodles and shaved meat or seafood that is warmed in the broth just prior to bringing to the table. The most common Vietnamese soup is a beef broth known as ‘pho’ (pronounced 'fuh'), served with cooked noodles, vegetables (shitake mushrooms, onions, parsnips, cabbage, etc.) and meat (raw or cooked slices of beef). Variations include , , , chicken leg, chicken breast, or other chicken organs (heart, , etc.). Other first course soups include ‘sup’, which generally does not include noodles, and ‘canh’, soup served family style from a large bowl and spooned into smaller bowls.

Preparation and Cooking

Basic soup stock is prepared in advance by simmering beef bones and/or chunks of beef, or chicken bones for several hours. Fat is skimmed off the top, and herbs and spices (fennel, charred ginger, , cloves, cinnamon, or sometimes pods) may be added to enhance flavor. Once an order is placed, rice noodles are prepared very quickly by dipping them in boiling water. The noodles are placed in a serving bowl and ingredients such as paper thin slices of raw beef, cooked tendon and tripe, and vegetables are added. The hot broth is poured over the items and the soup is immediately served with the garnishes (green onions, white onions, coriander leaves, ngò gai ("saw leaf "), mint, , lemon or lime, bean sprouts, and chile peppers. The herb ngò ôm ( aromatica) is sometimes also added. A side dish of thin slices of raw or slightly cooked beef may be served on the side for the patron to add to the steaming soup, which is supposed to cook the meat.

Risk Factor and Regulatory Concerns for Pho soup

Improper Holding Temperatures

Most restaurants prepare soups in very large quantities, often in stock pots that are several feet tall. In many cases, once the basic broth is made the heat is turned off and the soup is left at room temperature during operating hours. When the broth is improperly held, spore-forming bacteria that can survive cooking temperatures have the opportunity to grow and, in some cases, produce toxins that could cause illness when consumed by

68 patrons. Some restaurants leave the stock pot out all night, or store them on the while preparing other items. Other establishments may properly hold the soup stock during the day, only to place the large stock pot in the cooler at night. Proper cooling may not occur, hence the potential for the germination and growth of spore-forming bacteria.

Contamination / Cross Contamination

When a customer does not use all of the side dishes, some food establishments will allow leftovers to be added to fresh ingredients on the prep table, to re-serve to another customer.

Control Measures

Observe the holding procedure to determine whether the soup stock is being properly held. Soup stock must be held at 135°F or above, 41°F or below. If time is used as a public health control, it soup should be held for four hours or less with the proper documentation. (Note: If it is not being properly held, assist the restaurant in finding ways to properly hold the soup stock.)

The soup stock should be cooled from 135°F to 41°F within 6 hours, provided that it is cooled from 135°F to 70°F within the first two hours. (Note: If the soup stock is stored in large containers in the refrigerator, assist the operator with proper cooling methods such as the use of an ice bath, chill sticks or dividing the soup stock into smaller containers before placing in the cooler). Times of inspections should be varied to enable observation of proper cooling procedures.

Observe the staff as they bus tables and bring leftovers back into the kitchen to confirm that they are discarding all leftovers rather than reusing them to prevent serving contaminated foods.

Confirm that the food establishment has a consumer advisory that discloses to consumers which items contain raw or undercooked animal foods and warns the consumer of the risk of consuming these products.

69

ACID “COOKING” of FISH and SEAFOOD

Both Mexicans and Asians serve fish and seafood marinated in some form of acid (vinegar, lime juice or tomato juice) which denatures the protein. Although this food preparation is regarded as “cooking” in acid in these cultures, it is considered “raw” by food inspectors.

Ceviche - Mexican

Description Courtesy of FoodNetwork.com

Ceviche is a dish traditionally made with raw fish, shrimp and shellfish such as scallops or oysters. The seafood is marinated in lime juice and may be combined with tomatoes, onions, garlic, cilantro, chiles, parsley and other ingredients. It is typically served cold as an appetizer, salad or side dish, or even as a main entree. At Mexican restaurants, it is usually served with tortilla chips. In the case of less tender flesh as in the case of octopus, squid or , the preferred term is “coctel”, usually served with tomato sauce as a cocktail.

Preparation

The fish, typically a white fish (mackerel, cod, red snapper, whitefish or pompano), is marinated in lime juice for several hours in the refrigerator. The acid in the lime juice firms the flesh and turns it opaque, giving it the look and texture of being “cooked”. The seafood is then combined with tomatoes, onions, garlic, cilantro and chiles just before serving. Most food establishments cook the shrimp, squid and shellfish before adding them to the dish, but in some Mexican restaurants in the U.S., the seafood in ceviche is served raw.

Kinilaw – Filipino

Description

Filipinos have their version of fresh raw fish marinated in lime juice, called “kinilaw” in the southern part of the Philippines or “kilawin” in the north. The fish commonly used is yellow-fin tuna (bariles), blue marlin (malasugi) or sea (tangigue or tanigue), but also Cavalla (talakitok ), grouper (lapu-lapu) or even halibut.

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Preparation

Very fresh fish is trimmed of any skin and bones and cut-up into cubes and pressed to remove as much moisture. It is seasoned with and marinated in tuba ( or toddy) or vinegar for at least an hour in the refrigerator. After draining the now opaque fish, is mixed with calamansi (Philippine lime) juice, thin slices of ginger, garlic, sliced red onions, some chili peppers and . In Southern Philippines, the juice of tabon-tabon (a citrus) is also added which gives it a distinctive flavor. The mixture is allowed to sit for another half an hour in the refrigerator, and immediately served. Some versions call for mixing with some light coconut cream prior to serving.

Risk Factors and Regulatory Concerns for Raw Fish and Seafood

Inadequate Freezing

Fish that is marinated in acid can still contain parasites and bacteria, therefore presenting a health risk when the product is consumed. With any raw food, one risks foodborne illness caused by bacteria and toxins such as Anisakis simplex (Pseudoterranova decipiens), and in Fugu fish. The health risk from parasites in the fish can be prevented by freezing it prior to preparation. Most refrigerators in retail facilities are unable to freeze fish to the temperatures required to destroy parasitic worms. Operators who have equipment capable of freezing the fish to proper temperatures must keep records on how long they froze the fish and to what temperature(s) the fish was frozen. These records must be maintained for 90 days. If they cannot prove that they are able to freeze the fish adequately in-house, they must have a written document from the supplier confirming that the appropriate freezing temperatures for the fish have been met.

Inadequate Cooking

There is no application of heat or cooking to the required 145ºF to destroy bacteria and parasites that might be on and in the flesh of the product.

Control Measures

Become familiar with these specialty foods – ask how it was cooked

Determine which seafood ingredients are raw and whether they require freezing to destroy parasites. (Note: Most tuna species, aquacultured fish such as salmo,n and molluscan shellfish, are exempt from freezing. Pls. refer to Food Code 3-40211).

Encourage the proprietor to purchase any seafood that is served raw from reputable suppliers that have high standards for quality, sanitation and safe handling.

71

Determine whether the raw fish has been frozen to destroy parasites in-house or at the supplier. Review documentation that raw, raw-marinated, partially cooked, or marinated-partially cooked fish has been frozen. The FDA recommends the following for fish to be served raw:

Frozen and stored at -4°F or below for a minimum of 7 days in a freezer;

Frozen at -31°F or below until solid and stored at -31°F (35oC) or below for a minimum of 15 hours

Frozen at -31°F or below until solid and stored at -4°F (-20oC) or below for a minimum of 24 hours.

If fish is frozen in-house, check freezers to verify that they are capable of maintaining the product at the specified freezing temperatures.

Fish is required to be cooked to 145ºF to destroy bacteria and parasites that might be on and in the flesh of the product.

The Person in Charge is responsible for record keeping

Establishments that choose to serve fish that has not been treated to destroy pathogens through cooking must provide a consumer advisory that discloses to consumers which dishes contain raw or undercooked foods and informs them of the risks associated with consuming those products.

72 Room Temperature Products – Asians

Photos courtesy of US-FDA, Atlanta, GA

Description

Many Asian cultures, including Vietnamese, Indian and Filipino, tend to keep food at room temperature. It is not unusual to find these products displayed by the counter, in both food and retail establishments. These foods may contain rice, seafood, pork, chicken and other ingredients that require temperature control for safety.

Preparation and Cooking

Foods wrapped in banana leaves nearly always contain rice but may also contain pork and other ingredients that can support the growth of disease-causing bacteria when left at room temperature. Summer rolls may contain pork, shrimp, bean sprouts or other ingredients that become unsafe if not properly held at the proper temperature. Many of the products left at room temperature are packaged in plastic wrap or foil and provided to the customers as self-service, like sweet or meat buns or rolls and products.

Risk Factors and Regulatory Concerns for Room Temperature Products

Misidentification

It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between foods that are safe at room temperature and those which are not due to unusual wrappings, shape, texture and general appearance. It is important to determine which food items require time-temperature control for safety. Some wrapped items may have to be opened periodically to verify their contents.

Labeling

Packaged items that are offered for self-service must be properly labeled. The information must be written in English, but can also be in both English and the ethnic language. Meat products are of particular concern, as they often are not recognized as containing meat. are regularly used in Asian cooking, and would help if its presence and those of other food allergens, is disclosed on the label.

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Improper Holding Temperatures

Cooked rice or rice flour, beans, vegetables and pork are main ingredients in many traditional Asian foods that are displayed at room temperature. They will support the growth of pathogenic bacteria when left at room temperature for lengthy periods of time. Foods prepared at a restaurant or market are often produced in large batches and it may be many hours or even days before they are consumed.

Control Measures

Initiate a dialogue with the operator to gain understanding of the traditional Asian foods and their ingredients displayed at room temperature.

Check packaged foods on display to make sure each food item is labeled with the following information in English: Name of product Ingredients Quantity Nutritional information (unless exempt) Manufacturer’s name and address (if made on the premises, the name and address of the manufacturer should be that of the restaurant or store) Name of the food source for each major food allergen in the food unless the food source is already part of the common or usual name of the respective ingredient

If unsure whether a product contains ingredients that are unsafe at room temperature, ask the establishment to unwrap the product and, if necessary, cut into it in order to determine the ingredients.

Verify that the establishment has implemented time as a public health control with the proper documentation for foods requiring temperature control that are being held at room temperature. If foods that are supposed to be held using time are not properly marked, discard the product. The foods should be held no more than 4 hours out of temperature control. Any product left at the conclusion of the 4 hours must be discarded.

If time as a public health control is not being used, confirm that the establishment is holding potentially hazardous food items at 135°F or above, or at 41°F or below.

74 DISHES USING OTHER ANIMAL PARTS Mexican

Buche

Description Photos courtesy of US-FDA, Atlanta, GA Buche is pork stomach which is grilled or deep-fat fried at many Mexican restaurants catering to immigrants from Mexico and other Central American populations.

Preparation and Cooking

The buche is washed, chopped and cooked in salt water and lard until it is tender. It is held hot and once ordered, chopped into slivers and grilled until slightly crispy. The meat is served in a tortilla with green onions, cilantro and salsa. Some restaurants deep fry it.

Risk Factor and Regulatory Concerns for Buche

Improper Holding Temperatures

Buche must be maintained at the proper hot or cold holding temperature after cooking. Some restaurants turn off their steam tables during slow periods of operation, leaving buche and other food items at improper temperatures. If potentially hazardous cooked foods are not properly held, spore-forming bacteria present in the product may germinate and grow to unsafe levels.

Misidentification

Buche and tripas (beef intestines) closely resemble each other in certain stages of preparation. Both are required to be cooked to 145°F or above.

Critical Measures

Verify that the facility is hot holding the product at 135°F or above, or holding the buche at room temperature using time as a public health control with a written plan tracking the time.

Verify whether buche, tripas or both products are being served in the establishment through invoices and product labeling.

75 Tripas

Description

Photos courtesy of US-FDA, Atlanta, GA Tripas (also known as ‘tripitas’) are beef small intestines that are boiled, sliced thinly and fried. They are usually served in tacos and are extremely popular especially to large Mexican-American populations.The 2004 ban on tripas and other beef products by the USDA had a negative cultural and economic impact where tripas are eaten and sold. The ban was lifted in September 2005.

Preparation and Cooking

The intestines are thawed, thoroughly washed and boiled with onions, garlic, salt and sometimes milk for several hours. After cooling, they are sliced into small pieces and reboiled or fried with lard. The tripas are either held hot until ordered, or they are cooled and refrigerated until ordered, at which time they are reheated on a grill or in a skillet and served in a corn tortilla with onions, cilantro, lime wedges and salsa.

Risk Factor and Regulatory Concern for Tripas

Food From Unsafe Sources

As a response to the diagnosis on December 23, 2003 of BSE reported in an imported dairy cow (from ) in Washington State, the Food Safety Inspection Service ( FSIS) of USDA issued new rules effective January 12, 2004, to further minimize human exposure to materials that scientific studies demonstrated contain the Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) agent in cattle infected with the disease. One of the rules, “Prohibition on the Use of Specified Risk Material (SRM) for Human Food and Requirements for the Disposition of Non-Ambulatory Cattle” referred to as “the SRM interim final rule” designated certain materials from cattle as Specified Risk Materials and declared that SRMs are inedible, and prohibits the use of these materials for human food. The materials identified as SRMs in the rule include the following:

• brain, , eyes, trigeminal ganglia, spinal cord, vertebral (excluding the vertebrae of the tail, the transverse processes of the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, and the wings of the sacrum), and dorsal root ganglia (DRG) of cattle 30 months of age and older, and

• the distal ileum of the small intestine and tonsils from all cattle.

Although scientific evidence had only confirmed BSE infectivity in the distal ileum, the bottom portion of the small intestine, the entire small intestine was banned from being processed for human food in the United States by FSIS. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in July of 2004 instituted an equivalent ruling that banned the use of such materials in human food, including dietary supplements and in cosmetics.

76 After examination of research that showed that the proper removal of the distal ileum provided the same level of protection from human exposure to BSE infection as the exclusion of the entire small intestine, an amendment to the rule was announced by FSIS on September 7, 2005. The amendment permits beef small intestines, excluding the distal ileum, to be used for human food, provided that such product is derived from cattle that were slaughtered in an official establishment in the United States or in a certified foreign establishment from a foreign country that is eligible to export beef products to the United States. This rule went into effect 7, 2005. Although the ban on the consumption of small intestines has been lifted, that process the intestines for food must document through a HACCP plan, the Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures (SSOP) or other prerequisite programs that have written procedures for the proper removal of the distal ileum. FSIS has deemed that a procedure requiring the removal of 80 inches of the uncoiled and trimmed intestine as measured from the juncture of the ileum and the cecum would be in compliance with the requirement.

Control Measures

Determine the source of the beef intestines.

Verify with the USDA that the company is approved to process small intestines for human consumption.

If the source can not be verified, discard the product.

Ensure that tripas are properly cooled and/or hot or cold held right after cooking.

Source: Ethnic Foods: Meeting the Challenge, 2007

Sesos

Description

Sesos is , fried and served as a taco (tacos de sesos, also made with squirrel brain in the US South) or burrito filling, or in , , as a or with flour tortillas. It may also be served as an entrée with rice and beans. Beef brains have a mushy texture and very little flavor, so are typically flavored with chile sauce.

Photos courtesy of US-FDA, Atlanta, GA

77 Preparation and Cooking

The brains are simmered over low heat with water, vinegar and salt for about 15 minutes. They are drained, rinsed in cold water and allowed to cool. The cooled brains are placed in a non-reactive bowl and sprinkled with salt and pepper and allowed to stand for an hour at room temperature. They are then cut into bite-sized pieces, dipped in beaten eggs, rolled in flour and fried in lard or vegetable oil.

Risk Factor and Regulatory Concerns for Sesos

Food From Unsafe Sources

Same warning on Foodborne Illness Risk Factor and Regulatory Concerns as discussed for Tripas. SRMs are inedible, and the use of these materials for human food is prohibited, including the following:

• brain, skull, eyes, trigeminal ganglia, spinal cord, vertebral column (excluding the vertebrae of the tail, the transverse processes of the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, and the wings of the sacrum), and DRG of cattle 30 months of age and older, and

• the distal ileum of the small intestine and tonsils from all cattle.

Due to the ban on the sale of cow brains from cattle 30 months of age or older, it is important that records be provided that validate the age of the brain used in the facility.

Use of beef brains and spines for human consumption is restricted in many locales due to the possibility of transmission of "Mad Cow Disease" or BSE, which may be transmitted to humans via bovine nervous tissue ( Source: Ethnic Foods: Meeting the Challenge, 2007).

Control Measures

Verify the source of the brain through invoices and packaging.

Confirm that the processing company is approved to sell beef brains by contacting the United States Department of Agriculture.

If the source cannot be confirmed, discard the product.

Verify that sesos is cooked to 145°F or above and is properly cold and hot held before and after cooking.

78

Lengua - Mexican and Filipino Dishes

Description

Lengua is . The dish is common in Spanish-influenced countries. It is served in a variety of ways in Mexico, including in tacos, salads, sandwiches and as a main course. Lengua estofada is a Spanish inspired dish served during special occasions in the Philippines. The human consumption of beef tongue dates back to the days of Paleolithic hunters, who preferred the fatty portions of the carcass including , as well as organs, brains, feet and marrow.

Preparation and Cooking Photos courtesy of US-FDA, Atlanta, GA The tongue is brought to a boil and then slow cooked with garlic, onions and spices for several hours. It is then skinned and either refrigerated or hot held whole, or it may be sliced or chopped and cold or hot held until an order is placed. For Mexicans, it is most commonly served hot on a tortilla with tomatillos, chiles, garlic, cilantro and onions. Other toppings may include serrano peppers, lime wedges, avocado slices, jalapenos, pico de gallo or salsa. Filipinos cook this like a stew, with tomato sauce and spices, and served with steamed . Pickled tongue is often used by the preparer because it is already spiced. If cooked in a sauce, it can then be reused later as a sauce for meatballs or any other food item.

Risk Factors and Regulatory Concerns for Lengua

Improper Holding Temperatures

Like any beef product, lengua must be cooked to 145°F. It may then be hot held at 135°F or cold held at 41°F. Many restaurants take refrigerated lengua and place it directly on the steam table without first reheating the product. The Food Code requires that it be reheated to 165°F before placing on the steam table for hot holding, and then continuously held at 135°F or above. Some establishments routinely turn off the steam tables after lunch and turn them on again before dinner, leaving the lengua at room temperature.

79 Misidentification

Because of its unusual appearance, many inspectors may not recognize lengua as a beef product.

Control Measures

Once cooked, lengua may be maintained in one of the following ways:

• Hot held at 135° or above;

• Held for four hours or less using time as a public health control with the proper documentation, then discarding after 4 hours if not served;

• Properly cooled and then held at 41°F until ordered, at which time the product is reheated to any temperature and served immediately to the customer;

• Properly cooled and then held at 41°F, after which it may be reheated to 165°F and then held continuously at 135 ºF, or held for up to 4 hours using time as a public health control with the proper documentation, then discarded if not served.

Be able to identify beef tongue.

Menudo - Mexican and Filipino Dishes

Description

Menudo is a traditional Mexican spicy soup made with tripe (beef stomach), hominy, chile, garlic and other spices, often served for breakfast or on special occasions. It is a special item on weekends and holidays and believed to be a cure for hangovers. The Filipino version is similar to a meat stew, and can also utilize beef or , potatoes, carrots, bell peppers, pork liver and spices in tomato sauce.

Preparation

Thoroughly wash the tripe, cut it into bite-sized pieces and combine with the various ingredients and water in a large pot. It is brought to a boil and stewed for several hours. The broth is reddish in color. It is usually served in a bowl with lemon slices and other condiments such as avocado slices, onions and shredded lettuce. It may also be served as a taco filling.

80 Risk Factors and Regulatory Concerns for Menudo

Misidentification Many food inspectors may not recognize menudo as a beef product requiring temperature control because of its unusual appearance.

Control Measures

Recognize menudo in both its raw and cooked states.

 Verify that the product is cooked to 145°F or above and held at 135°F or above.

Unusual Parts - Vietnamese

The Vietnamese also have their version of utilization of unusual parts of animals. These are usually packaged for sale in Oriental Stores in the refrigerated section. They are usually stewed with vinegar, sugar, star anise, garlic, ginger. The following are photos of (left to right, clockwise) pork tongue, ears, stomach and intestines and hocks.

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Chitterlings - Chinese

Description

It is not considered unusual in Chinese cuisine to utilize feet, tails, ears, tongue, head and most of the internal organs of a variety of animals. (pig small intestines) are found on the menu of many Chinese restaurants in the U.S. , and may be cooked in soy sauce, barbecued, used in soups or stir-fried. Many Americans also associate ‘chitterlings’ with .

Preparation and Cooking

The intestines are cleaned and boiled until they become soft and tender, and then utilized in a variety of dishes:

Stir-frying - intestines are drained and cut into thin slices and stir-fried in a wok with green onions, garlic, ginger, chili peppers, soy sauce and salt.

Serve with Soy Sauce - drain intestines and place them in soy sauce, held on a steam table until ordered and served with rice.

Soup recipes - add drained chitterlings to a soup mixture, which usually includes pork blood cubes, garlic and preserved vegetables like nappa cabbage

Risk Factors and Regulatory Concerns for Chitterlings

Contamination / Cross Contamination

Care must be taken when preparing chitterlings, due to the prevalence of Yersinia enterocolitica and other bacteria on the product. Yersinia enterocolitica is not destroyed by freezing, grows at refrigerated temperatures and the infective dose is not known. However, the pathogen is destroyed by heat and sanitizers. It is important that proper hygiene is followed to prevent employees from spreading the bacteria to food, equipment and utensils.

Poor Personal Hygiene

Cleaning raw chitterlings can transfer Yersinia enterocolitica bacteria to hands and surfaces throughout the kitchen. It is therefore recommended that the chitterlings be preboiled to destroy Yersinia enterocolitica prior to cleaning or preparation. This will avoid possible contamination of food contact surfaces and cross contamination of ready- to-eat foods. If frozen, the chitterlings should be thawed in the cooler and then placed in boiling water, dispersed by stirring, and brought back to a boil for 5 minutes. Preboiling

82 for 5 minutes and then cooling (by placing the intestines under cold running water or covering the product with ice) prior to cleaning should reduce the risk of Yersiniosis.

Improper Holding Temperatures

Some Chinese operators boil whole intestines and then hold them on the steam table either whole or sliced until ordered, at which time they will slice and stir-fry the intestines with other ingredients. The steam table is usually turned off or the chitterlings left in a pan away from the steam table to keep them from drying out. Plain intestines can lose heat quickly when left at room temperature compared to intestines that are in a soy sauce mixture or soup, as they tend to stay hot in liquid.

Control Measures

Observe or confirm the preparation procedure for chitterlings. Be on the lookout for possible contamination of utensils, preparation surfaces and other areas of the kitchen.

As needed, advise the establishment on safe handling procedures for cleaning and prepping chitterlings/intestines to avoid cross-contamination.

Observe the holding procedures for chitterlings/intestines. Intestines must be cooked to 145°F and then held at 135°F or above or 41°F or below. All chitterlings/intestines must be held at proper holding temperatures to ensure their safety.

Chicken Feet – Chinese

Description

The majority of the edible meat on the feet consists of skin and , without much muscle. This gives the feet a distinct texture different from the rest of the chicken meat. Being mostly cartilage, chicken feet are also very gelatinous. There are also many small bones which makes it difficult to eat, and are often picked out before serving as a salad/appetizer.

Preparation

In Chinese cuisine, it is often an option at dim sum restaurants, served as "phoenix talons". The chicken feet are first fried in order to make them puffy, before being boiled and marinated, usually in black bean sauce. Duck feet are sometimes used instead of chicken feet, and served with mustard, vinegar, green pepper and garlic.

83 Risk Factor and Regulatory Concern for Chicken Feet

Contamination

Product should be cleaned thoroughly to prevent cross contamination, since these parts are ordinarily discarded in non-ethnic establishments.

Improper Holding Temperatures

Not cooked, held or stored at required temperatures to prevent bacterial growth.

Control Measures

Ensure that the product is properly washed. As needed, advise the establishment on safe handling procedures for cleaning to avoid cross-contamination.

Ensure that the product is properly cooked to 165oF and held at 135oF or above.

 Ensure that the items are being properly stored and held at 41°F or below.

Observe the holding procedures for chitterlings/intestines. Intestines must be cooked to 145°F and then held at 135°F or above or 41°F or below. All chitterlings/intestines must be held at proper holding temperatures to ensure their safety.

Animal Penises and Testicles - Chinese

Description

Animal penises and testicles of cow, deer, goat or pig are served as food in Chinese menus, and are highly prized as a virility enhancement.

Preparation and

Penises and testicles can be pickled, baked, fried, boiled or grilled, or served in soups and with noodle dishes.

Risk Factors and Regulatory Concerns for Animal Penises/Testicles

Food From Unsafe Sources

Penises and testicles are USDA regulated. They are not prohibited from sale as long as they come from a USDA approved source.

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Improper Holding Temperatures

They must be stored and held before, during and after preparation at required temperatures to prevent bacterial growth and in a manner to prevent cross contamination.

Control Measures

Ask to see the invoice or receipt to determine if the food is from an approved source.

 Ensure that the items are being properly stored and held at 41°F or below.

Filipino Unusual or Specialty Foods

Pulutan is a Filipino word which means "finger food". It originally was a snack accompaniment to or beer, but has found their way into Philippine cuisine as regional appetizers, or, in some cases, main dishes:

• Adidas - are grilled or sautéed chicken feet.

• Barbecue - are chicken or pig intestines marinated, skewered, then grilled.

• Barbecue Tenga - are pig ears marinated, skewered, then grilled. • Betamax - is salted, solidified chicken blood which is either grilled or skewered

• Chicharon are pork rinds that have been salted, fried, then dried.

• Chicharong Bituka or Chibab - are pig intestines that have been deep fried to a crisp.

• Chicharong Bulaklak or Chilak - is similar to chicharong bituka. Bulaklak translates to flower which aptly describes the appearance of the dish which is made from the deep fried mesenteries of pig intestines. It is similar to fried chitlins seen in southern U.S. cuisine.

• Chicken Skin or Chink - is chicken skin that has been deep fried until crispy.

• - is made from the pork's cheek skin, ears and liver. Initially boiled, then grilled over charcoal, then minced and cooked with chopped onions, chillies, and spices. Usually served sizzling on a hot plate.

85 Coagulated Blood Paste - Korean, Vietnamese, Chinese, Filipino

Description

Coagulated blood paste (made from pork blood) is used as an ingredient in a variety of Korean dishes including soups, stews and as an entree. In its raw state it is very red and gelatinous. Once cooked, it turns dark and has a consistency much like raw liver. Filipinos have a Pork Blood Stew referred to as or Dinardaraan (made from the blood, entrails and meat of Photos courtesy of US-FDA, Atlanta, GA a pig) which is served with a rice cake called “”. It is also known as "chocolate meat" as the stew has a thick chocolate-like color and consistency.

Preparation and Cooking

Coagulated blood paste is usually boiled and then sliced into cubes to be used in soups or side dishes. In soups, it stays solid like tofu but with a heavier consistency. It may also be served with soups as a side ingredient, from which the dining customer can choose the amount to place in the soup. When served as a main dish, it is often mixed with meat or vegetables and sautéed.

Risk Factors and Regulatory Concerns for Coagulated Blood Paste

Misidentification

Coagulated blood paste is categorized as a meat byproduct. It must be labeled with Safe Handling Instructions if it is packaged uncooked and offered for sale and stored with other raw pork products. However, when coagulated blood paste is cooked, it can easily be mistaken for raw liver. Some establishments, particularly retail food stores, erroneously store cooked coagulated blood paste with raw meats.

Contamination / Cross Contamination

Cooked coagulated blood paste is a ready-to-eat food and must be stored separately from raw animal foods to prevent possible contamination of the product.

Control Measures

Be able to recognize coagulated blood paste in its raw and cooked forms.

Verify that it is being properly stored at the proper temperature and does not cause or is not subject to cross contamination both prior to and after cooking. Like any other raw

86 pork product, coagulated blood paste should be cooked to 145°F and hot held at 135°F or above or cold held at 41°F or below.

Verify that it is from an approved source (USDA or state inspection program) and that the Safe Handling Instructions are on the label for raw packaged coagulated blood paste.

Live Ducks / Duck Blood - Vietnamese

Description

Some Vietnamese and other Asian food establishments have been found to keep live ducks to use as a source of fresh blood used in a variety of dishes such as Tiet Canh, a congealed duck blood pudding. It is also used as a mixed with milk, believed to enhance the virility in men.

Preparation and Cooking

Tiet Canh is prepared with duck intestines, peanuts and herbs such as coriander and basil. Chunks of duck, fresh ginger and green herbs may also be held together in a blood gelatin. Duck blood is also used in soups or eaten with noodles. Once the duck is killed and its blood drained, the duck itself may be cooked and served in a separate dish.

Risk Factor and Regulatory Concerns for Live Ducks/Duck Blood

Illegal Live Animals

Allowing live animals on the premises of a food establishment is strictly prohibited in the U.S., except for those animals specified by the Food Code but only in certain areas of the facility, such as decorative or edible seafood, service animals, patrol dogs accompanying police officers, and pets in institutional settings.

Possible Transmission of Avian Bird Flu

Consumption of duck blood has recently been associated with the transmission of avian bird flu in Vietnam. Two brothers (one died) contracted the flu after eating blood pudding made with duck’s blood at a family gathering. In 2005, the Vietnamese government banned the sale of dishes made with duck blood and the non-regulated farming of fowl, including ducks. While not illegal in the U.S., consuming duck blood from an unregulated source can be extremely dangerous.

87 Control Measures

Check the facility and outside premises for evidence that live animals are being kept. Things to watch for include: • Crates with breathing holes punched in them • Water bowls on the floor of the facility • A pungent odor • Duck quacking sounds • Animal sounds such as quacks or yelps coming from closed rooms • Corn or other grains on the floor of the facility

If live animals are found on the premises, contact the appropriate authorities to have them removed.

88 Determining Approved Source With Meat and Poultry Products

The following is information that will guide you in determining whether oxtails, brains, tripe and other meat and poultry products are USDA approved.

Inspection & Grading - What are the differences?

The inspection and grading of meat and poultry are two separate programs within the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). Inspection for wholesomeness is mandatory and is paid for out of tax dollars. Grading for quality is voluntary, and the service is requested and paid for by meat and poultry producers/processors.

Inspection

Under the Federal Meat Inspection Act and the Poultry Products Inspection Act, FSIS inspects all raw meat and poultry sold in interstate and foreign commerce, including imported products. The agency monitors meat and poultry products after they leave federally inspected plants, so you may find FSIS compliance officers in retail establishments, or be asked questions about them by retail managers. In addition, FSIS monitors state inspection programs, which inspect meat and poultry products sold only within the state in which they were produced. The 1967 Wholesome Meat Act and the 1968 Wholesome Poultry Products Act require state inspection programs to be "at least equal to" the Federal inspection program. If states choose to end their inspection program or cannot maintain this standard, FSIS must assume responsibility for inspection within that state. There are currently 25 states and territories that allow USDA to conduct all meat and poultry inspections. They are: Alaska, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, , , Idaho, Kentucky, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Northern , Oregon, Pennsylvania, , Rhode Island, Tennessee, U.S. Virgin Islands and Washington.

Identifying USDA Inspected Meats and Poultry

Meat that has been federally inspected and passed for wholesomeness is stamped with a round purple mark. The firm is also allowed to use the USDA state inspection mark on labels of inspected meat or poultry in bulk containers or individual consumer- sized packages. The dye used to stamp the grade and inspection marks onto a meat carcass is made from a food-grade vegetable dye and is not harmful. The mark is put on carcasses and major cuts. After trimming it might not appear on retail cuts such as roasts and steaks. A retail food store cannot use the USDA or state inspection marks on its labels because they are not inspected by USDA. However, meat that is packaged in an inspected facility will have an inspection mark that identifies the on the label.

89 Safe Handling Instructions

The requirements in the new final rule on Pathogen and Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) are designed to minimize the likelihood of harmful bacteria being present in raw meat and poultry products. However, some bacteria could be present and might become a problem if meat and poultry are not handled properly and kept refrigerated. To assist food handlers, USDA requires that safe handling instructions be put on all consumer-sized packages of raw and not fully cooked meat and poultry.

90 Century or 1000 Year Old Egg - Chinese

Description

The 1000 year old egg is a duck or chicken egg that has been preserved by soaking the egg in a brine of salt and lye. Also known as , preserved egg, hundred-year egg, thousand-year old egg or ‘pidan’, it is a Chinese but also popular in Vietnam and Thailand and among Asian populations in the U.S. The yolk of the egg is concentrically variegated in pale and dark green colors, while the is dark brown, translucent, has a gelatinous consistency. The yolk is pale to dark green, creamy with a strong aroma, and an almost cheese-like flavor.

Preparation and Processing

It is made traditionally by packing duck eggs in a mixture of clay, ash, salt, lime, and rice straw and for several weeks to several months, even for 100 days to several years. Eggs can also be soaked in a brine and lye solution for about 10 days and then wrapping it in plastic and allowing it to age from several weeks up to several months. The preserving or curing process is accomplished by introduction of alkaline hydroxide and sodium in the egg. Modern variations include tea and lime as ingredients in the soaking solution. Asian restaurants and markets in the U.S. do not make their own 1000 year old eggs but import them ready-to-eat from Asia, namely China and . While some establishments boil the eggs before serving, most people prefer to eat them uncooked. The eggs are usually served with soy sauce, salt, pickled ginger and/or tofu. They can be eaten as an hors d’oevuvre or as a side dish.

Foodborne Illness Risk Factors and Regulatory Concerns for Century Eggs

Food From Unsafe Sources

Some Chinese companies package their century eggs with labeling in Chinese only. Food items imported into the U.S. must either be labeled in English or in English and Chinese and must contain the name of the food, ingredients, quantity, nutritional information (unless exempted) and the manufacturer’s name and address. Although extremely poisonous, lead oxide is also known to increase the curing rate of century eggs and added to the curing mixture by some century egg producers in China.

Improper Holding Temperatures

The water activity of 1000 year old eggs has been reported to be above 0.92 and that the pH is above 9.0. Based on these factors, if an operator wants to hold this product

91 at room temperature, he must have a product assessment performed on the eggs to prove that they are safe to hold above 41ºF.

Control Measures

Confirm that the product label is in English or in English and Chinese and includes the following information: Name of food Ingredients Quantity Nutritional information (unless exempted) Manufacturer’s name and address

Verify that 1000 year old eggs are held at 41°F or below or documentation is provided that proves that the product is safe to hold at room temperature.

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Live Frogs - Chinese

Description

Frogs are a popular food in China and and are

often referred to as ‘field chicken’ on Chinese menus.

They are usually battered, stir-fried and mixed with

different vegetables and sauces, or used in soups and

stews, or deep-fat fried.

Preparation and Cooking

Operators will store styrofoam containers of

frogs at room temperature or in the cooler. In retail

stores, the live frogs may be stored in aquariums.

Customers can then pick out which frogs they would

like the operator to prepare for them. In food

establishments, the live frog is removed from its

storage container when an order is made, and then

stunned before it is slaughtered. The stunning may be

accomplished by striking the frog against the interior

of a sink. The frog is washed and beheaded. It is then

skinned and the internal organs removed and

discarded. The frog is again washed and cut into

large, bite-sized chunks, bones included. The pieces

are dipped in flour and fried in hot oil. Some

establishments serve only the legs, while others

prepare the entire frog.

Once cooked, it can be used in a variety of stir-

fry dishes, such as pepper frog, where it is mixed with

sautéed bell peppers, onions, scallions and jalapeño

peppers. Ginger frog is prepared by cooking the

battered frog and adding scallions, garlic, ginger and

dried chile peppers. Other popular Chinese dishes are

garlic frog, in black bean sauce and hairy Photos courtesy of US-FDA, Atlanta, GA gourd soup with frog.

93 Risk Factors and Regulatory Concerns for Frogs

Food From Unsafe Sources

In the FDA Food Code, fish includes other forms of aquatic life such as frog and sea cucumbers and urchin. Live aquatic animals should only be purchased from commercial sources that are licensed according to applicable laws or regulations. Any supplier of live aquatic animals to food establishments should be inspected under Seafood HACCP regulations or their equivalent. Holding, storing and handling live frogs are considered part of “processing” under Seafood HACCP regulations in 21 CFR 123 Fish and Products, which requires a hazard analysis to determine whether there are food safety hazards reasonably likely to occur.

Contamination / Cross Contamination

The tub, tank or container used to hold live aquatic animals must be cleaned frequently enough to prevent contamination of the animals. Dead animals should be culled on a daily basis or as necessary to prevent the transfer of disease and decomposed material from one animal to another. Live animals are not required to be refrigerated below 41°F, but should be held at the optimal temperature for that animal. Aquarium tanks and other live animal holding containers generally are contaminated with Salmonella, Aeromonas and other potential foodborne pathogens, and therefore serve as pathogen reservoirs in the establishment.

Prior to slaughtering live aquatic animals in a retail store or food establishment, the regulatory authority may request that an operator obtain a variance and conduct this process under a HACCP Plan. The Food Code gives the regulatory authority the option to require a variance if an establishment is preparing food by another method that is determined by the regulatory authority to require a variance. Based on the storage, handling and preparation procedures and hygienic practices in the establishment, slaughtering aquatic animals under a HACCP Plan may be warranted to ensure that cross contamination does not occur.

When any animal is slaughtered in a food establishment, all work surfaces, knives and utensils must be cleaned and sanitized before and after use. Sanitary handling and removal of intestines, fecal material and other waste products from the slaughtering process is critical so that no other food, food-contact surface or non food-contact surface is contaminated. It may be useful to provide a dedicated area for slaughter and cleaning of live aquatic animals that is used for no other purpose. If provided, it should be situated where splash and drainage will not contaminate food products, especially ready-to-eat foods, utensils or single service articles. Once the aquatic animal is slaughtered, it should be cooked immediately or refrigerated at 41°F or less.

94 Control Measures (NOTE: Some restaurants that keep live frogs may not have them listed on their menu. If styrofoam coolers or containers with breathing holes cut into them are observed, this is a good indication that the establishment may be handling live frogs.)

Verify the source of live frogs through sales invoices. Photos courtesy of US-FDA, Atlanta, GA

Confirm that live frogs are held in clean containers and that dead frogs are culled.

Observe that proper handwashing is performed before and after handling frogs.

Determine the measures that are in place to prevent cross-contamination from live frogs and their meat to other food and other surfaces.

Confirm that equipment and food-contact surfaces are washed, rinsed and sanitized before and after contact with frogs.

Check that frog meat is cooked to 145°F or above for 15 seconds.

Verify that after slaughter, frog meat that is not cooked immediately is cooled to 41°F or less within 4 hours, and then held at 41°F or below.

95

Sea Cucumber – Asian

Description Control Measures Also known as “sea slug” or “sea ”, it is an invertebrate saltwater animal named for its cucumber-like shape. It has tentacles, feet, a mouth and feeds on plankton and other organic matter in water or sand. It does not have a brain but breathes, reproduces via sperm/egg fertilization and can live 5 – 10 years. Color varies from white to nearly black. It is valued as a food source, for its medicinal properties, and as an aphrodisiac. It is rich in iron and minerals like calcium, and magnesium. It is flavorless, but soaks up flavors of other foods and seasonings.

Preparation and Cooking

The internal organs are removed and thoroughly washed upon harvesting. It is boiled in salt water and air-dried. Most restaurants and markets purchase it commercially processed and dried. There is no need for refrigerating dehydrated because its water activity is below 0.85. They are also available frozen. To prepare the dried cucumber, the skin is removed and soaked in water for several days, constantly replacing the water. Once rehydrated, it is boiled, usually with ginger or fruit to remove the fishy odor, until it becomes soft and gelatinous and expands. It is now ready for use, in soups, stews, stir-fries; it is also deep-fried and stuffed as an ingredient in braised dishes. Photos courtesy of US-FDA, Atlanta, GA

Risk Factor and Regulatory Concern for Sea Cucumber

Improper Holding

The sea cucumber is an animal, so once it is rehydrated, it must be held at proper temperatures to prevent microbial growth. Sea cucumber is categorized as fish, so it must be cooked at 145oF or above.

96

Be able to recognize a sea cucumber in both the dried and reconstituted states Verify that the reconstituted sea cucumber is being held at 41oF or below.

Photos courtesy of US-FDA, Atlanta, GA

97 Asian and Mexican Food Ingredients and Dishes Grains/Cereals Noodles/dumplings Meat and Poultry Fish and Seafood Herbs and Spices Soups Appetizers Condiments, Sauces and Dips Vegetables and Salads Snacks and Native Dishes Asian Leafy Greens

Bok choy (sometimes called pak choi) - a mild, crunchy Chinese white cabbage, used in salads, stir-fries and side dishes. Baby bok choy is also served steamed or quickly stir- fried. It has a sweeter flavor than regular bok choy. The thinner, green-stemmed choy sum is often tossed with noodles simmered in with bits of crispy pork and roughly chopped garlic. Precut, washed greens are now available. Although frozen forms of bok choy exist, any soft green suffers from freezing—especially the stem portion that delivers the crunch.

Napa cabbage is often the base of an Asian slaw or a main component of Chinese . The Koreans convert it into winter kimchi, a spicy condiment consisting of fermented vegetables —mainly chiles and cabbage, and sometimes daikon radish.

Spinach is also common in many Asian cuisines. In Japan and Korea, spinach is often blanched, shocked in cold water, drained and pressed dry. The spinach is seasoned with sesame oil, soy sauce, garlic, scallions and sesame seeds for one Korean side dish. The Japanese also use spinach in maki-style rolled sushi.

Watercress adds a peppery bite to stir-fries and soups.

Water spinach (also called kang kong in the Philippines, or ong choy), can replace watercress when a blander green is desired. Water spinach also has the unique ability to capture some of the cooking liquid, similar to penne . It is most common in Vietnamese or Malaysian cuisines where it is cooked with belacan (shrimp paste) and lightly browned garlic.

Many Western consumers usually find Chinese broccoli or kale (known as kai-lan or gai-lan) while eating dim sum, where its stalks and leaves are most commonly boiled until tender and emerald green, then drizzled with oyster sauce and occasionally sprinkled with toasted sesame seeds.

Asian roots

Taro – starchy and slightly sweet flavor, lower starch content then potatoes so it becomes crisp when deep-fat fried so serves as a shell for holding stir-fries. It retains its crunchy texture during processing.

Lotus Plant - All parts of the lotus plant are used, but it is imperative that the leaves and stems be cooked thoroughly before eating. Otherwise the calcium oxalate crystals will cause a intense irritation in the throat of its victim— the effect is temporary, but quite unpleasant. Cooked, dried lotus leaves serve as wrappers for sticky and steamed rice in China; the stems accent soups like Vietnamese seafood soup; and the seeds are used in desserts whole or worked into a sweetened paste for fillings of dumplings and .

99

Jicama – It is known as singkamas (“ bean”) in Asia. It is sometimes cooked with oil, garlic, light and dark soy sauce, ground bean sauce and sugar to create a filling for spring rolls known as lumpia sariwa (Filipino) and (Malaysian). It often makes an excellent substitute for water chestnuts when fresh are not available. It is pickled with carrots and unripe papaya in Filipino achara.

Water chestnuts – Its starchy, sweet crunch is a traditional internal for dumplings and sliced for stir-fries. The starch derived from this underwater corm is especially adept at creating crisp coatings for deep-fried foods.

Daikon radish - In China, this versatile root is simmered in soups or as part of a Chinese-style . It is grated fine and added to soy sauce and dashi (fish and kelp broth) and served with Japanese , since it is believed to help with the digestion of oily foods. Daikon’s flavor is much milder and sweeter than typical Western radishes. The Koreans slather daikon with salt for kimchi. it with chili and fish sauces, garlic and scallions, then simmering with creates the dish kalbi chim. It works well in meat broths accented with star anise. In , chai tau kueh (“ cake”) is grated daikon is fried with garlic and eggs. Daikon sprouts (kaiware) rarely, if ever, cooked, they are served in sushi bars, peeking out of a salmon-skin hand roll, or used by fine-dining chefs as a final garnish.

Bitter gourd or bitter melon (ku gua gan in China; karela in India, and ampalaya in the Philippines) has irregular, channeled, bumpy exterior and is quite bitter. It is quite popular in Asia in Chinese stir-fries and soups, and as chips in India (fried karela chips). In the Philippines, it is found in the Ilocano vegetarian dish , along with eggplant, tomato, okra, beans, chiles and ginger. Ampalaya is also commonly sautéed with garlic and onions (with or without shrimps or pork), and garnished with egg omelet strips or .

Kabocha squash - native to Japan, the brilliant-orange flesh are cubed and simmered in a combination of soy sauce, mirin (sweet cooking sake) and dashi. Imagine the texture of a sweet potato and the flavor of a sweet pumpkin all in one hard winter squash

Pods and

Pods and legumes include soybeans, mungbeans, snow peas and okra. The long bean, the foot-long-plus green bean of China, can sometimes grow as long as 3 ft., hence their other nickname, yard-long beans. Tougher than green beans, they are often fried with fermented black-bean paste and garlic. Soybeans grow in a rainbow of colors: the common green, as well as brown, blue and even black. Unshelled types of soybeans have become a snack, boiled in the pod and served at Japanese restaurants with only salt as seasoning. Shelled, they have made it into the quick-serve restaurant segment via McDonald’s Asian Chicken Salad.

100 Sprouted mung beans or bean sprouts are consumed daily in stir-fries, as spring- roll fillings, and tossed into salads. At a Vietnamese pho restaurant, you will see table salads, a mound of bean sprouts, fresh Asian basil (with a slight anise flavor), sliced jalapeños and a few wedges of lime ready for the consumer to add to their aromatic beef broth. The bean sprouts are added to the soup a pinch at a time to ensure a good crunch. Fermented soybeans are responsible for the complex, -rich flavors in Asian cuisine.

Pea sprouts are young snow plants harvested less than two weeks after germination. The tips of a slightly more mature plant are referred to as pea shoots, and their flavor is a bit closer to the snow pea in stir-fried vegetables.

Mushrooms

Mushrooms are fungi, but they’re treated like vegetables and are responsible for deep flavors in food. The amazing umami-rich flavors in mushrooms are so rich they are used to produce an oyster-sauce substitute for vegetarians who crave protein-rich flavor. (Japanese) mushrooms, native to China, and referred to as donggu, and translated in the as oak , as that is the type of they grow on. It used to be necessary to remove the stems, as they were inedible, but recent advances in growing techniques permit as-is use. Shiitake mushrooms go into miso soup, dashi and stir-fries.

Other top choices include the oyster mushroom (used in soups and stir-fries); enoki mushrooms, (simmered in Korean soups); and cloud ear mushrooms, added to hot- and-sour soups and spring rolls. Straw mushrooms are most commonly found in Thai cooking (ex. soup). They can only be found canned here in the United States, as attempts to grow them domestically have all failed. Expensive mushrooms (which tend to go for no less than $35 per lb.) can replace rarer truffles. Mushroom powder can be bought in bulk to add depth of flavor to dips, sauces, soups and protein marinades.

101 Noodles and Dumplings

Unlike Italian-style pasta, Asian noodles are not cut into various shapes and sizes, nor are they flavored or colored with vegetable purees, herbs or other ingredients. Noodles are ribbon-type pastas – some thin, some thick, folded into bundles and packaged. Differences among the various noodles result from the flours used in preparing the dough. Most dried Asian noodles are best soaked in hot water for several minutes prior to further preparation, to soften the noodle strands, separate the bundles, and allow noodles to cook more evenly. Dried can be fried in hot oil without presoaking. Egg noodles are sold as fresh or dried; fresh “nests” are available in the refrigerated sections of Asian markets, and should be shaken prior to use. Fresh rice noodles are packaged cooked and wet in wide, pliable “hanks”, and are cut into ribbons without unwinding and stirred into a dish. Japanese somen are fine, glossy and white in appearance and sold dried in various colors and flavors. Udon are wide, flat, ribbonlike noodles available dried, fresh or precooked in a variety of widths. Table summarizes various types of Asian noodles utilized in typical dishes.

Asian Noodles and Representative Dishes Noodle Ingredients Uses Dishes wheat noodles (mian, wheat flour and water stir-fries, soups gan mian, mien, mi) egg noodles (dan mian) wheat flour, egg, and water stir-fries, soups Chow mein noodles mung bean starch and water stir-fries, soups, (cellophane noodles, deep-fried bean threads, glass noodles, fen si) rice noodles (rice sticks, rice flour and water stir-fries, soups, rice vermicelli, mi fen) deep-fried vermicelli sheets (Sha rice flour, cornstarch,potato soups, stir-fries He fen) starch, and water noodles wheat flour, egg, and water soups, stews, stir-fries devil's tongue starch devil's tongue starch or soups noodles (shirataki) Amorphophalus starch with milk of lime soba noodles buckwheat flour, wheat soups, stews, flour, and water salads somen noodles (thick) wheat flour and water soups, salads udon noodles (thin) wheat flour and water soups, stews, salads

102 buckwheat noodles buckwheat flour, wheat salads, soups (naeng myon) flour, and water sweet potato noodles sweet potato flour and salads, stir-fries (vermicelli, tang myon) cornstarch and water Thai Noodles thin rice noodles (rice rice flour and water soups, stir-fries, sticks, rice vermicelli, salad sen mee) flat rice noodles (flat rice rice flour and water soups, stir-fries, Pad Thai sticks, rice vermicelli, salad dried gway tio, banh pho) vermicelli sheets (Sha rice flour, cornstarch, potato soups, stir-fries He fen, gway tio) starch, and water mung bean noodles mung bean starch and water soups, stir-fries, (cellophane noodles, salads braised dishes bean threads, glass noodles, woon sen) thin rice noodles (rice rice flour and water salads, soups, sticks, rice vermicelli, bun) flat rice noodles (flat rice rice flour and water soups, stir-fries sticks, rice vermicelli, banh pho) mung bean noodles mung bean starch and water salads, soups, (cellophane noodles, fillings bean threads, glass noodles, bun tau) Filipino Noodles (Pansit) egg noodles wheat flour, egg, and water stir-fries; soup Pansit Canton; Pansit lomein; Pansit ; Bam-e thin rice noodles (rice rice flour and water stir fries Pansit Bihon; sticks, rice vermicelli) Pansit Palabok; Bam-e mung bean noodles mung bean starch and water soups, stir- Sotanghon (cellophane noodles, fries, braised bean threads, spring rain) dishes

Adapted from the Encyclopedia of Food and Culture (2003)

103

A dumpling is a small mound of dough cooked by steaming or simmering in a flavorful liquid, deep-fat fried or baked. They can be sweet or savory, plain or filled. They are similar in appearance to familiar foods like the Michigan , Italian , Polish pierogies and Russian . Plain or drop dumplings are made with a breadlike dough, often leavened with or chemical leavening agents. They may be served with stews or broths, or coated with or sauce as an appetizer or side dish.

Filled Dumplings are made by wrapping noodle dough around seasoned meat, vegetables, cheese or fruit. These are steamed, fried or baked and served as snack food, appetizer or side dish. Asian can be bought fresh or frozen. They can keep in the refrigerator, wrapped, for a week.

Examples of Filled Dumplings Dumpling Ingredients Preparation Dishes Eggs, flour Steamed, boiled, ; pot fried stickers; egg roll; Pansit molo Pasties Eggs, flour Deep Fried Empanadas; Spring Rolls Rice flour, water Fresh, Deep-fried Lumpia; Cha gio; Goi Cuon; Bi Cuon Chay Steamed; baked ; siomai , burritos

Mexican empanadas can be a or breakfast flour dough. Empanadas item and tend to contain a variety of sweetened fillings; vary among regions these include pumpkin, yams, sweet potato, and cream, according to the filling, as well as a wide variety of fruit fillings. Meat, cheese, type of dough and and vegetable fillings are less common in some states, cooking. Most are deep- but still well-known and eaten fairly regularly in Mexico; fat fried, although they certain regions like the state of Hidalgo are famous for are baked in northern the empanadas, which are the favorite local dish. In . Chiapas empanadas filled with chicken or cheese is a popular dish too, for breakfast, supper or even snacks. You can find savoury and sweet varieties of those also known as pastes.

Philippine empanadas usually contain a filling flavored with soy sauce and containing ground beef or chicken meat, chopped onion, and raisins in a wheat

104 Biryani Masala - Indian

Description Photos courtesy of US-FDA, Atlanta, GA Biryani Masala is a blend of spices created to add flavor to ordinary rice. ‘Masala’ is an Indian word that means ‘spice blend’. The spices include turmeric, black pepper, nutmeg, mace, bay leaf, , fennel, cumin, coriander, , chili, cassia, green cardamom, and black cardamom. Variations may include saffron, ginger, dried prunes and other ingredients. When prepared with these spices, the rice dish is called ‘biryani’ which may also include lamb, chicken, fish or vegetables.

Preparation

The preparation of biryani masala involves the blending of the various spices, although different establishments have their own variations of the recipe. The bulk of the blend is ground and mixed together, creating a red to reddish-brown powder, but larger pieces may be included such as crystallized ginger, dried fruits or seeds that give it a ‘rocky’ texture. To prepare a vegetable biryani, the rice is parboiled and mixed with onions, garlic paste, tomato puree, and oil. After cooking until the oil separates, other ingredients are added, including and the spice mixture, and further cooked, creating a thick gravy along with the rice mixture. Next, a layer of rice is placed in a greased bowl or pan, followed by a layer of cooked vegetables and another layer of rice, which is then covered and cooked over low heat until done.

Risk Factor and Regulatory Concern for Biryani Masala

Misidentification

Even though it is available commercially, many establishments prefer to make their own biryani masala. Depending on the recipe used by a given establishment, the spice mixture may be quite unusual looking. It may be stored in containers previously used for something else, adding to the confusion. An inspector might even mistake it for a container of dirt and small rocks.

Control Measures

Know that biryani masala is a blend of spices used to prepare the rice dish, biryani.

Be able to recognize biryani masala and other spice mixtures used in Indian cooking.

105 Mexican Cheeses

Fresh Cheeses

Queso blanco This creamy, white cheese is made from skimmed cow's milk, and has been described as being a cross between cottage cheese and mozzarella. It is traditionally coagulated with lemon juice, giving it a fresh, distinctive lemon flavor, although nowadays it is often commercially made with rennet. It softens when heated, but doesn't melt, and is a good choice for enchiladas. Queso fresco A spongy white cheese, used to crumble over botanas - snacks - as well as on enchiladas and taquitos, this type of cheese was introduced to Mexico from Burgos, Spain. It is usually made with a combination of cow's milk and goat's milk. A very mild is an acceptable substitute for the grainy and mildly acidic queso fresco. Queso panela Also called queso de canasta because it carries the imprint of the basket in which it is molded, this is a soft, white cheese most often served as part of an appetizer or snack tray. It absorbs other flavors easily, and is sometimes coated with a garlic-and-chile paste, or wrapped in toasted avocado leaves, to be served with cocktails. Requesón A loose, ricotta-like cheese used to fill enchiladas and to make cheese spreads, this variety is most often sold in the markets wrapped in fresh corn husks. A mild - not salty - ricotta can be substituted for requesón.

Soft Cheeses

Queso añejo This is simply an aged version of queso fresco and, while classified as a soft cheese, can actually become quite firm and salty as it ages. It is used primarily as a garnish, crumbled or grated over a variety of dishes. Romano could be substituted for queso añejo. Queso oaxaca Also known as quesillo, this is by far the most popular cheese for making quesadillas. It is a stretched curd cheese, kneaded and wound into balls. It should be pulled apart into thin strings before using to fill tortillas or melted on cooked food. Mozzarella or string cheese can be used in its place

Oaxaca Cheese is a white, semi-hard cheese similar to un-aged Monterey jack. It is also known as quesillo (thread) cheese when shaped like a ball, and asadero cheese when shaped like a brick. Due to its excellent melting qualities, asadero is frequently used as the base for queso blanco, a dip popular in Mexican restaurants, and in quesadillas. "El Mexicano" brand Queso Oaxaca from San Jose, California, describes itself as "Mexican Style Mozzarella."

106 Semi-Soft Cheeses

Queso asadero This is specifically a melting cheese, used to make the Mexican fondue called queso fundido, a dish which adapts well to the inclusion of a variety of ingredients and is usually eaten as a late-night supper. Fontina and Monterrey Jack are fine substitutes. Queso chihuahua: Also called queso menonita, after the Mennonite communities of northern Mexico that first produced it, this cheese is now made by both Mennonites and non- Mennonites all over the country. Unlike most Mexican cheeses, it is pale yellow rather than white, and can vary in taste from mild to a nearly cheddar-like sharpness. It is used in a wide variety of dishes, and is especially good for making queso frito, a breaded, fried cheese dish. Since Chihuahua cheese is widely sold outside of Mexico, it should not be necessary to look for substitutes, however a very mild cheddar or a flavorful jack cheese could replace it in many recipes. Queso jalapeño A smooth, soft white cow's milk cheese with bits of jalapeño chile in it, this cheese is served as a snack or used to make quesadillas.

Paneer - India

It is an unaged, acid-set, non-melting farmer cheese that is similar to acid-set fresh mozzarella and queso blanco, except that it does not have salt added, much like hoop cheese. Another significant difference between mozzarella and paneer is the fact that mozzarella melts like any other cheese whereas paneer does not melt while cooking. Most paneer is simply pressed into a cube and then sliced or chopped, although Bengali paneer is beaten or kneaded like mozzarella. Paneer is one of the few types of cheese indigenous to the , and is widely used in and even some Middle Eastern and South Asian cuisine. Unlike most cheeses in the world, the making of paneer does not involve rennet. Food acid used in the production of paneer by coagulation is acetic or citric acid (or usually simple lemon juice or vinegar). It is added to hot milk to separate the curds from the whey. The curds are then drained in a muslin cloth or cheesecloth and excess water is pressed out. Next, the paneer is dipped in chilled water for 2-3 hours to give it a good texture and appearance. The preparation of paneer diverges based on its use.

Kesong Puti - Philippines

This famous white cheese is made from the milk of and the curds are usually wrapped in banana leaves. Acetic acid is used for coagulation by smaller operations, although the addition of rennet is not uncommon. Cheese is very perishable and needs refrigeration. It is used as garnishing for a popular rice cake, .

107

Nan - Indian

Description

Photos courtesy of US-FDA, Atlanta, GA Nan or is an unleavened flat bread that is traditionally baked in a oven and can be served with any meal.

Preparation and Cooking

The basic ingredients are flour, yogurt, milk, sugar, salt, yeast and butter. Once the ingredients are mixed and the dough is formed, it is kneaded and then covered and left to rise for about 2 hours. The dough is divided into balls about 3” in diameter and rolled or stretched by hand into flattened rounds about 8” in width. The round is placed on a cloth mitt-like ball, which protects the hand as the chef reaches into the hot tandoor oven and ‘slaps’ the dough onto the sides of the oven. The dough cooks very quickly in 1-2 minutes, becoming slightly browned on the side touching the oven wall. The dough is vertically attached to the hot oven so it tends to sag slightly, forming a tear drop shape. When ready, the bread is removed with a special hooked utensil that separates it from the wall and prevents it from falling to the bottom of the oven. The bread is served hot with melted butter and usually sprinkled with sesame seeds. Some establishments may add additional herbs and spices, such as garlic or cracked pepper, for flavoring.

Risk Factor and Regulatory Concern for Nan

Contamination / Cross Contamination

The main concern is the application device that enables the chef to ‘slap’ the dough onto the sides of the tandoor oven. It has been described in various ways by food inspectors - a white cloth mitt, a cloth bundle, or a white cotton puff. It is basically a series of white cotton cloths, usually regular restaurant dish towels that are layered on top of one another in a -like fashion. The problem with this method is that restaurants tend to use the same cloth over and over. When not in use it may be left on unsanitized surfaces.

Restaurants also have a tendency to keep adding new cloths to increase the size and protective value of the implement, covering the old, dirty dish towel with another one, often one that has been used for other activities such as wiping countertops or hands. While the bread itself is not potentially hazardous, it can be contaminated by the dirty, damp cloths, which can serve as breeding grounds for bacteria.

108

Control Measures

Observe the establishment’s method of placing the dough into the tandoor oven.

Verify that the establishment is using a food grade cloth, such as cheesecloth, on the application device, and confirm the method and interval for changing cloths.

Idli - Indian

Description

Idli is a steamed rice and cake often eaten for breakfast, as a snack or a side dish. The traditional idli is served with a light curry sauce, or (made of and vegetables in a spicy sauce). The following ingredients may also be incorporated: mustard seeds, chile peppers, coriander seed, cumin, sesame seeds, garlic, nuts, scallions, coconut or sugar to give it a spicy or sweet flavor.

Preparation and Cooking

Uncooked rice and split black lentils are soaked to soften, then ground into a paste with 2 parts rice to one part lentil. Salt and water are added and the paste is allowed to ferment overnight or 8 – 12 hours until it expands to about twice its original volume. Once the batter is fermented, it is spooned into an idli tray and steamed for 8 – 25 minutes in an equipment designed specifically for .

Risk Factors and Regulatory Concerns for Idlis

Improper Holding Temperatures / Inadequate Cooking

Inadequate holding temperatures after preparing and cooking the idli could result in the multiplication of Bacillus cereus bacteria, which produces a heat-stable toxin that can cause illness when the product is consumed. Refrigeration at 41ºF or below is required, during the soaking process, and after the idlis are prepared.

Control Measures

Verify that the rice is being held at 41°F or below during soaking.

Confirm that the cooling procedure for idlis should be from 135°F to 41°F within 6 hours, provided that they are cooled from 135°F to 70°F within the first two hours.

Ensure that after cooking, idlis are cooled and then held at 41°F until service.

109 Al Pastor - Mexican

Description Photos courtesy of US –FDA, Atlanta,

‘Al pastor’ is translated as ‘shepherd’s style’. It is a traditional dish believed to be an adaptation of the rotisserie style of cooking, probably brought to Mexico when Lebanese immigrants settled there in the late 1800s. Al pastor is usually served in a taco.

Preparation and Cooking

The meat is thinly sliced and marinated in lemon and , along with vinegar, garlic, chiles and other spices. Each piece is then stacked layer by layer onto a vertical rotisserie, resulting in a of meat. The product is slow cooked and as the outside edge of the meat is cooked, it is shaved and served in a taco with green onions, cilantro and salsa, or on a plate with onions, peppers, cactus and sometimes cheese.

Risk Factor and Regulatory Concern for Al pastor

Improper Holding Temperatures

Some facilities shave the outside meat as it is cooked and hold it until ordered, when it is grilled and served hot. Other facilities partially cook the meat, turn off the rotisserie and leave it on the skewer until customers arrive. Others partially cook the meat and then hold it in a pan until an order is placed, when it is grilled and then served. The reason for not fully cooking the meat is to avoid burning it or causing it to dry out. Cooked and partially cooked meat is often held at improper room temperatures for long periods. The outside edges may be cooked, but the innermost part of the meat may only be partially cooked, or even raw. The raw meat has been marinated in acidic juices, which may help minimize the bacterial risk for the product in its raw form. However, the Trichinella spiralis parasite would still be a hazard in raw or undercooked pork. Once the product is cooked or partially cooked and held, it must be properly handled to prevent the outgrowth of spore-formers.

Control Measures

 Verify the cooking and handling procedure. If there is meat on the rotisserie and it is not turning, or the heating element or gas flame is turned off, investigate further to determine how long the meat has been on the skewer, when it was placed on the skewer and how long it has been turned off.

Proper handling of the product may be ensured through the following :

• Cooking the Al pastor until the edges are browned, to a temperature of 145oF

110 • Shaving the meat off and hot holding the shavings at 135°F or above or cold holding at 41°F or below until ordered

• Holding the shavings and slices on the skewer for four hours using time as a public health control with proper documentation, and then discard the remains;

• Providing documentation that the preparation process renders the product non- potentially hazardous because it results in the meat having a pH of 4.2 or below. A variance is in place and the food product is prepared under an approved HACCP plan.

111 Barbacoa - Mexican

Description Photos courtesy of US-FDA, Atlanta, GA

Barbacoa is a Mexican specialty meat slow-cooked with vegetables, herbs and spices. Traditionally, it is wrapped in banana leaves or maguey (cactus) and placed in a pit over hot coals and then buried to slow cook for hours (12 to 18 is usual). Barbacoa was adopted into the cuisine of the southwestern United States by way of Texas which had formerly been a part of northern Mexico. The word transformed in time to "barbecue". Considered a specialty meat, some meat markets only sell barbacoa on Sundays or holidays in certain parts of south Texas, and in all of Mexico.There are three types of barbacoa: Bone-in, boneless and or a whole cow head (including brains) with the tongue removed. Most U.S. restaurants cook it indoors using modern equipment such as steamers and/or .

Preparation and Cooking

Boneless barbacoa is cooked by steaming in a pot or in an oven with cloves, , chiles, garlic, salt, barbecue sauce and other spices. The cooked meat is chopped with a knife and served on corn or flour tortillas. Bone-in barbacoa is cooked with the same basic ingredients but may be prepared either by steaming or the traditional “pit cooking” process. The cooked barbacoa is served with rice and beans. Barbacoa made from cow’s head is labor intensive and is usually reserved for special occasions such as holidays or celebrations such as weddings. The traditional “pit cooking” method is preferred. Preparation involves skinning the cow’s head and removing the eyes and tongue (which causes a bad flavor to the barbacoa if not removed). It is seasoned with onions, garlic and cilantro, wrapped in banana leaves, covered with maguey, or wrapped in a paper bag and then in burlap and roasted or steamed for hours (usually overnight for 12 to 18 hours) until the meat falls off the bone or can be easily pulled.

Risk Factors and Regulatory Concern for Barbacoa

Inadequate Cooking / Improper Holding Temperatures

Depending on the cooking method used and the size of the cut, the meat may be not be cooked enough to an internal temperature of 145 °F. Once cooked, it must be maintained at the proper hot or cold temperature. Some restaurants turn off their steam tables during certain times of the day, leaving barbacoa at risk.

112 Food From Unsafe Sources

Because of the recent USDA ban on the sale of cow brain from cows 30 months or older, any establishment that prepares barbacoa using the cow head must have documentation from the distributor which certifies that the processor obtained the head from a cow that was younger than 30 months.

Control Measures

Ask the establishment what method was used to prepare barbacoa (steaming, roasting)

Determine what measures are employed to ensure proper cook temperatures and confirm that it is cooked to 145°F or above for 15 seconds in the thickest portion of the meat.

Verify that the facility is hot holding the product at 135°F or above.

If holding at room temperature using time as a public health control, they must have the proper documentation.

If cold holding, verify that it is being held at 41°F or below.

If preparing a whole cow head, ask to see documentation from the distributor which certifies that the processor obtained the head from a cow that was younger than 30 months.

113

Barbecue – Chinese

Photo courtesy of US-FDA, Atlanta, GA Description

With Chinese barbecue, the meats are hung on hooks and roasted. The basic ingredients of Chinese barbecue sauce are soy sauce, vinegar, hoisin sauce, sesame oil and spices such as garlic, ginger and chile peppers. Sauces range from sweet to spicy. The main types of meats used are pork (spareribs and side meat), duck and chicken, although some restaurants offer barbecued fish, squid, quail and intestines.

Preparation and Cooking

Prior to cooking, the meats are rubbed with spices, placed on hooks and then basted with a boiled mixture (of salt and vinegar for pigs; honey and vinegar for poultry). For ducks, the bottom of the carcass is pinned to hold the seasonings inside of it. The products are left to dry at room temperature from several hours to several days to dry the skin and become crispy when cooked. The meats are cooked in a roaster or oven. Poultry is usually cooked whole; pork is cooked either whole or in pieces, depending on the cut of meat being prepared. Before roasting, pork pieces are basted in a tomato sauce and sugar mixture, giving it it’s characteristic red color. After the meat is cooked, it is usually displayed on hooks in a glass case where customers can see the available meats.

Risk Factors and Regulatory Concerns

Contamination

Most food establishments receive ducks, and pigs to be used for barbecuing as whole carcasses that are eviscerated but with heads and feet intact. The carcasses are often hung in the refrigerator until ready to be cooked, allowing possible contamination from dripping blood. Food establishments will also hang various types of meat carcasses together due to limited space, another likely source of contamination because the required cook temperature is higher for poultry than it is for pork.

Cross Contamination

Barbecued duck is served whole, halved or in quarters. Any cutting board used to cut poultry and other meats should be of an approved grade such as hard maple or plastic. Cutting boards made out of porous wood such as pine, may not be used because they cannot be properly cleaned, and can harbor pathogens that may contaminate food when it

114 is placed on its surface. In addition, employees must wear gloves while chopping or otherwise handling meats.

Improper Holding Temperatures

Raw, marinated meats might be held at room temperature for long periods of time in order to dry the skin prior to cooking. Cooked barbecue meats have also been observed to be held at room temperature. Most Chinese establishments have a special display case where they hang the barbecue meat for customers to see. These meats are usually held at room temperature which would allow microbial growth on the products.

Food From Unsafe Sources

Some establishments may purchase animals for barbecuing from unapproved sources. All pig carcasses must have a USDA or state stamp on the carcass. Poultry must have USDA labeling or equivalent state labeling on the box or package in which they are delivered.

Control Measures

Verify that products have been obtained from an approved source. Check to determine that all refrigerated raw meat products must hang in an area where other products cannot be contaminated by dripping blood or other contact. Verify that meat are being held separately in the refrigerator Observe that cutting boards are made from an approved material Confirm that cooked barbecue is maintained in one of the following ways:

• Hot held at 135°F or above, (Note: Some establishments may want to hold food sample in the display case so customers can see what they have, but hold the foods that are to be served in a hot holding case at the required temperature.) • Held for four hours or less using time as a public health control with the proper documentation, which would allow the meat to be held out of temperature control for no more than 4 hours during which time the product must be served, sold or discarded. Any establishment that chooses to hold the meats at a temperature lower than 135°F must use time as a public health control • Properly cooled and then held at 41°F or below until ordered, at which time the product is reheated to any temperature and served immediately to the customer • Held at room temperature based on laboratory analysis that shows that the product (whole and cut carcasses) after cooking no longer require time/temperature control for safety. A variance must be in place and the products must be prepared under an approved HACCP plan.

115 Barbecue – Korean

Description

Korean barbecue served in restaurants is often cooked at the table, frequently by the customers themselves. Each table has a hole in its center where a container full of hot charcoal and/or wood is placed after the order is taken. A grill is placed over the container and the meats are placed on the grill to cook. Many Korean restaurants serve barbecue as their main food item, while others serve it as one of many menu items.

Preparation and Cooking

The meats used for include beef, chicken, pork, lamb and fish. Three of the most popular barbecue dishes are bulgogi (thinly sliced sirloin), or kalbi (beef or pork short ribs with the bones removed) and sam gyup sal (pork bacon). Depending on the type and cut of meat, it is marinated in ingredients that may include soy sauce, garlic, sesame seed oil, sugar, green onions, black pepper, garlic, rice vinegar, chiles and ginger. Once an order is placed, the server brings several types of sauce (soy sauce, soy bean paste, hot pepper sauce) to the table, along with a plate of lettuce leaves. Next the server brings an assortment of small side dishes known as panchan or “”. These dishes typically include several types of pickled vegetables, smoked anchovies or squid jelly, spicy spinach, bean sprouts, fish cake, black beans, rice wafer, seaweed, and kimchi. Rice and soup may also be served. Next, the server pours water into an outer ring surrounding the hole where the grill is placed. Then the charcoal container is placed in the hole and topped with the grill. The server then brings the meats to the table. In some restaurants, the server will cut the meat into smaller portions right at the table. In others, the meat comes already cut. Using tongs, the server will place the meats on the grill to cook. If the establishment is not busy, the server will often cook the meats and then serve them. However, customers are often left to cook the meats themselves. Once the meat is cooked, patrons use chopsticks to place pieces of meat onto a lettuce leaf. Other ingredients may include one of the sauces, rice or pieces of garlic or pepper. The patron then folds or rolls the lettuce like a burrito and eats it in one or two bites.

Risk Factors and Regulatory Concerns for Korean Barbecue

Contamination / Cross Contamination

In order to get the barbecue meat item onto the grill, the raw item is sometimes carried with tongs over the ready-to-eat side dishes that are already on the table, thus exposing the latter to blood and other juices from the raw meat. Additionally, fish, beef,

116 pork or chicken may all be placed on the grill at the same time in direct contact with one another, exposing the products with lower cook temperatures to the pathogens that may be on the chicken, which has a higher cook temperature.

Inadequate Cooking

Since the cooking of the meats is often done by the patrons, they are the ones who must determine the doneness of the meats.

Improper Ventilation

Many Korean establishments serving barbecue have individual ventilation systems for each table. However, others do not, which leaves the smoke and fumes (including carbon monoxide) from the grill to disperse throughout the interior of the establishment. Some restaurants have makeshift grill setups such as propane-fueled camp stoves that they bring to the table.

Control Measures

Assist the food establishment with operating procedures to minimize cross contamination, such as:

• Having staff monitor patrons during the cooking of products; • Providing separate utensils for handling raw animal foods and cooked foods; • At a minimum, separating raw chicken from other raw animal foods; or • Providing information to patrons on proper handling of raw animal foods.

Confirm that the establishment has a consumer advisory that discloses to patrons that the menu item may be undercooked and warns the consumer of the risk of consuming this product if undercooked.

An appropriate plan review of the facility’s design should be conducted to determine whether proper ventilation is being provided.

117 – Thai and Filipino

Description

Also spelled saté, this is a dish consisting of chunks or slices of dice-sized meat on bamboo , which are grilled over a wood or charcoal . The meat used can be chicken, goat, lamb, beef, pork and even tripe. Satay may have originated from Indonesia, but it is also popular in Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, and the which was influenced through its former colonies. It is similar to the Japanese the of Turkey, and the Filipino barbecue. Preparation

Recipes and ingredients vary from country to country. Turmeric is often used to marinate chunks or slices of meat, which gives satay a characteristic yellow color. The meat are grilled over wood or charcoal fire and served with a spicy peanut sauce dip. The Philippine version is marinated then brushed on with a thick sweet sauce (which is usually reddish in color) then grilled.

Risk Factor and Regulatory Concern for Satay

Inadequate Cooking and Improper Holding Temperature

Grilling of the meat is not usually checked with a thermometer because the meat pieces are very small. Doneness of the meat is checked visually by the one grilling. Some establishments may grill ahead and hold the barbecue at room temperature.

Control Measures

Check that the marinated meat is kept in the refrigerator

Confirm that grilled satay is maintained in one of the following ways:

• Hot held at 135°F or above (Note: Some establishments may want to hold food sample in the display case so customers can see what they have, but hold the foods that are to be served in a hot holding case at the required temperature.) • Held for four hours or less using time as a public health control with the proper documentation, which would allow the meat to be held out of temperature control for no more than 4 hours during which time the product must be served, sold or discarded. Any establishment that chooses to hold the meats at a temperature lower than 135°F must use time as a public health control • Properly cooled and then held at 41°F or below until ordered, at which time the product is reheated to any temperature and served immediately to the customer

118 Tandoori - Indian

Photos courtesy of US-FDA, Atlanta, GA Description

‘Tandoori’ refers to the Indian style of cooking using the traditional ‘tandoor’ oven. The oven is made of brick and clay, has rounded sides, and stands up to 5 feet high. It uses charcoal in the bottom as a heat source. The intense heat (up to 900°F) cooks meat very quickly, with the meat becoming crispy on the outside while remaining tender and juicy on the inside. Tandoor ovens are used for baking the Indian breads ‘’ and ‘nan’, and the famous ‘’. Many Indian restaurants in the U.S. still use this traditional clay oven, although others use a variation that uses gas instead of charcoal, with a steel casing around the clay cylinder to prevent cracking.

Preparation and Cooking

Tandoori meats are marinated in a yogurt-based sauce marinade or dry spices. The red color associated with tandoori cooking comes from saffron and red food coloring. When the meats are ready for cooking, they are usually skewered and lowered into the oven’s intense heat.

Risk Factors and Regulatory Concerns for Tandoori Chicken

Inadequate Cooking

The oven temperature may be very hot, but may not be even throughout the oven, resulting to uneven cooking. A dozen or more pieces of chicken on the skewer may heat unevenly. The temperature variation may result in the pieces on the bottom becoming overcooked before the ones on top reach the required internal cook temperature of 165°F for chicken. Unless the temperature of the chicken is measured in different areas on the skewer, some of the chicken may end up being served undercooked. For establishments that prepare large quantities of tandoori meat and refrigerating them for later use, reheating may be an issue. The reheat method usually involves placing the meat back into the tandoor oven, where uneven heating may occur. For poultry, reheating should be to an internal temperature of 165° or above if it is going to be hot held. Tandoori for immediate service may be reheated to any temperature as long as it has been properly cooled.

119

Improper Holding Temperatures

If the tandoori meat is not served immediately, it must be hot held or properly cooled and refrigerated. Establishments often cook the meat (or partially cook it) ahead, but leave it out at room temperature. They will then reheat or finish cooking it just prior to serving it. Maintaining tandoori meats at the proper temperature in buffet lines is a challenge due to the shape and size of the meats and the lack of moisture in the product.

Control Measures

Ensure that tandoori meats reach the following final internal cook temperature :

• 165ºF or above for chicken; and • 155°F or above for beef and lamb that has been tenderized

If meats are not reaching the proper temperature, suggest to the operator to place smaller portions of meat on the skewer, or to device a system of removing pieces on the bottom nearest to the heat once they cook or to rotate top pieces downward.

Confirm that the establishment is using an appropriate thermometer for measuring the temperature of meats being removed from the oven.

Verify that meats held on the buffet, kitchen steam table or holding are at 135°F or above.

Regardless of the method of reheating, check the reheat temperature reach 165°F or above within 2 hours if the meat is going to be hot held prior to service.

120 Goat – Indian, Filipino and Mexican

Indian - Curried Goat

Description Photos courtesy of US-FDA, Atlanta, GA Goat can be prepared in a variety of ways, including roasted, braised, curried, soups and stews. Meat and Poultry inspection falls under the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Through cooperative agreements, this responsibility may be transferred to States, but any meat processed under State inspection is limited to intrastate commerce.

Preparation and Cooking

Goat meat is cut into small pieces and seasoned with a variety of spices, including curry, cumin, fenugreek, cinnamon, cloves, ginger, garlic, , paprika and cardamom. Sliced onions are browned in hot oil, followed by the addition of the spices and the . After the meat is browned, the heat is reduced and tomatoes, water, additional and spices added. The mixture is simmered from 1.5 to 3 hours, until the liquid thickens and the meat is tender. Curried goat may be served with rice, chutney or other Indian side dishes.

Risk Factor and Regulatory Concern for Curried Goat

Food From Unsafe Sources

Most goat meat is purchased from state or USDA-approved plants. Some restaurants and markets purchase goat meat from unapproved sources, while others may purchase a live goat from an unapproved source and process it themselves. Others even raise their own at home and slaughter and process them as needed. There have been cases in which inspectors have discovered whole animals, frozen with fur and hooves intact. Any goat meat that is not from a USDA or state-approved source is illegal and cannot be served in restaurants or sold in markets.

Control Measures

If goat is on the menu or in a meat display case, ask to see the packaging or invoice in order to determine that it came from an approved source.

If a whole skinned goat carcass is in the facility, check for the USDA stamp to verify that it is from an approved source.

Verify that time / temperature controls appropriate for goat are followed

121 Kaldereta – Filipino and Mexican

Description

Kaldereta is a Filipino goat stew and is a Spanish influenced dish. It is cooked during special occasions like fiestas and parties for special occasions. Beef is often substituted for goat meat during regular preparation of the dish.

Preparation and Cooking

Goat meat is cut into chunks. Potatoes and carrots are peeled and cut into cubes. Onions, garlic and red and green peppers are sautéed in a little oil, and the goat meat added until browned. Tomato sauce, liver (or ) and broth are added to the meat, potatoes and carrots, and the mixture allowed to simmer until the meat is tender and the sauce has thickend. Frozen green peas or olives can also be added.

Risk Factors and Regulatory Concerns for Kaldereta

Food From Unsafe Sources

Most goat meat is purchased from state or USDA-approved plants. Some restaurants and markets purchase goat meat from unapproved sources, while others may purchase a live goat from an unapproved source and process it themselves. Others even raise their own goats at home and slaughter and process them as needed. There have been cases in which inspectors have discovered whole animals, frozen with fur and hooves intact. Any goat meat that is not from a USDA or state-approved source is illegal and cannot be served in restaurants or sold in markets.

Improper Holding Temperature

The dish is usually prepared ahead in a big pot and hot held until ordered. Some establishments hold this dish at room temperature for several hours.

Control Measures

If goat is on the menu, ask to see the packaging or invoice in order to determine that it came from an approved source.

If a whole skinned goat carcass is in the facility, check for the USDA stamp to verify that it is from an approved source.

Verify that time / temperature controls appropriate for goat meat are followed

Verify that the holding temperature is at least 135oF or above.

122 - Mexican

Photo courtesy of Abbie Harding Description

Carnitas (from the Spanish for "little meats") is a type of braised, roasted or deep- fat fried pork sold in Mexcian carnecerias. It is traditionally made using the heavily marbled upper and lower sections of the front shoulder of the hog. Some trim off the skin to make chicharrones con carne. The pork can easily be shredded and served as fillings for burritos and tacos. The fried pork pieces can also be served with Mexican rice.

Preparation and Cooking

Preparation techniques, cuts of meat used and the size of the meat cut may vary depending on the facility. About 6 to 16-lb sections are usually cut down to a workable (6 to 10-lb) size and seasoned heavily before slow braising or slow roasting, generally in the range of 160 to 180 °F for 8 to 12 hours. At this stage the collagen in the meat has broken down sufficiently to allow it to be pulled apart by hand or fork or chopped with a cleaver. Others deep-fat fry the pork in large vats from 1-2 hours, depending on the size of the meat. The final cooking temperature should be at a minimum of 145oF for 15 secs. After frying, the pork is drained of the oil and placed in display cases. Hot holding temperature should be at a minimum temperature of 135oF.

Risk Factors and Regulatory Concerns for Carnitas

Contamination

Most facilities do not conduct meat preparations in a cold room, so there are more chances of contamination.

Improper Cook Temperature

Fried, braised or roasted carnitas need to have an internal cook temperature of 145oF. The large cuts may result to uneven cooking, with the interior not reaching the desired temperature.

Holding Temperature

The fried or roasted carnitas are usually placed in the display cabinets and should be hot held at 135oF. Some establishments may leave it at room temperature.

123 Control Measures

�  Check that there is frequent cleaning of food contact surfaces since preparation in most establishments is not usually held in a cold room.

� Proper handling of the product may be ensured through the following :

- Cooking carnitas to a final cook temperature of at least 145oF for 15 secs. - Hot holding the carnitas in display cabinets at 135°F or above or cold holding at 41°F or below until ordered - Holding the carnitas for four hours using time as a public health control with proper documentation, and then discard the remaining meat

Note:

A similar Filipino dish is Crispy Pata which consists of pork knuckles (pata) marinated then deep fried until crispy golden brown. However, the knuckles are a small portion, thus the whole leg of pork is usually served.

124

Carne Seca and Machaca – Mexican

Description

Carne seca is similar to beef jerkey. It is thinly sliced dried beef. When carne seca is dehydrated and shredded, it is called machaca or machacado. It is usually cooked with eggs, onions and chile peppers. It also serves as filling in a , burrito, torta, or served with beans and rice. The name Machaca is used in the Southern part of Mexico and in the northwestern state of , and 'Machacado' in the North where it originated.

Preparation and Cooking

The meat is thinly sliced by hand or by using a deli meat slicer. The sliced meats are salted and spiced. For machaca, the meat slices may also be coated with oil. The salted meat slices are dehydrated for around 10 hours. The dehydrator should be set to at least 160 oF to initially cook the carne seca. The carne seca needs to cook to 145oF for 15 seconds within 4 hours to destroy the pathogenic organisms. The resulting dried product is no longer potentially hazardous and may be held at room temperature. It is packaged and sold as carne seca. Machaca is prepared by shredding carne seca using an automatic shredder, bagged and sold.

In some establishments, the skin with meat is first soaked in a mixture of salt and lime juice and then hung to dry for a very long time at room temperature until it is dried. There is no cook step involved.

Photos courtesy of Abbie Harding Risk Factors and Regulatory Concerns for Carne Seca and Machaca

Contamination

Preparations are not usually done in a cold room, and food contact surfaces may not frequently be cleaned. Other steps of the process may not be carried out in appropriate working areas. Smaller food establishments may dry the meat by simply hanging at room temperature in the or storage areas. Bare hand contact may occur with the dried, ready-to-eat products.

126 Cooking Temperature

The product may not reach the required 145oF within four hours, and pathogenic organisms might not be destroyed. In some facilities, a dehydrator may not exist and drying might be done just at room temperature, so no cooking is involved.

Control Measures

Verify that there is frequent cleaning of food contact surfaces

Check the dehydrator temperature is at least 160oF.

Check that the final cooked temperature is held at 145oF for 15 seconds and reached

within 4 hours.

Contact local regulatory office to have the product evaluated because it may need

special approval

If from a wholesaler, ensure that the product is from inspected and approved sources

Source: http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~retrsk4/MaricopaCounty-carne.html (can also view and download video stream)

127 Cecina – Mexico

Source: Wikimedia Commons Description

Mexican cecina available in local carnicerias is not made using the traditional Spanish method of salt curing. This product is prepared on a demand basis using salt, oil and refrigeration, and is not cured. The cherry red color turns dark brown over time.

Preparation

Finely slice around five pounds of beef. The thinly sliced product may also be used to make carne seca, otherwise known as beef jerky. Each slice of meat is seasoned with salt, and rubbed with oil. Variations of ingredients used may vary depending on the establishment. At the end of four hours the finished product should be held at 41F or less

Risk Factors and Regulatory Concerns for Cecina

Contamination

Most establishments do not process meats inside a working cold room. The food contact surfaces may not be frequently cleaned.

Holding Temperature

The preparation may exceed four hours, and the finished product is held at a temperature above 41oF.

Control Measures

Verify that the preparation, including cooling time, should not exceed four hours. Verify that the finished product should be held at 41oF or less.

Source: http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~retrsk4/vmazceci.html

Note : The Filipinos also have their version of cecina called ‘ tapa’, which, if dried, is similar to the dried cecina, carne seca.

128 Chicharones – Mexican and Filipino

Description

Chicharones, otherwise known as pork rinds, are kettle-fried products that can be found at local carniceritas. These are popular snack items in Spanish-influenced cuisine like that of Mexico and the Philippines.

Preparation and Processing

The first step is to remove the pork skins from the walk-in cooler. The pork skins are generously seasoned with salt and laid out on spaced racks where they are set out in the walk-in cooler to dry for the next 3 days. This drying process assists in the removal of excess moisture in the skin and also shortens the initial cook time of the pork skins. The skins dried in the cooler are removed and deep fried to remove any remaining moisture. The frying step may take up to two hours or longer. Once the skin has undergone this process, it is considered a non-potentially hazardous product. The chicharones are then set on sheet pans, stored in the walk-in cooler and then used when needed. The final preparation step involves heating individual pieces of chicharones in heated oil. As it is heated, it stretches and expands, giving the chicharones its characteristic puffed look. The product is removed from the kettle, allowed to cool then set in the display case for sale.

Risk Factor and Regulatory Concern for Chicharones

Contamination

Preparations are not usually done in a cold room, and food contact surfaces may not be frequently cleaned. Some facilities may keep the chicharrones exposed in the air and not in display cabinets. There is bare hand contact of the finished product.

Control Measures

Check that the food contact surfaces are frequently cleaned when processing. Verify that there is no bare hand contact with the ready to eat product Check that the product is kept inside display cabinets.

Source: http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~retrsk4/MaricopaCounty-chicharrones.html

129 Chicharrones con carne – Mexican and Filipino

Description

These are popular snack items in Spanish-influenced countries like Mexico and the Philippines. They are made from with a little meat still attached.

Preparation and Processing

Chicharrones con carne can be made two ways, chicharron de pella, or chicharron picado. Chicharron de pella is made of thick sliced pork bellies, while chicharron picado is made of the left over pork skin trimmings from the carnita making process. Both of these products are identical through out the whole process of making chicharrones con carne. The left over pork trimmings from carnita making are cut into smaller pieces prior to deep-frying. The size of these cuts may vary from one carniceria to the next, but usually are no greater than two inches. Once the product has been cut, they are placed in a large vat where they are left to fry in their own juices. This cooking process may take anywhere from two to two and a half hours depending on the size of the product used. The final cooking temperature of this product as a minimum should be a 145oF for 15 seconds. The chicharrones con carne are removed from the vat and are strained. The product is then placed in the display case available for sale. Or, it is placed on a sheet pan and pressed to make what is called chicharrones prensado.

Risk Factors and Regulatory Concerns for Chicharones con Carne

Contamination

Preparations are not usually done in a cold room, and food contact surfaces may not be frequently cleaned. Some facilities may keep chicharrones de pella or chicharrones picado out of temperature control in display cabinets. There might also be bare hand contact with the finished product.

Control Measures

Check that the food contact surfaces are frequently cleaned. Verify that this product should be held hot at a minimum, at 135o F. Verify that there is no bare hand contact with the ready to eat product Before holding the products are the temperature danger zone, it is important to speak with your local regulatory official for proper guidance on these procedures.

Source: http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~retrsk4/MaricopaCounty-chicharronesconcarne.html - (can also view and download video stream)

130 and – Mexican and Filipino

Description

Chorizo and Longaniza are Mexican and Filipino specialty prepared either using pork or beef, and made using the same mix of vinegar, herbs and spices. Chorizo is sold fresh, while longaniza is filled into a casing and processed further. Both are Spanish influenced sausage products.

Procedure and Processing

Either pork or beef are ground. The is mixed with vinegar, salt, pepper, herbs and spices which would vary depending on the formulation of the establishment. Chorizo is placed in the display case ready for sale. Longaniza is extruded into a and held in a cooler to dry. Once the longaniza has been made, it is placed into the reach-in cooler for sale to the consumer. The holding temperature should be below 41°F.

Risk Factor and Regulatory Concern for Chorizo and Longaniza

Contamination

If the preparation is not done in a cold room, and food contact surfaces are not frequently cleaned.

Improper Holding Temperatures

If the display case and reach-in cooler are not held at the right cold holding temperatures for chorizo and longaniza, there is danger for growth of microorganisms. If longaniza is held at temperature danger zone to dry instead of in a cooler, the growth of pathogenic microorganisms is possible.

Control Measures

Verify that the cold holding temperature of the display case for chorizo is at least 41oF or below

Verify that the temperature of the longaniza which is hang to dry is 41oF or below

If drying of the longaniza is to be done traditionally at room temperature ( or in the Temperature Danger Zone) consult your local health and food inspector about it this process should be evaluated and may require special approval.

Source: http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~retrsk4/vmazchor.html (can also view/download video stream)

131 Glossary

MEXICAN-RELATED

Adobo – Seasoning or marinade mix which includes vinegar, peppercorn, ginger, garlic, bay leaf and other seasonings depending on the country.

Agave - Century plant; source of the sap used to make and .

Al Pastor – A traditional Mexican dish in which meat is slow-cooked using a vertical rotisserie.

Albondigas – Dish of spicy meatballs.

Ancho chile – Dried poblano chile. It has a sweet flavor, and is used primarily to flavor sauces.

Atole - Gruel - like, thick beverage with a base.

Barbacoa – Mexican specialty dish made of meat (beef, pork, goat or lamb), slow-cooked with vegetables, herbs and spices. The beef version may include cooking a whole cow’s head.

Buche – Pork stomach that is boiled and then grilled and served in a taco. It is a popular Mexican dish.

Burrito – A large with a variety of fillings, such as beans, beef, or pork.

Carne asada - Consists of pieces or thin cuts of beef sometimes marinated, sometimes lightly salted or rubbed with salt, pepper and/or spices, and then grilled. It can be eaten alone or used as filler for tacos, tortas, burritos etc.

Carne guisada – Beef stew. Ingredients include onions, bell peppers, garlic, salt, pepper, and comino. Often served over rice and/or refried beans.

Ceviche – Latin and South American dish traditionally made with raw fish, shrimp and shellfish marinated in limejuice and combined with tomatoes, onions, garlic, cilantro and chiles.

Chalupas - Fried tortillas topped with refried beans, slivered meat, chopped tomatoes and onions, and grated cheese.

Chilaquiles - Shredded, fried tortillas baked with chili sauce.

132 Chile Rellenos – Mexican dish consisting of poblano peppers stuffed with beef, pork or cheese, then battered and fried or oven roasted. It is served plain or with a light tomato sauce or melted cheese.

Chimichanga – Identical to a burrito, only fried.

Chorizo – Mexican sausage made with ground pork and seasonings, such as garlic, chili powder, paprika, and hot peppers.

Comal – A round, flat griddle used to make tortillas. Originally made of earthenware, modern comals are usually made of steel or iron.

Comino – The Spanish word for cumin, a typical Mexican spice. Used most often in stews, such as chili.

Cumin – Major spice in Mexican cooking; its seeds are similar to fennel seed

Empanadas – Fried or baked flour dough with either dried fruit or meat filling.

Enchiladas - Corn tortillas rolled around a filling and covered with a sauce be - fore baking.

Enchilada sauce – Sauce that accompanies enchiladas. Made of chili powder, flour, cocoa powder, and spices.

Flan – A baked dessert, comprised of milk and egg yolks, topped with caramel.

Flautas – Tightly rolled corn tortillas containing a small amount of filling that are fried until crisp.

Frijoles – Beans. Along with corn, beans make up the staple diet of many Latin American cultures

Frijoles refritos – Cooked beans with added lard that are stirred to a pureed texture.

Gorditas – Thick, small tortillas fried with meats or vegetables (or both) and cheese.

Guacamole – Avocado mixture made from ripened avocado, lemon/lime juice, onion, tomato, and cilantro. Used as a condiment.

Horchata – Traditional Mexican beverage made with ground rice, sugar and water.

133

Jalapeño – Mildly hot green chile pepper that turns red as it matures.

Lengua – Beef tongue served in a variety of ways, including in tacos, salads, sandwiches, and as a main course. Lengua is popular in Mexican cooking.

Masa – The Spanish word for dough. In Mexico, masa refers to the corn flour dough used to make tortillas and tamales.

Masa harina - Ground corn that has been soaked in lye.

Menudo – Spicy, Mexican soup made with tripe, hominy, chili, garlic and other spices.

Metate - Stone quern used for grinding nixtamal to masa harina.

Mole sauce – A generic name for a variety of Mexican sauces. The most famous is mole poblano made from chili peppers, ground nuts, and chocolate.

Nixtamal - Hull - less, lye - soaked corn.

Nopales - Leaves of prickly pear cactus.

Pico de gallo – a "salsa cruda" (uncooked) made with tomatoes, onions, cilantro, and serrano chiles. Normally very hot.

Pimento – Sweet pepper common in Mexican cooking. Not to be confused with the berry used to make , also called "pimento."

Quesadilla - Flour tortilla folded over a layer of grated cheese and heated.

Queso blanco – Soft, fresh white cheese made from pressing the whey of cottage cheese. Also called queso fresco.

Salsa - Sauce containing finely chopped vegetables and seasonings used to add flavor excitement to many Mexican and Central American dishes.

Serrano – A very hot, small chile. It turns red then yellow as it matures. The serrano chile is the key ingredient to an authentic pico de gallo.

Sesos – Beef brains that are fried and served as a filling in tacos, tamales, and empanadas. It may also be served with flour tortillas or as an entrée with rice and beans in Mexican facilities.

Sofrito – A form of sautéing garlic, onions and tomatoes to prepare a fragrant sauce which serves as a base for many dishes (equivalent to mire poix)

134

Sorrell – Caribbean beverage made with water, (a dried flower petal), ginger root, and sugar.

Tacos - Crisply fried or soft tortillas folded in half over a filling of beans, meats, and other ingredients.

Tajaditas - Fried banana chips.

Tamales - Masa harina spread on cornhusks and wrapped around a filling of meat or other ingredients, then steamed until done.

Tamarindo – Mexican beverage made from the seedpods of the tamarind , water, and honey or sugar.

Tapas – Small dishes served typically during siesta, or afternoon break. These are somewhat analogous to the Chinese dim sum.

Tomatillo – A small, green, tomato-like fruit with a thin covering. It is a relative of the gooseberry family.

Tortillas - Dough of masa harina (or flour) and water, which is pressed into thin disks and baked.

Tostada - Bowl - shaped fried tortilla filled with beans, meat, chopped vegetables, guacamole, grated cheese, and sour cream.

Tripas (also ‘Tripitas’) – Beef small intestines that are boiled, sliced, fried and served in tacos. It is extremely popular in Latin communities.

ASIAN-RELATED

1000 Year Old Egg – Duck or chicken egg that has been preserved by soaking the egg in a brine of salt and lye. Also known as a ‘century egg’ or ‘pidan’. Usually associated with Chinese or .

Abalone – A large marine that is hard to acquire. It is considered a delicacy in Japan and is used in more upscale establishments.

Adobo - Filipino stew using meats marinated in vinegar seasoned with bagoong, fried with onions and garlic, and then stewed.

Bagoong – Filipino shrimp paste that is used extensively as a condiment.

135 Balut – Fertilized duck egg with a nearly developed embryo inside that is boiled and eaten straight from the shell. It is considered a delicacy in Vietnam and the Philippines.

Banchan – Small side-dishes, including kimchi, served along with cooked rice in , and set in the middle of the table to be share

Banh trang – Rice-paper wrappers made from rice flour, water and salt. These are moistened in warm water then quickly filled to be fried, or used uncooked as wrappers for slivers of meat or fish and fresh herbs. Usually dipping sauces are provided for the diners.

Black Chicken (also ‘Ogol’) – Breed of fowl that is native to Korea and about the size of a Cornish hen. Everything on the chicken (feathers, beak, comb, legs, skin, meat and bones) is black except for its blood and internal organs.

Bird's nest soup - Cornstarch - thickened soup made with the mucilaginous lining of the nests of the Asiatic swiftlet, chicken broth, minced chicken, and egg white.

Biryani Masala – Blend of spices used to add flavor to rice and other dishes in Indian cooking. The spices include turmeric, black pepper, nutmeg, mace, bay leaf, fenugreek, fennel, cumin, coriander, clove, chili, cassia, green cardamom, caraway, and black cardamom.

Bitter melon (also ‘Foo gwa’) – A gourd shaped like a cucumber but with wrinkled, rougher skin. It is bitter, as the name suggests, and is considered an acquired taste.

Bok choy – Type of Asian cabbage with a white stem and dark green leaves.

Bulgogi - Grilled, marinated beef or other meat.

Braising - Method of cooking where foods are initially seared in a little oil, then further cooked in a liquid or stock thickened with cornstarch to form a sauce.

Cahn – Category of Thai soups that are usually served out of a communal bowl.

Cantonese - Cuisine of the southern Chinese that features stir - frying, such dishes as egg rolls, dumplings (dim sum), and pork specialties, and generous use of vegetables, rice, and fruits.

Cassava – Tropical root vegetable, one species of which contains toxic glucosides that form cyanide. If not removed, these toxins can cause illness

136 and even death. The is dried and ground into a flour call farofa. Cassava is also known as manioc and yucca.

Chapati - Pancake - like, grilled popular in India.

Ch'a - shao - pao - Cantonese dish of steamed buns filled with roast pork.

Che – Vietnamese bean soups that are normally eaten as snacks. They are often sweet, accompanied with , root, , and lotus seeds.

Che Ba Mau – Vietnamese beverage made with yellow mung beans, red mung beans, sugar, coconut milk, tapioca and water.

Che Sam Bo Luong – Chinese or Vietnamese beverage made with longan fruit, seaweed, black dates and white lotus seeds in .

Chi pao yu - Shanghai specialty; bits of seasoned raw fish wrapped in wax paper and fried in deep fat, then unwrapped and eaten.

Chinese parsley - Cilantro or coriander.

Chitterlings – Pork small intestines that are popular in Chinese and American Soul Food cuisine.

Chotkal – Type of kimchi consisting of a mixture of pickled anchovies, oysters, baby shrimp, baby squid or shellfish.

Chopsticks – Eating utensil of choice for several Asian countries. Originally invented by the Chinese and advocated strongly by Confucius, who thought it best to forbid tools of war (knives) at the dining table. As a result, food had to be cut into bite-sized pieces prior to cooking to make knives unnecessary at the table.

Chow mein - Parboiled noodles fried briefly with other ingredients; a Cantonese stir - fry with noodles.

Chutney - Chunky and flavorful sauce often served as accompaniment to curry.

Coconut cream - Pureed and strained creamy liquid prepared from freshly grated white meat of mature pared coconut and some hot water.

Coconut milk - Coconut liquid similar to coconut cream, but with more liquid.

Coconut water - Liquid drained from fresh coconut by puncturing its eyes; used as beverage, but not as a cooking ingredient.

137 Cocido - Hearty Filipino stew containing a variety of meats, Spanish sausage, , Saba (sweet cooking bananas), tomato sauce, and lard.

Congee - Rice gruel often served at breakfast in Southeast Asia.

Curry – A mixture of spices that may include coriander (often the dominant spice), turmeric, cumin, cayenne or other chilies, cardamom, cinnamon, clove, fennel, fenugreek, ginger, or garlic. Used extensively in Indian cooking.

Daal (also ‘’) – Term for all varieties of dried beans, split peas, and lentils. There are many different varieties of dal, all of which have a specific use in Indian cooking.

Daikon – A variety of radish known as Japanese radish, Chinese radish and Satsuma radish. It grows up to three feet in length and weighs one to five pounds when harvested. It is used in stir-fry recipes, soups and stews and may also be eaten raw or pickled in salads.

Dashi - Clear soup stock made with dried fillet of bonito and kelp.

Dim Sum – Traditional Chinese cuisine in which small portions of a variety of foods, including an assortment of steamed or fried dumplings, are served in succession.

Durian – A huge fruit native to Southeast Asia, it has a very thick and thorny husk, with a yellow-green skin. The flesh is thick and creamy. One of the most popular fruits in Asia, it is an acquired taste, as well as an acquired smell.

Edamame – Immature soybeans picked while still green and eaten directly from the pod.

Eel – A -like fish with a slender body and poorly developed fins. It is a popular food item in many Asian countries, including Vietnam.

Egg roll – Small, deep-fried pastries filled with minced or shredded vegetables and often meat. Often served as appetizers.

Fan - Grain foods considered to be important as a balance with the ts'ai (other foods in the meal).

Five - spice powder - Popular Chinese spice made by mixing star anise, Szechwan pepper, cinnamon, cloves, and fennel.

138 Fungi - Designation for mushrooms in some Chinese recipes; may include shitake, enoki, oyster, button, or other types of mushrooms, usually dried.

Galanggal – A root spice used in Asian cooking for its hot flavor

Garam masala – A blend of ground spices used in Indian cooking. May include may include black pepper, cinnamon, cloves, cumin cardamom, dried chilies, fennel, mace, nutmeg, and other spices.

Ghee – , used as a shortening.

Ginger root - Gnarled root of ginger, which is usually peeled and grated; adds flavor as well as some heat to a recipe.

Gochuchang paste – A Korean spicy red pepper paste made from glutinous rice powder mixed with powdered, fermented soybeans and red peppers.

Hibachi – Japanese style of cooking in which specially trained chefs prepare a meal in front of guests at a specially designed cooking area. It is also known as ‘teppanyaki’.

Hoisin sauce – A sweet and spicy, reddish- made from soybeans, garlic, chilies, and other spices.

Idli – A steamed rice and lentil cake native to Southern India.

Imam Bayildi – Mediterranean baked dish made with eggplant, onions, peppers, garlic and tomatoes.

Jicama - Brown root vegetable with crisp white interior, often served in raw slices with chili powder sprinkled on them.

Kaoliang - Sorghum (grain) crop grown in northern China.

Kalamansi – Little green lime indigenous to Philippines. It is used as a souring agent.

Kapi - Thai salty, dried shrimp paste.

Katsuobushi – Cooked bonito fish (of the tuna/mackerel family) is fermented until dry, then shaved into ribbons or flakes. This is the main ingredient in many soups and sauces, including dashi.

Kim Bap – Korean sushi, which differs from Japanese sushi in that the rice used is prepared differently from Japanese sushi, all meats used are cooked, and all kim bap is wrapped in seaweed.

139

Kimchi (also ‘Kimchee’) – The national food of Korea. It is a pickled vegetable, most often cabbage, and is served at almost every meal.

Kobe beef – A manner of raising cows, which does not designate its origin. Raising includes specialized diet, icluding beer to keep cow relaxed; massages to the cow; etc. Due to their pampering, fetches a high price.

Kochujang - Red pepper and bean paste used as a condiment and also as an ingredient in Korean recipes.

Komezu dressings – Rice vinegar. Varieties include kimizu, tama-miso, and misozuke

Ku Iao jou - Dish containing starch - coated fried cubes of pork, stir - fried green peppers, various vegetables, and pineapple cubes in a thickened sweet - sour tomato sauce.

Laver - ; popular in Korea.

Lemon Grass – Used as herb with a citrus flavor in Asian cooking

Lop – typically made from pork or liver. Smaller than Western sausages, it varies in flavor, but has a general sweet-salty flavor.

Lotus root - Crunchy root of lotus (water lily) cut crosswise to use in stir - fries and soups, where its porous appearance due to many lengthwise cavities in the root adds visual interest.

Lumpia – A Filipino egg roll that is very similar to Chinese egg rolls. They are deep-fried and are often filled with pork, beef, or shrimp.

Mangosteen – The fruit of a tropical evergreen tree native to Malaysia and Indonesia. One of the most popular fruits in Asia, it is a deep reddish-purple when ripe and about the size of a mandarin orange.

Meat cleaver – A butcher's knife having a large square blade. Commonly found in Asian .

Mirin – Sweet rice wine used extensively in Japanese cooking.

Miso – Fermented soybean paste, used primarily in soups.

Misozuke – Japanese technique where a vegetable is embedded in miso.

140

Mochi - Rice cake made by pounding cooked sweet glutinous rice; traditional for New Year's celebration.

Mongolian fire pot - Mongolian - designed unique chafing dish with a spot to burn charcoal, a going up the center, and a surrounding round ves- sel where broth is kept hot enough for diners to cook their individual bites of meats and vegetables.

Mu (also ‘Moo’) – Large, white that is prepared in a variety of ways, but is most often eaten pickled.

Naan - Oval - shaped whole wheat bread baked by sticking it to the wall of a tandoor.

Nak prik – A popular sauce used as a condiment, made from chilies, limejuice, fish sauce, and garlic.

Nam pla –Thai fermented fish sauce that is used as a condiment.

Napa cabbage – Large-headed cabbage, bigger than bok choy, with pale green leaves.

Natto – Soybeans that have been steamed, fermented by bacteria, and mashed. A popular flavoring agent and condiment.

Niboshi – Dried baby sardines. Eaten as a snack or used as a flavoring agent in soups and sauces.

Nori – Various forms of marine algae of the Porphyra species. Normally pressed into sheets and most often used as the wrap around sushi.

Peking - Cuisine of the northern region of China, which includes Peking duck and Mongolian fire pot as well as and other recipes that use wheat and wheat flour products.

Nuoc cham –Vietnamese fish sauce, water, sugar, and lime juice that is seasoned with chiles and garlic.

Nuoc Da Hot E – Vietnamese beverage made with basil seeds, sugar, honey and water.

Nuoc mam - Fermented, sauce popular in Vietnam.

Oxtails – The tail of an or cow. It is often braised or stewed in Asian cooking.

141 Oyster sauce - Salty, dark Chinese sauce made with soy sauce and the flavor of oysters and other flavoring agents.

Paneer – An unaged cheese that is similar to pressed Ricotta cheese, except that the curd is drier and has no salt added.

Paratha - Whole wheat bread circles about 7 inches in diameter, made with in the dough and fried in ghee on the griddle.

Patis - Fermented, salty fish sauce popular in the Philippines.

Patna rice – Long grain rice of premium quality, from the region of in India.

Peking duck - Traditional dish of northern China, which involves special roast- ing of a duck until the skin is very crisp; skin, a bit of duck meat, and green onion are wrapped in a thin pancake liberally splashed with hoisin sauce. is also served.

Pho – Traditional Vietnamese consisting of rice noodles in a clear broth, with thin cuts of beef (steak, fatty flank, lean flank, ), tendon, tripe or meat balls, and served with ingredients such as green onions, white onions, cilantro, basil leaves, lemon or lime, bean sprouts and peppers.

Pizeled penis – The preparation of a penis of an animal such as a cow, pig, goat or deer, performed in some Asian restaurants.

Plum sauce - Chutney made with plums, apricots, vinegar, chili, and sugar.

Poe (poi) - Starchy paste of boiled and pounded, peeled taro root popular in Polynesia.

Ponzu sauce – A sauce made of soy sauce, lemon juice, rice vinegar, and .

Puri - Deep - fat fried rounds of whole wheat bread that puff in the middle during frying.

Raita – Yogurt salads popular in India. A combination of thick, whole-milk yogurt and various chopped vegetables like cucumbers, eggplant, potatoes or spinach, or fruits such as bananas or tomatoes, as well as a variety of seasonings.

Red cooking – A popular cooking method in eastern China. It is essentially the braising of foods in soy sauce, imparting a dark red color.

142 – Dish that consists of a coconut milk base, which is mixed with red curry paste, chilies, fish sauce, lime leaves, eggplant and usually a meat such as chicken, beef, pork or shrimp. Tofu is also used as a substitute for meat.

Roti - Indian word for breads.

Sake – Wine made from fermented rice.

Sambar - Spicy puree of lentils, which often is served with idlis.

Samosa - Fried enclosing a filling.

Samgye t'ang - Whole small chicken stuffed with rice, ginseng, and chestnuts, covered in broth, and baked until meat almost falls from bones.

Sang - chi - sam - Lettuce - wrapped meal containing many tidbits from numerous dishes selected by the diner.

Seaweed - Various types of edible seaweeds and sea grass, as well as purple laver; usually used dried in soups.

Sashimi – A dish of thinly sliced raw fish similar to Spanish/Mexican ceviche.

Satay sauce – Sauce made of , coconut milk, soy sauce, chili powder, and sugar.

Sea cucumber – An invertebrate, gelatinous saltwater creature shaped, unsurprisingly, like a cucumber. Used in Asian cooking, it is much like tofu in that it is fairly flavorless but absorbs other flavors very well. Also known as ‘sea rat’ or ‘sea slug’.

Shanghai- Cuisine of the eastern seaboard of China, notably of Shanghai; light broths, seafood, egg rolls, and paper - wrapped foods are characteristic.

Shark's fin - Usually transparent, yellowish, dried cartilage from the fin of a shark; this delicacy requires rehydration and is used in a soup.

Shinsollo - Korean .

Shoyu sauce – A Japanese soy sauce brewed from soybeans, salt, wheat, and water.

Sizzling Rice – Rice that has been boiled, dried, fried and then served sizzling hot as an ingredient in a variety of dishes, usually Chinese cuisine.

143

Soybean Paste – Fermented soybeans made into a paste and used as a basic flavoring ingredient in Korean cooking.

Shokunin – A master sushi chef.

Snow peas - Flat, green peas in tender, crisp, edible pods.

Soba - Noodles made from buckwheat flour from northern Japan.

Soy sauce – A popular Asian condiment made from fermented soybeans. It is salty and has a dark amber color.

Spring rolls – Pastries filled with julienned vegetables, strips of pork and meats, or seafood. The filling is wrapped in a thin flour wrapper and deep-fried. A cousin of the egg roll.

Srirachi - Hot and spicy chile sauce with garlic for dipping

Steaming - A traditional Chinese method developed as a fuel-saving measure, with several foods cooked at once in bamboo baskets stacked above each other. The food that requires the most cooking are put in first, and those requiring less time are placed on top as cooking proceeds.

Stir-fry – A form of sautéing using a wok, where ingredients are quickly cooked over high heat in oil. Ingredients are normally chopped small and uniformly to promote quick and even cooking.

Suimono - Clear Japanese soups.

Sukiyaki – A Japanese dish in the -style (one-pot), consisting of thinly sliced beef, tofu, konnyaku noodles, leeks, onions, Chinese cabbage, and enoki mushrooms among others. The ingredients are slowly simmered in a shallow iron pot on a mixture of soy sauce, sugar, and mirin.

Sunomono - Vinegared salads.

Surimi – Minced meat or fish that is then beaten and pulverized to form a gelatinous paste. Depending on the desired texture and flavor, the gelatinous paste is mixed with differing proportions of additives such as starch, egg white, salt, vegetable oil, , sugar, , and seasonings.

Sushi – Japanese food consisting of vinegared rice that is shaped into bite-sized pieces and topped with raw or cooked fish and other ingredients. It may also

144 be formed into a roll or cone with fish, egg or vegetables wrapped in seaweed.

Szechwan - Cuisine developed in western China, which is quite spicy and hot in character and uses considerable garlic, ginger, and oil.

Tamari – A Japanese soy sauce that is naturally fermented and wheat free.

Tandoor - Thick - walled, deep, jar - shaped clay oven used for roasting meats and baking naan.

Tandoori – The Indian style of cooking using the traditional “tandoor” oven made of brick and clay. Meat is placed on long skewers that are then placed in the oven, which often reaches 900°F.

Tempura – The classic Japanese method of cooking vegetables and shellfish by coating them with a light batter and deep-frying them.

Teriyaki – Cooking technique where food is marinated and cooked in a marinade.

Tofu – Soy bean curd.

Tonkatsu sauce – A condiment for , or deep-fried pork .

Ts'ai - Term designating the various other dishes that balance with the rice or fan (yin) in a meal; the yang part of the meal.

Tsukemono - Pickled vegetables.

Tuk - kuk - Rice cake soup.

Udon - Noodles made with wheat flour, typical of southern Japan.

Wasabi – Japanese green horseradish. Used most often as a condiment for sushi.

Water chestnut - Tuber that is sliced and used as a vegetable to add a crisp, distinctive texture; usually available canned.

Winter melon - Green, oblong melon similar in outward appearance to a water - melon, but with a white, pulpy interior and a seed - filled center.

Wok – Round-bottomed pan, usually made of rolled steel, used for virtually all Chinese cooking methods, including stir-frying, deep-frying, steaming, and

145 roasting. The curved sides and rounded bottom diffuse heat efficiently and facilitate tossing and stirring, allowing for a very short cooking time.

Won ton – A small dumpling made from egg-noodle dough dusted with cornstarch and filled with a mixture of seafood, meat or vegetables. May be boiled, deep-fried or steamed, eaten in soups or as appetizers.

XO sauce – A modern spicy seafood sauce with origins in Hong Kong/. It is made of dried seafood, such as scallop, fish and shrimp, mixed with chilies, onion, garlic and oil.

Yam cha – Chinese tea-time, or snack time, when dim sum is traditionally served (around late morning).

Yin-yang – The Chinese philosophical concept of balance and/or harmony based on opposites in the world, such as men/women, dry/wet, hot/cold, good/evil, etc. The concept is applied to cooking in relation to harmony of tastes, textures, and aromas.

GENERAL

Bacillus cereus – Spore-forming bacteria associated with two types of illness, emetic and diarrheal. The emetic illness is caused by the ingestion of a heat-stable toxin produced by the microorganisms in the food. The diarrheal illness is caused by the ingestion of moderate to high numbers of the microorganism, which then produces toxin in the intestinal tract.

Blanch – The process of quickly boiling food, followed by putting the food in ice water to stop the cooking process. This technique is used to bring out color and to maintain the flavor of the food without overcooking.

Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) – A disease of cattle, also known as “mad cow disease”. It is thought to be caused by a prion, or small protein, which alters the structure of a normal brain protein, resulting in destruction of brain neural tissue.

Braise – Technique used to soften tougher cuts of meat. Meat is browned then boiled, then slowly simmered in a stock.

Brine – Water saturated with or containing large amounts of salt that is used for preserving and pickling foods.

Ciguatera fish poisoning – Illness caused by eating marine finfish which have accumulated naturally occurring toxins through their diet. The ciguatoxin

146 originates from dinoflagellate (algae) that is consumed by the fish. Symptoms include nausea, vomiting and neurological symptoms such as tingling fingers or toes.

Clostridium botulinum – Spore-forming bacterium that produces a potent heat labile that causes botulism. Symptoms of botulism can include double vision, nausea, vomiting, fatigue, dizziness, headache and dryness in the throat and nose, which can progress to respiratory failure. The incidence of the disease is low, but the mortality rate is high if not treated immediately and properly.

Coagulated Blood Paste – Semi-solid pork blood that is used as an ingredient in a variety of Vietnamese and Korean dishes including soups.

Congee – Chinese rice porridge or soup, often eaten for breakfast.

Consumer Advisory – A notice that warns consumers of the risk of eating raw or undercooked animal food such as beef, eggs, fish, lamb, milk, pork, poultry or shellfish, and discloses which items being served or sold in the establishment contain these raw or undercooked ingredients.

Cross-Contamination – The transfer of harmful substances or disease-causing microorganisms to food by hands, food-contact surfaces, sponges, cloth towels, and utensils that touch raw food, are not cleaned, and then touch ready-to-eat foods. Cross-contamination can also occur when raw food touches or drips onto cooked or ready-to-eat foods.

Deep-fry – Cooking technique where food is completely covered in hot oil, so as to caramelize the outside, but not overcook the food.

Escherichia coli (0157:H7) – Vegetative bacterium that, when consumed in food, can cause severe foodborne illness or even death. The most notable symptom is bloody diarrhea. The illness has largely been associated with eating undercooked, contaminated ground beef.

False Branding – The practice of exporting illegal foods into the U.S. in cans or other containers that are falsely labeled as other foods.

False Health Claims – When establishments advertise foods or beverages as providing certain health benefits in a manner that would lead the consumer to believe that the product may be used to diagnose, cure, mitigate, treat or prevent illness or disease.

FDA – The United States Food and Drug Administration.

147 Food Code – A model food safety guideline developed by the FDA for retail food operations and institutions. It assists regulatory jurisdictions at all levels of government by providing them with a scientifically sound technical and legal basis for regulating the retail and food service segment of the industry. Local, state, tribal, and federal regulators use the FDA Food Code as a model to develop or update their own food safety rules to be consistent with national food regulatory policy, and to promote uniformity across the country.

Halal – A term referring to the Islamic set of dietary laws which regulate the preparation of food.

Hazard – A biological, chemical, or physical property that may cause a food to be unsafe for human consumption.

Hazard Analysis And Critical Control Point (HACCP) – A prevention-based food safety system that identifies and monitors specific food safety hazards that can adversely affect the safety of food products.

HACCP Plan – A written document that is based on the principles of HACCP and that describes the procedures to be followed to ensure the control of a specific process or procedure.

Kosher – A term referring to the Jewish set of dietary laws which regulate the preparation of food.

Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus brevis – Beneficial microorganisms that are present in the fermentation process used in making kimchi. Through enzymatic actions, these microorganisms convert the sugars and starches naturally present in vegetables into lactic and acetic acids, which are natural preservatives.

Parasite - An organism that lives on or in another usually larger host organism in a manner that harms or is of no advantage to the host. Parasites do not grow in food, only inside of the body once ingested.

Pathogen - A microorganism (bacterium, parasite, virus, or fungi) that causes disease in humans.

Potentially Hazardous Food (Time/Temperature Control for Safety Food) – A food that requires time/temperature control for safety (TCS) to limit pathogenic microorganism growth or toxin formation.

148 Refried Beans – Boiled pinto beans that are mashed, mixed with various seasonings and oil or butter until a smooth paste is formed. Along with rice, it is a commonly served side dish in Mexican facilities.

Rehydration – The process of soaking a dehydrated (dried) fish, meat or vegetable item in water or other liquid as part of the preparation process.

Risk Factor – One of the broad categories of contributing factors to foodborne illness outbreaks, as identified in the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Surveillance Report for 1993-1997, that directly relates to foodborne safety concerns within retail and food service establishments. The factors are Food from Unsafe Sources, Inadequate Cooking Temperatures, Improper Holding Temperatures, Contaminated Equipment (Contamination / Cross Contamination), and Poor Personal Hygiene.

Salmonella – A vegetative bacteria that causes a diarrheal illness when ingested in food. It is usually transmitted to humans by eating foods contaminated with animal feces.

Scombroid Toxin – Toxin that is formed when fish has been temperature abused. Bacteria present on the fish produces the enzyme histidine decarboxylase, which converts histidine that is naturally in the fish’s flesh to histamine, which is toxic to humans upon eating the fish.

Spore – A,very tough, dormant form of certain bacterial cells that is very resistant to desiccation, heat, and a variety of chemical and radiation treatments that are otherwise lethal to vegetative cells.

Spore former – A bacterium capable of producing spores under adverse conditions. Spore-formers in food include Clostridium botulinum, Bacillus cereus, and Clostridium perfringens.

Steam – Cooking with steam by placing ingredients over boiling water. A popular method of cooking dumplings or vegetables.

Time as a Public Health Control – The practice of using time only, as a public health control for potentially hazardous food (Time/Temperature Control for Safety Foods). The practice allows food to be held out of temperature control for a maximum of 4 hours if the food begins with an initial temperature of 41°F or less if removed from cold holding or 135 º F or above if removed from hot holding temperature control. The food is required to be marked or identified to indicate the time that is 4 hours past the point when the food is removed from temperature control. All food held using time only must be cooked and served, served if ready-to-eat, or discarded within the 4 hours. Written procedures that describe the methods for complying with the

149 requirements for using time only, and the methods used for cooling foods that will later be held using time only, must be maintained by facilities which hold food using time as a public health control.

Tripe – The stomach of various domestic animals, usually from a cow. The tripe most often seen at retail is made from the first two of a cow's four stomachs, the rumen (smooth tripe) and the reticulum (honeycomb tripe).

Toxigenic Microorganism – Pathogenic bacteria that causes foodborne illness in humans due to the ingestion of toxins produced in the food. Toxigenic microorganisms in food include Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, and Clostridium botulinum.

USDA – The United States Department of Agriculture.

Vegetative Cell - A bacterial cell that is capable of actively growing.

Yersinia entercolitica – A vegetative bacterium that grows at temperatures as low as 30ºF. The organism is often associated with chitterlings and causes an illness that mimics appendicitis.

150 REFERENCES

Encyclopedia of Food and Culture. Ed. Solomon H. Katz. Vol. 2. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2003.

Hollingsworth, P. 2003. Hispanic Market Shows Huge Potential. J. Food Technol. 57:26-30.

Hwang, L. Establishing Asian Retail Food Relationships with Chinese Liaison. Presented during the 2006 70th NEHA Annual Educational Conference and Exhibition held at San Antonio, Texas.

Mauer, W., Kaneene, J.B., DeArman, V.T., Roberts, C.A., Miller, R.A., Pong, L., Dickey, T.E. 2006. Ethnic Food Safety Concerns: An Online Survey of Food Safety Professionals. J. of Environmental Health, 68:10. pp. 32-38.

Pugesek, B. 2007. Exploration of Hispanic Culture and Flavor-Revisited. Paper presented at the 2007 IFT Annual Meeting and Food , Chicago, Illinois. July 28-Aug. 1, 2007

Reeves, C. Cultural Competency in Inspecting Ethnic Restaurants: An Online Training Approach. Presented at the 18th Annual Food Protection Conference. MacKinac Island, MI

Simonne, A.H., Nille, A., Evans, K. and Marshall, M.R. 2004. Ethnic Food Safety Trends in the United States based on CDC foodborne illness data. Food Protection Trends. 24:8. pp. 590-604.

Tirado, A. Food Allergies…Let Us Know, We Care: Food Allergy Training and Awareness Progreams for Handlers of Ethnic Foods. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa.

Yeakley, C.L. and Fiebrich, J.D. Collaborative Process Improvement. 2007. pp.75-82. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Hoboken, NJ.

Yet, C. Understanding Chinese Restaurants. Presented at the 18th Annual Food Protection Conference. MacKinac Island, MI

2005 Food Code. http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/fc05-toc.html

Ethnic Foodways in Minnesota: Handbook of Food and Wellness Across Cultures. 2002

Maricopa County – video transcript http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~retrsk4/MaricopaCounty-carne.html http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~retrsk4/MaricopaCounty-chicharrones.html http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~retrsk4/MaricopaCounty-chicharronesconcarne.html http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~retrsk4/vmazceci.html

US- FDA Georgia Atlanta’s CD on Ethnic Foods – Meeting the Challenge (Contact Kimberly Livesey : [email protected])

DEPARTMENT OF FOOD SCIENCE & HUMAN NUTRITION

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