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Episodic Salinization and Freshwater Salinization Syndrome Mobilize Base Cations, Carbon, and Nutrients to Streams Across Urban Regions

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Episodic Salinization and Freshwater Salinization Syndrome Mobilize Base Cations, Carbon, and Nutrients to Streams Across Urban Regions Biogeochemistry (2018) 141:463–486 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-018-0514-2 (0123456789().,-volV)(0123456789().,-volV) Episodic salinization and freshwater salinization syndrome mobilize base cations, carbon, and nutrients to streams across urban regions Shahan Haq . Sujay S. Kaushal . Shuiwang Duan Received: 26 January 2018 / Accepted: 11 October 2018 / Published online: 24 October 2018 Ó Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018 Abstract Urbanized watersheds in colder climates statistically significant linear increasing trends in experience episodic salinization due to anthropogenic calcium and potassium concentrations with experi- salt inputs and runoff from impervious surfaces. mental salinization across all 12 sites and in magne- Episodic salinization can be manifested as a ‘pulse’ sium concentrations at 11 of 12 sites (p \ 0.05), with in concentrations and fluxes of salt ions lasting from mean rates of increase of 1.92 ± 0.31 mg-Ca per hours to days after snowstorms in response to road g-NaCl, 2.80 ± 0.67 mg–K per g-NaCl, and salting. Episodic salinization contributes to freshwater 1.11 ± 0.19 mg-Mg per g-NaCl, respectively. Simi- salinization syndrome, characterized by cascading larly, there were statistically significant increasing mobilization of chemicals and shifting acid–base linear trends in total dissolved nitrogen (TDN) con- status. We conducted laboratory experiments and centrations with experimental salinization at 9 of the analyzed high-frequency sensor data to investigate the 12 sites, with a mean rate of increase of water quality impacts of freshwater salinization syn- 0.07 ± 0.01 mg-N per g-NaCl. There were statisti- drome and episodic salinization across 12 watersheds cally significant increasing linear trends in soluble draining two major metropolitan regions along the reactive phosphorus (SRP) concentrations with exper- U.S. East Coast. Sediments from 12 watersheds imental salinization at 7 of the 12 sites (p \ 0.05), spanning land use gradients across two metropolitan with a mean rate of increase of 2.34 ± 0.66 lg-P per regions, Baltimore, Maryland and Washington DC, g-NaCl. The response of dissolved inorganic carbon were incubated across a range of replicated salinity (DIC) and organic carbon (DOC) concentrations to treatments (0–10 g/L sodium chloride). There were experimental salinization varied between sites, and dissolved silica did not show any significant response. High-frequency sensors near the experimental sites Responsible Editor: Susana Bernal. showed statistically significant positive linear rela- tionships between nitrate concentrations, specific Electronic supplementary material The online version of conductance, and chloride concentrations similar to this article (https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-018-0514-2) con- relationships observed in laboratory incubations. Our tains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. results suggested that episodic salinization and fresh- water salinization syndrome can mobilize base cations S. Haq (&) Á S. S. Kaushal Á S. Duan and nutrients to streams through accelerated ion Department of Geology & Earth System Science exchange and stimulate different biogeochemical Interdisciplinary Center, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA processes by shifting pH ranges and ionic strength. e-mail: [email protected] 123 464 Biogeochemistry (2018) 141:463–486 The growing impacts of freshwater salinization syn- episodic salinization on mobilization of base cations, drome and episodic salinization on nutrient mobiliza- carbon, and nutrients from sediments to stream water tion, shifting acid–base status, and augmenting using a combination of experimental incubations and eutrophication warrant serious consideration in water observations in the field from high-frequency sensor quality management. data. Due to their ionic nature, most salts are retained in Keywords Salt pollution Á Emerging contaminants Á soils and groundwater (Cooper et al. 2014; Findlay and Human-accelerated weathering Kelly 2011). As such, salts accumulate in the water- shed, and long-term salinization has been reported in rivers on most continents and biomes (Williams 2001; Kaushal et al. 2014a, b; Herbert et al. 2015). Urban Introduction areas are particularly vulnerable to salinization due to the combination of salt inputs (e.g., road salts, Many streams and rivers in the US and elsewhere are gypsum), impervious surfaces, and drainage infras- experiencing increased salinization due to salt pollu- tructure (Snodgrass et al. 2017; Kaushal et al. 2017; tion from anthropogenic inputs and accelerated Marsalek 2003). In the Northeastern USA, for exam- weathering in human-impacted watersheds (e.g., ple, salinity has doubled from 1990 to 2011 and has Kaushal et al. 2005; Canedo-Arguelles et al. 2013; exceeded the rate of urbanization (Corsi et al. 2015). Corsi et al. 2015; Kaushal et al. 2017). This saliniza- Previous studies suggest that rural streams and rivers tion can manifest itself as chronically high concentra- in the Eastern USA with as little as 5 percent tions of a mixture of salts throughout all seasons or impervious surface coverage within their watersheds episodically high concentrations contributing to a can also be at significant risk for long-term salinization ‘freshwater salinization syndrome’ on a continental (Kelly et al. 2008; Conway 2007), while in the scale (Kaushal et al. 2018). The freshwater saliniza- Midwestern USA, recent studies suggest that lakes tion syndrome impacts biodiversity, contaminant with as little as one percent impervious surface mobility, built infrastructure, and drinking water coverage are at risk (Dugan et al. 2017). quality (e.g., Corsi et al. 2015; Ramakrishna and Episodic and long-term salinization of fresh water Viraraghavan 2005; Stets et al. 2018; Novotny et al. can have ecosystem scale impacts such as the loss of 1998). Natural sources of salinity include the chemical native vegetation, disruptions in food webs, and the weathering of rock and soils throughout watersheds, mobilization of contaminants (e.g., heavy metals) dissolved ions in precipitation, and sea spray aerosols (Lofgren 2001; Norrstrom 2005; Backstrom et al. in coastal areas (Meybeck 2003; Kaushal et al. 2013). 2004; Amrhein et al. 1992). However, less is known Anthropogenic activities can dramatically increase the regarding impacts of salinization on carbon and salinity of water both directly (e.g., inputs of road nutrient cycles in fresh water (Duan and Kaushal salts, mining waste, industrial detergents, fertilizer 2015). Episodic salinization can enhance the mobi- salts, sewage discharges) (Kaushal et al. 2018), and lization of carbon, nutrients, and cations due to indirectly (e.g. inducing acid rain, building concrete coupled biotic and abiotic processes, such as ion and limestone infrastructure, increasing flood fre- exchange, rapid nitrification, pH, increased ionic quency, and changing land-use) (Barnes and Raymond strength, organic matter dispersion, and chloride 2009; Kaushal et al. 2017; Steele and Aitkenhead- complexation. While billions of dollars have been Peterson 2011). Although less considered, dissolved spent to reduce nitrogen and phosphorus loading by salts influence acid neutralizing capacity, pH, and stream and riparian restoration (Bernhardt et al. 2005), nutrient mobilization in watersheds (Kaushal et al. salt pollution has been largely unmanaged and unreg- 2018; Green et al. 2008; Compton and Church 2011). ulated. Part of the reason why effects of salinization on This can occur via ion exchange or complexation carbon and nutrient dynamics in streams and rivers is reactions, organic matter dispersion, or by alterations not well understood may be the different temporal and in microbial processes (Duan and Kaushal 2015; Corsi spatial scales at which salinization can occur. For et al. 2010;Oren2001; Kim and Koretsky 2013). Here, example, salinity (e.g., chloride) concentrations in we explore the potential effects of urban rivers may temporarily reach up to 33% the 123 Biogeochemistry (2018) 141:463–486 465 salinity of sea water in the hours to days following a salinization from sediments to streams. Sediments, snow storm, and then gradually accumulate in water- streamwater, and sodium chloride were incubated in a shed sinks (e.g., groundwater, soil, lakes) (Kaushal controlled lab environment to mimic post snowstorm et al. 2005; Kelly et al. 2008; Cooper et al. 2014). conditions (i.e., high salinity runoff entering the Acute and episodic salinization occurs over the course stream). These methods for incubations were previ- of hours to days following a snow event (e.g., road salt ously described in Duan and Kaushal (2015). We also pulse) and chronic long-term salinization can occur explored high-frequency sensor data from the U.S. over the course of seasons to decades (Kaushal et al. Geological Survey in the same vicinity as our labo- 2018). Some water quality effects of salinization, such ratory experiments sites to investigate whether there as nutrient and cation mobilization, would likely occur were similar relationships between specific conduc- over the course of several hours and would likely tance (a proxy or surrogate for dissolved salts) and immediately follow increases in salinization (e.g., nitrate (a key pollutant in the Chesapeake Bay post-storm). However, these effects may not be watershed leading to eutrophication). captured by traditional water quality monitoring, which is conducted by sampling a fixed point in a Site description stream or river
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