Biodiversity of the Caribbean

A Learning Resource Prepared For:

(Protecting the Eastern Caribbean Region’s Biodiversity Project)

Photo supplied by: Andrew Ross (Seascape Caribbean)

Part 2 / Introduction

The Caribbean: A Biological Diversity Hotspot

February 2009 Prepared by Ekos Communications, Inc. Victoria, British Columbia, Canada IV/ Part 2: The Caribbean: A Biological Diversity Hotspot “The Caribbean Islands, comprising the Bahamas, Greater and Key Concepts Lesser Antilles and some islands located off the northern coast • The islands and oceans of the Caribbean are considered a of South America, represent the most important insular system biodiversity hotspot. of the New World. As one of the 34 biodiversity hotspots…, these 1 islands represent a global priority for conservation.” • An ocean ecosystem is body of salt water where currents, ~ Maunder et al waves, and tides intermingle to create a distinct community Introduction of organisms that interact together in the physical environ- This unit highlights the unique ecosystems of the Caribbean ment. region and engages students in detailed case studies of their ecology, threats to their survival, and decisions that are needed to • Ocean ecosystems are home to some of the most diverse life protect them. It is organized around five ecosystem types: open- on Earth and hold a varied number of plants, animals, and ocean, coasts, coral reefs, mangrove forests and tropical forests. micro-organisms. Each section consists of background information specific to the ecosystem type, a case study to illustrate key concepts with real • Oceans are divided into five zones (epipelagic, mesopelagic, world examples, and corresponding activities in support of the bathypelatic, abyssal, and hadal zones) based on water depth learning outcomes within the CXC syllabi for biology, integrated and light penetration. science, and geography. The concepts within this unit also mesh with the St. Georges’ Declaration of Principles for Environmen- • Marine ecosystems are different from terrestrial ecosystems tal Sustainability, particularly those pertaining to the protection because ocean waves and currents allow for species and of plant and animal species, protection of natural and cultural other influences (such as pollution) to easily move into, out heritage, wise use of resources, and the prevention of air, water, of, and across multiple habitats. and land pollution. • Ocean currents are created from forces such as planet rota- tion, wind, temperature, salinity differences, and the gravita- The Case for Case Studies tion of the moon. Environmental case studies are written accounts of events that • Species within the ocean are interdependent on one another. have actually taken place and that demonstrate a process or series All organisms in the ocean, from baleen whales to tiny of events that students can analyze to learn more about different plankton, are essential members of the marine food web. aspects of environmental problems. • Human activities such as resource over-exploitation, habitat For example, by having your students read and analyze a case destruction, pollution and the production of greenhouse gas study outlining how a community took action to solve a local emissions impact the health of ocean ecosystems. environmental issue, students can discuss the processes that were used, what worked and what didn’t, alternative strategies, and • Local and national governments, grassroots organiza- their own ideas for solving problems. Using case studies helps tions, conservation groups, non-governmental organiza- students evaluate real life situations and helps them decide how tions (NGOs), local inhabitants, and scientists are working they might act in similar situations. Because they describe things together to develop strategies to protect and conserve ocean that actually have happened in specific contexts and locations, ecosystems. real life case studies are also more relevant than textbook ex- amples of issues.

The five sections described below can be treated as stand-alone resources.

A) Open-Ocean Ecosystems This section focuses on the pelagic zone, or the open ocean. As this part of the ocean is not near the coast, it is not directly af- fected by activities occurring along coastlines or the land behind them. The section explores the biodiversity attributes of this ecosystem, examines the threats to it, and presents a case study concerning the use of a marine reserve to protect biodiversity. Activities provide students an opportunity to either engage in a marine park negotiation simulation, prepare a class presentation Conservation Science Institute. (2007). Ocean change initiative. on the need for protection of an area, or encourage stewardship Retrieved from: conservationinstitute.org/oceanchangeinitiative.htm.Lucia of the ocean. B) Coastal Ecosystems C) Coral Reef Ecosystems Coastal ecosystems include coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass This section focuses on the coral reef ecosystems and their bio- beds, salt marshes, wetlands, estuaries, bays, beaches, dunes, logical diversity, considering human uses of these ecosystems and and rocky shores. However, this section focuses specifically on threats associated with them. A case study presents the ecologi- beaches, rocky shores, and seagrass beds. Coral reefs and man- cal threats and management concerns that face many coral reef groves are detailed in subsequent sections. This section explores ecosystems in the Caribbean and around the globe. Two activities the biodiversity attributes of this ecosystem, human activities that have also been included. The first activity introduces students take place within it, and the natural and human influences threat- to the elements of a marine management plan, while the second ening it. A case study explores the interests of stakeholder groups activity advances students understanding of the ecological threats in protecting biodiversity in a marine reserve. Two activities facing coral reefs through the introduction of environmental pub- engage students in developing their knowledge and understanding lic education presentations. of the complexities of coastal ecosystems. The first activity uses the case study as a framework to engage students in role-playing Key Concepts a round-table discussion. The second activity focuses on inspir- • A coral reef ecosystem is a community of different underwa- ing students to create a personal code of environmental ethics and ter plants, fish, and other marine life in a coral reef environ- behaviour. ment.

Key Concepts • Coral polyps form coral reefs. • A coastal ecosystem is the area where land and sea join to create a distinct community of organisms that interact • Tropical corals require sunlight and salt water to survive. together in the physical environment. Warm water corals require a specific range of temperatures.

• Coastal ecosystems include coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass • There are four different types of coral reefs: fringing reefs, beds, salt marshes, wetlands, estuaries, bays, beaches, and platform reefs, barrier reefs, and atolls. rocky shores. • Coral reefs are one of the most biodiversity rich ecosystems • Seagrass beds, beaches, and rocky shores provide vital habi- in the world. tats for many species of plants and animals. • Coral reefs provide vital habitats for many species of plants • Beach sand is made up of sedimentary, igneous, and meta- and animals. phorphic rocks. • Coral reef ecosystems have significant ecological, cultural, • Rocky shores and beaches can be divided into tidal zones intrinsic, and economic value. (subtidal, intertidal and supratidal). Each tidal zone provides habitats for a variety of plant and animal species. • Natural forces such as storms as well as human activities such as resource extraction, tourism, pollution, and climate • Beaches and rocky shores protect the coastline from the change impact the health of coral reef ecosystems. erosive forces of wind and waves. They are also vital to the economic and social vitality of local human populations in • Coral reef ecosystems are intricately connected within them- the Caribbean. selves and to other ecosystems, including coastal, marine and forest ecosystems. • Seagrass beds are large areas of underwater marine flowering plants that resemble grasslands. Many species of plant and • The protection of coral reefs within the Caribbean is essen- animal depend on seagrass beds for survival. tial to the well-being of coastal ecosystems and to all those that depend on them, including humans. • Beaches, rocky shores, and seagrass beds are impacted by human activities such as recreation and tourism, construc- tion, resource extraction, pollution, and climate change. D) Mangrove Swamp Ecosystems This section focuses on mangrove swamp ecosystems of the • Coastal ecosystems are highly complex, dynamic, productive tropics and subtropics. Students will explore the biodiversity at- environments that are in a constant state of flux. The health tributes of this ecosystem, human activities that take place within of each habitat and species within a coastal ecosystem is it, as well as the ecological threats and conservation activities dependent on the health of other nearby habitats, species, and taking place to protect mangrove swamps. A case study examines ecosystems, both marine and terrestrial. the environmental characteristics of a specific Caribbean man- grove swamp and the cooperative management strategies enacted by stakeholders to conserve the ecosystem. Activities provide students with opportunities to further expand their understanding of the importance of maintaining biodiverse ecosystems while Key Concepts practicing debating skills and delivering creative presentations. • Forests can be defined using the concept of ecoregions. An ecoregion is a relatively large unit of land containing distinct Key Concepts assemblage of natural communities and species, with bound- • Mangrove swamp ecosystems are coastal wetlands of the aries that approximate the original extent of natural commu- tropics that contain trees, shrubs, vegetation, and an as- nities prior to major land use change. sociated community of organisms, which exist in saltwater intertidal zones. • Caribbean forests are typically classified as Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests, Tropical and Sub- • Mangrove swamps can be found in estuaries, sheltered coast- tropical Dry Broadleaf Forests, or Tropical and Subtropical lines, and river deltas. Coniferous Forests.

• In mangrove swamps, salt-tolerant species are found closer • Tropical forests are rich in biodiversity. to the water and less salt-tolerant species are found away from the water. • Forests are made up of five distinct layers: overstory (emer- gent), canopy, understory, shrub, and forest floor. • Mangrove trees (as well as other plant species) have unique- ly adapted to exist in an environment with low levels of • There are high rates of deforestation (the conversion of forest oxygen, high salinity, and constantly changing tides. land into non-forest land) in the Caribbean region.

• Four species of mangrove trees are found within the islands • Deforestation is the result of both natural events (i.e. earth- of the Eastern Caribbean: red, black, white, and buttonwood quakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions) and human activities mangroves. (i.e. agriculture, forestry).

• Mangrove swamps provide a rich habitat for thousands of • A number of organizations are working to reduce tropical species of birds, fish, shellfish, invertebrates, and plants, as forest destruction and to promote sustainable forest manage- well as nurseries for many important fish species, including ment. those harvested for food.

• Mangrove swamps have an important ecological and economic role. They provide wood and non-wood forest products, coastal protection against the effects of waves and wind, tourism and recreation opportunities, and vital habitats to maintain biological diversity.

• Many mangrove swamps have been destroyed or degraded in the past, possibly more so than coral reef and tropical rainforest ecosystems.

• Mangroves are intricately linked to other ecosystems through exchanges of water with both upstream terrestrial ecosystems and downstream marine communities.

• People are beginning to realize the value of mangrove eco- systems and are initiating activities to conserve and protect them.

E) Tropical Forest Ecosystems This section focuses on tropical forest ecosystems, including for- est structures; key species; deforestation; and conservation, pres- ervation and restoration activities. A number of case studies are presented, drawn from various regions of the Caribbean, which highlight challenges encountered in achieving sustainable forest management. Several activities engage students to further expand their knowledge and understanding of tropical forest ecosystems.

Photo supplied by: Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, Forestry and Fisheries (St. Lucia) CXC Learning Outcomes Matches The material covered in Biodiversity in the Caribbean meets the learning outcomes of the CXC syllabi as follows:

BIOLOGY Section A – Living Organisms in the Environment General Objectives Students should be able to demonstrate: 5. An ability to apply knowledge of the interrelationships of organisms and their environment to identify environmental problems

Section E – Environment and Human Activities General Objectives Students should be able to demonstrate: 1. An understanding of the importance of the physical environment to living organisms 2. An ability to undertake a simple ecological study 3. Understanding of the factors that affect the growth of populations 4. An appreciation of the finite nature of the world’s resources 5. Understanding of the effects of human activities on the environment

INTEGRATED SCIENCE Section A – The Organism General Objectives Students should be able to demonstrate: 1. The interdependence of life processes 2. The relationship between an organism and its environment

Section B – The Home/Workplace General Objectives Students should be able to demonstrate: 1. The soil and the sea as two most important outdoor working environments in the Caribbean and that they are both natural resources as well as ecosystems 2. The relationship between humans and the environment in which they work

GEOGRAPHY General Objectives Students should be able to demonstrate: 1. An understanding of geomorphic, atmospheric and biotic processes 6. An appreciation of the relationship between the natural and human systems [Part 2] Biodiversity in the Caribbean

The Caribbean: A Biodiversity “Hotspot” The Caribbean Islands are a very special place on the planet. Very Caribbean Regional Sea: Biodiversity Data few other places in the world can claim to have as many endemic SPECIES ENDEMIC T % species – plants and animals native and completely unique to that seagrasses 2 7 15 place. The diversity of plants is exceptionally high, with more than 13,000 species, of which more than 6,500 are thought to be coral genera 9 25 23 single-island endemics, or plants found on one island only. Per- molluscs 0 633 15 haps as many as 205 plants are found nowhere else on Earth2. shrimps 0 45 13 More than 600 bird species are found in the Caribbean Islands, lobsters 8 23 15 of which an estimated 160 are endemic3. As many as 90 mammal species occur in the region, with more than 40 being endemic. sharks 14 76 22 The islands are particularly rich in reptile species, with more than seabirds 1 23 8 500 species making their home among them. A remarkable 94% cetaceans 9 30 34 (470) of these reptile species are endemic. Among the amphib- ians, roughly 170 species are native to the Caribbean Islands, of sirenians 9 1 25 which all but a very few are endemic to single islands. pinnipeds - 0 -

The exceptional level of endemism of the region includes 65 of an estimated 160 freshwater fish species, which are restricted to where: one or a few islands, and further to just a single lake or spring • endemic = restricted to the region head4. • T = total species richness in the region • % = species richness in the region as a per- A high level of unique species is only one factor that makes the centage of the world species richniess in each Caribbean a biodiversity hotspot. The region also is also charac- terized by massive habitat loss and vulnerability to extinctions. group of organisms Centuries of colonial agriculture and trade have resulted in the • - = no data available or not applicable near complete destruction of lowland ecosystem types, especially the seasonally dry forests5. The Caribbean mahogany (Swiete- nia mahaoni) has been over-exploited throughout the region to the point of being extirpated in some parts of its former range.

Thirteen bird species have already gone extinct and forty-eight UNEP. (2009). Caribbean environment program. species endemic to the islands are threatened with extinction. Retrieved from: cep.unep.org/issues/biodiveristy.html.

Conservation efforts are currently aimed at high priority species such as the St. Vincent parrot (Amazona guildingii), the St. Lucia parrot (Amazona versicolor), and the imperial parrot (Amazona imperialis) of Dominica. Nineteen native mammal species have become extinct and the West Indian manatee (Trichechus mana- tus) is increasingly threatened by commercial fishing and fatal collisions with boats.

From the foregoing discussion, it is no stretch to claim that each Caribbean island is a unique in its species and habitats, but sadly the priceless treasure this represents is increasingly threatened with extinction and degradation. So much so that the region has the dubious distinction of being one of the world’s six hottest biodiversity hotspots. While one of the region’s ecosystems, the Tropical and Subtropical Coniferous Forest, has been pretty much wiped out (see discussion within the Tropical Forests section), there is still time to protect, conserve and restore the open-ocean, coasts, coral reefs, mangroves, and rainforests. But there is not much time. [Part 2] Biodiversity in the Caribbean Caribbean Regional Sea: Regional Endemic Species Scientific Name Common Name Status seagrass Halophila engelmannii

Halophila johnsonii lobsters Acanthacaris caeca Atlangic deep-sea lobster Eurnephrops manningi Banded lobster Eurnephrops bairdii Red lobster Eurnephrops cadenasi Sculptured lobster Metanephrops binghami Caribbean lobster Nephropides caribaeus Mitten lobsterette Nephropides neglecta Ruby lobsterette Thaumastocheles zaleucus Atlantic pincer lobster

sharks Apristurus rivieri Broadgill catshark

Apristurus canutus Hoary catshark

Apristurus parvipinnis Smallfin catshark

Eridacnis barbouri Cuban ribbontail cat- shark Etmopeterus schultzi Fringefin lanternshark Oxynotus caribbaeus Green lanternshark Parmaturus camphechiensis Caribbean roughshark Pristiophorus schroederii Campeche catshark Schroederichthys maculotus Bahamas sawshark Scyllorhirus meadi Narrowtail catshark Scyllorhirus boa Boa catsharck Scyllorhirus torrei Dwarf catshark Scyllorhirus heperius

Whitesaddled catshark UNEP. (2009). Caribbean environment program. Retrieved from: cep.unep.org/ seabirds Pterodroma hasitata Black-capped petrel Endangered issues/biodiveristy.html

References

1. Maunder, M., Leiva, A., Santiago-Valentin, E., Stevenson, D.W., Acevedo-Rodriguez, P., Meerow, A.W., Mejia, M., Clubbe, C., and Francisco-Ortega, J. (2008). Plant conservation in the Caribbean island biodiversity hotspot. The Botanical Review. 74, 197-207. Retrieved from: articlearchives.com/environment-natural-resources/ecology/1865829-1.htm

2. Conservation International. (2007). Biodiversity hotspot: Caribbean islands. Retrieved from:biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/caribbean/Pages/biodiversity.aspx#http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp

3. Santiago-Valentín, E., and Francisco-Ortega, J. (2008). Plant evolution and biodiversity in the Caribbean islands–perspectives from molecular markers. The Botanical Review, 74(1), 1-4.

4. Conservation International, 2007.

5. Maunder et. al, 2008.