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WOMEN and CHRISTIANITY in TS ELIOT and DJUNA BARNES By

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WOMEN and CHRISTIANITY in TS ELIOT and DJUNA BARNES By THE GENDER OF BELIEF: WOMEN AND CHRISTIANITY IN T. S. ELIOT AND DJUNA BARNES by JACQUELINE ANNE POLLARD A DISSERTATION Presented to the Department ofEnglish and the Graduate School ofthe University ofOregon in partial fulfillment ofthe requirements for the degree of Doctor ofPhilosophy September 2009 11 University of Oregon Graduate School Confirmation ofApproval and Acceptance of Dissertation prepared by: Jacqueline Pollard Title: "The Gender ofBelief: Women and Christianity in 1'. S. Eliot and Djuna Barnes" This dissertation has been accepted and approved in partial fulfillment ofthe requirements for the Doctor ofPhilosophy degree in the Department ofEnglish by: Paul Peppis, Chairperson, English Suzanne Clark, Member, English John Gage, Member, English Jenifer Presto, Outside Member, Comparative Literature and Richard Linton, Vice President for Research and Graduate Studies/Dean ofthe Graduate School for the University ofOregon. September 5, 2009 Original approval signatures are on file with the Graduate School and the University ofOregon Libraries. 11l © 2009 Jacqueline Anne Pollard IV An Abstract ofthe Dissertation of Jacqueline Anne Pollard for the degree of Doctor ofPhilosophy in the Department ofEnglish to be taken September 2009 Title: THE GENDER OF BELIEF: WOMEN AND CHRISTIANITY IN T. S. ELIOT AND DJUNA BARNES Approved: _ Dr. Paul Peppis This dissertation considers the formal and thematic camaraderie between T. S. Eliot and Djuna Barnes. The Waste Land's poet, whom critics often cite as exemplary of reactionary high modernism, appears an improbable companion to Nightwood's novelist, who critics, such as Shari Benstock, characterize as epitomizing "Sapphic modernism." However, Eliot and Barnes prove complementary rather than antithetical figures in their approaches to the collapse ofhistorical and religious authority. Through close readings, supplemented by historical and literary sources, I demonstrate how Eliot, in his criticism and poems such as "Gerontion," and Barnes, in her trans-generic novel Nightwood, recognize the instability ofhistory as defined by man and suggest the necessity of mythmaking to establish, or confirm, personal identity. Such mythmaking incorporates, rather than rejects, traditional Christian signs. I examine how, in Eliot's poems ofthe 1920s and in Barnes's novel, these writers drew on Christian symbols to evoke a v nurturing, intercessory female parallel to the Virgin Mary to investigate the hope for redemption in a secular world. Yet Eliot and Barnes arrive at contrary conclusions. Eliot's poems increasingly relate femininity to Christian transcendence; this corresponds with a desire to recapture a unified sensibility, which, Eliot argued, dissolved in the post­ Reformation era. In contrast, Barnes's Jewish and homosexual characters find transcendence unattainable. As embodied in her novel's characters, the Christian feminine ideal fails because the idealization itselfextends from exclusionary dogma; any aid it promises proves ineffectual, and the novel's characters, including Dr. Matthew O'Connor and Nora Flood, remain locked in temporal anguish. Current trends in modernist studies consider the role ofmyth in understanding individuals' creation ofself or worldview; this perspective applies also in analyzing religion's role insofar as it aids the individual's search for identity and a place in history. Consequently, this dissertation helps to reinvigorate the discussion ofreligion's significance in a literary movement allegedly defined by its secularism. Moreover, in presenting Eliot and Barnes together, I reveal a kinship suggested by their deployment ofliterary history, formal innovation, and questions about religion's value. This study repositions Barnes and brings her work into the canonical modernist dialogue. VI CURRICULUM VITAE NAME OF AUTHOR: Jacqueline Anne Pollard GRADUATE AND UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOLS ATTENDED: University of Oregon Eastern Washington University DEGREES AWARDED: Doctor ofPhilosophy, British and American Literature, 2009, University of Oregon Master ofArts, Literary Studies, 1995, Eastern Washington University. Bachelor ofArts, Literary Studies, 1993, Eastern Washington University. AREAS OF SPECIAL INTEREST: Modem British and American Literature Djuna Barnes, Dante, T. S. Eliot, John Donne PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE: Graduate Teaching Fellow, University of Oregon, 2003-2008 Teaching Assistant, Eastern Washington University, 1993-1995. Vll ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My greatest thanks to Paul Peppis, who supervised this dissertation, and without whom this project would have remained unrealized. I also wish to express sincere appreciation to Suzanne Clark and John Gage for their encouragement, questions, and suggestions during the preparation ofthis manuscript, and I want to thank Jenifer Presto for her contributions towards the completion ofthis process. I am indebted to John and Janine Hanlen for their constant support and feedback, and lowe special thanks to Barry C. Morgan, for his unwavering patience and faith. Vlll For my husband, Barry Christopher Morgan IX TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. ALLYING ELIOT AND BARl\lES 1 Notes...................................................................................................................... 16 II. "THE SKULL BENEATH THE SKIN": CLASSICISM, UNITARIANISM, AND HISTORY IN ELIOT'S CRITICISM AND ARA VOS PREC 19 Ara Vas Pree and Poems (1920)............................................................................ 30 Notes...................................................................................................................... 54 III. "'DESTINY AND HISTORY ARE UNTIDY: WE FEAR MEMORY OF THAT DISORDER"': HISTORY, RELIGION, AND SELF IN NIGHTWOOD 58 Guido and Felix Volkbein 67 Matthew O'Connor................................................................................................ 76 Notes...................................................................................................................... 83 IV. FROM THE DESERT TO THE GARDEN: UNITY, CULTURAL MEMORY, AND THE PERPETUAL ANGELUS....... 93 Myth, Religion, and Dante.......... 97 The Eyes ofBeatrice, The Prayers for the Lady.................................................... 103 Notes 119 x Chapter Page V. WITH A CHRISTIAN, ANYTHING CAN BE DONE: NIGHTWOOD'S HOPELESS MADONNAS 124 "By Adoring Her": Hedvig the Sentry 130 Felix's Windowpane 134 Nora Dolorosa........................................................................................................ 143 Notes 152 BIBLIOGRAPHy........................................................................................................ 159 "-'-'- ------------- 1 CHAPTER I ALLYING ELIOT AND BARNES Following a 1938 meeting with T. S. Eliot, Djuna Barnes wrote to a friend that the two "got on like two priests with only one robe" (Herring 243). Barnes's statement implies that she and Eliot maintained an intimacy equivalent to sharing a garment. Barnes's analogy may seem bewildering given the common perceptions ofboth authors, which casts them as near-polar opposites: Eliot as the "master" ofa conservative, misogynist, and dogmatically Christian reactionary high Modernism (Blair 159)/ and Barnes as a lesbian with "radical sociopolitical views" (Broe, Introduction 7),2 who "makes a modernism ofmarginality" (Marcus, "Laughing" 223). In fact, these two expatriate Americans-who began their personal and professional relationship when Eliot edited Nightwood in 1935-remained friends until Eliot's death in 1965.3 Their affinity, however, extended beyond their friendship. As revealed by studying their works together, Eliot and Barnes's writings suggest a suspicion ofhistory as ordered by man, and they explore the possibility ofcohesion offered by Christianity. Eliot and Barnes accomplished this, in part, through evocations ofone ofWestern culture's most potent female figures: the Virgin Mary. Yet while Eliot's speakers find in religious orthodoxy a 2 means ofobtaining personal and cultural unity, Barnes's characters discover the failure of religion to affirm identity or bridge social differences. Eliot and Bames's literary projects appear, initially, to differ dramatically. Throughout his early poetry, Eliot's speakers exhibit frustration and disgust with the human condition that reaches its apogee in The Waste Land (1922). Following that poem's publication, Eliot's poetic voices shift, and, in his work ofthe 1920s and 1930s, his poetic speakers increasingly express a desire to recapture tradition, and often via religious orthodoxy. In Eliot's view, Christianity offers redemption-an escape from temporality and modem anxiety. In contrast, Bames explores and exposes the limits of temporal existence in fictions that defy generic identifications. The most famous ofthese works, Nightwood (1936), features a cast ofcharacters from Christian society's borderland-homosexuals, transvestites, and Jews-who struggle with individual desires and repressive social expectations. Stylistically, the novel transgresses generic boundaries, as its language blurs distinctions between poetry and prose. The novel resists unfolding in a linear pattern, thereby reinforcing both the exterior world's chaos and the characters' interior isolation. As neither Christianity nor western tradition affirms their identities, they find no redemption and, therefore, no means ofescaping modernist angst. Eliot and Bames's affinity grows evident in the former's famous introduction to Nightwood, which he wrote for its American publication. Eliot highlights
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