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Military, State and Society in Pakistan Also by Hasan-Askari Rizvi

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Military, State and Society in Pakistan Also by Hasan-Askari Rizvi Military, State and Society in Pakistan Also by Hasan-Askari Rizvi PAKISTAN AND THE GEOSTRATEGIC ENVIRONMENT: A Study of Foreign Policy THE MILITARY AND POLITICS IN PAKISTAN INTERNAL STRIFE AND EXTERNAL INTERVENTION: India’s Role in the Civil War in East Pakistan (Bangladesh) Military, State and Society in Pakistan Hasan-Askari Rizvi First published in Great Britain 2000 by MACMILLAN PRESS LTD Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and London Companies and representatives throughout the world A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 978-1-349-42002-5 ISBN 978-0-230-59904-8 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/9780230599048 First published in the United States of America 2000 by ST. MARTIN’S PRESS, INC., Scholarly and Reference Division, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010 ISBN 978-0-312-23193-4 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Rizvi, Hasan Askari, 1945– Military, state, and society in Pakistan / Hasan-Askari Rizvi. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-312-23193-4 (cloth ) 1. Civil–military relations—Pakistan. 2. Pakistan—Politics and government. 3. Pakistan—Armed Forces—Political activity. I. Title. JQ629.A38 C5865 2000 322'.5'095491—dc21 99–055831 © Hasan-Askari Rizvi 2000 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2000 978-0-333-79388-6 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P 0LP. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. 109 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 Contents List of Tables viii Abbreviations ix Preface xii Prologue: the October 1999 Coup xiv 1 Introduction 1 The Ascendancy of the Military 3 Military Regimes 8 Military Disengagement and Civilianization of Military Rule 10 Post-withdrawal Military, State and Society 12 2 Civil±Military Interaction 17 The State and the Political Process 18 The Military 20 Expansion of the Role of the Military 21 (i) The Societal Factors 22 (ii) Internal Dynamics of the Military 23 (iii) Transactions across the Boundaries between the Civil and the Military 24 (iv) The International Dimension 24 The Military Regime 26 Military Withdrawal 28 3 The Heritage 34 The Foundations 34 The Recruitment Policy 37 Civil±Military Relations 40 The Military and Imperial Rule 42 Indianization of the Commissioned Ranks 46 The Military and Politics 49 Division of the Military 52 4 Civilian Institutions and the Military 57 State Formation and the Security Environment 57 (i) Reorganization of the Military 60 (ii) Priority to Defence Requirements 62 (iii) Diplomacy and Weapons Procurement 63 (iv) The Strategic Doctrine 66 v vi Contents Civilian Institution-building 68 The Military and the Political Process 76 Institutional Imbalance 79 5 The First Military Regime 82 Martial Law Administration 84 Administrative Measures 86 The Social Sector 89 Major Economic Measures 91 Political and Constitutional Changes 94 (i) Basic Democracies 96 (ii) The Presidential Referendum 97 (iii) The Constitution Commission 98 (iv) Enforcement of the Constitution 99 6 Authoritarian Clientelism: Post-Martial Law Rule 101 The Ayubian Political Order 101 Interaction with the Military 104 Defence and Security Issues 107 Political Dynamics 113 The Collapse of the Ayub Regime 117 7 The Second Military Regime 121 The Nature and Style of the Military Regime 121 Major Administrative Measures 122 Political Strategies and Elections 124 The East Pakistan Crisis 127 Civil War and Disintegration 136 8 Civilian Interlude 142 Reassertion of Civilian Supremacy 142 The Security Imperatives and the Military 146 Civil±Military Interaction 149 The Political Process and Civilian Institution-building 151 The General Elections 158 The Military and the Political Crisis 160 9 The Third Military Regime 165 Political Priorities 166 Islamization 170 The Politics of Co-option 174 The Politics of Exclusion 176 Expansion of the Role of the Military 181 Civilianization of Military Rule 182 10 Post-Withdrawal Civil±Military Relations 189 The Military and Policy-making 190 Contents vii The Intelligence Agencies 192 Problems of Governance 194 The Junejo Government 195 The Changing Role of the Senior Commanders 202 Benazir Bhutto's First Term 205 The First Nawaz Sharif Government 210 Benazir Bhutto's Second Term 219 Nawaz Sharif's Second Term 225 11 The Changing Parameters 233 Civilian Jobs and Material Rewards 234 Industrial and Commercial Interests 236 Ethnicity and Social Background 240 Islam and the Military 245 Notes 249 Bibliography 289 Index 295 List of Tables 4.1 Defence expenditure, 1947±58 63 6.1 Defence expenditure, 1958±69 106 8.1 Senior officers retired from service, 1972 144 8.2 Defence expenditure, 1971±7 147 9.1 Defence expenditure, 1977±88 183 viii Abbreviations ADC Aide-de-Camp AKMC Azad Kashmir Muslim Conference APMSO All Pakistan Mohajir Student Organization APP Associated Press of Pakistan ATA Anti-Terrorism Act, 1997 BD Basic Democracies BDS Balochistan Dehi Mahafiz BNPBalochistan National Party BSF Border Security Force (India) CENTO Central Treaty Organization (formerly Baghdad Pact) CII Council of Islamic Ideology C-in-C Commander-in-Chief CMLA Chief Martial Law Administrator COAS Chief of Army Staff COPCombined Opposition Parties,1964±65 CSPCivil Service of Pakistan CSS Central Superior Services DAC Democratic Action Commitee, 1969 DCC Defence Committee of the Cabinet DMG District Management Group EBDO Elective Bodies Disqualification Order, 1959 EBR East Bengal Regiment EPR East Pakistan Rifles ESAF Extended Structural Adjustment Fund, IMF FIA Federal Investigation Agency FSC Federal Shariat Court FSF Federal Security Force FWO Frontier Works Organization GHQ General Headquarters GOC General-Officer-Commanding IB Intelligence Bureau ICO Indian Commissioned Officers ICS Indian Civil Service IJI Islami Jamhoori Itehad (Islamic Democratic Alliance) IJT Islami Jamiat-i-Tulba INA Indian National Army IPG Independent Parliamentary Group IPS Indian Political Service ISI Inter-Services Intelligence ix x Abbreviations JAS Jamaat-i-Ahle Hadith JCO Junior Commissioned Officer JCSC Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee JI Jamaat-i-Islami JUI Jamiat-ul-Ulema-i-Islam JUP Jamiat-ul-Ulema-i-Pakistan JWP Jamhoori Watan Party KCO King's Commissioned Officer KKH Korakoram Highway KSPKrishak Saramak Party KT Khaksar Tehrik LFO Legal Framework Order, 1970 MI Military Intelligence MQM Muttahida Qaumi Movement (formerly Mohajir Quami Move- ment) MQM-H Mohajir Quami Movement ± Haqiqi MRD Movement for the Restoration of Democracy NAPNational Awami Party NCO Non-Commissioned Officer NDF National Democratic Front, 1962 NDPNational Democratic Party NLC National Logistics Cell NUST National University of Science and Technology NWFPNorth West Frontier Province OIC Organization of Islamic Conference OML Official Muslim League OPG Official Parliamentary Group PBF Punjab Boundary Force PCO Provisional Constitutional Order, 1981 PDA Pakistan Democratic Alliance PDF Pakistan Democratic Front PDM Pakistan Democratic Movement, 1967 PDP Pakistan Democratic Party PIA Pakistan International Airlines PIU Produce Index Unit PLS Profit and Loss Sharing PMA Pakistan Military Academy, Kakul PML Pakistan Muslim League PML-J Pakistan Muslim League ± Junejo PML-N Pakistan Muslim League ± Nawaz Sharif PML-P Pakistan Muslim League ± Pir Pagara PML-Q Pakistan Muslim League ± Malik Qasim PNA Pakistan National Alliance PODO Public Offices (Disqualification) Order, 1959 Abbreviations xi POW Prisoner of War PPP Pakistan People's Party PRODA Public and Representative Offices (Disqualification) Act, 1949 RCO Revival of the Constitution Order, 1985 SCO Special Communication Organization SEATO South East Asia Treaty Organization SSG Special Services Group TI Tehrik-i-Istiqlal TJP Tehrik-i-Jafaria Pakistan (formerly TNFJ) TNFJ Tehrik-i-Nifaz-i-Fiqah-i-Jafaria UDF United Democratic Front, 1973 UF United Front, 1954 USMAAG United States Military Assistance Advisory Group VCO Viceroy's Commissioned Officers WAPDA Water and Power Development Authority Preface The military in Pakistan is the most formidable and autonomous political actor capable of influencing the nature and direction of political change. This, however, represents a major shift in Pakistan's military heritage. For while the military was integral to British Imperial rule and served as its ultimate shield, it avoided active involvement in politics and accepted the primacy of civilian government. This changed gradually in the post- independence period as the top commanders expanded their role into the political arena. The changes in civil±military relations were manifested in different forms: an active role for the military in policy-making in collabora- tion with the bureaucracy, displacement of civilian government in October 1958, March 1969, July 1977 and October 1999, direct military rule, civilian- ization
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