Anational State and the Age of Nation-Statism

CEU eTD Collection Reader: Second Constantin Professor Iordachi Supervisor: PAUL ANATIONAL Pro fessor fessor Balázs Trencsényi In partial therequirements In of fulfillment for

SCHIEMANN’S

OF STATE

AUTHORITARIAN Central EuropeanUniversityCentral

AND

LIBERALISM History Department Budapest, Hungary Budapest, Anna ÖlveczkyAnna Master of of Arts Master Submitted toSubmitted

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CEU eTD Collection such instructions may bemadepermission ofthe thewritten Author. without not made copies Further made. copies such any of part a form must page This librarian. the from obtained be may Details Library. European Central the in lodged and Author the by given instructions the with accordance in only made be may part, or full process, any by Copies Author. the with rests thesis this of text the in “Copyright i

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either in either CEU eTD Collection Kuzmany inspiring for and the discussions t for CEU at service ILL support mental also am I Rédli. Margit mother, my and Varga, Tamás I thememorywould dedicate to Rédli. grandfather, my thesis ofmyJózsef of support and patience infinite the without thesis this write to able be not would I

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always believes in my competences. I am much obli much am I competences. my in believes always ing

solution Acknowledgement s

o all for he borrowed materials. he borrowed ii

my extraordinary wishes, and to Börries Börries to and wishes, extraordinary

grateful to grateful

my grandmother for grandmother my

ged to the the to ged

the the CEU eTD Collection context ofhisco context the in state and minority the between relations the about Schiemann of ideas the analyses aspiration wave”“newbecause nationalist his undermined the national he affiliation, consideredspiritual commitment. which as a pure He the in tasks. and functions reduced and with state a responsibilities in believed distinct with communities state and national of the on duality based plan This Europe. in nations of coexistence peaceful the guaranteeing for itself acknowledges which state the about idea His Nazism. and nationalism radical Bolshevism, one offew interwar politiciansrepresen whodidnot was he because also and homeland his of nation titular the to belong not did he that sense the in minority in was He situation. minority permanent a in life his lived he Riga; occupied Latvian a as died and Tsar Russian the of subject a as born was journalist anational anational He was able to promote his convictions until the end of 1920s without restrictions without 1920s of end the until convictions his promote to able was He towards standpoint oppositional his for famous is he historiography the In (1874 Schiemann Paul made him well known. The concept of concept The known. well him made - nationals, state community his onEuropeanand level. - 1944), the extraordinary Baltic German politician and and politician German Baltic extraordinary the 1944), Abstract iii

t populist ideas. t populist

right of people to decide about their about decide to people of right anational s and achievements. My thesis My achievements. thesis s and

state is a long a is state

citizen in German in citizen - term vision term CEU eTD Collection 3 2 1 Introduction

2.2 2.1 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 3.2 3.1 2.4 2.3 1.1.1 ofthe BalticPaul Schiemann intheProvinces context 3.2.2 3.2.1 3.1.1 Schiemann and his 2.4.1 Schiemann and his

Russification andLatvian thesupport of national awakening FeaturesBaltic society ofthe German The affirmation of thestate The “impossibility”Latvian ofa nation The cross Defender of Minorities The genesis ofthe Germans abroad Variants an on EasternEuropean future Ober Ost Schiemann’s standpointon1905 Paul Schiemann, a

...... “Misunderstood unification aspirations”“Misunderstood unification RitterschaftenLiteraten vs. Theon symbolical presencethe state of level The infrastructureautonomy of Nation state, state oranational of nationalities state

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CEU eTD Collection Bibliography Conclusion dimensions 4

4.3 4.2 4.1 3.3 Paul Schiemann and Schiemann Paul Volksgemeinschaft 3.3.2 3.3.1 3.2.3 4.3.2 4.3.1

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CEU eTD Collection Rodopi, 3 858 in 3 booklet vol.2. 2 233 2014) identity collective of revisions 1 wife his with along recognized also activist rights minority alsoup, will findaplaceit.” within Lat the of interests the articulate to order in only Not stages. early very its from state Latvian the founding of nation the realize to attempts the than frequently more statehoo Latvian the to importantly most War, World First the of end the at changesoccurred the to attitude his clarifies he Moreover minorities. German its and state the between relation the regarding position his defined Consti the of session the at speech his in Schiemann Paul Introduction

John Hiden & Hiden John Minderheiten,“ der Autonomie nationale “Die Schiemann, Paul Németh - 859.

2008) aspirations of the League of Nations most certainly should not be violated by the the by violated be young of the States East. not should certainly most Nations of League the of aspirations claims national autonomy us. newThis for spirit which articulated is explicitly the in for right tax the gentlemen our self you, provided with era accordancenew a in of spirit obviously the First logical affairs […] payments. cultural the the and in participate state, we the then of the character accomplished Latvian simultaneously the consequenceofthat thisourselves is wethegrewupto cultivation ou of Latvia confess of We foundation ideal. national the by gentlemen you ack the means autonomy national a for demand Our Paul Schiemann (1876 Schiemann Paul

(if not marked otherwise, the translations are mine, A. mine, Ö.) are the translations otherwise, marked (ifnot László, “K László, - 245. in print 245. - eemnto o wih h Ltin tt i bsd Te ae ih, however right, same The based. is State Latvian the which on determination ,

39. Martyn Housden, Housden, Martyn

Leitartikel, Reden und Aufsätze und Reden Leitartikel,

isebbségben,” (In Minority) (translation: Dávid Oláh) in in Oláh) Dávid Minority)(translation: (In isebbségben,” vian Germandom but he was also convinced that “whoever helps build it build helps “whoever that convinced also was he but Germandom vian

, ed. ed. ,

Neighbours or enemies? or Neighbours Diana Mishkova, Marius Turda, Balázs Turda, Marius DianaMishkova,

2 -

1944), the influential Baltic influential the 1944), 3

“There has something been everything fateful about once set off, the process canonceasa come never setprocesshalt off, to the

in the effect in ofnationalism ed. ed. . lhuh hr wr fw hns e criticized he things few were there Although d. harmonizing the national notion withtheharmonizing imperial notion thenational Hans Donath Hans long produceconcept asregion this a cannot

1 Germans,

in in - state idea he contributed to the work the to contributed he idea state

Rigasche Rundschau Rigasche (Frankfurt am Main: amMain: (Frankfurt nowledgement of the fact that fact the of nowledgement

the tuent Assembly of Latvia in 1921 1921 in Latvia of Assembly tuent - German publicist, politician and politician publicist, German

(László Németh Baltic Trencsényi (Budapest: CEU Press, Press, CEU Trencsényi (Budapest: Anti s Rgtos mn the among “Righteous as

and - modernism: Radical Radical modernism:

beyond Eastern and Europe, r culturer and

H. Donath H. 29 April29 1921

(Amsterdam: , “In minority”) , 1987), , , , in , idea”

CEU eTD Collection 9 8 7 ( 6 5 May 6 2014 accessed: http://db.yadvashem.org/righteous/family.html?language=en&itemId=4022625, 4 affairs nationalitiesthesefor was as that under the requiredcircumstances isinconceivable it self a autonomy, cultural national of establishment the argument, Schiemannian the following solution, state nation the for opted Estonia also and Latvia equally. culture every consider or communities particular to culture as state the conceive “to is alternative One cultures. their of cultivation unrestricted the to minorities national the Balt German of Committee Party Democratic Balt German the of leader and politician active an was Schiemann addition, In system. new the of framework the in responsibilities and tasks in the through mission his complete to attempted He development. cultural for environment supportive fruitfu a for moreover coexistence peaceful a for not state established newly the in groups minority other to indirectly and Germans Latvian Europe “forgotten the celebration of one political as Schiemann’s him Paul to of refers author bibliography the Hiden, John period. interwar the of values Jerusalem, in Vashem Yad by nations”

New Schiemann, “Die nationale Autonomie der Minderheiten,” der Autonomie nationale“Die Schiemann, Ibid. Hiden, Hiden John Nations the Righteous among The David - chief from 1919. He used this me this used He 1919. from chief Saeima

York: 59.

J. Defender of Minorities of Defender codn t Shean tee r to as o cnweg te ih o the of right the acknowledge to ways two are there Schiemann, to According the for conditions the create to was War Great the after task main Schiemann’s

Smith

Routledge, , Defender of Minorities of Defender , , the Latvian, theParliament. .

5 influential liberal daily, the daily, liberal influential

John

2012

Hiden, anational,” anational,” ),

24 ,

50. Ethnic . Parties,

(London: Hurst & Company, 2004) &Company, Hurst (London:

Diversity and either obligate it to leave the task of taking ca taking of task the leave to it obligate either and 8

ans to convince the German minority in Latvia about its its Latviaabout in minorityGerman convincethe to ans

frequently also managed to unite all minority parties in parties minority all unite to managed also frequently 4

Rigasche Rundschau, Rigasche can be treated as a “prominent defender” of liberal liberal of defender” “prominent a as treated be can

and

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Nation l coexistence, which means in his reading a a reading his in means which coexistence, l 2

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State:

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250. 6

of which he was the editor the was he which of

- ans” who is worthy of of worthy is who ans” admin

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As the new states of states new the As istration in cultural cultural in istration 7

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Revisited

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CEU eTD Collection 13 Kongresszuson http://www.mtaki.hu/adatbazis/Kisebbsegvedelem Nationalities) (1925 12 11 10 towards path progressive the disposed whichSchiemann ofambitions the how observe, to is goal main My nation. the and state the of congruence the desired and praised and ideal that away getting in contributed helpfully Schiemann of supporters earlier the even time, one at concept state nation the of applications problematic the to alternative potential a be true remained to the original ofthe principles Congress, thatwas but endeavor. a hopeless Europas) Befriedignung Nationalen der Verband (Deutscher Europe in Peacekeeping National for Association German the 1937, in organization new a founded He Nazism. and nationalism” “new of emergence the against fight theoretical the until return stayed he where Vienna to moved and Latvia left at career his of end the meant also year This Germany. in origin not did Congress the a because supported 1933, in organization the left deputies Jewish the until “NGO” this of activities the in participated He 1925. in Nationalities European of Congress ‘nation the ethnically states. diverse outside lived who people million 40 of situation the for namely Europe, interwar of problem biggest the for solution a be could practice this simultaneously.and idea this shared politicians German Baltic matters Many cultural Jewish or Russian German, the serve could state the

Quote from Balázs T fromQuote Balázs Ferenc, Eiler Smith Minderheiten,” der Autonomie nationale“Die Schiemann, - 1939) ed to Riga and lived there until his death in 1944. Even in “exile” he continued his continued he “exile” in Even 1944. in death his until there lived and Riga to ed

The mission mission The &Hiden moment” “liberal its had East new The (Minority protection and revision: Hungarian ambitions at the European Congress European the at ambitions Hungarian revision: and (Minorityprotection

(Budapest: Gondolat, MTA Kisebbségkutató Intézet, 2007), 2007), Intézet, MTA Kisebbségkutató Gondolat, (Budapest: - resolution which disapproved of the discrimination against citizens of Jewish of citizens against discrimination the of disapproved which resolution Kisebbségvédelem és revízió: Magyar törekvések az Európai Nemzetiségi Kongresszuson Kongresszuson Nemzetiségi Európai az törekvések Magyar és revízió: Kisebbségvédelem 1925

, to this ideology throughout his life. Although the Although life. his throughout ideology this to

Ethnic - 1939 rencsényi, 3rd April,2014 3rd rencsényi, of Schiemann grew to European dimension with the foundation of the of foundation the with dimension European to grew Schiemann of

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- torekvesek

with the aim of remaining true true remaining of aim the with 258. 258. Anschluss anational - accessed: 28. 10. 2013, 2013, 10. 28. accessed: tt o ter own’ their of state Rigasche Rundschau Rigasche - az - Europai 12

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CEU eTD Collection Hurst & Company, 2004) &Company, Hurst Nationalitätenfrage,” Lösungzurder als Beitrag Minderheitentheorie “Paul Schiemanns Garleff, Michael 4(1956); 15 14 minorityanalysis. inmy situation the hisstanceI of on inthenarrative onvarious focus line spheres followinga chronological practi and theories his in controversies to opportunity the out pointing gives by work Schiemann’s Paul of evaluation positive exclusively the which supersede perspective a with literature existing the to contribute can th wrote Hiden John and Garleff Michael Rimscha, Europe as an idea. also and Germany outside living Germandom the State, Latvian the Latvia, in Germans and principles of consisted years the throughout supplemented and modified was which worldview This war. the after continue could continent the on life the which to according worldview a possessed he 1919 by that state to exaggeration an not Schiemann representedby principles the of metaphor a as operates Moreover it Congress. the and autonomy the served, be to matter the to also but notion this of afterlife entanglements of these roleshe different played. from evolved which arguments his in controversies potential out point to order in levels “nation of several on he exertedwhich activism practicalpolitical his of mirror era the in theoreticalworks the as Mann Michael to reflection with call I which environment/milieu bythe bystep step undermined was mission his demonstratehow the of fundamentals sid wrong their on turned and twisted objected, were Europe in peace

See Michael Mann,

Hans von Rimscha, “Paul Schiemann als Minderheitenpolitiker,” Minderheitenpolitiker,” als Schiemann “Paul Rimscha, von Hans The The historiography of Schiemann consists of numerous works among them Hans vonHans numerousamong them worksof consists historiographySchiemann Theof anational Fascists Zeitschrift für Ostforschung für Zeitschrift

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004) Press, University Cambridge (Cambridge: state in the title of my work refers not only to the analysis of the the of analysis the to only not refers work my of title the in state anational

tt wt te etrs f h atoiain tts I states. authoritarian the of features the with state ce resulting from his contesting identities. Instead of Instead identities. contesting his from resulting ce , 25(3) 1976; John Hiden 1976;25(3) John ,

e most valuable monographs. valuable most e Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte für Vierteljahrshefte , Defender of Minorities of Defender , ,

- sta

iin cnieig the considering visions tism.” s I otat the contrast I es. 14

aaye the analyze I himself. Itis himself. 15

(London: (London: My work My , CEU eTD Collection 18 2 1932, 17 in 2. booklet citizens. only are thereon time exist,from and that be to the 16 of definition the to bodies cultural of cooperation for claim obvious the from lead “cross the about theories Verband the is politicians Germans. Latvia’s for Europas Minderheiten Deutschen the of foundation the with 1923 in realized was themselves organize to claim people; The respectively. German Republic theWeimar of territory the outside lived who Germans ethnic those of opinions. his to comes it when Schiemannlife lived his inapermanent minority. also but terms numerical in only not minority in was he spheres all In identities. his with coincide which activities his of fields different Latvianthe nation to himself related Schiemann how is part this of question main The relations. interethnic of change the in revolution 1905 the of relevance the out point to like also would I awakening. t Empire Romanov the of attitude the influenced significantly and Provinces, Baltic the in nobility German of situation the affected 1871 in unity of German creation The history. German Baltic the in points turning the on focusing war, the to

Smith &Hiden Smith in Europa”, Volksgruppen deutschen der Zusammenwirkens des “ZehnJahre of category that the emphasized he states the and Estonian Latvian ofthe foundation Afterthe

17 As a As In or Sc Paul of life the about review biographical a with essay my begin I Paul Schiemann, “Deutsche, Balt “Deutsche, Schiemann, Paul

gained transnati gained this was the most numerous among the minority groups in interwar Europe. The Europe. interwar in groups minority the among numerous most the was this Leitartikel, Reden und Aufsätze und Reden Leitartikel, der to emphasize thedifferentder toI Schiemann identities possessed three distinguish Baltic German Baltic ,

Ethnic Diversity and the Nation Nation State the and Diversity Ethnic Volksgemeinschaft, - building process. 18

- n o te oin ue feunl i te ruet o minority of arguments the in frequently used notions the of One onal dimension. In the second chapter of my thesis I focus on the the on focus I thesis my of chapter second the In dimension. onal border” and transnational nature of the the of nature transnational and border” ( Balt

) in which Schiemann was elected as a committee member committee a as elected was Schiemann which in en, Lettländers,” in Lettländers,” en,

and later as a Latvian citizen Latvian a as later and

the national community which with the network of the the of network the with which community national the ed. ed. group of of group Estländers HansDonath , 24. , Auslandsdeutschen

and and

Rigasche Rundschau Rigasche

(Frankfurt am Main: Main: am (Frankfurt Lettländers , meaning Estonian and Latvian and meaningEstonian , owards the Latvian national national Latvian the owards 16 Volksgemeinschaft Nation und S und Nation

he belonged to the group the to belonged he

osse o 9 of consisted 11 September 1920, vol.2. September111920, H. Donath H. taat Reich , 1987) , hiemann prior hiemann Verband der der Verband Balts , October October ,

, 542. , and the the and

, which , ceased ceased million

aul CEU eTD Collection 22 http://www.ikgn.de/cms/index.php/downloads/summary Nordost 21 506. 1918 20 44. 1998), Press, University 19 the however 1934 in authoritarian be 1931. in already began “others” to of type all and minorities of turned discrimination state The citizens. its among him libe a of principles the on exist to began the political parties and educational andcultural bodies. autonomy th for journal “fruitful thein published reports affairs of state of basis the on Ishow which clashes wereinterethnic a in lived minorities the law, nat titular the with coexistence” a as codified never was autonomy cultural the Latvia in although that underline would I minorities the of autonomy cultural achieved milieu. political domestic the of changes the to thanks impracticable became quest his far how out point dealing chapter the of aim The Latvian the of inhabitants all of interests the defended to refers Dribins Leo professor, history Latvian The issues. domestic Latvian about writings his through especially demonstrated be can state nation occupied newly territory ofWarthegau in1939. the to resettlement a Germans Baltic of case the in change, population Volksgemein

Ibid. (1918 Staat von nationallettischem Idee die und “DieDeutschbalten LeoDribins, Feest, David A. Marion Kaplan,

- 1939 anhand der ‘BaltischenMonatschrift anhand der 1939

275. - Schiemann’s ideas considering the state and its functions, his a his functions, its and state the considering ideas Schiemann’s cimn cnrbtd o h nto ad state and nation the to contributed Schiemann archiv ain n Staat und Nation

schaft “Abgrenzung oder Assimilation: Assimilation: oder “Abgrenzung 2 (1996) 2

emselves withfoundation oforganizationsemselves and new thecooperation between By explaining the Law the explaining By Between dignity and despair and dignity Between

s ail community racial as : accessed 292,

priual te emn ioiy aae t bid p wide a up build to managed minority German the particularly ,

20 ion for some years. Although in those peaceful years there there years peaceful those in Although years. some for ion with the Latvian dimension of Schiemann’s activities is to is activities Schiemann’s of dimension Latvian the with

April 7, 7, ,

2014 ’ Zeitschrift für Ostmitteleuropa für Zeitschrift ’ Überlegungen zum Wandel der deutschbaltischen Ideologien Ideologien deutschbaltischen der Wandel zum Überlegungen of School Autonomy and evaluating the degree of degree the evaluating and Autonomy School of ral constitution. By that time there was a place for for place a was there time that By constitution. ral : 19 Jewish life in Nazi Germany in life Jewish

. n t te utfcto o rstlmn and resettlement of justification the to and .

state and not only of the minorities. the of only not and state -

ulig rcs i Lti, which Latvia, in process building Schiemann as a politician who politician a as Schiemann , (New York: Oxford Oxford (New , York: - Forschung - 1934) versions towards the towards versions ,”

, 45, 4 (1996): 4 45, (1996): , 22 Special Edition of of Edition Special

I analyze the analyze I 21

CEU eTD Collection 25 1934 Latvia, 24 and Latvia 23 minority German other for emphasize will I as but fundament, a was spheres two these the of all the to Congress the of subordination the moreover obvious, is aims also and personalities leading regarding the and Congress the of entanglement The arise. inevitably organization the of work the on influence German of degree the about of Europe. frequent Richard his and Briand Aristide to with arguments refer will I integration. European the about ideas among place deserve it. about visions had Schiemann as Europe peaceful a towards step a as interpreted be can Congress the of organization The groups. minority German could communities onlywhetherminorities,not otherfor acceptablesolution anautonomywas cultural national endeavor.” Hiden and pre more initiatives, German were Nationalities European order tocreatef Latvia. in authoritarianism of eugenics, Baltic with dealing volume one topic, the Ulma the of effects and causes

Smith & Hiden, Smith Deniss Hanovs & Valdis Tēraudkalns, &Tēraudkalns, Valdis Hanovs Deniss Weidling,& J. Paul Felder M. Björn Verband Verband Special attention should be paid to the debates about the future of the Jewish national the future about Jewish be of Special paid thedebates to attention should of Congress the also and autonomy cultural national of concept the Although n h ohr ad i te evaluation the in hand, other the On

Lithuania Lithuania 1918

– 25

1940 ru ta nihr h a the neither that argue

In this regard in the fourth chapter of my thesis I am going to ask how far the far how ask to going am I thesis my of chapter fourth the in regard this In Ethnic Diversity and the NationState the and Diversity Ethnic , (Leiden: Brill, 2013) ,(Leiden: Brill, rom the state of nationalities a nation state in Latvia. ofnationalitiesstate in rom thestate a nation and the Congress is problematic to divide. For Schiemann t Schiemann For divide. to problematic is Congress the and - German German - 1940

, (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2013) (Amsterdam: Rodopi, , profit from solution. this (Gesamtdeutsch)

24 nis coup by referring among others to two recent works on on works recent two to others among referring by coup nis

Baltic Eugenics: Bio Eugenics: Baltic

y neto i t osre ht teps ee ae in made were attempts what observe to is intention My Ultimate freedom Ultimate tnm nr h Cnrs ws “uey German “purely a was Congress the nor utonomy ebn dr etce Mnehie Europas Minderheiten Deutschen der Verband

targets that I want to demonstrate. The sphere The demonstrate. to want I that targets , f h Cnrs’ civmns h questions the achievements Congress’ the of Coudenhove 76 - 7 . no choice; The Culture of Authoritarianism in in Authoritarianism of Culture The choice; no

politics, race and nation in interwar Estonia, nation and race politics, 23

the other one is focusing on the culturethe on focusing is oneother the sget ht i togt clearly thoughts his that suggest I cisely Baltic German ones, Smith ones, German Baltic cisely - Kalergi considering the concept the considering Kalergi

he separation of separation he

CEU eTD Collection 28 1996), Press, University Cambridge (Cambridge, 27 Aufsätze und Reden Leitartikel, the of parts 26 significant concept German small the of realization the with that mention to relevant also is it hand other the On themselves. above power central the accepted less kingdoms states, city units: autonomous formerly the that was view Volksgemeinschaft 1871. foundat the by development state German the in appeared the from “detached is state.” it and culture” embedded “linguistically on and language same the whereas entity that one political word. German Volk of sense the in development. state German the in embedded is autonomy desir the and freedom of appreciation individualism, strong The theory. state German autochthonous minorities. these in20 the state of Latvian eras the different of concepts minority the between differences the highlight will I work myof part conclusiveIn the scholarship. in approach common Latvia a is Soviet the of goals the significantlydecade. one within achieve to tool a was Congress the leader

Rogers Ibid. Paul Paul The centralized state and the notion of a unified political nation were foreign for the for foreign were nation political unified a of notion the and state centralized The processe building nation the compare To

28 os o hv a rpr qa i Egih o wl rfr o t by it to refer will I so English in equal proper a have not does

116. 27 cimn,U en ee Rct” In Recht,” neues ein Schiemann,“Um

Brubaker, Brubaker, h frain f h Gra Epr dd o ma te oniec of coincidence the mean not did Empire German the of formation The rbkr rus ht h cnet f n pltcl nation political one of concept the that argues Brubaker

(Staatsgemeinschaft)

In contrast to the nation it signifies an ethno an signifies it nation the to contrast In Volk ainls rfae: ainod n the and nationhood reframed: Nationalism

ih the with

was a late phenomenon coined by Johann Gottfried Herder. The term The Herder. Gottfried Johann by coined phenomenon late a was

Volksgemeinschaft

th , edited by Hans Donath, 2919 by Donath, Hans edited ,

centur Staatsgemeinschaft

y with special emphasis on the criteria of historical or or historical of criteria the on emphasis special with y . It is not the authority of the state which gives meaning to to givesmeaning which state the of authority the not Itis . iace Rundschau Rigasche 132. , the ethno the ,

s of the inter the of s . One of its significance from our point of point our from significance its of One . 8

- 2924. Frankfurt am Main: H. Donath,1989. Frankfurt H. amMain: 2924. - nation

ainl usin n h Nw Europe New the in question national uut 0 12, o. , oke 1, in 10, booklet 2, vol. 1926, 30, August 26

al community is founded on the on founded is community al - The notion of a German nation German a of notion The war Latvian state and of post of and state Latvian war - cultural community and not a not and community cultural o o te German the of ion Verband , principalities more or more principalities , (Staatsnation)

sn th using

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in - , CEU eTD Collection 31 critics contemporary 30 einer Principien Nationalitätengesetzes möglichen die über Untersuchung 29 to self these autonomy contrastterritorial In belong. would they cadastre national which to own their on decide could could concept this of nature liberal The voluntarily. register could group national the of members the which to cadastres national the are bodies these of bases The groups. national given the of tasks cultural the manage to responsibility self of creation thoughts. and feelings its (in nation the whereas in itself manifests moreover or linked is which state the is it him to According interests. of spheres different as nationalities and state between tasks the of separation the (Natione a as unit, constitutional empire. autonomy cultural ideologist groups. national the of side the from appeared culture to Parallel sides. country the then diverse more became cities the urbanization the with and impossible, were basis territorial process. Volksgemeinschaft,

Nimni, Karl Renner (Synopticus) (Synopticus) Renner Karl The English translation published in Ephraim Nimni (ed.) (ed.) Nimni Ephraim in published translation English The In the multiethnic Austro multiethnic the In

National Cultural Autonomy Cultural National n) 29

in his theoretical work work theoretical his in

should be grasped as grasped be should h bsc rnil o Rne’ cnet s that is concept Renner’s of principle basic The -

oenetl ntttos hc bcm ojcs of objects become which institutions governmental (New York: Routledge, 2005) 24. 24. 2005) Routledge, York: (New . (Wien: (Wien: .

which could solve the nationalities question in the Austrian part of the the of part Austrian the in question nationalities the solve could which namely the German population of Au of population German the namely 31

h esne f h national the of essence The Staat und Nation. Zur österreichischen Nationalitätenfrage. Staatsrechtliche Staatsrechtliche Nationalitätenfrage. österreichischen Zur Nation. und Staat E “ völkisch oaiy f aeil n sca interests, social and material of totality igenverl. 1899) 1899) igenverl.

- - Hungarian Monarchy the separation of national groups on a on groups national of separation the Monarchy Hungarian administrational bodies were not bounded to territorial units, territorial to bounded not were bodies administrational ,

25. “

this phenomena the claims for the cultivation of the own own the of cultivation the for claims the phenomena this cultural and spiritual communities spiritual and cultural Staat und Nation und Staat

sense obviously) is a consciousness can be grasped in grasped be can consciousness a is obviously) sense

and and Renner Lösung und die juristischen Voraussetzungen eines eines Voraussetzungen juristischen die und Lösung 9

elaborated the concept concept the elaborated - be underlined by the fact that people that fact the by underlined be utrl r esnl uooy s the is autonomy personal or cultural :

Staat und Nation und Staat stria stayed out of the unification unification the of out stayed stria ainl utrl uooy n its and Autonomy Cultural National al enr h Austro the Renner Karl

“ people whereas ” . ” , 12. , 30

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Leitartikel, Reden und Aufsätze und Reden Leitartikel, Ibid. Mann, Das Fiasko der russischen Demokratie russischen der Fiasko Das Ivars Ijabs, Ijabs, Ivars Bamberger Ivars Ijabs who is who Ijabs Ivars

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al Schiemann Paul der of Latvian Germans conservatives in 1934. The last report about the minority minority the about report last The 1934. in conservatives Germans Latvian of der ), the ), the of journal the was appeared publications his where medium relevant Other My work, however, not aimed at research the relevance of Schiemann from the the from Schiemann of relevance the research at aimed not however, work, My be to seem could analysis my into integrate I which publications of selection The Nation und Staat und Nation : 2000)

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ioie i Erp ( Europe in Minorites

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founded in 1927. This organ became the official publication official the became organ This 1927. in founded wud nlz Pu Schiema Paul analyze would I - 1940

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- national community. e the state the e ns oiia tikn by thinking political nn’s tih . obr (Hamburg: Loeber A. etrich - minority relations, the relations, minority

CEU eTD Collection Journal of Baltic Studies of Journal 42 393, (1976): 41 of provinces the which under conditions the included pact The II. Alexander and Great Ritterschaften) Privileges dominance” cultural society.” multiethnic a in groups other to compared advantages as diaspora mobilized the defines scientist, political American an Armstrong, John Empire. Romanov the of context the in Germans Baltic the of situation the describe can diaspora mobilized of concept The 1.1 were therepressionLatvactively of the involved in Germans the while Russians, and Germans many as killed also courts and baronial oppression of several symbols destroyed Latvians when revolution 1905 the of events the Emp Russian the by aspirations the national their of support accepted also and enemy bigger the as Germans the considered It stronger. national became Latvian the fight this In position. their threatened core imperial emerg the because privileges their for fighting were Germans Baltic The other. each strengthened therefore and overlapped which lines, fault political and social ethnic, deep by divided also was it complex, and heterogeneous is century nineteenth of was half second the he in Provinces Baltic trends the of landscape ideological social The by. the influenced and background social his observing by homeland, his T 1

his chapter is aimed at locating Paul Schiemann’s early career in the historical context of context historical the in career early Schiemann’s Paul locating at aimed is chapter his John A. Armstrong, Armstrong, A. John Ivars Ijabs, “Break out of Russia: Mikelis Valters and the National Issue in Early Latvian Socialism,” Socialism,” Latvian Early in Issue National the and Valters Mikelis Russia: of out “Break Ijabs, Ivars

Paul SchiemannPaul thein context the of Baltic Provinces Features of the Baltic German society theBaltic Features of

http://www.jstor.org/stable/1959646 or

Capitulations hc atr h ed f h Nri Wr ee eeoitd ih ee the Peter with renegotiated were War Nordic the of end the after which “ 42 Mobilized and Proletarian Diasporas Proletarian and Mobilized ,

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2 CEU eTD Collection 47 46 in print 2014) Press, CEU (Budapest: StefanBerger, and 45 44 43 und was centuries for changes same time thevoluntary the release German privileges ofview. of point inhis the of s bodies abolish to administrative Germans these of decision the was it that emphasized Stackelberg Livonian the of history the about t transferred was them over control the and serfs still “incorporation” the time the by peasants mostly was provinces burghers. the united which Guilds, Great assemblies provincial their through areas rural the controlled communities These Oesel. and Livonia,Estonia Courland, 16 the from which class, upper so These 1.1.1 court. opportunities” “career them offering by Germans Baltic the weaken to attempted Germans This the for loyalty Tsar. towards example,by tested, CatherinetheGreat was who situati legal and linguistic clerical, the of continuity uninterrupted the guarantee “to was agreement theRussianEmpire. beincorporatedGermancould into cultural sphere Livonia,and Courl Estonia

Stackelberg, “Die Livländische Ritterschaft,“ 246. Ritterschaft,“ Livländische “Die Stackelberg, Hiden, 245 Ibid. von Stackelb Freiherr Eduard Alexei Miller, Miller, Alexei

45 on in the provinces.”the in on Main beneficiaries of this social structure were the members of the Knightly Orders. Orders. Knightly the of members the were structure social this of beneficiaries Main vs.Ritterschaften Literaten h acac osrcin f h Bli scey hc dd o udro significant undergo not did which society Baltic the of construction archaic The

Defender of Minorities of Defender

- - called 246.

“ The Romanov Empire and the Russian Nation, Russian the and Empire Romanov The Ritterschaften rdm Ti maue a a repie hrce ad en a the at meant and character preemptive a had measure This erfdom.

erg, “Die Livländische Ritterschaft,“ Ritterschaft,“ Livländische “Die erg, 44 and separated from the Holyand separatedbelonging the Empire, from Roman but tothe , 2. , (Landtags) o the hands of the German landlords. In a retrospective article retrospective a In landlords. German the of hands the o

In response, unconditional loyalty was required from the Balticthe from required loyalty was Inresponse,unconditional

were th rie b svrl atr fo te einn o te 19 the of beginning the from factors several by ermined

ntury onwards were divided in to the territorial units of units territorial the to in divided were onwards ntury constituted of the German nobility and members of the of members and nobility German the of constituted Ritterschaft

and the cities, mainly Riga, through the Small and and Small the through Riga, mainly cities, the and 46

h Ltin n Etna pplto o these of population Estonian and Latvian The

published in 1929, Eduard Freiherr von von Freiherr Eduard 1929, in published

” in ” Nation und Staat und Nation

Nationalizing Empires Nationalizing 43 , January 1929, 245. , January1929,

The essence of this essenceThe of , ed. Alexei Miller Miller Alexei ed. , 47

n the in

CEU eTD Collection 49 Ostforschung für 48 wanted dominanc tocurtail German actually Empire the when player serious as considered were They Germans. and Russians between fights hegemonic the to and Romanticism of ideas the to reaction a as 1850’s the n The authority. fights the in role a have not did Estonians and Latvians centuries for that Russians, the 1.2 to presenttone. amore liberal began and changes the of nature the understood members Some modernization. face to had Knightly powerful the for clear been have should signal The well. as quo status the for challenge a meant class working Estonian and Latvian the emphasize would Estonia and I and class, middle LatvianEstonian and Latvian the of formation the hand, other the On population. the with cooperation to open were and languages, several spoke informed, well were class this of members The provinces. the in nobility the of authority acade and lawyers pastors, teachers, of consisted which class middle German the but changes, “compatriots.” atta first The untouched. was Landlords of status the and unclarified, still remained ownership land of question the that in step small a only meant serfdom of abolition the process this In century.

Stackelberg, “Die Livlän “Die Stackelberg, Gert von Pistohlkors, “Russifizierung und die Grundlagen der deutschbaltischen Russophobie” Russophobie” deutschbaltischen der Grundlagen die und “Russifizierung Pistohlkors, von Gert

mics became louder from the middle of the 19 the of middle the from louder became mics The awakening national of Latvian support the and Russification h apaac o te taa called strata the of appearance The Ritterschaften 49 k o te frrs o te emno” ae rm h sd o other of side the from came Germandom” the of “fortress the on cks

25, 3 3 631. 25, (1976):

even though the process of “real” Russification began in 1830s. It is obvious Itis 1830s. in began Russification “real” of process the though even ational awakening of these “ these of awakening ational dische Ritterschaft, dische

permanently complained about the shorte the about permanentlycomplained

e after1871. ”

246.

oppressed” nationalities began in the middle of middle the in began nationalities oppressed” Literaten Literaten 15

century and questioned the exclusive the questioned and century a a in n tef f h ongoing the of itself in sign a was ning of their privileges by privileges their of ning

Orders that they they that Orders over power and power over Zeitschrift Zeitschrift n CEU eTD Collection late imperial Russia imperial late 56 55 Fink, Europa: 54 53 52 51 50 ethn the observes class. middle German the also and workers Jewish and Russian Riga. of composition ethnic the also but social the indu boom.’ ‘industrial Russian the of participants main the of one loyal by challenged elite was thenationalis highly their transformed former the sum In 1893. in institution language Russian a into Dorpat which of Universityhonored environment, hostile a in themselves found Germans and publicists mainly Provinces, the left Germans Empire. German united the of foundation the from originatedwhich claims” nationalist German “counterbalancethe onwards Bal 1870 the in from nationalism Empire Estonian and Romanov Latvian the the supported that argues Miller reduced. be to needed co German of power the logic, imperial the Following n a with modernization and “centralization for Alexander III. of ambitions the Empire, the of corners prosperous most the of one in isolated culture own their cultivating of possibility the regarding privileges its by united is which group ethnicity, Russian with state the of peoples existence.

introduction to introductionto introductionto Hiden, Miller, 624. “Russifizierung,“ Pistohlkors, Michael Garleff, Michael Anders Henriksson, “Growth, conflict and the limitations of good government 1850 government good of limitations the and conflict “Growth, Henriksson, Anders

strial development a development strial 2007) Russification was understood by the Baltic Germans as a real threat for their their for threat real a as Germans Baltic the by understood was Russification

The center of the region, the city of Riga Riga of city the region, the of center The vom Defender of Minorities, Minorities, of Defender “ The Romanov Empire and the Russian Nation, the and Russian Empire Romanov The

50 246.

17. edn Aee Mle’ dfnto o ti poes te nutrto o all of enculturation the process; this of definition Miller’s Alexei Reading

Nationalizing Empires Nationalizing Empires Nationalizing Jahrhundert

“Ostmitteleuropa. , ed. Michael F. Hamm (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986) 180. 1986) Press, University Indiana (Bloomington: Hamm Michael F. ed. , ic milieus which evolved after the 1860s. In order to highlight how diverse diverse how highlight to In order 1860s. the after evolved which milieus ic 53

demographic change occurred in the city, which affected not only not affected which city, the in occurred change demographic bis Because of the increasing demand for Russification many Baltic many Russification for demand increasing the of Because 3

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CEU eTD Collection 58 1860 57 Schiemann Paul efforts, uncle’s his Despite era. Wilhelmian the of figures prominent and the of consultant laude doctorateUniversity fromin1902. Greifswald the of cum magnaa with lawyer a as studies his finished Schiemann Paul teachers. throughprivate a propereducation geta orderinto Reich the to son his send to decided and schools German of quality the in believedfather, the Schiemann, Julius the of group the to belonged 1.3 coincidedand ethnichad withthe social been positions overwritten. m not does fact This terms. numerical in group ethnic biggest the became they position, minority a in still remained Latvians although namely change, significant a underwent groups ethnic city the of population everyday life of language on based Riga Ethnic of composition 1. Table language at home. spoken on based Riga of composition ethnic of table her quote I was, this of society the

Hiden, Hiden, lie o Hirschhausen von Ulrike 1913 1897 1881 1867 Year

1914 hns o i uce Tedr cimn, poiet itr professor history prominent a Schiemann, Theodor uncle, his to Thanks Mitau/Jelgava, in 1876 in lawyer German Baltic a of son a as Born a Paul Schiemann, To sum up the tendencies in the development, it should be emphasized that the the that emphasized be should it development, the in tendencies the up sum To ean at all that the existing hierarchy between the ethnic groups which more or less or more which groups ethnic the between hierarchy existing the that all at ean

Defender of Minorities, of Defender

(Göttingen: Vadenhoeck&Ruprecht, 2006) (Göttingen: Vadenhoeck&Ruprecht, Number 80 823 80 332 65 775 66 980 43 Germans

Kaiser 57 15.9 25.5 39.4 42.9

quintupled within half a century and the proportion of the different the of proportion the and century a half within quintupled , , Paul Schiemann was given the chance to meet the most influential most the meet to chance the given was Schiemann Paul , Number 205 204 205 541 106 i Gezn e Gmismet D Gemeinsamkeit. der Grenzen Die 49 974 49 199 24

Latvians

Literat Literat 4 - Literaten 5.

40.4 41.7 29.5 23.6

prototype

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10.4 4.4 1.9 3.3 %

CEU eTD Collection 64 63 62 61 Europa 60 59 journalist, political a As community. ethnic every within obvious became groups political progress their of expression clear a considering andafter During interests uprising, andalso preferences legal of the the thought. also was and empire Russian the in movements 1.4 was nolongeraccusation. an Zeitung society. welcoming the of eyes the in suspicious him made art about writing in connotations political used he that fact the also and clear was 1903 at journalist political a as career his began and Estonia of province the resu a As mention for a Empire reserve Tsar of inthe seemed officer the German impossible. tobe to not citizen Russian a for job a finding of quest The career. Schiemann’s Paul support dif on were nephew of task grateful the and uncle Although Empire. German on the in Russia about mainly picture unfavorable an promoting focused and journalist a as also worked he resettling, 1897 in homeland sickness a press liberal ready as a ideas journalist. toexpresshis the in years his during ideology liberal of influence the under came

Ibid. 9. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Hiden, Hiden, Michael Garleff, Michael

. 62

h rvlto o 10 mat mlsoe n h dvlpet f h national the of development the in milestone a meant 1905 of revolution The on1905 standpoint Schiemann’s the for working considered he because disappointment a was it Theodor,” “Uncle For 8 8. vom -

9. M of Defender Minorities, of Defender From his earlier theater critics Schiemann’s positive attitude towards towards attitude positive Schiemann’s critics theater earlier his From his “distaste for the demeanor of the aristocracy and for and aristocracy the of demeanor the for “distaste his

lt Paul Schiemann went back to his homeland, more precisely to Reval/Tallinn to Reval/Tallinn to precisely more homeland, his to back went Schiemann Paul lt

17.

Jahrhundert

“Ostmitteleuropa. inorities eet dooia sadons Tedr cimn tid i bs to best his tried Schiemann Theodor standpoints, ideological ferent eas o te nerbe nest o te Russification. the of intensity unbearable the of because 59

bis

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After 61

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CEU eTD Collection 70 439 “BreakRussia,”out of (Ijabs, thefor crisis. justificat created he 1930s the in 69 1987. in 13, booklet 68 67 66 Century 65 autocracy” “despotic a state, repressive workers. unsatisfied the and peasants landless the of mood Autocrac with “Down article his with Valters, Mikelis economic the against attacks the oppressors were best ignored. also and role a play did dimension social the which accor class, middle Latvian the by interpretation the as considered be can summary authority.” state Russian the by nation Latvian the of oppression national unbearable tha conclusion the to came They 1905. of achievements the about talked participants earlier and houses destroyed, received 1000people punishment.” far peasant 300 hanged, or shot were Latvians “2,014 Germans; the with collaboration in began, reprisals the Manifesto October the of proclamation the killed. were Germans and Russians 600 destroyed, were houses manor baronial 140 violenc the Riga; in killed were people 70 and troops Tsarist by stopped Petersburg. St. in 1905 January 13 on Massacre future the Empire. about ideas his phrase to chance real a had Schiemann Paul

Ijabs, “Break out of Russia,” “BreakoutRussia,” of Ijabs, Ibid. Ibid. Modris Eksteins, Modris Valters began his political career as a social democrat, during the independence war he supported Ulmanis, supported he war independence the during democrat, social a as career political his began Valters “Wie steht das steht “Wie “h rvlto ws o ol aant h sae ytm bt oevr gis the against moreover but system, state the against only not was revolution “the t

h mi tertca o te ava ursn, h b ta tm Sca Democrat Social time that by the uprising, Latvian the of theoretician main The

The Sunday Bloody after occurred Provinces Baltic the in violence widespread The

(Bos

Rigasche Rundschau Rigasche ton: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1999 Co., Mifflin ton: Houghton Leitartikel, Reden und Aufsätze und Reden Leitartikel,

lettische Bürgertum zu 1905?” zu Bürgertum lettische

Walking Since D Since Walking

449. ion for the coup d’état coup the for ion

aybreak: A Story of Eastern Europe, World Europe, Eastern of Story A aybreak:

in 1930 reported from a discussion evening where witnesses witnesses where evening discussion a from reported 1930 in ) , ,kindle edition - edited by Hans Donath, 4021, Donath, Hans by edited 440.)

70 in

Rigasche Rundschau Rigasche t a nt vn sae eas i fie to failed it because state a even not was it

by accusing the weakne the accusing by 19 65

67 or as ae a eosrto was demonstration a later days Four y! Down with Russia!” tempered the tempered Russia!” with Down y!

, Januar 1929 1929 Januar , He argued that Russia was a was Russia that argued He ms were burned, 600 manor manor 600 burned, were ms

Frankfurt am Main: H. Donath, Donath, H. Main: am Frankfurt War II, and the Heart of Our of Heart the and II, War sses of parliamentary of sses e was unstoppable, unstoppable, was e -

März 1930, vol. 2, vol. 1930, März f h Russian the of 66 ding to ding 68

system system After

This CEU eTD Collection Leitartikel, Reden und Aufsätze und Reden Leitartikel, 75 74 73 72 anti 71 represented revolution, popular in believed politics, emancipatory fostered he that in found be to ideas Valters’ of roots the Ijabs, to According “Russia and we:” 1919 in editorial later a in it phrased he As individual. the of consideration the for chance turne could Russia that chances saw Schiemann autocracy. Russian oppresive the to contrast in individuals the of rights constitutional the about was uprising the him For Livonia. in or Courland in than bloody of events the experienced Schiemann the about thoughts Paul Provinces. the systemin state optimal the their about and Empire Russian the with problems in points common had Schiemann Paul journalist, young the “self all the in believed also nation]. Latvian [the it by hated are and oppresses, still oppressed, have who Germans 20,000 those of “independently faith their about decide to Latvians of right the expressed who Bakunin Rus from secession for demand the consider incorrectly they that in historians by misinterpreted are words Valters` instead. s he so citizens the of rights the acknowledge

Ibid. 450. Ibid. 444. Ibid. “BreakoutRussia,” of Ijabs, Paul Schiemann, Schiemann, Paul - organizing national communities.” nationalorganizing Although for different reasons and wit and reasons different for Although

a n cac fr eeomn ulk i Gray hr te ml sae system state small the where artificially r Germany in unlike development for chance no had personality the therefore generated, be could coating uniformed like barrack a only to Sea Arctic fromthe Vistula the to Ocean Pacific fromthe […]Great the Peter Since 71 ” 73

the Black Sea all inhabitants have been pressed into the same form. In this way this In form. same the into pressed been have inhabitants all Sea Black the Ivars Ijabs, professor of political theory at the University of Latvia points out that out points Latvia of University the at theory political of professor Ijabs, Ivars

ht atr ojce t ws oevr h cnrlzto o te tt, n he and state, the of centralization the moreover was to objected Valters What Rsln ud i, i wir,” und “Russland

aised the individualism. - Russian socialist revolution with the participation of the independent the of participation the with revolution socialist Russian i a te is cam o a ava state. Latvian a for claim first the as sia

, edited by Hans Donath, 496 by Donath, Hans edited , 445 .

d into a constitutional monarchy, which finally could give could finally which monarchy, constitutional a into d n iace Rundschau Rigasche 75 74 1905 in Reval where the revolution was far less less far was revolution the where Reval in 1905

h different consequences, Mikelis Valters and Valters Mikelis consequences, different h ignifies that entity as a “bunch of slaves” slaves” of “bunch a as entity that ignifies 20 . Frankfurt am Main: H. Donath, 1987. Donath, H. amFrankfurt Main: .

1 Spebr 90 vl 2 bolt , in 2, booklet 2, vol. 1920, September 1 narodnichestvo 72

neetnl, t was it Interestingly,

in the sense the in

- CEU eTD Collection 81 80 79 78 77 76 of claim the with solidarity international for desire the merge to how was Democrats Social hierarcexisting the about forget never he but communities, Latvian and German the of coexistence the for masses. the of power the life his in time first the for faced intellectual app and astonished revolution necessarily. not was franchise of democratization the Schiemann cooperationcoexistence. and individuals. of rights mission. the Ritterschaften of realization the over take should proletariat pro as behaved bourgeoisie the Latvian the fight of this in and revolution establishment the of aim the been the have should autonomy national Valters For groups. ethnic their of elites leading reactionary making communities. autonomous by small ‘bottom the of affectivity the about convinced both also were They state. based citizen of establishment for totheir demands claimsSchiemann inthe and correlated individualist is bothValters case of pan and abo from reform the denied and radicalism, Tsarist

Ibid. Ibid. Hiden, Ijabs, Ibid. “BreakoutRussia,” of Ijabs,

14. “BreakoutRussia,” of Whereas Valters demanded the participation of the whole population in politics, for politics, in population whole the of participation the demanded Valters Whereas turning by themselves isolate to managed Schiemann and Valters Both ik rl i hs israin mhszs ht h dlma f h rvlto for revolution the of dilemma the that emphasizes dissertation his in Crols Dirk Defender of minorities, of Defender -

Slavic attitude and the strong anti strong the and attitude Slavic

of being short being of hies. The mass politics in his eyes inhis mass politics were hies. The synonyms of 79

nta o ttl needne h independence total of Instead

451 448

16. - -

- tt r state

. srs, o e a cnicd ht the that convinced was he so Tsarist, sighted in political terms and not counting with constitutional with counting not and terms political in sighted

alled Schiemann at the same time, the young the time, same the at Schiemann alled lto ised f h eitn fua sse, h estate the system, feudal existing the of instead elation

- individualism attitude of the movement. the of attitude individualism 21

ve. 76

But he opposed the anti the opposed he But evsgd h psiiiy of possibility the envisaged e 78

cimn acsd the accused Schiemann Asiatisierung

80 eouinr Latvian revolutionary 81

h eet o the of events The

Schiemann argued Schiemann Baltic German Baltic

- against the against up’ policy up’ . -

Western 77

The

CEU eTD Collection 84 83 http://theses.gla.ac.uk/2453/1/2006c C 82 Livonia; thefrontand line of Courland troopsoccupied some parts August German the 1915 In side. their from Tsar the towards loyalty the of suspension the meant also which banned, and cultural Other war. the of outbreak Rundschau Rigasche verdict. other her that fact the but Russia, in living soldier German a of mother the as Siberia to transported be to supposed was mother their side, German the on fought brother his war, the of beginning the at Army Russian milita through them of some citizenship, through tied are they which to and situated was homeland their where Russia and to belong they the between made be should decision the community Russia” with lay Latvians the of „sympathy the 1.5 the imperial asadequate context t for saw them of both Importantly units. national autonomous small of cooperation the on based is which system state new a establishing by solved be should question nationalities the that which combined ideals socialist nationalism. with ideology an in found was solution The education. in language own of usage and non

onstructi Hiden, Hiden, E DirkCrols, ksteins,

- Russian na Russian Ober Ost Modris l German Baltic a and democrat social Latvian A From 1907 onwards, Schiemann worked for the German speaking daily, the the daily, speaking German the for worked Schiemann onwards, 1907 From 84 Defender of Minorities of Defender on of Baltic State Sovereignty” (PhD diss. (PhD Sovereignty” State ofBaltic on

Walking since Daybreak since Walking “ From Tsarist Empire to League to o Empire Tsarist From Eksteins, the Latvian the Eksteins, tionalities for self for tionalities

and the planned German cultural invasion cultural German planned and the . The paper was forced to be published in Russian following the the following Russian in published be to forced was paper The .

, 22 ,

rolsphd.pdf, accesse rolsphd.pdf,

- determination in the sense of cultivation of own culture, own of cultivation of sense the in determination - his change.

Canadian historian, claims that after the 1905 tragedy 1905 the after that claims historian, Canadian son was a “decorated Russian officer” overwrote the the overwrote officer” Russian “decorated a was son f Nations and from USSR to EU: Two Eras in the in Eras Two EU: to from USSR and fNations educational institutions of the Baltic Germans were Germans Baltic the of institutions educational 82 , University of Glasgow, 2006 ofGlasgow, University ,

d 28 April28 2014. d

22 ry service. Paul Schiemann served in the the in served Schiemann Paul service. ry

Reich, n 94 t es. o te German the For least. at 1914 in iberal came to the same conclusion same the to came iberal

which represented the culture the represented which

) , 14. 14. , CEU eTD Collection 89 Lettlands Bildungswesens 88 87 86 33. 85 the independenceLivonia possibility. anda ofCourland serious as oc German the of experience the Ironically, occupation. German the during shape took people’ ‘indigenous the towards responsibility of kind a Even counterargument. a as up came development German Baltic of way special Ba special the Germandom, into melting to came it when that out points he but questionable, phrases Wachtsmuth’s of reliability the made peculiar self cul German of understanding uniformed the Prussianization, interest.” land’s German the in absorption unconditional the that taught more and Latvia” in administration oc the of methods administrative education“the that admits also Wachtsmuth German the of development and establishment overview. an gives article Wachtsmuth’s Wolfgang occupation pressure.” Russian unbearable preparedcolonization. future for Os the East, the in lands occupied the of unit administrational the into incorporated was provinces these of territory whole the February, 1918 in Estonia and Livonia of rest the of Provinces the divided

Ibid. 155. Ibid. Eksteins, Gabriel Vejas Wolfga

t. 85

Ludendorff settled German peasants in the Baltic parts of the of parts Baltic the in peasants German settled Ludendorff t h bgnig te emn ros ee ecmd s ieaos rm the from liberators as welcomed were troops German “the beginning the At g ahsuh “u Entstehungs “Zur Wachtsmuth, ng

Walking since Daybreak since Walking - reliance which they improved throughout the centuries. The degree of nostalgia of degree the centuries. The throughout they improved which reliance Liulevicius, Liulevicius, 89

h Bli Gras a lat oe f hi mmes fud u that out found members, their of some least at Germans, Baltic The

I.“ for two years. After the occupation of Riga, 16 Riga, of occupation the years. After two for War Land on the Eastern Front the Eastern on Land War Nation und Staat und Nation

bu te tiue f the of attitude the About

- , Dec ,

und Entwicklungsgeschichte der Verwaltung des deutschen deutschen des Verwaltung der Entwicklungsgeschichte und ember cupation led many led cupation

23 1931, 155. 1931, , (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 2000), Press, University Cambridge ,(Cambridge:

tc omnt o te ain, n the and nations, the of community ltic

atc emn twrs the towards Germans Baltic Baltic Germans Baltic ture, would threaten their their threaten would ture, 88

Reich

n h “itr o the of “History the In cupational power more more power cupational Ober Ost, Ober th

September 1917, and 1917, September

would not be in the in be not would

the area was area the

to consider consider to Ober Ober CEU eTD Collection 95 94 93 92 91 90 their in was what them convince to order in politically population Baltic the teach should these in the maintained and territories be should Order state. new this of establishment the by prevented be should radicalization of type Bolshevik the view of point his In Estonia. and Livonia the postBres the for essay an write to asked was he issues Baltic of expert an As Germany. to fled he and groups several by reasons, several for arrested treacherous,how “distrust[ful], they brutish race[s]” were. non the 1905 in that principle the on based territories the of Germanization total the be would plan their of consequence the into these of territories incorporation the that suggested They Baltic. the of annexation the for argued control over these lands. his Russia, of borderlands positive most the with met areas the in zone economic an and confederation a of establishment the about Front. Eastern the in successes quick the after new the of organization 1.6

The article was published in 1918 under the title “ underthe title inwas 1918 article published The Hiden, Eksteins, Hiden, Liulevicius, Eksteins,

Variants on an Eastern European future European Eastern on an Variants n n ad an In Sc Theodor around group the calls Eksteins as lobby, German Baltic The the for concept German no was there war the before while that emphasizes Eksteins Defender of Minorities of Defender Minorities, of Defender Walking since Daybreak since Walking Walking since Daybreak since Walking War Land on the Eastern Front the Eastern on WarLand t - response. Litovsk conditions, he Litovsk arguedunited Baltic a conditions, for State consisting ofCourland, venturous way Paul Schiemann managed to leave Riga where he was was he where Riga leave to managed Schiemann Paul way venturous Reich Reich 91 92

y and ertre, h “neains patse” mushroomed phantasies” “annexationist the territories, gained ly

had an essential role in this process. He argued that the Germans the that argued He process. this in role essential an had Naumann was impressed by the newly created order in the former the in order created newly the by impressed was Naumann

, 32. , 23. ol b te pal n h con f h emperor.” the of crown the on “pearl the be could Mitteleuropa

- emn ainlte poe, oee, n ifrn extents different in however, proved, nationalities German , 169. ,

ocp cutd n h ln eitn German existing long the on counted concept Über die Aussichten des Baltischen Staates Baltischen des Aussichten die Über 90 24

et o hm rerc Nuans plan Naumann’s Friedrich them to Next

Preussische Jahrbücher Preussische

. 95

According toAccording ”

hiemann, 93

The

CEU eTD Collection 96 crisis different the situations. to reacted Schiemann how analyze will I chapters following the In conse its and itself war The future. Baltic the for claims and plans own their with appeared actors other and West the in collapse German the with significantly changed situation the However, uncle. his by to objected heavily obviously national groups. between system hierarchical nations a of mature existence the and in immature believed Schiemann of that demonstrates notion the Also nation. political the of constituents more conside were not were they thereand Germans, then Provinces the numbers, in living Jews and in Russians merely Thinking superiority. German by permeated is li on based is idea his that Admitting region. this of history the in time first the for possible become would nations of cooperation the and satisfied be could nations these of aspirations attempted and sense legal in equals as them saw he immature, politically as Latvians and Estonians the considered state the during work further his in the EstonianLatvian. and the German, Baltic the curiae: three of consisting parliament national the by practiced be would power political the plan, Schiemann`s In nation. political the of part b as them acknowledge State Baltic united the for opt should population Baltic The interest.

beral values and on the principle of national tolerance it should be highlighted that his plan his that highlighted be should it tolerance national of principle the on and beralvalues Hiden, Hiden, The main points in Schie in points main The cimn’ pa ws upre b dfeet ice o Germ of circles different by supported was plan Schiemann’s Defender of Minorities of Defender

, 30. , to entitle them with political rights. With this step the national national the step this With rights. political with them entitle to 96

mann’s concepts define his convictions which he followed he which convictions his define concepts mann’s - ulig hs i te atc rn. lhuh he Although arena. Baltic the in phase building 25

quences produced a crisis situation. crisis a produced quences n ieas ad was and liberals, an ecause it would would it ecause red as red CEU eTD Collection Staat 100 99 98 1989 in 9, booklet 97 ethnic community theethnic is what community’s.” the to and state’s the is what state the “to given] be should [it that was member, founding Minderheiten Deutschen Eu in Minorities German of Association the of slogan The homeland. co the with relations their clarify to had minorities Germany, so the As apolitica cooperation. an guaranteed degree certain a to which state, the by not and society Germans issue. especially tothis sensitive were characteriz ties cultural of role revalued togetherness” of sense national of “awakening The community. cultural apolitical ethno the Schiemann, t want not did who those with togetherness cultural the co the discover to able of not was remarks, care Schiemann as thought, took legal Bismarckian The actually nationals. which Republic Weimar the firstly was it view of point opportunitie found he later decade a half treaties, peace the of century.” 20th the of memory the to ignominy of monument the Versailles of peace the in raised world “civilized the that wrote 2

Ewald Ammende, “Richtlinien zur Begründ zur “Richtlinien Ammende, Ewald Ibid.

Paul Paul Zh ar e ZsmewresdrdushnVlsrpe nErp” ihu author, without Europa” in Volksgruppen deutschen der Zusammenwirkens des Jahre „Zehn

, October 1932, 4. 1932, October , Schiemann and his

Schiemann, “Wir und di und “Wir Schiemann, Caring for the co the for Caring German the and “We 1925, June in editorial his In Leitartikel, Reden und Aufsätze und Reden Leitartikel,

- ainl oehres s f ue prta vle i sol b an be should it value, spiritual pure of is togetherness national - called

- nationals living outside Germany was initiated primarily by civil by primarily initiated was Germany outside living nationals i te following the in , e deutsche Volksgemeinschaft,” i Volksgemeinschaft,” deutsche e Volksgemeinschaft

Volkstumspolitik 97 , edited by Hans Do Hans by edited ,

ung der Volksgemeinschaft,” Volksgemeinschaft,” der ung Unsatisfied with the principles and the consequences the and principles the with Unsatisfied d h pswr uoen topee bt the but atmosphere, European postwar the ed Verband

26 a pt n h frin oiy gna in agenda policy foreign the on put was

100

nath, 2564. nath, n o change their state belonging. state their change o ) of which Paul Schiemann was a a was Schiemann Paul which of ) Rigasche Rundschau Rigasche Volksgemeinschaft - Nation und Staat und Nation national state and with their their with and state national s in the new system. In his his In system. new the in s

Fra nkfurt am Main: H. Donath, Donath, H. Main: am nkfurt rope ( rope , 4 June 1925, vol.2, 1925, June 4 , April 1932, 465. April 1932, , Verband der der Verband , ”

Schiemann 99 Nation und und Nation tp of type l

and the and 98

For -

CEU eTD Collection 103 102 101 unity.” ethno transcending state a as nation German the of understanding the supporting and Germans, minority of fate the in interest public sustaining opinion, public “forming in organ these of task the sees Brubaker war. the after mushroomed which associations the forming the into ( ( Abroad Ausland Germandom in Deutschtum for Association the like WWI, before founded wassituation considered temporary. the and the separately; treated were they and categories two into divided were abroad Germans The numbers. significant War. World First the after Germany bordersof the outside situations minority in living were Germans million 9 origin, 2.1 nationals andhow theco co the and homelands the between interests of spheres of separation the saw politicians, Alldeutscher VerbandAlldeutscher

Ibid. 122. Ibid. Brubaker, Ausland,” im Deutschtum das für Verein Ammendes im “VortragDr.

According abroad Germans 103 The first organizations aimed at supporting the Germans outside of the of outside Germans the supporting at aimed organizations first The chapte this In The Reich, Grenzdeutsch

eadn te esn bhn tee onain h remarks he foundations these behind reasons the Regarding

Nationalism reframed Nationalism Verein Volkstumpolitik where, according to their arguments,where, “hard accordingGerm pressed” totheir

to to

survived WWI WWI survived the r I observe how Paul Schiemann, compared to other leading minority minority leading other to compared Schiemann, Paul how observe I r en ). The League at some point demanded the incorporation of territoriesof incorporation demandedthe point some Leagueat The ). Auslandsdeutschen estimation in the following the in -

(Border Germans), who lived in neighboring countries and whose and countries neighboring in lived who Germans), (Border nationalentangled statewasrelations. inthese

101 ,

115. lot vr sae n at eta Erp hd emn in Germans had Europe Central East in state every Almost ln wt mr ta a ude “Germandom hundred a than more with along

gained 2 million members and played a significant role in role significant a played and members million 2 gained fEad Ammende, Ewald of

Verein (Germans abroad), who lived in the “real abroad” “real the in lived who abroad), (Germans 27 ) and also the radical Pan radical the also and )

an Estonian politician of German of politician Estonian an Nati on und Staat und on

ans lived. ans ht h sae was state the that , Juni 1931, 644 644 , Juni 1931, - German League German een f Verein Reich - 102 oriented” - izations izations cultural cultural r das ür

were

CEU eTD Collection 106 105 104 to essential also was it Schiemann between ( all parts of Germandom aswhole of suchthe Germandom,thedaily and mission awas nature. strictlycultural of b considered was daily language German Concordia, organization “cover the Anstalt. via government German the from John to according that highlight would I was principle Schiemannian this unrealistic how prove To homeland. the of sphere interest the as economy considered who Schiemann, Paul them among leaders, minority t from requirement This economy. German the of strength and reputation old the regain to help and states, other with relations facilitate propagandists,” and “agents as foremost ( support financial got homelands settlement leaveGermany werereadywho to those Germany.Inof contrast, inside their support to not and abroad Germandom maintain to was interest its that Grenz of care take to how plan a elaborated finally authorities the when 1922 in only happened ( Affairs Foreign to the co weak

Ibid. 54. Ibid. 46. Ibid. John and impotent and - und Auslandsdeutschtum und Hiden, Hiden, oe f h as the of Some n u, cimn ws o imn t te e ies mhszn clua ties cultural emphasizing ideas new the to immune not was Schiemann sum, In ” - 106 nationals toorganize the life andintended circumstances. under new

ot rbby h wrig f h bget n ms ra Esen European Eastern read most and biggest the of working the probably Most The Baltic States and Weimar Ostpolitik and States Baltic The uwrie Amt Auswärtiges , while the German nation was “vigorous and autonomous” and it turned it and autonomous” and “vigorous was nation German the while , sociations’

. 104

Hiden the Hiden Volksteile Rückwanderhilfe) ), and also the responsibilities had to be clarified. This This clarified. be to had responsibilities the also and ),

ak hd o e ae oe b te emn Min German the by over taken be to had tasks About the directions in directions the About

erae h iprac o sae odr ad to and borders state of importance the decrease 105 Shean s to t miti te wt the with ties maintain to tool a as Schiemann y he state already contradicts the principles of the of principles the contradicts already state he ). As foractors the ). As other of

Rigasche Rundschau Rigasche h ptnily ol eegz frin trade, foreign energize could potentially who , (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1987) Press, CambridgeUniversity (Cambridge, , 28

. They .

Volkstumspol were treated by the government the by treated were

enjoyed Volkstumspolitik, Volkstumspolitik,

and itik,

financial support financial

go back to their goto back it can be statedbe can it

Literarische istry of of istry

43.

for

CEU eTD Collection 111 110 Zusammenwirkens) des („ZehnJahre coul Bruns Georg Peters Gustav Dr. and Brunar Dr. Kraft Dr.Stephan Ammende Ewald Romania; 109 108 107 wheneach these other. leaders met Vienna in time first maybe was It problems. their discuss to them for provided be should werecommunities isolated and living helpless European was way. Nationalities bornthis non visit to began He he because based Berlin a Bruns, law. international Georg in specialist Carl by replaced was he permanently world the around the meetingwas members1922. inVienna ofthe inOctober first The continent. the in leaders minority visiting and travelling was he while association of whole Europe. the from Germans for platform common a created which minorities, German 2.2 autonomous entity.” the “strengthen

The founding members and representatives of the of representatives and members founding The Ibid. Brubaker, Smith & Hiden, Smith 3. Zusammenwirkens,” des “ZehnJahre

d not participate at the opening session, but he was a member as representative of the Latvian Germans. Germans. Latvian the of representative as member a was he but session, opening the at participate not d edr f h ascain n Amne s ertr. s med ws travelling was Ammende As secretary. as Ammende and association the of leader n o te eea ascain fr emn ara ws h ognzto o the of organization the was abroad Germans for associations several the of One ofthe The genesis

At the first official session of the of session official first the At h ie o ti ognzto oiiae fo th from originated organization this of idea The t a teiiitv fD.Ead Ammende, Ewald Dr. of initiative the was It Nationalism reframed Nationalism – did not get the leadership and was keen on finding a new function for himself. for function new a finding on keen was and leadership the get not did

Poland; I. Wetter von Rosenthal von Wetter I. Poland; – Ethnic Diversity and the Nation Nation State the and Diversity Ethnic

Volk Jugoslavia; Dr. Guido Gündisch Gündisch Guido Dr. Jugoslavia; 108 .” -

German minority groups as well, as groups minority German 107

– lhuh o hm h am a nt o rae “self a create to not was aim the him for Although

Verband Estonian German; Dr. Caspar Muth Muth Caspar Dr. German; Estonian , – 123. 110

Sudeten Germans, Czechoslovakia; Dr. Schmidt Schmidt Dr. Czechoslovakia; Germans, Sudeten

Hiden and Smith argue that Ammende was disappointed was Ammende that argue Smith and Hiden

Verband –

Estonia, Hummel and Schwab Schwab and Hummel Estonia, Verband – . Ingroups,order theopportunity . tohelp these

Hung , 71. , 29

in 1923, Rudolf Brandsch was elected as elected was Brandsch Rudolf 1923, in

ary; Dr. Reut Dr. ary; were: Rudolf Brandsch Brandsch Rudolf were: who came up with up came who 109 111

and the idea of the Congress of Congress the of idea the and cnito ta te German the that conviction e –

- Nicolussy Nicolussy Swabian from Banat, Romania; Romania; Banat, from Swabian –

– Russia. Paul Schiemann Schiemann Paul Russia. –

Transsylvanian Saxon, Saxon, Transsylvanian

– Southern Tirol, Italy; Tirol, Southern

Bratislava, Dr. Carl Carl Dr. Bratislava,

the idea of this this of idea the - subsistent CEU eTD Collection 117 ( in Vienna. Braumüller Schmidt 116 Grossmachtinteresse und Lobbyistentum zwischen Minderheiten 115 114 113 112 the and Minority) Jakabffy, Elemér line. Hungarian journals the edited origin, Hungarian of politician Romanian the follow could which journals minority the of hegemony possible the prevent to was them of One journal. the of establishment the behind Liter Staat und Nation Minoritätsproblem),Europäische für journal, monthly the Nation of establishment the through increased was value propagandistic the by supported financially and tool propagandistic a as treated the of abroad. politics subvention the to related which activism Stemmann of League the to next committee permanent a for basis possible the as association this considered board, propaganda. Soviet anti confirmed a Ammende, Ewald the saw Bolshevik, members. the by way different a in interpreted groups. minority German the

Ibid. 24. Ibid. 72 Ibid. Smith Bamberger The editorial board of the journal consisted of Jakob Bleyer, Rudolf Brandsch, Paul Schiemann, Johannes Johannes Schiemann, Paul Brandsch, Rudolf Bleyer, Jakob of consisted journal the of board editorial The Sabine arische Anstalt. arische - S The 115

und Staat und odr te e the Wodder, & imilarly to other organizations of Germans abroad this organization was also also was organization this abroad Germans of organizations other to imilarly

Hiden

, Bamberger - the foundation of the of foundation the Verba Stemann, Stemann,

, ain wihcud ievie o minorities. to voice give could which Nations Et , the German journal of European minority problems problems minority European of journal German the , hnic nd

Glasul Minorităților Glasul

113 ie the like Nation und Staat und Nation - major task as the promotion of cultural autonomy in the overthrow of overthrow the in autonomy cultural of promotion the as task major io i cif a Brn o Uexküll von Baron was chief in ditor 117 Stemm

Der E Der was also a platform to promote the concept of cultural autonomy for for autonomy cultural of concept the promote to platform a also was

Diversity and the Nation Nation State the and Diversity Paul Schiemann, who was a member of the of member a was who Schiemann, Paul

Bamberger

uropäische Nationalitätenkongreß, Nationalitätenkongreß, uropäische ann, ann, iace Rundschau Rigasche

112 e E Der

Verband hrceitcly h fntos f hs raiain were organization this of functions the Characteristically , 1927 September) , 1927 - Stemmann points out that there were varied motivations varied were there that out points Stemmann

uropäische Nationalitätenkongreß Nationalitätenkongreß uropäische which was firstly published in September 1927. September in firstlypublished was which

(The Voices of Minorities), the latter was published was latter the Minorities), of Voices (The meant the institutionalization of German minority institutionalization the meant , 71 30

was sponsored through the Concordia Concordia the through sponsored was (Marburg:Verlag Herder Institut,2000) Herder (Marburg:Verlag - 241. Güldenband. Güldenband.

Magyar Kisebbség Magyar 114 Reich

codn o Bamberger to According The publisher was Wilhelm Wilhelm was publisher The Verband’s Verband’s 95 i 13: nationale 1938: bis 1925

uwrie Amt Auswärtiges oad co towards (Deutsche Zeitschrift (Deutsche management

(Hungarian - nationals nationals 116 The . , 60. ,

The

a - -

CEU eTD Collection 123 122 121 120 119 Eu groups. minority Frisian 118 practicewas tomaintaining vital peace inEurope. this that and world, the in time first the for Estonia in implemented was autonomy cultural that noted Birk, Ado politician, Estonian the events, the of significance historic counc the About cultural its inaugurated which group national first the were they success, great national 2.3 comprehensive more a to contributes significantly understanding ofthe natureofinterwar politics. minority journal this of reading critical of leaders minority leading to Next the in published were summaries retrospective and reports, affairs of state officecould mov Hasselblatt. Werner by headed leadership new the from himself distanced he later 1932, until tolerated be to had people some convinced. only board editorial the of size small the of because and later, the used Stresemann The Polish. dominantly was the journal, Germany own their in founded living groups minority the Also 1926. after well as French and German in

ropäische Nationalitätenkongreß, ropäische Ibid. 235. Ibid. Smith & Hiden, Smith Ibid. 242. Ibid. 247. Ibid. The The

h ya 12 hd yblc eeac in relevance symbolic had 1925 year The Minorities Defender of

Kulturwehr Between 1927 and 1938, the timeframe I researched, several important opinions, opinions, important several researched, I timeframe the 1938, and 1927 Between - utrl uooy a itoue i Etna Fr h Gra mnrt i ws a was it minority German the For Estonia. in introduced was autonomy cultural

120 121

The liberal The

fe the After Ethnic was founded in 1925 as a common endeavor common a as 1925 in founded was e theheadquarters Nation und Staat und Nation

The editor was Jan Skala, Sorbian politician leader. leader. politician Sorbian Skala, Jan was editor The Diversity and the Nation Nation State the and Diversity

Anschluss, standpoint represented by Paul Schiemann among the editors was editors the among Schiemann Paul by represented standpoint Natio

235.) - Kulturwehr

Volkstumspolitik n und Staat und n

of the

German origins, other figures were also published. The published. also were figures other origins, German te aofae ol b sopd ad h editorial the and stopped” be could camouflage “the

as a propaganda tool just like the National Socialists National the like just tool propaganda a as

Verband ,

118

, 50 , aimed at countering this medium. this countering at aimed

31 which according to governmental opinions governmental to according which 123

, toBerlin.

Volkstumspolitik of theStresemann

of Danish, Polish, Sorbian, Lithuanian and and Lithuanian Sorbian, Polish, Danish, of

122

(Bamberger . After long debates, debates, long After .

era Nation und Staat und Nation -

Stemmann, 119

Gustav

Der il. . CEU eTD Collection 128 127 126 125 Stresemann 124 borders the of revision the following As policy. foreign German of aim immediate most theis boundariesof determination economically politicallyand unsustainable the of revision resolutely.” by and or fundamentally autonomy cultural “refuse resettlement Schiemann, to according borders, by of revision belonging, state their changing on circumstanc counting are given who the minorities under solutions for looking and situation, existing the of acceptance explicit the only means it the demanding because is irredentism, of autonomy renunciation cultural that argues Schiemann significantly. differed minority.” every of right of Germanyand themessage might the send tofollow German toother states pattern. measure wouldimp propagandistic toexpectations,this effect. According its in belief the was Germany inside practice this of application the for argument main the the in shift paradigm a meant Germany, it inside minorities of autonomy cultural the upon touched it Although 13. January 1925, in level provincial and federal at authorities the to Stresemann by written letter circular a was relevance. special gained case the Germany, inside living minorities the Gustav for it Affairs, initiated Foreign Stresemann, of Minister the When WWI. of end the since groups minority

Ibid. u “Wir Schiemann, Ibid. 147. Ibid. Bastiaan Schot, Schot, Bastiaan

Schiemann welcomed the words of Stresemann that “cultural autonomy is a natural natural a is autonomy “cultural that Stresemann of words the welcomed Schiemann officia The for claim The n otat Srsmn cery ttd n i circu his in stated clearly Stresemann contrast, In

–

128 Ӓra, ( Ӓra,

Marburg/Lahn: J.G. Herder Institut, 1988), Institut,1988), Herder Marburg/Lahn: J.G. Nation oder Staat? oder Nation nd die deutsche Volksgemeinschaft,” 2564. deutsche Volksgemeinschaft,” die nd l beginning of the minority protection activities of the Weimar Republic Weimar the of activities protection minority the of beginning l national 126

However, the way they interpreted the role o role the interpreted they way the However,

- utrl uooy a be o te gna f German of agenda the on been had autonomy cultural

Deutschland und der Minderheitenschutz zur Völkerbundspolitik der Völkerbundspolitik zur Minderheitenschutz der und Deutschland Volkstumspolitik. 32

146

- 147 ain etr ht h step the that letter lation . 124

As Bastiaan es.” f cultural autonomycultural f rove the reputation the rove 127 Schot points out, points Schot

l German All - by 125 -

step step

CEU eTD Collection 134 133 132 131 ( Auslandsinstitut Deutsches 130 129 1874 th gave Hiden John Interestingly, 1919 Minorities of Defender as Republic Weimar “The 1968 in dissertation PhD her career the co that those ethno the and of side citizenship the from originating from originating duties the between synthesis a find to attempts state.” German the to committed were they t because autonomy, cultural demand to Germany in minorities in live.” minority the state which the to commitment the also but nation own one’s of culture the th to said commitment he autonomy of nature the About state. the and minority For situation. minority the the between in ties legal the of clarification person the meant such as autonomy a cultural Schiemann, of aspect the from namely aspect, different Stresema approached he that be could protection minority of field the in andrevisionism wouldhelp defend to corights the of w time same the at which step a Nations, Leagueof the join to campaign Germany. of outside and inside both practice” “best as autonomy cultural world,” whole the in Germans the for day “festive a was which Stuttgart in House German the of ceremony opening the at Stresemann guaranteed.” is freedom cultural their Germany of borders the “inside that beforehand non significant

Schot, Schiemann, 2565 Schiemann, 2565. deutsche Volksgemeinschaft,” die und “Wir Schiemann, Brubaker, “Wir Schiemann, Schiemann refers to it as as it to refers Schiemann - 1944” to his political biography. Although this attribute is not exclusive, the obviouslythe exclusive,not is attribute this politicalbiography. Although his to 1944” A reason why Schiemann failed to notice the motivation of the German aspirations aspirations German the of motivation the notice to failed Schiemann why reason A Nation oder Staat? oder Nation Nationalism reframed Nationalism - German population would population German

- und die deutsche Volksgemeinschaft,” 2564 deutsche Volksgemeinschaft,” die und national state in this relation had a minor role. Carole Fink gave the title to gave title Fink aCarole relationrole. the stateinthis minor had national Nation oder Staat? oder Staat? Nation , 147.

etce Haus Deutsches 133

That is why Stresemmann, according to Schiemann, expect the expect Schiemann, to according Stresemmann, why is That , 128. ,

sm tte Dfne o Mnrte: al Schiemann Paul Minorities: of “Defender title same e -

national comm national ( 149.) “Wir und die deutsche Volksgemeinschaft,” Volksgemeinschaft,” deutsche die und “Wir 134 join Germany, it should be proved to them even them to proved be should it Germany, join

Schiemann’s theories and convictions are realare convictions and theories Schiemann’s 33

- nationals more effectively.nationals more

unity. He emphasized throughout his throughout emphasized He unity. hat gesture would mean that mean would gesture hat 131

facilitated the national the facilitated t t s nt ny the only “not is it at 130 ould open gates for gates open ould

nn’s words from a from words nn’s on 21 on

e ea his began He 54, co as Schot 2564), st 132

May1925,

- 1933”. 129 -

CEU eTD Collection 138 137 21 1927, September 136 135 kind. European Western the of construction state a is it because context European nation a of concept the rejects culture.” and character customs, language, history, origins, shared with community the describes Schiemann Europe. communities two these of functions communities ethno the that emphasized this of functions possible the however, community interpretations. differed intheir them, of any by questioned not was concept of and fi notion furtherthis develop to wantedassociation the of membersThe co of concept the which in nature, transnational Verband of idea The individuals. random of group a as not and communities as conceptualization 2.4 question minorities.” of would “the was Republic Weimar the notes, Brubaker as artificial, was policy sh it Also cases. both in questionable title this of use the made policies their behind motivation different

Brubaker, Brubaker, Ibid. 23. Ibid. 28. Ibid. Schiemann, “Um ein neues Recht, ” Recht, neues ein “Um Schiemann, überstaatliche Volksgemeinschaft überstaatliche

The cross al cimn’ fam Schiemann’s Paul the grasp to groups minority certain helped autonomy cultural Importantly s along and universal democratic lines.

a bsd n h eitne f n ethno an of existence the on based was Nationalism reframed Nationalism (Staatsgemeinschaften)

135 - - ud e mhszd ht teeans oe hc h pae i minority in played he which role Stresemann’s that emphasized be ould 42. border and transnational ethnic community community ethnic transnational and border

In contrast, Schiemann was truly engaged with the solution of minority of solution the with engaged truly was Schiemann contrast, In

- ,131. ainl communities national

u sec a te ainlte Cnrs i 1925 in Congress Nationalities the at speech ous

claiming that it has no justification in the East Central Central East the in justification no has it that claiming

and and

should be clearly defined in order to maintain peace in in peace maintain to order in defined clearly be should

with content. The existence and the relevance of this this of relevance the and existence The content. with “Volksgemeinschaft should be distinguished. The interest spheres and the and spheres interest The distinguished. be should Volksgemeinschaft

- 34 national solidarity played a significant role. significant a played solidarity national

- ainl omnt o cross of community national (Volksgemeinschaften)

und Staatsgemeinschaft,” Staatsgemeinschaft,” und

s n eoinl n spiritual and “emotional an as

ll the frameworkthe ll

Nation und Staat und Nation and the state state the and - be defender be - border or or border 138 137

The He 136 ,

CEU eTD Collection 143 142 141 140 139 that realized national activists minority codified a of form the in culture own one’s cultivate “statefactors.” oriented communities. ethnic other towards attitude tolerant have and nature, transnational a of be should community the community. the of out stay should recognizable not is consciousness national harmony.” co Lutheran and “Catholic the writes he as acceptable, not parties. above stand should and sphere cultural the to activit community’s the of field the that is rule fundamental most and ethno transnational a creating for criteria the summarized he destroyfragilesystem, to Inthe not order betweennations. compromise peaceful a favourof in work would organizations of kind this how clarified be to needed still it that admitted ethno of organizations the on based be anational community. the of parts only unify can pr in united is Schiemann, to according group, This citizenships. different with Germans includes which ethno an of notion acknowledged state German the also that possible imperiali of “fanfares real a creating for moment

Schiemann, “Wir und die deutsche Volksgemeinschaft,” 2564. deutsche Volksgemeinschaft,” die und “Wir Schiemann, Ibid. Ibid. 468. Ibid. Ibid. 467. Volksgemeinschaft,” der Begründung zur “Richtlinien Ammende,

Ewald Ammende imagined the European future in which cultural exchanges would exchanges cultural which in future European the imagined Ammende Ewald The notion of transnational ethno transnational of notion The

state on these considerations,chapters. which isanalyzed inthe following

141 ide as a cultural Volk and not in thoughts about revenge in political plans which plans political in revenge about thoughts in not and Volk cultural a as ide

codn t Amne al lmns hs exis whose elements all Ammende, to According 143 sm”, came with the new era. Under the new circumstances it became became it circumstances new the Under era. new the with came sm”,

med sw h rlvne f the of relevance the saw Ammende

Volksgemeinschaft,

ihu te oprto o co of cooperation the without 139 - national communities. At the same time he wisely he time same the At communities. national -

national community originated from the claim to claim the from originated community national Schiemann elaborated his famous thesis about the about thesis famous his elaborated Schiemann

35 ae o clua coeain ihu the without cooperation cultural on based

140

Also confessional commitment is commitment confessional Also e omnte i confronting in communities se - -

national community: The first The community: national nationals should cooperate in in cooperate should nationals - ainl ad ih h co the with and nationals - ec o a la ethno clear a of tence cultural autonomy. The The autonomy. cultural y should be restricted restricted be should y - national community national 142

Obviously

- -

CEU eTD Collection 147 146 145 144 same s the on emphasis His ideologies. socialist national the and revolutionary conservative the by influenced was permanently theusage fightingagainst thisterm. of word the that convinced minority deeply was Hasselblatt emphasized. be to had Germans the of dimensions vertical outstanding the context Baltic the in terms, ‘vertical’ in and nationality. specific the of worth and rate value, the to referred dimension vertical the whereas nationality, the by occupied space the and extent the members, of number the vertical meant he horizontal and horizontal to according nationalities consciousness. of classification national of definitions statist obstacles” “Spiritual entitled writing his in Hasselblatt Astonishingly and political by touched least the centuries, throughout fragmented Living state. the to related short success, state and glory power, of connotations has nation national ethno their about individual t truestayed Schiemann the of choice free the is autonomy national the of fundaments the of One impossible. was endeavor this state national

Ibid. 336. Ibid. Ibid. 337. Ibid. Werner

Volk f n h 2’, w 20’s, the in of

Touched by the crisis narrative of Germandom, of narrative crisis the by Touched u o te he ms atv Bli Gra mmes f the of members German Baltic active most three the of Out - consciousness of theconsciousnessrecognizable members shouldbecontradicts of thatprinciple. he Hasselblatt, “Geistige Verkehrshindernisse,” Verkehrshindernisse,” “Geistige Hasselblatt, (Minderheit)

should beshould analyzed from perspective. this upranational cooperation of the separate cultural councils belonging to the to belonging councils cultural separate the of cooperation upranational 147

has a connotation of minor value minor of connotation a has Regarding Europe, Germandom was relevant bot relevant was Germandom Europe, Regarding o this conviction throughout his life. When Ammende states that the that statesAmmende When life. his throughoutconviction this o ees h German the hereas

Volk, Nation und Staat und Nation 36

s co is

- Hasselblatt (Minderwertigkei ainl n siiul n not and spiritual and national 144 , January 1928, 336. , January1928,

all features Germany was Germany features all

German

pointed out that the that out pointed 146

Verband, - ainl belonging. national iesos By dimensions. h in ‘horizontal’ in h

came up with a with up came t) Volk

and he was was he and

was the the was Hasselblatt - cultural cultural 145

CEU eTD Collection 151 150 149 442. 1932, by characterized future the 148 in believed and values liberal and democratic in thinking the Germa minority a in Germany outside ‘ethno the living situation, those to refers organization the of name the in read asmeasure becan of German Ethno the well, for unacceptable. Schiemann absolutely the of unity the to comes it when sacrificed be could values individual unite! country, every from the belonging Co like named constructed be be should should and community International, ethnic transnational the that argues the above commonalities cultivates and creates ethno the church like just is “the it because borders, that state in encapsulated emphasizes been not should He community appears. noticeably also International the to belonging people of community transnational the of analogy used widely the the of priority the self of principle the claimed States, Baltic

Werner Hasselblatt,“Überstaatliche Volksgemeinschaft Volksgemeinschaft Hasselblatt,“Überstaatliche Werner Smith & Hiden, Smith Hiden, 331.) Verkehrshindernisse,” “Geistige (Hasselblatt, vereinigt euch! Länder, aller Gleichnationale Verband 150 asllt’ attd mrs sit n h pirte o the of priorities the in shift a marks attitude Hasselblatt’s the of existence the for reason the questioned also he émigrés, Baltic the Like Hiden argues that a fault line occurred inside Germandom abroad; one group was group one abroad; Germandom inside occurred line fault a that argues Hiden

because in 1931, after the d the after 1931, in because Defender of Minorities of Defender

n state. in Berlin. One of his first steps was to rename the organization the Association the organization the rename to was steps first his of One Berlin. in Ethnic -

National GroupsNational Volksgemeinschaft - national groups’ emphasizes that it covers also Germans living inside living Germans also covers it that emphasizes groups’ national

Diversity a step towards the merger of all costep towardsmerger a the

, 191. ,

and

the (Verband der Deutschen Volksgruppen Europas) DeutschenVolksgruppen der(Verband

eath of Carl Georg Burns, Hasselblatt led the office of office the led Hasselblatt Burns, Georg Carl of eath Nation

above all. In Hasselblatt’s understanding Hasselblatt’s In all. above 149

h scait nlg demonstrate analogy socialist The State de - ainl ‘epe f ae ethno same of ‘people national; same confession, the parallel with the the with parallel the confession, same termination for all miseries, and confessed and miseries, all for termination Volksgemeinschaft, , 87 , 37 -

eine Panbewegung,” Panbewegung,” eine

borders.” - nationals. Whereas the ‘minority’ nationals. the Whereas

with the transnational the with 148 Nation und Staat und Nation

Auslandsdeutschen t oe on he point some At Volk , which was was which , ta the that s - -

national national national next to next , April ,

. 151

This

as CEU eTD Collection 159 158 157 156 155 2000 A.Loeber, Dietrich Hamburg: 1933 Veröffentlichungen Schiemann: 154 153 152 state. the into them incorporating without abroad Germans supporting about think not could they so state, people. for strength of source a becomes consciousness activists minority the of aims the Volkstum personality. the of annihilation the at aimed the of aspirations” unification the “misunderstood which ideas SocialistNational the by ‘poisoned’ alreadywas abroadGermans the of lifecommunity The Schiemannianas principles guidelines: in misery caused the on transferred was theory legal Socialist 2.4.1 that thecultural or would autonomysooner later lead toa“pan harmony.” European and “domestic

Ibid, 57. Ibid, Ibid. Hiden, Hiden, Hiden, Hasselblatt, Ibid. Ibid. al Schiema Paul

Paul Schiemann in his settled tone remarked that the totalitarian claims of the Nationalthe of claims totalitarian the that remarked tone settled his in Schiemann Paul

158 oiia afis [] tews te iua nto cud pl te rs i the in trust the spill could nation titular the minorities and perspectivesthe a for fruitful coexistence could Otherwise states’ […] other affairs. by political influenced or into its involved and minority a between their politically engagedshouldin onlyminoritiesbe ties the that know nationhood we politicians minority old As Hiden argues that the concept of nation of the National Socialists was related to the to related was Socialists National the of nation of concept the that argues Hiden “ Defender of Minorities of Defender Defender of Minorities of Defender

Misunderstood unificationaspirations” Misunderstood

should be considered even more sacramental than state borders. He also reframed also He borders. state than sacramental more even considered be should “Geistige Verkehrshindernisse,” 335. Verkehrshindernisse,” “Geistige 159 nn, nn,

This was possible through the “detachment of the of “detachment the through possible was This Auslandsdeutschtum. (Muttervolk) “ ulnsetce Lebensfragen Auslandsdeutsche

, 193. , 147. ,

r ad ae o ean f ue utrl aue The nature. cultural pure of remain to have and are -

1940 152 eie b Hln Šmua n Derc A Lee, 56 Loeber, A. Dietrich and Šimkuva Helēna by edited ,

liig ht t edd o civ ta national that achieve to needed it that claiming 155 The The

He followed his article with the repetitio the with article his followed He

völkisch völkisch 157 völkisch ”

38 supranation

asllt argued Hasselblatt 154 etce n Polen in Deutsche -

ete b te oainl state’s conational the by neither oriented part of the community hop community the of part oriented

own states. They should not benotshould own They states. thoughts about community, which which community, about thoughts al tasks al - German order.”

be blocked. Volksgemeinschaften Mrh 2 13 In 1936 22, March ,

and values of European of values and Auslandsdeustche ht h bres f the of borders the that 156

153

n of the of n

from

Paul and and - 57. ed CEU eTD Collection 161 160 the towards obligations for place no was there which in community total a into “widened T ideology. Nazi emerging the of influence the ethno German transnational the creating in crucial was state German the of role The arguments. belonging national and state between division sharp the co the of intervention as Berlin of support financial the considered not did he that fact The found. be can revisionism for preparation minority domestic the minorities protect to of claims the behind that aims Stresemann of politics hidden the with face to want not did or faced not did Schiemann earlier. obvious became Germandom the of and ideas his between differences the but 1932 Latvia.aims in these achieved he how observe I chapter following the In it. of building the to contribution through building of refusal strong the of consisted minority responsible the of criteria quo status blocks of stonefromaand could which newEurope better bebuilt.” the only […] communities) cele the of occasion the on Hasselblatt leaders. minority the poisoned literally power” nation the

Werner Hasselblatt, “Österreichs Heimkehr zum Reich,” Reich,” zum Heimkehr “Österreichs Hasselblatt, Werner Brubaker, brated: “Great Germany arose from the the from arose Germany “Great brated: h ery nhsam ih ht cimn wloe te ota odr lasted order postwar the welcomed Schiemann that with enthusiasm early The unti 1919 From - national community, so it an obvious consequence that this community became under became community this that consequence obvious an it so community, national -

states” Nationalism reframed Nationalism and creating responsible minority groups from the the from groups minority responsible creating and

160 hnig tt blnig te cetne f h hmln sae n the and state homeland the of acceptance the belonging, state changing

hs ihrwl Shean a wrig gis te hne f the of change the against working was Schiemann withdrawal, his l The concept of the “great German Reich, which could be valued as a as valued be could which Reich, German “great the of concept The

Völker , 133. ,

as divinely ordained different units could present those present could units different ordained divinely as - national state which is against the principles of principles the against is which state national Volkstum his community according to Schiemann was was Schiemann to according community his 39 Nation und Staat und Nation

(the unity of German ethno German of unity (the

ons u a otoes i his in controversy a out points , March 1938, 351. 1938, March , Auslandsdeutschen 161

Volksgemeinschaft and abroad the abroad and

Anschluss - national national . The The . until

CEU eTD Collection 163 1933 Veröffentlichungen Schiemann: 82 Loeber, A. Dietrich Paul In 1973 Deutschtums, 162 resettlement. forced Auslandsdeutschtum the or conquest hi followed he abroad, minorities individuality.” and responsibilities distinct homelands,

Ibid. euro die und 1939 Umsiedlung “Die Schiemann, Paul

.Ha

became veryregard.clear inthis mburg: Dietrich A. Loeber, 2000. Loeber, A. mburg: Dietrich

agmn tee r ol to osbe cnro: the scenarios: possible two only are there argument s 163

päische Minderheitenpolitik,” Jahrbuch des baltischen baltischen des Jahrbuch Minderheitenpolitik,” päische 40 The difference between between difference The

162

- After this turn in the treatment of treatment the in turn this After 90 eie b Hln Šimku Helēna by edited 1940, Grenz

va and and va and CEU eTD Collection 164 finally ex groups, minority the of members the from citizens rate second created state of side the from efforts nationalizing the secondly Latvia, in Germans by established affa cultural Firstly, prioritized. be to had they nevertheless that out point to is intention my conflict, Volksgemeinschaft related Schiemann intelligentsia. national Latvian the of members the than enthusiasm less with hopes Latvian the of realization the to reacted which population as Bļodnieks of inthe memories population remained Latvian of theAlthough unificationterritories with the theremembers memoirs inhis formed independence themselves. their of declaration the through Finland and Latvia Estonia, like territor new by significantly enlarged were states Some emerged. Europe Eastern new a Empire German the and Romanov Ottoman, Habsburg, the of ruins the On Europe. Eastern and Central in situation peculiar a created 3

clusivity aissue. ofloyalty became serious Ādolfs Bļodnieks, ĀdolfsBļodnieks, h dsouin f h fu cniuu E contiguous four the of dissolution The Schiemann and his s n o hs an ruet i that is arguments main his of one As the unitythe Latvian of lands. coat Latvian the crown to were camewhenpeopleafter truelongwere a thornywe reaching road whichforstars the 18 The

Ā r ad h pltc bcm isprbe u t te pca kn o autonomy of kind special the to due inseparable became politics the and irs th dolfs Bļodnieks, a Bļodnieks, dolfs

of November 1918,November of a The undefeated nati undefeated The glorious moment, with the with moment, glorious

and

isl t te ava sae hw h ceitne f the of coexistence the how state, Latvian the to himself Staatsgemeinschaft

Staatsgemeinschaft

day when Latviaday when her declared independence: 164

prime minister of the Latvian State Latvian the of minister prime

had arrived, the day when the when day the arrived, had on - , (New York: Robert Seller & Sons, 1960), 148 1960), & Sons, Seller (NewRobert , York: of - arms, formed arms,

was realized in his case. inhis was realized ies; some regained their statehood, while others while statehood, their regained some ies;

hs to omnte sol not should communities two these new new rpa Eprs fe te is Wrd War World First the after Empires uropean 41 lands the independent state also gained also state independent the lands

In the following chapter I analyze how how analyze I chapter following the In into a constellation of symbolizing of constellation a into age old hopes of Latvian of hopes old age

in the interwar period, period, interwar the in

- 149.

oe into come

the the the a

CEU eTD Collection 170 169 168 Nordost 167 166 404 5(2013): 165 Latvians the among 3.1.1 systemwhichestablished handled flexibly. thisquestion was usage. language on based German, 6% 3, Jewish, 5% Russian, % 53 12, Latvian, was population the of 73% census nations. and minorities of relations the from missing is harmony nation a unrealistic.” as Latvia treat to that stated Austrian an Veiter, Theodor to refers Dribins i that terms in problematic, was state nation a into Latvia period. researched the ethnicity, in homogenization of trend obvious different an with society diverse a has demonstrates everybody where society a shows 1.00 of value the and ethnicity regarding society homogenous absolutely an to refers value 0.00 the As 1935. in 0.40 and 1925 in 0.42 1897, in 0.51 was territories Latvian the of EDI data. census available on based 2011 and 1897 between Latvia of index diversity ethnic the in 3.1

Leo Dribins, “Die Deutschbalten und die Idee von nationallettischem Staat (1918 Staat von nationallettischem Idee die und “DieDeutschbalten LeoDribins, 408 Ibid. Ádám, Németh Percy Ibid. Ibid.

The Latvian historian, Leo Dribins, suggests that the attempt to form the newly founded newly the form to attempt the that suggests Dribins, Leo historian, Latvian The In 165

The “impossibility” of a Latvian nation ofaLatvian The “impossibility” a -

rbn age ta drn te a a war the during that argues Dribins state, Nation archiv

Vockrodt, The changes in EDI can follow the trend of homogenization or heterogenization, heterogenization, or homogenization of trend the follow can EDI in changesThe recently published article, Ádámarticle, geographer aHungarianrecently Németh, analyzeschanges published - 413. - 437 168

2 (1996): 276, http://www.ikgn.de/cms/index.php/downloads/summary, accessed 7 April 2014 7 accessed http://www.ikgn.de/cms/index.php/downloads/summary, 276, (1996): 2

This was b was This “

Ethnic diversity and its spatial change in Latvia, 1897 Latvia, in change its spatial and diversity Ethnic “Das nat“Das . The Latvian middle Latvian The . state ofnationalities ionale Ergebnis der Volkszählung,” Volkszählung,” Ergebnisder ionale

170 ecause

n 92 ih h rat the with 1922 In as he argues “there i “there argues he as -

class understood that without demanding a nation a demanding without that understood class or - tt is state anational state

spontaneous spontaneous - 42 emn xet f nentoa lw who law, international of expert German

- state fcto o te osiuin political a constitution the of ification

Nation und Staat und Nation “ s lack of homogeneity, of lack s eal ipsil ad poli and impossible legally

ainls bcm widespread became nationalism a utntoa society. multinational a had t

- 2011, 166 ” 169 ”

, October 1930, 46 1930, ,October Post

h results the According to the 1920 the to According - 1934) - Soviet Affairs Soviet ,”

Special edition of of edition Special

and also and

f Latvia of .

29, 29, tically

the the 167

CEU eTD Collection 175 174 173 172 171 aspirations. state nation the with simultaneously born was Latvia of nation political multiethnic the of idea the equality on based be should it instead and rejected be should statehood of basis ethnocentric the that daily, Latvian The mul the emphasized diplomat, nation Latvian the of part constructive a be to Germans Baltic the “invited” state, Latvian the of idea the of representatives earliest the bodies. government the of work the in participate to welcome were minorities the that stated Latvia, of president provisory theUlmanis, independenceof Kārlis declaration Afterthe elite. Latvian the of thinkinglegal Libau/Liepāja adopted same policy. the nation own its form founded German Party, the realized Kā of leadership the under government provisory a of of proclamation the with body This invited. th 1918, future. the for vision positive a provide could who group only the were they And power. state own their up building of perspective no been have would there state

Dribins, Ibid. 280. Ibid. 283. Ibid. Ibid.

The formation of a state of nationalities of state a of formation The The Latvians. the of aspiration the understood Germans Baltic of groups Several - e National Council National e at rgesv Party Progressive Balt on 18 November 1918 made a decree in which the right of the Latvian nation to to nation Latvian the of right the which in decree a made 1918 November 18 on “DieDeutschbalten

of fellow citizens with different citizenswith fellow belongings.of national

n otat o rbn, nte Ltin itra, li Pr i Purs Aldis historian, Latvian another Dribins, to contrast In right Jaunākās Ziņas Jaunākās - of the Latvian the of nation cultural state

, ”283.

came together, together, came

tiethnic nature of the Latvian political nation political Latvian the of nature tiethnic

a acknowledged. was 174

(Deutsch

Mikelis Valters Mikelis in an article published on 19 November 1918 claimed 1918 November 19 on published article an in

- atsh Frshitih Partei) Fortschrittliche Baltische

where where the independence of Latvia and and Latvia of independence the (Staatsvolk) 43 (Nationalitätenstaat)

, a social democrat politician and one of one and politician democrat social a , all non all 173

to self

rlis Ulmanis, rlis Later the the Later . Also Kārlis Ducmanis, a Latvian a Ducmanis, Kārlis Also . - communist communist - determination. 175

Dribins suggests thatthe Jungbaltenbund leader of the Farmers the of leader

was embedded in the in embedded was Latvian parties were parties Latvian 171

On 17 November 17 On 172 (Staatsnation).

the foun the , which was was which n his PhD PhD his n

dation dation from ’

CEU eTD Collection 180 179 178 177 April 2014 10 accessed: http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk3/ftp04/nq35290.pdf? 72, 1998, ofToronto, University dissertation, 176 the to next discussed conference statesmen. table by actual were Latvia of the construction troops, state German the the clarifying against about questions 1919 June in Wenden/Cēsis in Battle the won Army a representatives.” elected byby or referendum not and army Estonian the of weapons the by decided “was constructed be should the help ofonesacrifice even withthe partial Great sovereignty. ofthe Power state’s state the so progress, and safetyorder, maintain nation the of minister. prime as pastorLatvian a Niedra, Andrievs bi a form to order in occurred, putsch a session their the with negotiations the continue appeared. the us lead units Latvian and German separate into army of the transformation languageand orthe Latvian German of equalforthe claimstatus “bi a of ideaan points thesenewFrom the state. from demands its ( purely were understood.” state Latvian a of dimensions ethnic “potential the that claims dissertation Baltisch Deutscher Nationalausschuss) Deutscher Baltisch

Aldis Purs, Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. 284. “DieDeutschbalten,” Dribins, Nationalausschuss

286. 285. u t te iiay iuto te ainl oni hd o te coc bt to but choice other no had Council National the situation military the to Due Council National German Baltic the by represented option second a also was There rbn age ta a te n o te a te eae bu hw h Ltin state Latvian the how about debate the day the of end the at that argues Dribins 177

Creating the state from above and below, local government in inter in government local and below, above from state the Creating

176

eas h ws ovne ta Lti a a idpnet tt cud not could state independent an as Latvia that convinced was he because

also the inviolable property rights and the multiethnic bureaucracy multiethnic the and rights property inviolable the also

Nationalausschuss

, which in February 1919 February in which ,

180

I would suggest that even though the Estonianthe though even that suggest would I -

building project could be realized only with only realized be could project building 44 to this conclusion. Among the demands of demands the Among conclusion. this to

178 . On 6 On . -

national state with the leadership of of leadership the with state national Niedra is now treated as the betrayerthe as treated now Niedrais th

April 1919, during the time of time the during 1919, April -

national state” took form,took state” national summed up in 14 points 14 in up summed - war Latvia, warLatvia, PhD PhD

179

CEU eTD Collection 183 Donath,1987. in 182 181 potential economic required the and Germans the without potential intellectual required coul and state, a build to ready not is nation Latvian the that seemed that “t inspir constitution the claims Dribins ways. by ‘unorthodox’ in nations of coexistence established the about think to Schiemann order political The question. open an is not, onlyLatvians, all historicalwho ofbut lived there. minorities time.” of course the “in all, from language Latvian of knowledge demand to right the had state Latvian the that agreed absolutely they phrased, he as and same the respect would Germans respon In culture. their of acknowledgement through belonging their of appreciation the document to ready was which state a with only themselves associate could Germans the that declared Schiemann it. from expect could they ne what the on depended towards state Germans Latvian Baltic of the attitude the of that construction stated ethnic politicians the Both economy. change to order in nationalized be would possessions rights. property of respect the demanded Fircks conservative The possibilities. the from system ethnocratic an of exclusion the was condition important most the Schiemann For different. Russian and a Jewish German, for welcomed criteria Council National minimum new the the nationalities, up between compromise set battle the after who Latvia, in politicians German

etrie, ee ud Aufsätze und Reden Leitartikel, Dribins, “Die Deutschbalten,” 287. “DieDeutschbalten,” Dribins, Dribins, “Die Deutschbalten,” 287. “DieDeutschbalten,” Dribins, Paul S Paul Due Whether the Latvian Republic in its early phase should be considered as beconsidered a nation early Latvian inits Whether should phase theRepublic he idea of a Latvian nation Latvian a he of idea 182 181 chiemann, “Zur Sprachenfrage in Lettland,” In In Lettland,” in Sprachenfrage “Zur chiemann,

to the activity of Paul Schiemann and Wilhelm von Fircks, the leading Baltic Baltic leading the Fircks, von Wilhelm and Schiemann Paul of activity the to The leading Baltic Germans sent a clear message; Latvia should Latvia message; clear a sent Germans Baltic leading The e a wryn ta i te e ea h lns ra etts frs al German all firms, estates, real lands, the era new the in that worrying was He

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, edited by Hans Donath, without page number. Frankfurt am Main: H. H. Main: am Frankfurt number. page without Donath, Hans by edited ,

- state remained not understood by the Germans” for them it for Germans” understood by the remained not state Rigasche Rundschau Rigasche 45

183

29 July 1919, vol. 2, booklet 1, 1, booklet 2, vol. 1919, July 29 d not represent the the represent not d

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CEU eTD Collection 189 188 187 (ed) Geschichte. 186 Aufsätze und Reden Leitartikel, 185 184 would which it of part second through w this national their cultivate to right the reserved nationalities the fact this expressed it that terms in idea national that argued Schiemann Constitution, the of debate the During the on based be should states those all constitution the to according that argued Schiemann sphere. cultural the from itself withdrew absolutely state the or guaranteed is nationalities the of equality the construction an In national. as itself acknowledges which state the to alternative an as state state construction. Germand Latvian the of constitution. named inthe not the titular nation was declarative. only remained it otherwise future, the in content “ that and that stated the of idea the rejected Constitution Latvian the which to according owners. Jewish and German the without

“ Dri Schiemann called it called Schiemann Staatsgemeinschaft und “Volksgemeinschaft Schiemann, 291. “DieDeutschbalten,” Dribins, Paul Paul Die Verfassung der Republik Lettlands” in: Dokumente und Materialien zur ostmitteleuropäischen ostmitteleuropäischen zur Materialien und Dokumente in: Lettlands” Republik der Verfassung Die

http://www.herder also the official language as such is such as language official the also bins, “Die Deutschbalten,” 287 “DieDeutschbalten,” bins, this interpretation of the interpretationof this Schiemann, Schiemann, hs pca stain e Shean o h ie o the of idea the to Schiemann led situation special This h aotd osiuin eand tro a Shean eerd o it. to referred Schiemann as torso, a remained constitution adopted The - cultural autonomies cultural hmnou "etad n e Zicekigzi, dtd y ai Krs, n Herder in: Keruss, Janis by edited Zwischenkriegszeit, der in "Lettland Themenmodul the sovereign the ay.

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power of the State of Latvia was Latvia of State the of power , edited by Hans Donath, 2883 by Donath, Hans edited . A united political nation is able to cultivate different cultures cultures different cultivate to able is nation political united A . anational titular nation titular

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1989. Donath, H. Main: Frankfurt . am 40 Itand other wasleaders PaulSchiemann

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12 May 12 2014

was rejected by the by rejected was

vested in the people of Latvia”, of people the in vested 290.) es the equality of all citizens. all of equality the es . 186 187

cultur ,” 8 May 1926, vol. 2, booklet 10, in 10, booklet 2, vol. 1926, May 8

Dribins

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CEU eTD Collection 192 (München: R Weger, Tobias Stüben, Jens Störtkuhl, Beate in Lettland,” 191 190 to related with state the the urbanized middle the of representative mood. this in community the of members the keep to needed was confirmation permanent a and achieve state new the minority. national to stratum leading from dropped had they that digest to was Germans Baltic the for challenge biggest the war, 3.2 European Central East context. the in unique is which all, at nation titular any name to not was co other and man this convince to tried Schiemann Latvians, for like nation, titular of status the Germans principles. could constitution non the of autonomy the state, the of language official the as Latvian acknowledged but municipalities, in and court, the in and institutions several stated article This 1922. in Assembly

Schiemann, “Staatsvolk und Minderheit,” 2881. Minderheit,” und “Staatsvolk Schiemann, David Feest, David Micha

The affirmationThe thestate of et o the to Next The leader of the conservat the of leader The el Garleff, “Zwischen Loyalität und Verweigerung. Zur Autonomie der Deutschbalten in Estland und und Estland in Deutschbalten der Autonomie Zur Verweigerung. und Loyalität “Zwischen Garleff, el 190

( In 1926 when an unsatisfied Latvian of German origin claimed to guarantee the the guarantee to claimed origin German of Latvian unsatisfied an when 1926 In Bodenständigkeit ubuh n Kie Ds slce uoa n de etce nc dm rtn Weltkrieg ersten dem nach Deutschen die und Europa östliche Das Krise. und Aufbruch -

“Abgrenzung oder Assimilation, oder “Abgrenzung scenario best the that nationals (Staatsbejahnug) the rootedness of the Germans to the soil the to Germans the of rootedness the

n hs ead h coeain ewe te osraie ics as Fircks, conservative the between cooperation the regard this In en cmrms bten h nto sae a state nation the between compromise a mean eorpi, cnmc n pltcl hne a cneune o the of consequences as changes political and economic demographic, - Ritterschaften class wasclass decisive.

192

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ives, Wilhelm von Fircks argued for the for argued Fircks von Wilhelm ives,

and the liberal Schiemann, who was m was who Schiemann, liberal the and 191

T h rgt f non of right the

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519.

that could happen to the Latvian constitution, Latvian the to happen could that

47 Oldenbourg Verlag, 2010), 302. 2010), Verlag, Oldenbourg

, and non and , - - avas o s ter lang their use to Latvians Latvians.

towards and towards - material values this term is term this values material

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ore accepted in accepted ore long process to process long affirm ation of ation ae in uage , ed. ed. , CEU eTD Collection 197 H. Main: 196 am Frankfurt number. page without 195 Donath, Hans by Donath,1987. edited Aufsätze, und Reden H. Leitartikel, Main: am Frankfurt number. page without 194 Donath, Hans by Donath,1987.” edited Aufsätze, und Reden Leitartikel, 193 d traditional their of loss The forms. living public old the of dissolution the meant which impoverishment, and standard Landowners. ruble prewar 1920. in landowners German of lands the nationalized had been tothe imperial used framework. countr small a for painful be could experiences these and field economic them the in consequences main its had independence utilize state that and Estonia in mistake a was land to how know who firms satisfactorly. private by organized be should production in mainly nationalization that and Latvia in yet come not had socialization emphasized for time the catastrophic, be would agriculture also He capital. international the of eyes the in creditability earn and economy own its up build could it quickly how on depended state the of existence The unit. economic an all above is state the argument his to according autonomy ide Germandom. Baltic the of peculiarities t was state new the to contributing and Latvia something

Ibid. 290. Ibid. 294. “DieDeutschbalten,” Dribins, Assimilation,”520. oder “Abgrenzung Feest, Paul Paul Paul Schiemann, Paul ntified the main problems of Latvian statehood, namely statehood, Latvian of problems main the ntified Schiemann, “Lettlands Staatsproblem,” In In Staatsproblem,” “Lettlands Schiemann, T ava floig h Etna pten mxmzd h sz o te rpry and property the of size the maximized pattern, Estonian the following Latvia, e rbe o Ltin ttho ws bv al n cnmc rbe, because problem, economic an all above was statehood Latvian of problem he ,

interethnic fights new

194

196

demands

His words were also a warning for the state, that the nationalization of the of nationalization the that state, the for warning a also were words His in the ear the in eutn fo tee aia lw Gradm ae a aln living falling a faced Germandom laws radical these from Resulting

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aboli

ly period of the state building. state the of period ly

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95% of the obligations of L of obligations the of 95%

cimn fo te umr f 99 onwards 1919 of summer the from Schiemann Rigasche Rundschau Rigasche iace Rundschau Rigasche

the nature of Balticthe nature of 48 a ta ws h ol wy o prevent to way only the was that hat

195 193

T economic issues, issues, economic

he law on compensation of the of compensation on law he His main reason for staying in staying for reason main His November 1919, vol. 2, booklet 1, in 1, booklet 2, vol. 1919, November

July 22, 1919, vol. 2, booklet 1, in 1, booklet 2, vol. 1919, 22, July atvian house owners towards towards owners house atvian democracy. y whose population whose y

the question of question the

the 197

CEU eTD Collection Studies, 202 201 200 199 198 milieu. interwar the in force to come could c the analyzed Alenius Kari Estonia government. self of degree same the with established was school minority H autonomy. as Estonia that known politicall minority in that autonomy school German equality ofLatvia.all citizens of const the in granted rights the enforce to order in them of mechanism working effective most the and institutions their of network a out built Germans, the especially but P the of support the achieve to order in possible everything did deputies German the 1925 results. positive absolutely with rights minority for Laboratory juridical 3.2.1 imperial ‘old these for ( problematic became state new the to loyal being because later or sooner Baltic the leave and emigrate to was option one Obviously former. the to compared mechanistic as considered was which politicians, democratic B old calls he what between choice a meant crisis identity this that argues Garleff Michael it. of existence the deny to or state new the to loyal be to whether was question main the which in Altreichsbalten arliament for the Law on Cultural Autonomy. Cultural on Law the for arliament

Ibid. 297. Ibid. und Loyalität “Zwischen Garleff, Percy Vockrodt, “Die deutsche Schulautonomie in Lettland,” Lettland,” in Schulautonomie “Die deutsche PercyVockrodt, 221. “DieDeutschbalten,” Dribins, Kari Alenius, Kari

li ‘rai’ hnig atr ( pattern thinking ‘organic’ altic 38,4 (2007 38,4 Leo Drib The infra Percy Vockrodt, a Baltic German minority German Baltic a Vockrodt, Percy

wvr mc ls noted, less much owever, “The birth of Cultural autonomy in Estonia: How, why and for whom?” whom?” for and why How, Estonia: in autonomy Cultural of birth “The ): 445. accessed 445. ): ) ins quotes the words of words the ins quotes structure of structure as Garleff refers tothem. as refers Garleff the

first

: 31 October 2013, October : 31 autonomy

Verweigerung,” 291. Verweigerung,”

tt i te ol raie te da f nati of idea the realized world the in state ircumstances under which such such which under ircumstances

Bernhard Lamay, who wrote in 1931 that LatviaBernhard isa Lamay, whowrotein1931that is 199 altbaltische ht yas ale i Lti a euain for regulation a Latvia in earlier years 5 that

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01629770701682723 202

49 200 mn te factors the Among

activist began his review of review his began activist y qualified circles of Europe of circles yqualified Without having that law the minorities, the law that having Without Nation und Staat und Nation s

Denkmuster , January 1930, 218. ,January1930, ,

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198

CEU eTD Collection 207 206 205 I.” Lettlands Bildungswesens 204 203 parties. German of fraction the community, national German the of assembly the by elected were minority German the of case the in colleagues his but state, a was person This Education. of Minister the to next consultant a as worked Germans. and Poles Russians, White Germans and Baltic two had ‘government’ the time that at law, autonomy the for support required the ensure to order in Latvia in situation instable the utilized successfully minority German the 8 on adopted ( Autonomy School on Law The education. of minister the to next consultant a as Council National the to invited was Riga of pastor Vockrod state. founded newly German a of necessity the of aware were Latvians the that claimed also He Vockrodt. by emphasized was language” different a in taught “being a their Empire, Russian the aspirations in Latvians the to Next Latvia. in Autonomy School on Law the published possible a prevent takeover.communist to Germans the mainly minorities, of support and stability political the but victors,” “noble as behave to society th goals, radical have not did who minorities, the of percentage Entstehungs “Zur Wachtsmut, Wolfgang Alenius, “The birth of Cultural autonomy in autonomyin ofCultural birth “The Alenius, Ibid. 220. Ibid. Schulautonom “Die deutsche Vockrodt, 293. undVerweigerung,” Loyalität “Zwischen Garleff, aig tl feh eois about memories fresh still Having The national educational governments were established in 1920 by Jews, Russians, Jews, by 1920 in established were governments educational national The

in 1930 also summed up which up summed also 1930 in

th one Jewish member. Jewish one

December 203

Nation und Staat und Nation

1919 by the National Council. National the by 1919

t proved his words by the fact that Karl Keller the German the Keller Karl that fact the by words his proved t 205 ie in Lettland,” 219. Lettland,” inie

206 , December 1931, December154. 1931, , Estonia,” und Entwicklungsgeschichte der Verwaltung des deutschen deutschen des Verwaltung der Entwicklungsgeschichte und bility to understand the German resistance against against resistance German the understand to bility

vr euainl oenet a a ed who head a had government educational Every circumstances played a role in the codification of codification the in role a played circumstances

h dcso, ec Vcrd i hs article his in Vockrodt Percy decision, the cugst dr idretn Lettlands Minderheiten der Schulgesetz

447. y 50

u the put

- Latvian cultural cooperation in the the in cooperation cultural Latvian 204

an emphasis main

According to Michael Garleff, Michael to According e “maturity” of the Estonian the of “maturity” e 207

o atnm o the of autonomy for h rlvne f the of relevance The

n h ne for need the on ppointed by the the by ppointed was ) CEU eTD Collection 211 http://www.ikgn.de/cms/index.php/downloads/viewcategory/33 (1933 Lettland Staat 210 222.) 209 208 Latvia the relevant responsiveness mostof filled thanks theloyal to of be could Autonomy on Law of lack the and issues schooling in shortfalls administrative a denied private waythatthestate Germans.” Baltic everythi realize the “to was latter the activityof of field The German National Community. Parents, of Association the as such culture, German the cultivate to aims the like law, public the of subjects be to supposed which institutions the of instead Latvia In framework. state approvedcultural council. national of situation the handle to way only the was basis it But autonomy. the as Schiemann, by promoted issues, cultural and political of separation of principle complete the with contradiction sharp in “almost is It Germans. the the for autonomy guaranteed bodies educational and cultural 1928) in Community national German to name its changed 1923 in (founded languageaccredited collegewasLatvian by the degermanization. from population the prevent to order in settlements peasant in and towns small in established were schools new Latvia operated schools German 45 when 1919/20 year school to compared that was years 10 the of balance The teachers. the about regulations” exam and curriculums the types school the preserve “could Germans the that was autonomy

Vockrodt, “Die deutsche Schulautonomie in Lettland,” in Schulautonomie “Die deutsche Vockrodt, Vockrodt, “Die deutsche Schulautonomie in Lettland,” 222. Lettland,” in Schulautonomie “Die deutsche Vockrodt, Inesis Vockrodt used the word the used Vockrodt

Schiemann and others found ways and means how to survive in the quasi nation state tosurvive ways meansintheSchiemann quasi found andhow others the parties, political the between Cooperation Feldmanis, the German Cultural Council in Estonia, private organizations were founded with founded were organizations private Estonia, in Council Cultural German the -

“Die Deutschbalten: Ihre Einstellung zum Nationalsozialismus und ihr Verhältnis zum Verhältnis ihr und Nationalsozialismus zum Einstellung Ihre “DieDeutschbalten: 1939)” Special edition of edition Special 1939)” Entgermanisierung

209 Nordost 208

in the original, (“Die deutsche Schulautonomie in Lettland,” in Schulautonomie deutsche (“Die original, the in

lo h Hre Hcshl the Hochschule Herder the Also - Also the self government had the right to decide to right the had government self the Also wide in 1928/ in wide - archiv 2 (1996): 365. (1996): 2 archiv Ministry ofEducationin1927. Ministry

51 220. 211

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- band Zentrale 29 there were altogether 110. The The 110. altogether were there 29 -

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CEU eTD Collection 214 1928 213 212 political awarene the heightening on bent was Schiemann […] culture and politics of separation a of idea simplistic the encourage to wishing from “far praxis; and rhetoric Schiemann’s chief theinflue of editor also and parliament the in fraction German the of head the Zentrale, the of leader German this of construction unav was affairs community the in parties the of involvement the representation parliamentary effective the For politics. party for space more was there minorities of proportion higher the of because Estonia, in living Germans active taxpayersdoctors, the Riga, were teachers in most and pastors. income. the on depending 3% Zentrale The taxation. in participation the considering pressure” “moral a under members its put to seeking was community German the that article his in out points Boettcher A. Dr. 1926. the so fundraising,systemof time Two activities. mentioned knocked volunteers above the of costs the cover to enough community make to people of sacrifices. willingness the to as well as bodies organizational German private

Hiden, Hiden, 222. Lettland,” in Schulautonomie “Die deutsche Vockrodt, Dr. A. Boettcher,“Die freiwillige Selbstbesteuerung der Deutschen Lettlands,” Lettlands,” Deutschen der Selbstbesteuerung freiwillige Boettcher,“Die A. Dr. , 545 The parliamentary work was more essential f essential more was work parliamentary The f the regulation legal incomplete the to Due ss ofhiscommunity.” -

Defender of Minorities of Defender 547. evolved a scale for taxation ra taxation for scale a evolved 212

a alwd y h sae uhrte. h mon The authorities. state the by allowed was

ntial German language daily. As Hiden points out the controversy between the Hiden out points As ntial Germanlanguage daily.

on the doors to ask for donations. There were many problems with this with problems many were There donations. for ask to doors the on

, 98. , - Zentrale

at contribution Balt 214 213

In 1927 8800 people paid taxes out of 12 of out taxes paid people 8800 1927 In oidable. Schiemann was the central figure of the entire the of figure central the was Schiemann oidable. decided to shift to shift decidedto tes. The monthly contribution ranged from 0.5% to 0.5% from ranged contribution monthly The tes. (Deutsch 52

or the Latvian Germans than for those for than Germans Latvian the or nriig ciiy f h German the of activity undraising

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000 employed 000 a er 400 year a s . He was the the was He .

April ,

- not in - CEU eTD Collection 217 216 215 the unite to was task his will majority’s “ the as Schiemann called injustice that minority, the down vote actually position.” constitutional its benefit, this misuse order. constitutional the of element democracy Baltic of nature rightLatvian wing politicians. Germans were were they provide parties. and Germans the against a less the Latvia of case the in interestingly was other, o however, Fircks, von Baron through four were 3.2.2

Schiemann, “Volksgemeinschaft und Staatsgemeinschaft,” 41. Staatsgemeinschaft,” und “Volksgemeinschaft Schiemann, Minder und “Staatsvolk Schiemann, Deutschbalten,” die und Parteien “Die lettischen Vockrodt, Vockrodt provided republic Latvian the of period parliamentary the During o Shean n as ohr emn oiiin the politicians German other also and Schiemann For

so unique among those states where German minority groups live groups minority German where states those among unique so

acceptable for the ri the for acceptable The presence symbolicallevel on ofthe state d ut ofthem Vockrodt claimed that the reason of that was that of reason the that claimed Vockrodt

a ofculturalorien politics wer “

strongly bounded to the to bounded strongly preven lcin fr the for elections e rather unstable in this period altogether eighteen altogether period this in unstable rather e , ”

which causes the crisis of democracy. of crisis the causes which ted Latvians of falling into the Slavdom the into falling of Latvians ted fifteen werefifteen s

“the factual majority causes that the national majority has an idea about idea an has majority national the that causes majority factual “the

a political analysis, a political

Germans in one platform and never allow a division in that small that in division a allow never and platform one in Germans ght wing Latvian parties. Vockrodt emphasized Vockrodt parties. Latvian wing ght

h ms cavns attd were attitude chauvinist most the 216 was to accept the principle of p of principle the accept to was Saeima

215

al Schiemann Paul t s tru is It upported by theGermanupported F heit,”2882

tation to the west, thewest, tation to Heimat Heimat ad emn wr rpeetd n vr parliament every in represented were Germans and ,

cimn camd ht t fes h opruiy to opportunity the offers it that claimed Schiemann ta i raiy n h primn te aoiy can majority the parliament the in reality in that e

in which he explained why the situation in Latvia in situation why explained the he in which (homeland). All of these pillars were pillars these of All (homeland). dverse the righ the dverse 53 n ohr politicians. other and

Nation und Staat und Nation

217 coming from the fact that Germans that fact the from coming articulated

action. As leader of the German fraction German the of leader As ” was highly appreciated by the by appreciated highly was ” t wing middle class parties had parties class middle wing t roportionality ,

biggest issue considering the the considering issue biggest b

e oig rm h lf wing left the from coming

tween 1922 and 1931 there 1931 and 1922 tween g

overnments followed each followed overnments , May 1930, May551 , 1930, bürgerlich d. He suggested He d.

h governments The

as a fundamental fundamental a as that the that odg o the of bondage

mind - 552.

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CEU eTD Collection 222 221 statu 220 the compensation for 219 right have they 218 that court the by said was it When forums, several on themselves activate to began revolution. th in participated who land received those line first the in that relevance symbolical Latvia of life social the in functions community. German constitutional understandingLatvians. ofthe the flag, on certainaspects. in itself manifestedstate Latvianall state inhabitantsofthemin and notonly of theinterests ofSchiemann’saconsensus a of proofthewide figure,manwho of defended refused supportunsatisfactory. this he todothat felt because deputies 52 maximum 51 only of support the gain to managed by once asked politics.” represented hitherto fraction German the of fundamental the Th expense. else’s someone at damaged be not should nationality single a of interests the so collectivity, the of interests the are interests state the view of point constitutional other all question. betweennational the to connected questions are those because majority cultural and minorities national in only exist could interest of clash a that stated He group.

Schiemann, “Staatsvo Schiemann, Ibid. 294. Ibid. 295. Ibid. 292. “DieDeutschbalten,” Dribins, Ibid. the

former Even t h fgt gis te gain a bcm a ainl su o th of issue national a became law agrarian the against fight The

crimson iuto te tt itrs sol b cniee a frt lc: fo the “from place: first at considered be should interest state the situation 222

hough the constitution rejectsconstitution hough the fe te dpain f h arra lw te omr emn landowners German former the laws agrarian the of adaptation the After Landeswehr the state president, state the - white lk und Minder undlk

Due to this legislation they lost their rootedness to the soil, also soil, the to rootedness their lost they legislation this to Due

- c rimson

soldiers

heit,”2883

Gustavs Zemgals to form a government, but government, a form to Zemgals Gustavs a is yblcl enn wih ifr fo the from differs which meaning symbolical its had . . 221 This case demonstrated case This

For the Latvians this law was ‘revenge’ and it had it and ‘revenge’ was law this Latvians the For

The biggest scandaloccur biggest The

the nation state idea nation state the

hy ind eiin fr compensation. for petitions signed they orities. 220

that the that

Dribins step as evaluatesthis ,

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a CEU eTD Collection December 1929, 177. 1929, December 225 224 1929, 223 government. Latvian provisionally time that argued who Vockrodt, to accord decide to whether ethnic Latvian the legislation also is past the of version official one have to origin problems the highlights withdrew thegovernment. their from minister parties German The eyes. his in betrayed was coexistence betrayed, felt Germandom The class. middle the of parties wing left three and six, the of out deputies Russian four Communists, Democrats, Social by parliament the in inc population. Latvian the of seditions for space more give and strengthen will practice this thought minorities The assigned. be should referendum a the parliamenthav i laws Latvian the to According the that redistribution of thelands former of exclusion the about initiative people’s a started Landeswehr

Percy Percy Percy ident there was no need for the referendum because the people’s initiative was supported was initiative people’s the because referendum the for need no was there ident Percy .

683 n h ohr ad e ditd ht h top o Landeswehr of troops the that admitted he hand other the On hs c o te xlso of exclusion the of act This on standpoint Schiemann’s to Referring Vockrodt, “Das Recht auf Naturalisation,” aufNaturalisation,” Recht “Das Vockrodt,

- okot “wi ofit u de adeizehe e Deutschbalten der Landbesitzrechte die um Konflikte “Zwei Vockrodt, the soldiers of the the of soldiers the Vockrodt, “Die deutsche Fraktion aus der Regierungskoalition ausgetreten” ausgetreten” Regierungskoalition der aus Fraktion deutsche “Die Vockrodt, nttto o p of institution 687.

fighters in the Riga cemetery was blown up, the Latvian War Association Association War Latvian the up, blown was cemetery Riga the in fighters

e to e

discuss and decide about the issue. I issue. about the anddecide discuss ol’ iiitv i te el ‘nightmare’ real the is initiative eople’s

. 223 Landeswehr

- ating from the different interpretations of the past. The right The past. the of interpretations different the from ating omnt cery lie ter nation their claimed clearly community f more than one tenth of the people eligible to vote sign it sign vote to eligible people the of tenth one than more f 225

supported the Latvian state or were against it is hard hard is it against were Latvianor state the supported h qeto i cmlctd eas drn the during because complicated is question The Landeswehr Nation und Staat und Nation

the Latvian state as such did not exist by that bythat exist not did such as Latvianstate the

proportionality in the last section, I suggest suggest I section, last the in proportionality 55 a privilege of a nation state, and with this this with and state, nation a of privilege a

odes rm h ln distribution land the from soldiers , 224

immediately September 1927, 42 September1927, f the f the

In the case of the of case the In Landeswehr Saeima

of a minority politician. politician. minority a of , ”

left the coalition and coalition the left

- rejects the initiative, rejects the

ain n Staat und Nation tt. h question The state. ogt gis the against fought

odes rm the from soldiers - 43. 43. ain n Staat und Nation

Landeswehr the basis of basis the , July July , , ,

CEU eTD Collection 229 228 227 226 emphasize to tried Schiemann other. the from claims chauvinist German the in 3.2.3 handles their minoritiesfairly. on Law the example for although Countries, European Eastern other in than better much still is Latvia in situation the in published reports affairs of state The targets strata lower the attacks it that argued He Vockrodt. states intolerance, of sing such with act legal no was there laws Agrarian reaction. and nobles German the of emergence the prevent to was Democrats Latvian the in point turning a means which citizens. German the of rights equal the affects legislation new this that parliament the in speech his in argued Schiemann war. of medal that Vockrodt argued reason without not happened it if state own their for Latvians of aspiration change Bermondt

Vockrodt, “ Vockrodt, Lettland” in Volksbegehren “Das deutschfeindliche Vockrodt, 177. Ibid. Vockrodt,

the whole German minoritythe whole German Latvia. inside Latvia was treated as a standout student among the new states in Eastern Europe. Europe. Eastern in states new the among student standout a as treated was Latvia T ofarithmProblems a te eut f ics ad cimn’ ifune h dec who influence Schiemann’s and Fircks’ of result the was he prestige fights actually poisoned inter poisonedactually fights prestigehe Lāčplēsis -

von der Goltz affair Goltz der von “Die deutsche Fraktion aus der Regierun der aus Fraktion “Die deutsche

Die deutsche Fraktion deutsche Die - Latvian dimension. Chauvinist claims from the one side were answered with answered were side one the from claims Chauvinist dimension. Latvian

assigned. They were treated as the Latvia the as treated were They assigned. Landeswehr

etical nature

229

aus der Regierungskoalition ausgetreten Regierungskoalition der aus they fought against the against fought they

227 l of the German the of eft a stigma on the reputation of Latvia as a state who state a as Latvia of reputation the on stigma a eft

okot lo vlae ti lw s anti as law this evaluates also Vockrodt - Germa gskoalition ausgetreten” 178. ausgetreten” gskoalition ain n Staat und Nation 56 ol guarantee would -

ethnic relations in interwar Latvia, mainlyLatvia, interwar in relations ethnic n cooperation. The intention of the Socialthe of intention The cooperation. n

s and not the nobility, so this legislation this so nobility, the not and s

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, ” 181. ” n w end

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October October Landeswehr

t prss ht the that phrases ith dd o upr the support to ided

in Latgale. in 1929, 41. 1929, 228

- Since the Since were the the were German,

226 This It CEU eTD Collection 233 1999),232. Society, Literature Finnish (Helsinki: Branch, Michael by edited identity and history National in centuries,” twentieth 232 231 1987. Aufsätze und Reden Leitartikel, 230 followingIreflect trends onsome thedemographic in chang self education the for counted also were groups minoritythe but Latviansonly not Vockrod it. in role significant a demographyplayed and positions its strengthen wereeagerlythe roots lookingandthe early achievementsLatvians. for ofthe nations. other to compared peculiar them made which culture the invent to had they tools building sta demographic their of advantage. limits the of aware were Latvians the whereas power, economic sma numerically were and role leading their lost Germans The ‘complexes.’ own their had groups ethnic two others.’ the barrelwith same the in tossed self educational the of head the Keller, Karl project, the into Jews and Russians of inclusion the of ‘odium’ the about spoke Germans. for only autonomy on law a for vote to able be ex of sense the by characterized was minorities other cultural for arguments German The it. overcome to time is it and elite,” social the be to themselves felt instinctually “always Aija Smith Vockrodt, “Das nati Vockrodt, te not only on the international, but on the domestic level also. Through nation and state state and nation Through also. level domestic the on but international, the on only not te Paul Paul

Priedīte, “National identity and cultural identity:the history of ideas in Latvia in the nineteenth and and nineteenth the in Latvia in ideas of history identity:the cultural and identity “National Priedīte, For the Latvian elite the permanent task was to justify the existence of the Latvian the of existence the justify to was task permanent the elite Latvian the For n hs prle poess vr gop atd t es t peet r oevr to moreover or prevent to least at wanted group every processes parallel these In

cimn “Baltische Schiemann 232 & Hiden

tl i te alaetr pro Ltin tnlgss n as an also and ethnologists Latvian period parliamentary the in Still , Ethnic

ll compared to the Latvians. So they emphasized their cultural roles and and roles cultural their emphasized they So Latvians. the to compared ll onale Ergebnis der Volkszählung,” 45. Volkszählung,” der Ergebnis onale

Diversity and the Nation Nation State the and Diversity

, edited by Hans Donath, without page number. Frankfurt am Main: H. Donath, H. Main: am Frankfurt number. page without Donath, Hans by edited , Demokratie”

- administration and also for also and administration - ad ministration objected to the idea that Germans ‘could be ‘could Germans that idea the to objected ministration - autonomy show, that Germans’ attitude towards the the towards attitude Germans’ that show, autonomy

In 231 iace Rundschau Rigasche

The situation was sharpened by the fact that thefactthat the sharpenedwasby situation The

44. 57

„fighting for numbers.” for„fighting clusivity. The leading politician would politician leading The clusivity.

the municipality elections. elections. municipality the

es. uy 1 11, o. , oke 1 in 1, booklet 2, vol. 1919, 21, July Fircks, the conservative leader leader conservative the Fircks,

233

The numbersThe thropologists t argued that argued t In the the In 230

CEU eTD Collection 235 234 live people w denationalization their therefore con national Lat of province the in mainly settlements confession Germa of number the 1930 and 1925 between tendencies these Despite Laws. Agrarian the of ratification the after or state the after country the left thousands of tens Bolsheviks, the by killed were 120 changed Russians 6000 altogether 1930 politicians. belongings. result changes the role, a play not did factors these 1930 and 1925 Between Russia. from arrived who emigrants the and Germany and Russia from refugees war of return the by explained 2 Table

Ibid. V der Ergebnis “Das nationale Vockrodt, ,0 d rm its n dah ad lo rm h fc ta pol cagd hi national their changed people that fact the from also and deaths and births from ed 00 Germans on the territory of Latvia before the war, and thousands died in the war, the in died thousands and war, the before Latvia of territory the on Germans 00 .

Population of Latvia according to national belonging (census records) (census belonging national to according ofLatvia Population h datc hne i nmes ewe 12 ad 1935 and 1920 between numbers in changes drastic The Regarding the Great and White Russians White and Great the Regarding s d 235 ” of Germandom.” of According to the report of the State Statistical Government Statistical State the of report the to According

coses f hs gop was groups these of sciousness in Latgalian province who spoke who province Latgalian in

h ted i cagn ntoa blnig ee f pca itrs for interest special of were belonging national changing in trends The Total population Total White Russians White Great Russians Great Lithuanians Unknown Estonians Germans Latvians Others Poles Jews

s nrae a a consequence a as increased ns s quite as olkszählung,” 1 1 124 700 124

25 600 25 600 54 79 600 75 100 58 596 100 596 400 161 3 800 3 800 3 800 8 1920 hi ntoa blnig o Latvian to belonging national their 600 ae n ter etlt rt was rate fertility their and gale

a mixture of Polish, Latvian and Russian and Russian and Latvian Polish, of mixture a h ls dvlpd mn te nationalities, the among developed less the

omn hnmnn Aot e thousand ten About phenomenon. common

58 46.

the report notes that they live they that notes report the

1 1

193 600 193

23 200 23 100 51 700 95 000 38 000 71 844 800 844 100 354 2 500 2 600 7 900 7 1925

1 1 201 800 201

25 900 25 400 59 400 94 000 36 900 69 900 000 900 000 395 234 1 500 1 600 8 700 7 1930

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between 1925 a 1925 between foundation of the of foundation

high, also the the also high, . There lived lived There . d

in closed in c an

nd be be CEU eTD Collection Review of Ethnopolitics. of Review 238 237 236 Latvians were Latgale was in Russian he White or Polish but speak who blood, people those that of convinced matter a is belonging national that argued former The Latvians. of different sense had the about who opinions interior the of minister deputy the Velkme, and department, school schoolchildren. create and to children schools attracting of Latvian policy approved state the about article an published historian Latvian a Purs, Aldis identity. national its about conscious not were influences national bec earlier, out pointed I as population, the and zero almost Germans of number the smallest, the was Latvians the of percentage the where province the in Latgale, in was action for scope biggest The seriously. Latvians or help their ‘activate’ themGerman to identity. them, of degermanization preventthe to but convertpeople, to not was Germans the for task L through possible was position demographic their of strengthening the that and stable was line fault national the 4000 people. sm was community Jewish the births of number great the despite 1925 after Russia, from immigration their of because mainly increased Jews of number The clergy. the by supported and energetic very was people” indifferent catholic. answer they nationality their of question the to

Ibid. 48. 48. Ibid. 47. Volkszählung,” der Ergebnis “Das nationale Vockrodt, Aldis Purs, Purs, Aldis However, the Latvian politicians considered the considered politicians Latvian the However, side German and Latvian the on both that clear became it report Vockrodt the From 236

It is worth is It “ 237 The Price of Free Lunches: Making the Frontier Latvian in the I the in Latvian Frontier the Making Lunches: Free of Price The 238

w mi fgrs f hs rjc wr Zlt, h vice the Zalīts, were project this of figures main Two

1, 4 (2002), 60 (2002), 1, 4

mention atvianization or Germanization of other minority groups. The main The groups. minority other of Germanization or atvianization

ainl eogn, u te are o te ol n making in tool the on agreed they but belonging, national Latvians from them through offering free lunches for for lunches free offering through them from Latvians i ng - 73.

also that in Latgale in that also

ause of its diverse nature and constantly changing constantly and nature diverse its of ause aller due to the emigration of approximately of emigration the to due aller

ht hy consider they that ,

opportunity of converting people to people converting of opportunity the Polonization of the “nationally the of Polonization the nterwar Years, nterwar ed - rsdn o the of president

hmevs as themselves ”

The Global Global The CEU eTD Collection 244 243 242 241 240 239 which to according norms, international the to referred democrat social a Also segregation. of sign a as practice this interpreted also he Latvians the from pupils German of generation auto school of sense the that stated deputy, democrat social anotherDehken, time. bythat governments the led who nationalists Latvian of circles the from but such, as state the from not originated conflicts these that emphasizes Dribins stat homogenous nationally a only that stated he term second his during later years four 1928 nation, one like feel Latvians and the Germans Baltic with that 1927 1926 in claimed between firstly minister prime was who democrat social a its Skujenieks, of because revised be to has politics deba 3.3 undermined butclosed regime. bythe new the of part official 27 in Latgale. in resulted Latvians and years fifteen took lunches free of program cases most in were which considered be can they purposes” “practical Latvians. for Latvian use to began people if that their because originally,

Ibid. 66. Ibid. Purs, Ibid. 297. “DieDeutschbalten,” Dribins, 69. Ibid. 71. Ibid.

tes strengthened in Latvia. The Latvian parliamentary parties claimed that the state state the that claimed parties parliamentary Latvian The Latvia. in strengthened tes The “possibility” of a Latvian nation state nation Latvian ofa The “possibility”

“ er bfr te op msl a a ecin o h fnnil rss h nationalist the crisis financial the to reaction a as mostly coup, the before Years The Price of Free Lunches ofFree Price The 240

The intention behind this measurement was to undermine the minority schools minority the undermine to was measurement this behind intention The 241

governmental program and the minority schools were not only only not were schools minority the and program governmental

After the coup d’état of Kārlis Ulmanis, Latvianization became an became Latvianization Ulmanis, Kārlis of d’état coup the After

surnames sounded Latvian. sounded surnames better equipped and of higher quality than the Latvian ones. The The ones. Latvian the than quality higher of and equipped better

,” 65

- 66.

242

anational 60

239

the Ulmanis regime the Ulmanis Velkme on the other hand thought hand other the on Velkme n tatru nature. traitorous and oy a t aint te young the alienate to was nomy

0 nw “mechanical” new 000 e can be strong. be can e

243

Marģers 244

CEU eTD Collection 250 249 248 garden, 247 218. 2001) Schöningh, Ostmittel in Regime Autoritäre 246 245 w they way; democratic and peaceful a in power the was them of important most t a as fascism these ideologies notonly were Baltic popular among the Germans. Anti and Socialist National of spread the groups, other of attempts all reject Feldmanis as nature group. preventive that of intentions the of aware was Ulmanis Obviously als Legion, the called officers, former the Guard, National the of support the had state the of minister prime wereamong public demand. the categories. right radical and authoritarian in thinking were politicians the why reason the was culture re the was circles extreme political different of activity emerging the that argues Feldmanis Inesis total population. min the utilize should groups those only

Vockrodt, “Das deutschfeindliche Volksbegehren in Lettland,” in Volksbegehren “Das deutschfeindliche Vockrodt, Roger Griffin, Griffin, Roger 221. Ibid. “Umgestaltungsprozesse Feldmanis, Deák István, “How to construct a productive, disciplined, monoethnic society” In In society” monoethnic disciplined, productive, a construct to “How István, Deák nss edai, Ugsatnsrzse m amn e Ulmanis des Rahmen im “Umgestaltungsprozesse Feldmanis, Inesis sult of the growing economic instability. He also points out that the lack of political of lack the that out points also He instability. economic growing the of sult

edited by AmirbyWeiner edited More groups aspired to seize power with undemocratic tools, but only Ulmanis, the Ulmanis, only but tools, undemocratic with power seize to aspired groups More reasons the About oe Gifn lis ht h atoiain regim authoritarian the that claims Griffin Roger

246

h “Extensive state machinery” and a strong leader with “overwhelm with leader strong a and machinery” state “Extensive reat. Under genuine fascism he means groups with ultra with groups means he fascism genuine Under reat. The Nature of F of Nature The 245

a possible explanation of Ulmanis’ coup Ulmanis’ of explanation possible

, (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003) 205 2003) Press, University Stanford (Stanford: , o Ulmanis’ for -

ascism 249 n Sdserp 1919 Südosteuropa und

although 247 Pērkonkrusts im Rahmen Rahmen im , (London: Pinter Publishers, 1991), 122. 1991), Publishers, Pinter (London: ,

ority rights who represent at least 20% of the states the of 20% least at represent who rights ority - he admits that Ulmanis that admits he ezr o pwr hr ae eea interpretations. several are there power of seizure Semitic ideas among the Baltic Germans. Actually Actually Germans. Baltic the among ideas Semitic pand cu acrig o Feldmanis. to according coup a planned o des Ulmanis des

movement. 61 ere preparing intensively for the 5 the for intensively preparing ere - 1944, 1944,

- Regimes,” 218 Regimes,”

Nation und Staat und Nation dtd y ri Oelne, (Paderborn: Oberländer, Erwin by edited 250 o Umns ece t genuine to reacted Ulmanis of e

This movement wanted to seize to wanted movement This - eie i Ltln 1934 Lettland in Regimes ,

arguing that he could defeat could he that arguing was

- - 219. 206.

, October October , 1929 actually worried about worried actually -

Aizsargi nationalist goals, the goals, nationalist Landscaping the human the Landscaping . A group of group A . ing power” ing , 42. th -

90 in 1940” Saeima

the 248

CEU eTD Collection 256 Memoria 255 254 253 252 251 mass of insteadinternally individual the transform to aimed which nationalism authoritarian were by minorities. opposed newsp of proclamation the and censorship, of introduction the leaders, their of arrest minorities. Eze nationalities the oppress to want not did he process strengthening this In society. the in Latvians of position strengthened the Latvianness, strengthened a Latvia should society” Latvia’s in nationalities of role position, hierarchical unquestionable the state the of case the in harmony under ideology, and power territory, of harmony and “order the requires of principle the on focused 3.3.1 a trendan expectationcontemporary butmore in Europe. Constitution. the explanation of reform the finish to order in months six for war of state the announced just he coup; real a not was Ulmanis of act the that argue They seats ofthe out 100inthe 20 to 15 get to supposed were they that Considering occurred. coup the when elections,

Hanovs &Tēraudkalns Hanovs Ibid. 25. Ibid. “Umgestaltungsprozesse Feldmanis, Feldmanis, “Umgestaltungsprozesse des Ulmanis des “Umgestaltungsprozesse Feldmanis, AndrewEzergailis, 86. Ibid. rgailis

Hanovs and Tēraudkalns argue that “instead of parliamentary democracy Ulmanis Ulmanis democracy parliamentary of “instead that argue Tēraudkalns and Hanovs ofa LatvianThe Latvia program Valdis and Hanovs Deniss Ieva l Museum, 1996) l Museum,

a Aeia Ltin historian Latvian American an , 255 ,

they claim that intr that claim they

Zaķe Among the measures of Ulmanis the proclamation of political parties and the and parties political of proclamation the Ulmanis of measures the Among

be understood. be a aain ava sociologist Latvian Canadian a , The Holocaust in Latvia, 1941 Latvia, in Holocaust The ,

68. Ultimate Freedom Ultimate

Saeima

256 ainl unity.” national

254

oducing an authoritarian type political system was not only not was system political type authoritarian an oducing im Rahmen Rahmen im , the operation of thisgroup, theoperationa of was real threat.

Feldmanis claims that Ulmanis understood under Latvian under understood Ulmanis that claims Feldmanis Tēraudkalns ,

26.

des Ulmanis des - Regimes,” 237. Regimes,” - 1944: the missing center the missing 1944: 253 interprets the era as hostile towards any any towards hostile as era the interprets

62 h sae ut ie “opee organism” “complete a like just state The interpret

- Regimes,” 219. Regimes,”

ed nepes h peoeo as phenomenon the interprets

h cu déa a a salvation. a as d’état coup the . (Riga: United States Holocaust StatesHolocaust United (Riga:

252

. H . n otat o this to contrast In owever, 251

Andrew apers apers CEU eTD Collection Lebenskräfte des Volkes” Volkes” des Lebenskräfte 262 1946 261 260 259 258 Studies the 257 of leader the as people inferior of number the reduce to namely state, the of aims abo and sterilization about decide to Investigation for “Institution the the that thinking inracialcategories was not admits Felder Latvians. born were who Latvians as considered were those that East of states Feld “Latvianness.” the of content modifying the of become “super of transformation the with along changed “Latvianness” of content the Secondly system. democratic liberal the characterized think to was system people. imperfect for leadership perfect the as treated was era Ulmanis the nation, Latvian the of community authentic perfectly the for imperfect as evaluated was criticizers its by period parliamentary the while namely, clear, transformation.” revolutionary a of “impression the give history the in Firstly system. education the of reform fundamental the was Latvians of type new the mobilization.

Ibid. 305. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Felder translated the name of this institution from Latvian, he refers to to refers he Latvian, from institution this of name the translated Felder Björn M. Felder, Felder, M. Björn Ieva

(Padernborn: Ferdinand Schöningh, 2009) Schöningh, Ferdinand (Padernborn:

38:3 (2007): 305 (2007): 38:3 307. The biological definition of the nation and the ranking system of races were also part part also were racesof system ranking the and nation the of definition biologicalThe p to was regime the of strategyThe Also during the dictatorship of Ulmanis a Eugenic Commission was erected next to next erected was Commission Eugenic a Ulmanis of dictatorship the during Also Zaķ of Latvians, for thenational basis centralizedstate waspower. identity the

“Authoritarianism and political ideas of Latvian Nationalist intellectuals” intellectuals” Nationalist Latvian of ideas political and “Authoritarianism 257 - Central Europe in Latvia the nation was also defined biologically. This means means This biologically. defined also was nation the Latvia in Europe Central - humans, enlightened,and voluntary.”humans, brave, loyal

His tool to achieve the internal transfor internal the achieve to tool His etad m wie Wlkig Zice sweice ud etce Bsten 1940 Besatzern deutschen und sowjetischen Zwischen Weltkrieg. zweiten im Lettland , accessed October 31, 2013, doi: 1 2013, 31, ,accessed October ( s a as Felder, Felder,

community instead of following the individual interest, which which interest, individual the following of instead community Lettland im zweiten Weltkriegzweiten im Lettland

the Vital Force of the Folk.” the of Force Vital the h pltcl ytm te e Ltin epe should people Latvian new the system; political the imported first byimported first socialists. thenational rtions in individual cases, the latter served one of the of one served latter the cases, individual in rtions ,

279. retend the intention to preserve the status quo and quo preservestatus the to intention retendthe

h pie isrcin f i authoritarian his of instruction primer The 63 0.1080/01629770701526722

er argues that just like in other young other in like just that argues er , 284. , mation of the individuals and finally and individuals the of mation 259 )

n fnaetl hne was change fundamental One it as „Institut zur Erforschung des des Erforschung zur „Institut as it 262 260

The former had the task the had former The

261 ora o Baltic of Journal

258

- CEU eTD Collection 267 266 265 264 263 Brotherhood Latvia. against agitation with werelinked agitationrenewal national the and Nazi rhetoricthe Intheir onwards. 1931 from not the fault ofhisideology. assertivity supporters less and less had right.Schiemann is he propagated, Schiemannwhich national aggressive and sense national deep between difference the the ideas, of nationalist conviction of opposition permanent the considers Nazi a was himself who Hehn, If successful.” not was trust and reconciliation of triumph the at aimed which a Germans Hehn nationalism. Latvian emerging the of result 3.3.2 or Polonized Germanized, were they Russified. years recent in although Latvian, biologically Latgale. non of “assimilation” by solved was Latvians of proportion decreasing the and Russians ethnic of number increasing was Force Vital for it. phrased Prīmanis Jēkabs institute,

Felder, Felder, Ibid. 368. Ibid. Felder, diversity, “Ethnic Németh, Feldmanis, “Die Deutschbalten: Ihre Einstellung zum Nationalsozialismus,” 367 Nationalsozialismus,” zum Einstellung Ihre “DieDeutschbalten: Feldmanis,

who as a witness of the era suggested that it was the politics of Schiemann which the which Schiemann of politics the was it that suggested era the of witness a as who Feldmanis admi Feldmanis Germans Baltic among Socialism National of widespread The codn t acia information archival to According Volksgemeinschaft 264 Lettland im zweiten Weltkrieg, zweiten im Lettland Lettland im zweiten Weltkriegzweiten im Lettland 265

ccused for their situation. Germans were unsatisfied with his work. “His politics “His work. his with unsatisfied were Germans situation. their for ccused h res The

(Baltische Brüderschaft (Baltische aces f h Isiue rvd ht hs 50 these that proved Institute the of earchers

h mnplto o te ess aa n 95 Te rbe of problem The 1935. in data census the of manipulation the ts that the situation for Germans changed from the 30s onwards as onwards 30s the from changed Germans for situation the that ts “416.

avas oty rm h esen ein f h cuty in country, the of region eastern the from mostly Latvians

267

hr wr svrl te ognztos like organizations, other several were There 285. 284. 263 ), th ),

One of the most successful projects of the Institute the of projects successful most the of One e group of Treijs (Treijs’ Gruppe), and also a new new a also and Gruppe), (Treijs’ Treijs of group e ,

gop o group a 266

n h ohr ad e ees o ügn von Jürgen to refers he hand other the On 64

NDP okd leal i Latvia in illegally worked NSDAP f .

0 pol were people 000 - ,

the but it was it but “real a Baltic the a CEU eTD Collection 270 269 268 exist to cease not did schools minority the Although place. first mentioned was 1934 July 12 on system government self educational the of abolishment obviouslyMarxist; accused was beingbornas he Jewish well. of being of accused was He Germans. Latvian of circles the from him on attacks permanent and massive of result the as 1933 in already of abolition the and so of end out points Garleff as faction well.conservative As German was wing theof toattack editor the as also and Saeima the in faction German the of chair the as position his from released the of development healthy the guarantee to the Baltic Germandom. members. community the served organization the of structure entire The Association. ( Bewegung Germand the of irony The nature. subversive possible its of because authorities the by refused was party National the Socialists, Latvia. of inside life German Baltic the of renewal the at aimed confessed which Landespartei Baltische the party, etce Blugvri Lettlands) Bildungsverein Deutscher

Garleff, “Zwischen Loyalität und Verweigerung” 299. 299. undVerweigerung” Loyalität “Zwischen Garleff, 372 Ibid. Einste Ihre “DieDeutschbalten: Feldmanis, The Germans collected what they consider they what collected Germans The Bewegung - in The - m hc ws ul u i te 90. eas o te eeto a a at the party a as rejection the of Because 1920s. the in up built was which om - chie

called “Schiemann era” in the Latvian politics was not the coup d’état of d’état coup the not was politics Latvian the in era” “Schiemann called

i isl bhn te organization the behind itself hid Bewegung f of f

su i ta i uiie te raiainl nrsrcue f h Baltic the of infrastructure organizational the utilized it that is issue Rigasche Rundschau Rigasche

the

The m The t

269 urned right away against Paul Schiemann, Kroeger said that in order in that said Kroeger Schiemann, Paul against away right urned Bewegung

alaetr sse. cimn’ cnrbto i Lti ended Latvia in contribution Schiemann’s system. parliamentary

ain aim of the organization was to strengthen its influence its strengthen to was organization the of aim ain

was led by Erhard Kroeger.registeringErhard was for His ledby their claim . Feldmanis points out that the tactic of the of tacticthe that out points Feldmanis . llung zum Nationalsozialismus,” zum llung

and the Baltic German Wander and Sports Sports and Wander German Baltic the and a betrayer of the nation, the of betrayer ed of

65 Volksgemeinschaft

as anti as

emn utrl soito o Latvia of Association Cultural German a

National Socialist ideology. The latter latter The ideology. Socialist National - German measures of Ulmanis. The Ulmanis. of measures German 270 , 268

369. völkisch only those children could children those only

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c atholic separatist, atholic

education of the the of education Bewegung Ulmanis ,

the on in a

CEU eTD Collection 276 275 274 273 272 271 renounce should state Latvian the in stayed who Germans all that treaty this with expressed no was there on points that From State. Baltic the in minority German the of existence the to end an put officially which Reich Third the the “invasion the of agitation the 1938 After passed. already been had that for moment the but Conference, Münchner the after mainly reconciliation, 1 after regime Volksdeutsche which practice European common a of part German phenomenon. wide European the a of part was Ulmanis of through wishes little their of authorities. consideration the achieve to attempted complain permanent their by proved was Germans of disloyalty The wishes. little then loyalty first Germans, the to message properties. buyland to right the from excluded were Germansattorneys. named was language German. 6 them among presidency, his during schools p practice. in educational autonomy school the of end of the meant which centralized, administration The schools. Latvian attend to forced were intermarriages from Children school. minority a attended also parents whose them attend

Purs,“ Nationalsozialismus zum Einstellung Ihre “DieDeutschbalten: Feldmanis, Ibid. 377. Ibid. 380. Ibid. 384. Ibid. Nationalsozialismus zum Einstellung Ihre “DieDeutschbalten: Feldmanis, edai pit ot ht osdrn te anti the considering that out points Feldmanis Kroeger and his followers welcomed the treaty of resettlement between Latvia and Latvia between resettlement of treaty the welcomed followers his and Kroeger The Price of Free Lunches ofFree Price The

274

and rule of GermansLatvia.”and rule in of In the Latvian historiography it is a widespread interpretation that the regime the that interpretation widespread a is it historiography Latvian the In were guiltywerein many respects. 937 there was none of them, the Latvian politicians began to seek seek to began politicians Latvian the them, of none was there 937

(Latvian)

,” ,”

69. ltr n etitos ee nrdcd o no for introduced were restrictions on later ,

t s to Berlin about their situation their about Berlin to s 275 ,

276 according to Feldmanis to according

German minority group in Latvia. Germany Germany Latvia. in group minority German Bewegung Bewegung

T - he a he 272 emn esrs f h Ulmanis the of measures German was completed with the threat of threat the with completed was

n Jnay 95 h official the 1935 January 5 On nti - German measure German , , ” ”381

381.

, demonstrates , in Latvia and that they that and Latvia in

271 273

Ulmanis closed 71 closed Ulmanis

Ulmanis sent thesent Ulmanis s lc was olicy

n were -

Latvian that the that a lso CEU eTD Collection 279 278 277 the resettlementLatvia.’ Germans Baltic German ofmost in ‘no therewas left with that fact the by satisfied were Hitler and Ulmanis Both 1933. in Vienna to left hand amohad Schiemann noplace became Nazi ideas, influenced by the other the on community German The Ulmanis. of regime authoritarian the during finished was which program, nationalizing a began and state, nation Latvian as state the and between political issues ethno cultural of separation of principle Schiemannian the with contradiction in stood however polit and economic social, educational, of network own its out built community German the legislation early this on Based culture. own their cultivate to minorities all for opportunity the gave autonomy school The reality. a became the of coexistence fruitful the which in framework constitutional Latvianthe history state. ofthe losing of triumph German” themselves call longer no can leave to not decided who said: Kroeger stayed the for future no therewas Latvia in also and removed, were Poles where from territories the in exist not could they the Balticconsideredas the“death Germans.” measure sentence this of ‘exile his from Riga to back went communities. confessional their and schools, their rights, minority their

Smith 85. Ibid. “ Schiemann, The foundation of the Latvian state created a peculiar political milieu and a liberal liberal a and milieu political peculiar a created state Latvian the of foundation The From the end of 1920s the Latvian political parties forced t forced parties political Latvian the 1920s of end the From

Hiden Die Umsiedlung Die , Ethnic 35 ,

000 Germans due to repatriation to due Germans 000 Diversity and the Nation Nation State the and Diversity ”they were German neither by indication nor by blood” and “those “those and blood” by nor indication by neither German were ”they

m if their minority rights are not acknowledged. acknowledged. not are rights minority their if m

1939

,” 84. ,” - national and state communities. andstate national

i Ven js oe er eoe h resettlement the before year one just Vienna in ’

, 104. , 67

cl raiain, hs establishment, this organizations, ical , although it was a tragic moment in moment tragic a was it although , 279

ng them any more and he anyandmore he ng them

he acknowledgment of acknowledgment he

Ulmanis celebrated the celebrated Ulmanis different nationalities nationalities different 278 277 As Baltic Germans

About those who who those About Schiemann, who Schiemann, CEU eTD Collection (Köl (ed), Garleff Michael Bevölkerungspolitik“in 283 282 281 280 several in resulted which and 2007 and 2003 between realized they which Europe,” nationalism? “Ending project research represent prominent of potential Europe. interwar in politics” destructive minority and “productive were there that out points Hasselblatt Werner national for right fundamental Germans Baltic ‘disem the provide to attempt an as treated be can politicians states. several by supported battlefield” political “secondary a and claims, revisionist of platform a became Congress the Afterwards 1927. to 1925 from years, two for principle fundamental Nationalities European of Bamberger of perspe different from topic the approach and ambitions these of evaluation Baltic the on focusing works The sources. a is wellpolitics 4

Bamberger Jörg Hackmann, “Werner Hasselblatt: Von der estländischen Kulturautonomie zur nazionalsozialistischen nazionalsozialistischen zur Kulturautonomie estländischen der Von Hasselblatt: “Werner Hackmann, Jörg & Hiden, Smith Bamberger n: Böhlau, 2008), 71. 2008), n: Böhlau, in Europeanin dimensions and Schiemann Paul 281 h Cnrs o Erpa Ntoaiis n h faeok f inter of framework the in Nationalities European of Congress The

ihe Gref ugss ht h nat the that suggests Garleff Michael - - Stemmann, Stemmann, Stemmann - Ste

Ethnic Diversity and the Nation Nation State the and Diversity Ethnic - the role of being the ‘protagonist of national tolerance and counselor of the of counselor and tolerance national of ‘protagonist the being of role the researched topic with rich literature, and literature, and topic withrich researched m mann, the author of the most comprehensive study about the Congress Congress the about study comprehensive most the of author the mann, atives of Baltic Studies from the University of Glasgow named their their named Glasgow of University the from Studies Baltic of atives

, “ , Der Europäische Nationalitätenkongress, Europäische Der Staatsbürgerliche

280

- cul the Congress the s ht h sldrt betwee solidarity the that is tural self tural

283 Deutschbalten, Weimarer Republik und drittes Reich und Republik Weimarer Deutschbalten,

Loyalität,

It is also tell also is It –

- determination.’ h qet o clua atnm i inter in autonomy cultural for quest The

of European Nationalities European of

” , 76. ,

German initiatives initiatives German 221. 68 oa pltcl fot o Bli German Baltic of efforts political ional

ing that John Hiden and David and Hiden John that ing

an 282 enormous amount ofsecondary enormous

Jörg Hackmann Jörg te ainlte ws the was nationalities the n powered and functionless’ functionless’ and powered q uestion ctives. The thesis The ctives. s ,

a minority war

in relation to relation in – h positive the

thinking

Band II, II, Band

Smith, - war war CEU eTD Collection 288 Di Šimkuva, Helēna 287 Period the Interwar to Empire Habsburg 286 285 2012) Routledge, (New York: and 2008) Rodopi, (Amsterdam: 284 the which in organization an of foundation the was visions internationalfirst their Among organizations. of agenda the on autonomy cultural of question the placing for and issues Ammende Ewald and Hasselblatt 4.1 I chapter homelands. the against directed were which trends radical support to marginalization, for minorities the in practices legal actual the minorities, of watcher a as acted Nation of League the also and progressive and liberal characteristically Nation anationalism, in strictdeclarative sense. against gesture nationalist a as autonomy cultural of borders the expand to endeavor Party`s Schiema weapon. nationalism “Fighting visions. revisionist its served have should and government, Hungarian the by phrased Movement the of fundamentals the to contrast in were which Congress, the on demands and aspirations publications.

Börries Kuzmany,”A Laboratory of Nationality Policy: Policy: LaboratoryofNationality Kuzmany,”A Börries Ei thevolume edited they importantly Most Bamberger 1933 Veröffentlichungen Schiemann Paul in Nationalismus,” gegen “Nationalismus Schiemann, Paul

ler Feren ler The mission and the basic principles of the Congress the of principles basic the mission and The lte Mvmn. lhuh h fnaetl rnils f hs raiain were organization this of principles fundamental the Although Movement. alities hr i a osnu i te coasi aot h dutu jdmn o the of judgment doubtful the about scholarship the in consensus a is There h Bli Gra mnrt laes aog hm al cimn, Werner Schiemann, Paul them among leaders, minority German Baltic The 285

clarify

288 Börr - c: Stemmann 284 Kisebbségvédelem és revízió Kisebbségvédelem

This radicalization also in This radicalization

e Kzays prah lo is no hs trend. this into fits also approach Kuzmany’s ies Ferenc the Schiemannian standpoints on standpoints the Schiemannian etrich A. Loeber (ed) (Hamburg: Dietrich A. Loeber, A.Loeber, (Hamburg: Dietrich (ed) Loeber A. etrich n lo ae o hs conclusion this to came also nn , “ , Staatsbürgerliche ih ainls? rfr to refers nationalism?” with ie, Hnain itra osre te ugra expectations, Hungarian the observed historian Hungarian a Eiler,

Ethnic diversity and the nation state: national cultural autonomy revisited autonomy cultural national nationstate: the and diversity Ethnic

” (lecture, CEU, Budapest, 19 March, 2014) March, 19 Budapest, CEU, (lecture, ” m lobbied hard lobbied m Neighbours or enemies? Germans, the Baltic and beyond and Baltic the Germans, enemies? or Neighbours .

Loyalität,” 287 fluencedabout discourse the

(Rechtswirklichkeit) 221. 69 The Idea ofNational Idea The

for the internationalization of the minority the of internationalization the for the controvers

y nepeig h Sdtn German Sudeten the interpreting by

utrl uooy s two a as autonomy cultural 2000), 2000), ial issues. -

Personal Autonomy from the Autonomy Personal 56.

provided reaso provided

Congress’ aims. Congress’

286

i poet titled project His ns to the the to ns

- In this edged - 1940

CEU eTD Collection 290 289 hav could state one only affairs, minority about complaints of process the elaborated League the Although group. national major the with minorities the of equality the guarantee to had countries European Eastern practicewasThis organizations. the of members through conflicts handl to thought League The organization. supranational the with satisfaction League Nations, of mankind’s in nation a to belonging and state consciousness.” a to belonging between identity to than aim other no has lead to minority.” called are we that every rights “nationality for development national free of possibility the provide handle to Schieman ambitious; very pure a on question minority impor in only if even difficulties and problems minority the for Nationalitätenbewegung in groups minority board international an of creation the with real became plan their of part 1925 of foundation the With law. international nation the not are members

Hiden, Hiden, Schiemann Paul tantly The Congress of European Nationalities European of Congress The Defender of Minorities of Defender

minority problem minority ,

the annual meetings of the Congress were forums to elaborate solutions for the for solutions elaborate to forums were Congress the of meetings annual the 290 , “Die Spaltung im Nationalitätenkongreß,” Nationalitätenkongreß,” im “DieSpaltung ,

iaea areet, ind y h sae a cniin fr becoming for conditions as states the by signed agreements, bilateral

Europe. The real function of this movement (Schiemann referred to it as it to referred (Schiemann movement this of function real The Europe. as a kind of Nationalities’ League ofNationalities’ kind as a , nationalities movement) was to try to find satisfactory solutions solutions satisfactory find to try to was movement) nationalities ,

n was thinking about creating new categories in intern in categories new creating about thinking was n , 193. , s on a European level. “W level. European a on s ly

sta theoretical level. The intentions of some theoreticians were theoreticians some of intentions The level. theoretical

e claims towards another. The tension originated from the from originated tension The another. towards claims e tes ,

u te ioiy grou minority the but the

oges f h Erpa Ntoaiis in Nationalities European the of Congress 70 also of also was

Nation und Staat und Nation which upsdt prt s an as operate to supposed e want a legislation which is able to able is which legislation a want e

asymmetric nature since only the only since nature asymmetric

with its existencesignaled with its h form the s s niiul ujcs of subjects individual as ps , November 1927, November

of resolutions. More More resolutions. of destroy the enforced the destroy 289 for different different for

ational law ational minority e

alternative alternative 167. The

deep deep new

CEU eTD Collection 294 293 Geschichte Jüdischer Zeitenräume Welten: 292 291 h in achievement over thewhich statesgeneral exists shockedandaudience the his public. n the deprive to future; distant aspiration His present. his to related convictions deep his the of manifestation the as interpreted to refers mind his in had he what Recht) Nationalities the Legislation” new a “About calledspeech, his in 1926 in Geneva, Congressin of meeting official second the at idea this elaborated He constitution. in appeared state the 4.2 conflictsapproached fromaspect. this theminority tr this perceived activist minority every not althoughCongress, the of mission entirethe thematized fact This states. nation the to empires the from period transition a of product the was Congress the highlight also Nesemann Importantly of legislation “crea positive to aimed movement the firstly, Congress; the of peculiarities the summarizes “objects between ofthestipulations and state thesinglestates communities.” fact

Schiemann, “Um ein neues Recht,” 2921. Recht,” neues “Umein Schiemann, Schiemann, Schiemann, The “Minderheitendiplom FrankNesemann,

ht h mnrte tesle wr nt ujcs f h itrainl a bt were but law international the of subjects not were themselves minorities the that He admitted that admitted He As of the The idea Rigasche Rundschau Rigasche . 293 Frank Nesemann, a researcher researcher a Nesemann, Frank

I reflected on it in the third the in it on reflected I The ideas he phrased he ideas The “Um ein neues Recht,” neues “Umein ational ideas from any kind of territoriality and create a national community national a create and territoriality of kind any from ideas ational is point of view. Schiemann saw the relevance of the League of Nations in Nations of League the of relevance the saw Schiemann view. of point is ansitor

nationhood,” secondly, it created an arena for non for arena an created it secondly, nationhood,” minority rights already exist already rights minority

anational published the speech on 26 August, 1926. 1926. August, 26 on speech the published stain s h suc of source the as situation y

Schiemann

in his lecture were of a pioneering character. He stated that stated He character. pioneering a of were lecture his in 2919.

state, a concept for the European future theEuropean for a concept state, a

’s (ed) Dan Diner, (Göttingen: Vadenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2005), 149. 2005), Ruprecht, & Vadenhoeck (Göttingen: Dan Diner, (ed) tie: Leo Motzkin zwischen Imperien und Nationen,” und Imperien zwischen LeoMotzkin tie:

s what other scholars did not emphasize enough, that enough, emphasize not did scholars other what s chapter, the first claim for an for claim first the chapter, ruet uig h dbts bu te Latvian the about debates the during argument f h Smn unw nttt i Leipzig, in Institute Dubnow Simon the of 71

in the European states, which is a big a is which states, European the in

ofit. cimn consistently Schiemann conflicts. 294

however this speech can be be can speech this however a national

- state diplomacy. state 291 (Um ein neues neues ein(Um

confessi

Synch on of on rone rone e a te 292

CEU eTD Collection 300 299 298 297 296 295 state the to next community other the of acknowledgement “the condition, another is there state the of separation the achieve to order in introduced be should cultivation cultural national all of freedom the instead such, anational an is such as state the that again, it to used get concept.” state nation the of suppression a as nationality and state of separation the than […] way other no nationalit the of interests the from interests state of separation the in solution the to efforts all communities, national of not and states of consists Nations of League the as long “as that namely Congress, the of standpoint common the repeats he regard this In problems. present the from far so is it because utopias of field the to expelled be “should people of association Later postwar order. treaties. self for right the in fields: two in questions minority the

Ibid Schiemann, Ibid. Ibid. 2922. Ibid. 2921. Ibid. Ibid. createa minority positive League legislationonthebasis ofthe be illusory.” seems to . he explained that an extraterritorially formed state, which manifests itself only in the in only itself manifests which state, formed extraterritorially an that explained he

- Following the logic of Karl Renner and Otto Bauer, Schiemann saw the essence of of essence the saw Schiemann Bauer, Otto and Renner Karl of logic the Following treaties Minority be could concept state existing the overthrown and its linkage the to territory could be released. if only question nationalities the for solution whic maxim constitutional a mattetwo theseof synthesis find ethno to order and in belonging here came state we of whereas antithesis the from comes and to has It 295 day ofthe understanding functions.” state’s

hrce ftesae per n h lmnto ftentoa sae utr as culture state national the of elimination the in appears state the of character He raised his objections to self to objections his raised He

“Um ein neues Recht,” neues “Umein

299 be clarified, that the right to self to right the that clarified, be

He warned that the state by nature will have national claims. “We have to have “We claims. national have will nature by state the that warned He

are the second tool of the League of Nations to solve the existing the solve to Nations of League the of tool second the are

2920. rs of facts. The right for selffor right facts. Theof rs

rm utrl far cmltl. e mhszd that emphasized He completely. affairs cultural from

- determination as determination - determination based on the state politics state the on based determination 72 anational

297

- determination and in the minority the in and determination

- notion”

determination would be the wouldbe the determination a

principle in principle

296

- ainl belonging, national 300

Most importantly the importantly Most cets the creates h

the

creation ies. “I see see “I ies.

of the of 298

- CEU eTD Collection 305 304 303 302 301 nationalities the handle to problem. able were they far how was Schiemann for aspect main the projects these of evaluation the By future. European the for ideas mainstream the criticized framework national power which in conflicts, national solve can Europe united a on that stated Schiemann integration. moreover states, the between cooperation presumes language, customs,characterculture.” and Volksgemeinschaft community before speech the in Whereas ( Nations” Staat communities. two these of coexistence of o intentional an either is that admitted and nature transnational culture.” the of community national the community,

Schiema Schiema 28. Ibid. 35. Ibid. Schiemann, culture . 302 h dvso o te uoen ouain no tt ad ainl c national and state into population European the of division The H As

Schiemann arg Schiemann

dvlpd hs da further idea this developed e

. nn, “Um ein neues Recht, neues “Umein nn, Recht,” neues “Umein nn,

Großer Rat der Nationen der Rat Großer an “Volksgemeinschaft und Staatsgemeinschaft und “Volksgemeinschaft opposed as

national ideas are equal with the cl the with equal are ideas national uhr f cnet o a unite a for concept a of author could , as an “emotional and spiritual community with shared origins, history, history, origins, shared with community spiritual and “emotional an as , eli ued that ued minate versimplification or reflects reflects or versimplification

could be the only bearer of national ideas. With th With ideas. national of bearer only the be could o tt cmuiy i te ril fo 12 he 1927 from article the in community, state to

congress he used the term national, and spoke about national about spoke and national, term the used he congress . ” 2924. ” 305

2923. spiritual issues should be handled by the “Great the by handled be should issues spiritual

) ,

which should become subject of international law. international of subject become should which

I n an article which was published in the in published was which article an n ad on ot h isiuinlzto o the of institutionalization the out found and , 304

The limits ofthenationalThe limits culture widened. Erp ad as and Europe d 73 aims to cultivate one’s cultivate to aims ,“

Nation und Staat und Nation 301 Schiemann

This community has a cross a has community This ’s a

, very b very September1927 epnil pltca he politician responsible

h thought the own culture, which culture, own road understanding road ese phrases he he phrases ese

, ommunities

eerd to referred und Nation 21 Council of of Council - 42 - s border,

. about

303 ly ly

CEU eTD Collection 311 310 309 308 307 Donath,1992. in 14, booklet 2, vol. A account. into taken 306 be not should statute such of likelihood the initiative as statute sign. positive absolutely an as it considered Schiemann He problems. negationrevolution ofthe a spirit, tradition.” solely as state interest. nation the considered also which Nations of League Movement.” European Schiemann to According illusory. to state defined politics by power convention “was Briand of Memorandum the view of point Schiemann’s In governments. the of hand the into representation of opportunitythe giving by states the of thoughts strengthen to way Versaill t of aware being not for 1929, in Europe He accused he starting point of all of point starting he

Ibid. Ibid. In “BriandsMemorandum,” “BriandsMemorandum Schiemann, Paul Ibid. 633. Ibid. 630. Ibid. und Rohan,” “Coudenhove Schiemann, Paul 4092. Ibid. recognize that guaranteeing that recognize

Richard Coudenhove, the author of the Pan the of author the Coudenhove, Richard In contrast to Coudenhove to contrast In es system, which was which system, es 310 ,

as I pointed out earlier. Aristide Briand’s plan strengthened the role and the powe the and role the strengthened plan Briand’s Aristide earlier. out pointed I as a

al political mind political al

oee aot the about However multilateral treaty. Even Schiemann admitted that by the evaluation of Rohan’s of evaluation the by that admitted Schiemann Even treaty. multilateral Aristide Brian Aristide ald meig f iua ntos n mnrt gop tgte, and together, groups minority and nations titular of meeting a called Leitartikel, Reden und Aufsätze und Reden Leitartikel,

European consciousness was to soften the autocracy of the statist statist the of autocracy the soften to was consciousness European 309 “pacifist

d Pn uoen ou wud ok ie h asml o the of assembly the like look would forum European Pan A , the French foreign minister who proposed a plan for a for whofederalista, theFrench proposed plan foreignminister - set” which demonstrates a diligent adaptation diligent a demonstrates which set”

.” unacceptable for Germany. For Schiemann the onl the Schiemann For Germany. for unacceptable

European peace without peace European 308

actions Paneurope , Karl ,

ta ws ftfl itk o te edr f h Pan the of leader the of mistake fateful a was “that

Nation und Staat und Nation the nationality problem. nationality the ,” among them also Briand’s also them among ,” Anton Rohan Anton , n i an edited by Hans Donath, 4093 by edited Donath, Hans

74 e Shean eakd that remarked Schiemann dea -

European Manifesto in 1923, a 1923, in Manifesto European , July , identified the unsolved nationalities unsolved the identified

311 solving the minority problem was problem minority the solving - August 1930, 632. 1930, August

Prinz Rohan forced a minority a forced Rohan Prinz Rigasche Rundschau Rigasche 306

an anxious conservation of of conservation anxious an

According to Schiemann to According . Frankfurt am Main: H. H. Main: Frankfurt . am

was to guarante to was

to the angers of a of angers the to a

community of of community

24 May 1930, May 24 1930,

te main the s “ y possible possible y lso failed failed lso t was it e the e 307

a r

CEU eTD Collection 314 313 312 society. majority the which to Nations of League the overcome to was together them bind to supposed to solution universal sympathize experiences shared their to 4.3 not assingle foreign interwar was Europe. situations for and issue whole a as problems minorities handle and solutions universal in thinking Also terms. Schiemannian in Europe united a for “manual’ the tha of and background, be institutional would explanation One understandable. not is idea European the of thinkers main the from negligence his for reason the integration, real avin thinking was to order in revolutionary; was state. defined newly a throughborders state of relevance the reducewould it revisionism plan Schiemann’s construction. the of actors main as states nation the of conservation the through however integration of degrees certain inter European behindtheCongress motivation was platform the exp the regulations”solution. of cases separate instead ofuniversal namely prevent, to attempted Congress the what proposed Rohan them. behind protector a as state conational a have which solution this from profit could minorities those only that considered Schiemann concept this of problem

Hiden, Hiden, 635. Ibid. Sch

war Europe in their plans tried to overcome the limits of the new European system by system European new the of limits the overcome to tried plans their in Europe war iemann, “Coudenhove und Rohan,” und “Coudenhove iemann, T Co common a on issue European peculiar a as problem minorities’ the handle to idea The he cooperation in cooperation he Defender of Minorities of Defender

ngress as experimental field of minority solidarity minority of field as experimental ngress the nationalities problems would problems nationalities the

314 the q the

From the numerous conflicts conflicts numerous the From

the c the uestion would be possible only on this basis. The case which case The basis. this on only possible be would uestion , 120. ,

ongress had to rely on the fact the on rely to had ongress

634. d with each other and had and other each with d

be solved by the assimilation of minorities into minorities of assimilation the by solved be 75

which

313 . The above mentioned figures mentioned above of . The o

that the minority members due members minority the that ccurred at ccurred

a sense of solid of sense a

the Congresses and Congresses the ’ te ak f the of lack the t

vision, according vision, 312

Te ln of plan “The licitly single single licitly arity. The The arity.

was oid He

CEU eTD Collection 319 (Eiler, solidarity.” Slavic „subconscious his of because interpellation Ester hestopped that accused was Wilfan newspaper language LaterinHungarian a unwell. became 318 317 316 315 blam solutio this afford not could they government self cultural own their form restricted in mainly objectivity.” real on rests which other. the towards hate in manifested against fight a as Germany in minorities Germandom. the of leader the Skala, Jan of accusations Congress” create Nationalities they that and Congress, the in Split Nationalitätenkongreß) “The article his in against thewill ofthegroup. minority from expectations the among emphasized be to had it therefore standpoint; this accept to want not did groups sole the as autonomy cultural of perspective Minorities 4.3.1 was also involved f would I periods preparation the during

Ibid. Ibid. Schiemann, Eiler: Schiemann, “Die Spaltung im Nationalitätenkongreß,”163. im “DieSpaltung Schiemann, healmost that angry so president Wilfan,the made Esterházy deputyJános SlovakianHungarian Oncethe

d h Pls aiain o these for agitation Polish the ed

Schiemann expounded his problems with the attitude of the minorities of Germany of minorities the of attitude the with problems his expounded Schiemann National Germany’s of Association the of withdrawal the to led which debate The autonomyCultural asbest practice Germany’s national minorities claimed that they could not grasp the opportunity to to opportunity the grasp not could they that claimed minorities national Germany’s Kisebbségvédelem és revízió Kisebbségvédelem (Verband der nationalen Minderheiten Deutschlands) Minderheiten nationalen der (Verband

“DieSpal Schiemann stated that t that stated Schiemann , and that d , and that

h sd o te tts that states the of side the t he publications andhe reports the meetings. publications about tung im Nationalitätenkongreß,” 159. Nationalitätenkongreß,” im tung . The group The .

emonstrate

, 120. , te gna for agenda the d 317 n.

Personal insults were not rare in the movement the in rare not were insults Personal s from Germany objected objected Germany from s

319 he national sense could be negative as well, when it is it when well, as negative be could sense national he 316 315

Schiemann could not tolerate this excuse at all, he he all, at excuse this tolerate not could Schiemann

ocus on two main debates in which in debates main two on ocus

the solidarity between these groups wasthe solidarity an between illusion. these s, because they were they because s, “Such persons are not welcomed in our movement, our in welcomed not are persons “Such

arguments.

solution under the given circumstances. Some circumstances. given the under solution

utrl autono cultural 76

the meetings. Schiemann considered the the considered Schiemann meetings. the

n h atce cimn rejected Schiemann article the In Kisebbségvédelem és revízió Kisebbségvédelem

“weak” and “proletarian” that “proletarian” and “weak” to the German dominance in dominance German the to my could not be introduced introduced be not could my

I would appr would I 318

De plug im Spaltung (Die

Paul Schiemann Paul oach from the from oach , 195.) ,

házy’s but were but

the the

CEU eTD Collection 324 323 3873006913 http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/30036395?uid=3738216&uid=2134&uid= wars 322 321 320 Germans most populationthe could not be protected.” only represents it because just minority a when occur can situation impossible Otherwise“theavoided. be to hadminorities classificationof the that stated he speech famoushis in acknow be not could Schleswig any for atomized” be not can “state the limits, own its has groupto of kind system onthis build of‘civil society.’ of establishment gro minority minorityright assuch. the understanding not for thinking legal Prussian the blamed also Schiemann tasks. these of elaboration the of school, a cur of costs maintenance the for money the provide practice.” this through terminated was fight national th and minorities between contrasts the abolishes observation not is “It experiences: to referred he administration, question the and potential financial the between relation

Smith & Hiden, Smith 164 Ibid. Nationalitätenkongreß im “DieSpaltung Schiemann, Schiema “DieSpal Schiemann, riculum, of finding teachers. He teachers. finding of riculum, ,”

Journal of Contemporary History Contemporary of Journal h ohr eso cm fo te at that fact the from came tension other The Schiema by acknowledged not was It Another reason for the lack of solidarity between the mino the between solidarity of lack the for reason Another

joining the Congress was refused. Schiemann argued that the definition of minorityof definition the that argued Schiemann refused. was Congress the joining nn, “Um ein neues Recht,” 2923. Recht,” neues “Umein nn, -

165. ups that the Baltic German’s “longstanding organizational networks” made the the made networks” organizational “longstanding German’s Baltic the that ups instead

“ ee o cniee a “ipy ebr o a ioiy ru” u as but group” minority a of members “simply as considered not were Looking beyond the nation the Lookingbeyond the the

tung im Nationalitätenkongreß,” 166. Nationalitätenkongreß,” im tung Cultural Council a successful endeavor. successful a Council Cultural ae o eprecs n ava n Etna ta sc a solution a such that Estonia, and Latvia in experiences on based 321

ledged as as ledged , 41,3 ( 41,3 ,

324 cannot accept the excuse of being proletarian for doing doing for proletarian being of excuse the accept cannot

- 2006 state: A Baltic vision for national minorities between the between minorities national for vision ABaltic state: a ): national minority. national

393 ,

”

n n teeoe o pooe b o by promoted not therefore and nn 77 . accessed: 31 March 2014, 2014, March . accessed: 31 162. e state, that in the question of schools the the schools of question the in that state, e

320 h apiain o application the

In his argumentation the state should state the argumentation his In a theoretical statement statement theoretical a

reason of 322 323 self

. The The . Other minorities could not could minorities Other Interestingly one year earlier year one Interestingly - rity groups could be that that be could groups rity

2&uid=70&uid=4&sid=2110 diitain r state or administration te rsa minority Frisian the f “ hundred Frisians hundred a small per small n empirical an centage in centage ther ” the

in - CEU eTD Collection 329 328 327 326 325 nation new the in bodies also but communities. Bund Simila Palestine in only not Jews for guaranteed be should restrictions of kind any without life a that stated He Organization. Zionist the of h in oneof theviceMotzkin, presidents ofthe movement. Leo was group Jewish the of leader The welcomed. were representatives Jewish also and 4.3.2 demonstrated dominance the German inthe Congress. sho and movement, the weakened groups minority these of loss The refused. were Frisians the when withdrew Verband. to decided Stresemann Congresses. the during deputies German the of costs travelling the and fees membership the cover to him asked and Stresemann visited he when even Not it. admitted never Schiemann nations.’ ‘great of representatives

Smith & Hiden, Smith Frank Nesemann, “Minderheitendiplom FrankNesemann, 152. Ibid. “Mi FrankNesemann, Eiler, is diplomatic activ diplomatic is

Mtkn lo lbrtd pa fr national for plan a elaborated also Motzkin , rly to Simon Dubnow, historian of Russian Jewish origins and theoretician of the the of theoretician and origins Jewish Russian of historian Dubnow, Simon to rly Leo Motzkin, Zionist from the Russian em Russian the from Zionist Motzkin, Leo in minorities of forum political a was congress The generis sui Minority Germ Kisebbségvédelem és revízió Kisebbségvédelem other spheres related to Jewishness should be govern be should Jewishness to related spheres other 326

n’ mnrte poe that proved minorities any’s 329

Ethnic Diversity and the Nation Nation State the and Diversity Ethnic According to Motzkin to According uld have been pointed out us out pointed been have uld nderheitendiplom ity after ity

- states. Motzkin Motzkin states. upr te raiain iacal, n ert truh the through secret, in financially, organization the support -

Jewish deputiesthe at Congress

,127. WWI. He was the founder of the democratic fraction inside fraction democratic the of founder the was He WWI. 325

a a

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Ferdinand von Uexküll von Ferdinand 164 Ibid. “Minderheitendiplom FrankNesemann, Bamberger The - situation reports of the European national minorities were published in 1931. inpublished 1931. were minorities national ofthe European situation reports national community. domestic changeover in this state. the from separated the in century last the which of biggest especially population, development its the through of connate part became a it that featured, is howeverrace, in and origins in state part major the from majoritydiffers the to according big this in situation The Dr Thanks thesame to thefoundation understandingminority in period, around of rights Motzkin , 334

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Nesemann uses the term Volkskörper in quotation marks. The appearence of this Nazi term meanstheir term Nazi ofthis Theappearence marks. in quotation termVolkskörper the uses Nesemann “Minderheitendiplom Nesemann, The mutual understanding of Motzkin and Schiemann was based on their same ideas ideas same their on based was Schiemann and Motzkin of understanding mutual The (Volkskörper) although he admitted that personally he was always convinced about the damaging the about convinced always was he personally that admitted he although nnual meetingCongressatnnualthe of ” and define the minority groups as well. as groups minority the define and ”

a ent tie , ” -

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te was involved in the issues of the Germans the of issues the in involved was te Bern in 1933. Josip Wilfan announced in his announced Wilfan in 1933. Josip in Bern 80 emn ethno German

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CEU eTD Collection Zum 100. Zum100. 338 of origin main the Schiemann For problem. minorities’ the of solution the for projects other any than bold and progressive more far was concept His journals. and newspapers several in Congre the of sessions the during plan his promoted and elaborated Schiemann person. each of identity double in therefore ethno the next communities state the o its as culture anyacknowledge not should state the that means also which tasks cultural the and state the of division the by resolved coi not does belonging state the cases many in identity, his of layer one only means person a of ethno the However, prevented. be should which spirit, the and language differences the of manifestation the saw Schiemann culture. minority the cultivate to framework legal the national of foundation na of state the a on of based principle Latvia independent an of foundation the supported who few those of one was he war the After situation. minority a as considered never he origin German his despite Ru the of subject a as lived he war the Before values. liberal the in persist his with and circumstances new the to accommodate to willingness his with out stood but Europe, in War World First the after situation minority Conclusion

Michael Garleff, Garleff, Michael ncide with theethno Paul Schiemann was only one person out of of out person one only was Schiemann Paul hs iem wih ihe Gref al a “obe responsibility” “double as calls Garleff Michael which dilemma This Geburtstags Paul Schiemanns (1876 Schiemanns Paul Geburtstags

ewe te ethno the between “Paul Schiemanns Minderheitentheorie als Beitrag zur Lösung der Nationalitätenfrage: Nationalitätenfrage: der Lösung zur Beitrag als Minderheitentheorie Schiemanns “Paul - - cultural autonomy which according to him would be able to create create to able be would him to according which autonomy cultural national belonging.national

inlte. n h sse o Nw uoen at e ocd the forced he East European New of system the In tionalities.

ss of European Nationalities and in his articles published articles his in and Nationalities European of ss - ainl omnte i ter utr, hi common their culture, their in communities national ssian Tsar in the Baltic Province of Courland, which, Courland, of Province Baltic the in Tsar ssian - 1944),” 1944),” - ainl omnte rsetvl ad concludes and respectively communities national wn. The The wn.

Zeitschrift für Ostforschung Zeitschrift für 82

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state requires the existence of of existence the requires state , 25, 3 (1976): 625. 3 25, (1976): , - national belonging national 338

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CEU eTD Collection who were residents of the interwar Latvian state as well. Hundreds of thousands thousands of Hundreds 340 well. as 339 state Latvian interwar the of residents were who ackn state the that also meant which independence its restored the state Latvian the After Union Soviet Union. the of collapse European the of sheep’ ‘black the became issues minority in student 21 in relations interethnic thecommunistindividual, ideas Social as muchas theNational the of peculiarity the for threat a meant which unification and uniformization of attempts cultural European life.” the of andtodeadness lead tostagnation ultimately lif political European the from nations small the of elimination “the article, his in value European as diversity the promoted he territories German occupied newly to resettled of manifestation the was ana which Asia, to contrast in values of community a as was Europe ideas his of One environment. his by cultivated truly not therefore and understood be would autonomy the of operation problematic.reason Oneofhisfailureneveri thathe actually was confessed the organizations private of network existed co the of help the without that and needed, was ext of form the in members community the of contribution the autonomy the of national full and autonomy school of form in politics minority liberal the of experiment the try to all other nation planstreated the conflict any

Schiemann, Schiemann, Minderheitentheorie, “Paul Schiemanns Garleff, cy n te oe o mse i hs eyes. his in masses of power the and rchy Schiemann was a thinker, a theoretician and also a great idealist, who was not not was who idealist, great a also and theoretician a thinker, a was Schiemann possible it made Estonia also and Latvia in milieu political the decade a almost For By evaluating the contribution of Schiemann to the solution of minority question the question minorityof solution the to Schiemann of contribution the evaluating By - cultural autonomy. The outcome of the experiment was that for the establishment the for that was experiment the of outcome The autonomy. cultural “ was the nation the was Di e Umsiedlung 1939,” 88. 1939,” Umsiedlung e owledged the ‘same’ national body, the same population as legal residents residents legalas population same the body, national ‘same’ the owledged

- century Latvia come into prominence, since from the standout the from since prominence, into come Latvia century state as such and he attempted to overcome its limits, whereas limits, its overcome to attempted he and such as state

- state as given andbasisstate ofthe as prospective units order.

”

644. 339

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340 t.

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CEU eTD Collection 341 significant a playing still are they citizens European the of level mental the on that argue the 1920s. the more nation ideal the of restoration be to seems state Latvian today’s However, level. secondary and elementary hav minorities the and bilingual is society Latvian the reality in rights, minority restricted with and language official one with state a Latvia a state politics level beadmitted thatalthough of is onthe On thehand should other it as ‘migrants’ the handle t of ‘enemy’ to as treated was everybody was which in group, authorities homogenous Latvian the of side the from mistake biggest the stated, Schiemann as decision, individual of question a is belonging national the A did. Schiemann like value, a as state the of diversity ethnic the consider state Latvian the that demonstrate not does which Latvians, ethnic as afterwards treated be will L tiny the to restricted is protection minority the so group, minority as Russians the acknowledge not does it migrants speaking Russian the from Russians bounded historically the distinct regardi changes significant some made but 1922 in accepted constitution the to back went independence its restored bound t are “who and live they where state the of existence the accepts who minority” “national as considered be can those only because citizenship,” good for test Schiemann’s pass to for possibility the and was naturalization citizenship Latvian without remained ‘migrants’ Russophone

Hiden, Hiden, ivonian minority. Secondly those ‘migrants’ who undergo the naturalization process naturalization the undergo who ‘migrants’ those Secondly minority. ivonian The situation is more complicated than Hiden describes it. The Latvian state when when state Latvian The it. describes Hiden than complicated more is situation The Although the state bo state the Although o their homeland by oftheir historical theroots being.” Defender of Minorities of Defender

postponed for a long time. John Hiden claims that these people “have yet “have people these that claims Hiden John time. long a for postponed

ng the minorities. First of all because the Latvian state failed to failed state Latvian the because all of First minorities. the ng , 225 , rders are losing their relevance in the European context I would context European the in relevance theirarelosing rders -

state promoted by Ulmanis than of the state of nationalities in nationalities of state the of than Ulmanis by promoted state - 226.

e right to learn in their mother tongue on on tongue mother their in learn to right e 84

341

he restored statehood. restored he dditionally if dditionally CEU eTD Collection different andcomparedcontexts waves. withdifferent it Schieman of peculiarities the demonstrate to attempted and analysis my into sources new included his I however, thesis; this of of aim the be elements not could thinking all and practice Uncovering frequently. himself repeated he reasons didactical for tho even readings fascinating are population its and state the between relation the about cliché and messages symbols, explicit and simple with communities state their identify to and cultures’ national of ‘ambassadors as themselves acknowledge to states the from required Schiemann which cooperation w not international opposed of units the are states the However, role. s. This trend even though should serve the diversity kills it onthe trenddomestic serves. This thediversitylevel. should it though even kills Reading and analyzing Paul Schiemann’s work is a long a is work Schiemann’s Paul analyzing and Reading tot esn O te nentoa aea ih oe n mr atr i is it actors more and more with arena international the On reason. ithout 85

- time endeavor, his thoughts his endeavor, time n’s thinking in thinking n’s

ugh CEU eTD Collection Bibliography Boettcher Dr. A. BoettcherDr. Bļodnieks, Ādolfs. Bamberger Ba Diasporas,” Proletarian and “Mobilized A. John Armstrong, Verein imAmmendes“Vortrag Dr. Ewald. Ammende, Volksgemeinschaft,” der Begründung zur “Richtlinien Ewald. Ammende, whom?” for and why How, Estonia: in autonomy Cultural of birth “The Kari. Alenius, Eiler, Ferenc. (1918 Staat nationallettischem von Idee die und Deutschbalten “Die Leo. Dribins, m disciplined,productive, a constructto “How István. Deák, Nations of League Dirk. “From Empireto Tsarist Crols, Rogers Brubaker, mberger osrcin f atc tt Svriny” h ds. Uiest o Gagw 2006. Glasgow, http://theses.gla.ac.uk/2453/1/2006crolsphd.pdf, (accessed: April of 28, 2014) University diss., PhD Sovereignty.” State Baltic of Construction Europe April 1928, 545 Joachim Minderheiten Grossm Rechtsparadigmen und Lobbyistentum zwischen Marburg:Verlag Herder Institut, 2000. Minderheiten nationale 23, 2014) Review und Staat Studies April 1932, 464 Baltic http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01629770701682723 (accessed: October 31, 2013) of pca Eiin f Nordost Europeanthe Congress of Nationalities (1925 Kongresszuson (1925 of Edition http://www.ikgn.de/cms/index.php/downloads/summary (accessed: April 7,2014) Special Press, 2003. garden human the - - Stemmann Sabine Stemmann,

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cimn, al “ee den “Wehe Paul, Schiemann, Staatsgemeinschaft,” und “Volksgemeinschaft Paul. Schiemann, “ Paul. Schiemann, In Recht,” neues ein “Um Paul. Schiemann, In Staatsproblem,” “Lettlands Paul. Schiemann, In wir,” und “Russland Paul. Schiemann, Vol deutsche die und “Wir Paul. Schiemann, In Lettländers,” Balten, “Deutsche, Paul. Schiemann, okot Percy. Vockrodt, Percy. Vockrodt, Percy. Vockrodt, Smith Smith, Bastiaan. Schot, David David Frankfurt am Main: in 2, booklet 2, vol. minorities between wars,”the Autonomy Völkerbundspolitik Der Stresemann number. Frankfurt am Main: in 1, booklet 1927, 21 number. Frankfurt am Main: in 1, booklet Frankfurt am Main: in 10, booklet number. Frankfurt am Main: in 1, booklet Frankfurt am Main: in 2, booklet 2565. Frankfurt am Main: in booklet9, vol.2, 1925, September 1927, 42 May 1930,547 218 &uid=70&uid=4&sid=21103873006913 399.http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/30036395?uid=3738216&uid=2134&uid=2 -

223. J.

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44.

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