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A Popular Culture Research Methodology: Outernational by

Brian D’Aquino (L’Orientale, Napoli)

Julian Henriques (Goldsmiths, University of )

Leo Vidigal (UFMG, )

Résumé : Ce papier explore une méthodologie inno- Abstract: Tis paper explores an innovative prac- vante de recherche par la pratique qui rassemble pra- tice-as-research methodology that brings popular ticiens et aficionados d’une culture populaire avec culture practitioners and aficionados together with des chercheurs académiques, dans l’espace partagé de academic researchers in the shared space of sym- symposiums sur la culture sound system du . posia on reggae sound system culture. As organiz- En tant qu’organisateurs, nous décrivons ce qui a ers, we describe what made the symposia different rendu ces symposiums différents des conférences from the normal academic conference in terms of académiques habituelles, en termes de participants, the range of participants, discussion topics, work- de sujets de discussion, d’ateliers, de démonstration, shops, demonstrations, exhibitions, film showings d’expositions, de projections de films et de sessions and the sound system sessions from Roots Injection sound system par Roots Injection et Young Warrior. and Young Warrior. In a self-reflexive fashion some D’une manière autoréflexive, nous considérons que of the outcomes of the events were considered to be les résultats de ces évènements incluent des échanges the intergenerational conversations, the support for intergénérationnels, le soutien aux sound system women-led sound systems and the recognition and menés par des femmes, et la reconnaissance et l’en- encouragement that the practitioners of the popu- couragement que les praticiens de cette culture popu- lar culture said they felt they were receiving from laire disent avoir ressenti de la part de l’institution the academic institution of the university. Tis can Volume académique qu’est l’université. Cela peut être identi- be identified via voice recordings and social media fié, à travers des enregistrements vocaux ainsi que des comments as a mutual strengthening of the research

commentaires sur les réseaux sociaux, comme une culture and the sound system popular culture itself. ! n° 13-2 renforcement mutuel de la culture de recherche et de Keywords: community – research methodology – la culture populaire du sound system elle-même. participation – practice-as-research – popular cul- ture – reggae – sound system Mots-clefs : communauté – méthodologie de recherche – participation – recherche par la pratique – culture populaire – reggae – sound system 2 Brian D’Aquino, Julian Henriques & Leo Vidigal

Reggae-as-research theory-practice PhD programme where theses include a very productive circulation of between system culture originating in “thinking/reading” and “making.” Sound is now a global pop- ular music movement. Tis paper outlines an As against most practice-as-research, Outerna- example of a practice-as-research methodology tional was concerned with sound system as a with reggae researchers and practitioners par- collective rather than individual creative prac- ticipating. Sound System Outernational 1 and 2 tice, as part of a popular rather than high art or took place at Goldsmiths, University of London, avant-garde cultural tradition. Also some of the in January and July 2016. First to declare our value of the symposia lay in the fact that main- interests, the authors were the organizers of these stream media have traditionally not recognized events, having founded an on-going research sound system culture as having any significant group called Sound System Outernational, “ded- value. Until very recently the UK urban music icated to recognizing, stimulating and support- of Grime was exactly in this position of being ing sound system culture worldwide… [it] creates entirely excluded from mainstream media, as one spaces for dance and discussion.”1 Tis makes participant, Joy White addressed in her presenta- the article a self-reflexive piece, where the events tion Calling the Past into the Present: Sound Sys- themselves are considered as an example of prac- tems and a Decade of Grime at the second event

tice-as-research. (White, 2016). Even if it may occasionally sur- face on a mainstream level, such as with Channel Practice-as-research is itself a departure and One’s surprise victory at the Red Bull Culture development from conventional university Clash in 2010, reggae sound system culture is research models such as participant observa- not a fully commercial music culture (in the tion and ethnomethodology. Tese methodol- way that Grime is rapidly becoming with Grime ogies, despite the researcher being immersed artist Skepta winning the UK ’s in the field, maintain the clear divide between prestigious 2016 Mercury prize), but conforms the researcher and the researched. Tis is some- more to the idea of a subculture, often operat- thing the symposia—unlike the conventional ing in the margins in an informal economy and academic conference—sought to challenge. retaining its Caribbean identity. So the popular Practice-as-research recognizes that knowledge culture of sound system culture indicates grass- is not exclusively epistemic, that is, defined in roots, lumpen proletarian or subaltern, as dis- the traditional arts and humanities manner as tinct from the mass popular culture of Beyoncé ! n° 13-2 a text. It also recognizes that creative and other or . Te third respect in which the practices of the researchers themselves—includ- creative practices considered here differ from tra- ing organizing symposia—can and do generate ditional ones is in the role of technology. Sound

Volume knowledge. Indeed Goldsmiths runs a successful system culture is almost entirely phonographic, Figure 1: First Sound System Outernational poster, 16th January 2016. 4 Brian D’Aquino, Julian Henriques & Leo Vidigal

this is to say, the music played by the Selector is Practice and knowledge systems not a “live” artist performance, but a recorded Te term “outernational” rather than interna- one, re-presented, as it were, by the technologies tional was adopted for the name of these events of the sound system set of equipment. as an indication of our respect for the Rastafarian Arising from the most deprived areas of 1950s has made such an essential contribution to sound Kingston, Jamaica, later displaced along the system culture and whose nomenclature eschews routes of the Afro-Caribbean diaspora, this internationalism (Chevannes, 1994). “Outerna- wisdom or “sonic intelligence” is a collective, tionalism” might also be considered as one of the transnational, multi-layered body of knowledge. few a progressive aspects to globalization. To give Ranging from the affective qualities of sound to an example, the Italian band Roots Defenders trav- for its re-production, this prac- elled from their home base of Napoli to perform tice-based wisdom mainly relies on a radical at Hootananny venue in , south London. approach to audio technology. Working with Tere they performed with veteran Jamaican (cur- one foot in the recording studio and the other in rently Brixton-based) reggae singer Earl 16. Ten the session, as recently accounted by D’Aquino’s cut a 12 inch released on his Baba- boom Hifi label, which was recorded between Ray Hitchins (2014), Jamaican engineers have Naples and London and the record pressed in always made clean sweep of the manuals. Push- France. As was confirmed by Ras Muffet, opera- ing technology far beyond its intended limits, tor of the Roots Injection sound system and label they eventually invented a sound the rest of the based in Bristol, this is typical of the kind of “out- world strives for, with the sonic extravaganza of ernationalism” by which the scene operates.2 dub to be considered one of the most perfected achievements, as argued by Michael Veal in his Te field of popular culture offers countless exam- classic work (Veal, 2007). It is always difficult ples of different paradigms at work in the produc- to find ways to convey the affects of the sound tion and transmission of knowledge. As an example system experience and its visceral impact. One the idea of an embodied knowledge, proposed Brazilian in her comments from the floor of the by phenomenologist Merleau-Ponty (1964) and first Outernational put this very well. She said later expanded by the feminist critique, resonates that as a student she couldn’t afford to travel throughout a long tradition of scholarly research on dance and choreography, from Afro-American back to Brazil—so going to sound system ses- dancer-theorists Katherine Dunham (1947/1983)

! n° 13-2 sions was the only way she could experience her- to Barbara Browning (1995) and Ann Cooper self as an embodied person, in the way she was Albright (1997). But we could also claim the call at home. into question of the primacy of the rational mind

Volume to be already at work in the artistic practice of self- 5 A Popular Culture Research Methodology... taught musicians, from Louis Armstrong to Jimi was his new film shown at the event, as described Hendrix. Te idea of ways of knowing and the sonic below. In terms of a research and practical knowl- logos challenge the conventional epistemic monop- edge base in reggae sound systems, Henriques has oly of the nature of knowledge itself, as explored documentary and fiction films, numerous journal elsewhere (Henriques, 2011: 242-274). Tis line publications (e.g. Henriques, 2014) and a mono- of thought also resonates with idea within the graph Sonic Bodies to his name (Henriques, 2011). Jamaican popular culture itself, where “reason” is Outernational’s confidence was also derived from not a thing, a noun, but rather an activity or verb, the wider British cultural context that was wit- where the expression “to reason” and “reasoning” nessing a renewed interest in reggae sound sys- are commonplace. tems, which for decades has been at the heart of Caribbean popular culture in the UK and indeed pop culture as a whole.4 While popular culture has Location and resources been sustaining itself at a community level since Te circumstances—or what Stuart Hall would the first wave of Jamaican settlement in the 1950s, discuss as contingencies—appear self-evident in what was new was its recognition in the wider cul- retrospect. Te three organizers had a ture. It is also interesting to note how the popular- research interest in reggae music and experience ity of sound system culture has been reinforced by with sound systems. D’Aquino owns and runs the comparatively recent “reggae revival.” While the Bababoom Hifi sound system and record dancehall music has been the leading popular label (and previously the Roots Defenders band) genre in Jamaica since the 1980s, the in for the last twelve years and is currently that has been the staple of the international audi- a PhD student at University L’Orientale (Naples, ence is becoming increasingly popular in Jamaica Italy), making use of the critical tools provided itself with a new generation of artists such as by the cultural studies tradition, relocated from , , Kabaka Pyramid, , the Center for Contemporary Cul- Roots Underground and (Henri- tural Studies to the Mediterranean area by Iain ques, 2012). Tis music indeed serves as new fuel Chambers.3 Vidigal is a member of Deskareggae for the sound system fire. Both rhythmically and lyrically the “peace and love” vibes of roots reggae Sound System, from Belo Horizonte, his home- Volume town in Brazil where he teaches Film Studies. is certainly less threatening than the hard-hitting His experience combines 24 years in document- and lyrics of dancehall. Known in the UK as “bashment” this presents a more aggressive

ing and studying the Brazilian reggae scene, since ! n° 13-2 energy that is less easily assimilated.5 the release of the Massive Reggae fanzine in 1992, with a theoretical work on the interaction between Te renewed recognition of the value of reggae is popular music and the visual element in feature also evidenced in two 2015 exhibitions, namely films and documentaries. Weapon is My Mouth Michael Macmillan’s Soul Heads and 6 Brian D’Aquino, Julian Henriques & Leo Vidigal

Lovers and Mandeep Samra’s Sound System have their work and contribution to the culture Culture national touring exhibitions, the latter being recognized. Several participants mentioned accompanied by the beautifully illustrated and “starving” for the kind of conversations that produced book Sound System Culture that chron- flowed so readily at the events. Although tempo- icled its origins in Huddersfield (Huxtable, 2014; rary, the academic symposium provides a physical see also Bateman & Newman, 2016).6 So the pub- “third space” for people to gather and meet each lishers One Love Books and the Sound System other, building networks and exchanging ideas. Culture organization were obvious choices as Tis is in fact what the space of the dancehall ses- associated partners for the Outernational venture, sion aims to provides through the sound of the as was Echoes magazine, long established author- phonographic reproduction. In the Rastafarian ity in this area. With these working relationships nomenclature the events would be considered as and what we found to be the kudos attached to a “” at which we were “reasoning.” In Goldsmiths—from those outside the university one sense this was our aim for the symposium: to sector—it was comparatively easy to reach out to create a shared space that is achieved at the best local sound systems and for them to consider our dancehall session and at the best academic confer- request for their participation seriously. An essen- ence—but where those two usually different sets tial factor for the positive outcome of the event of participants came together. was the mutual trust between organizers, academ- Te two symposia had several themes in common.7 ics and practitioners. Te marginalized nature of One was their outernational perspective with pres- the reggae scene is largely outside the mainstream entations from Dr Sonjah Stanley Niaah (Jamaica, music industry that means that it is not immedi- researcher via Skype) and Taru Dalmia (India, ately accessible for research purposes or even par- Delhi Sultanate sound system via Skype), and ticipation. practitioners such as Pax Nindi from Zimbabwe. Also with the second symposium the outernational scope widened further to Brazil with addition of Shared space, structure and flow Bruno Verner (Goldsmiths, Tetine sound system) Te Outernational events were only possible on and Eliete Mejorado (Slum Dunk sound system the basis of the already-established trust and sup- and Brazilian punk- duo Tetine), and Norway port of the sound system community that oper- with researcher Vincent Møystad. Another ates largely with its own venues and promotional common theme was their intergenerationality. mechanisms, such as the pirate/community radio Participants from both older and younger genera- ! n° 13-2 station advertising. Also the events were facilitated tions were very keen to make the connections and by the fact that they were feeding an already exist- indeed learn from the other. Young Warrior adver- ing appetite—from researchers to be in conver- tises himself as son of Shaka for instance, and

Volume sation with practitioners and for practitioners to there was a contribution from Everald Campbell 7 A Popular Culture Research Methodology...

Figure 2: Sound System Outernational social media logo, designed by Liv Santos.

as son of the pioneer soundman Count Suckle. such as Steve “Soft Wax” McCarthy, in addition Te third common theme was of course the mix to those already mentioned. of backgrounds of presenters and participants as Te first event also encouraged us to be more ambi- practitioners and academic researchers, some with both backgrounds such as Dr Mykael Riley (Uni- tious for the second to include parallel sessions with discussion, film screenings, workshops and exhibi- versity of Westminster and a former member of Volume band) and Dr William “Lez” Henry tions. For example in one of the workshops, From (University of West London and a former member Circuit Bending to Circuit Dubbing: A Dub Elec- tronics Interactive Showcase, presented by French

of Saxon Sound System). Tere were also cura- ! n° 13-2 tors such as Dr Michael McMillan and writers on engineer Antibypass, it was possible to test some reggae David Katz (People Funny Boy: the Genius of type original studio equipment. A of Lee “Scratch” Perry) and John Masouri from research paper was presented by Enrico Bonadio’s Echoes magazine, as well as sound system owners (City University, London), Dissemination of Records 8 Brian D’Aquino, Julian Henriques & Leo Vidigal

Figure 3: Young Warrior addressing the first Sound System Outernational.

and Creative Appropriation: Te Evolution of Vintage Khadijah Ibrahim, with readings and Jamaican Music in the Absence of Copyright. Tere demonstrations of skanking dance. I’m Ugly but was rare screening of the 1983 film People Sounds on Trendy, Denise Garcia’s film about the Brazilian the sound system and titular record store in Notting Funk Carioca culture was also screened, showing Hill Gate, West London. Tere was also a virtual the diversity of the outernational sound system cul- reality exhibition in which we could hear the voices ture in depth. Te lunch break Jamaican delicates- ! n° 13-2 of the Caribbean community that built the Notting sen menu of rice and peas, ackee and salt-fish and Hill Carnival—the biggest in Europe—made by dumplings was provided by a local small restaurant the Marcio Cruz from Brazil (Goldsmiths); and a and outdoor musical entertainment from the Jim

Volume roundtable on sound system aesthetics presented by Frize’s 12 volt sound system Bada Boom Box. 8 Figure 4: Poster for Outernational 2, 2nd July 2016. 10 Brian D’Aquino, Julian Henriques & Leo Vidigal

One of the advantages of organizing two events of a local pub, with a screening of a new docu- in quite rapid succession is that the second could mentary film Weapon is My Mouth, directed by develop themes raised in the first. One of these Vidigal in collaboration with Delmar Mavignier, was the issue of the gentrification of sound system shot at the 2016 United Nations of Dub festival culture to which the symposia themselves could in Liverpool. Weapon Is My Mouth was conceived be seen as contributing. Tis came up in discus- and made specifically as a “danceable film,” to sions with participants after the first one and was be experienced, appreciated and danced to within addressed specifically in the second with Henri- the environment of a sound-system session. Pro- ques’ presentation on the risks and opportunities jected between the speaker stacks, it is a new kind of sound system culture, including its commercial- of expanded cinema, as a fusion of cinema and ization and “authenticity.” By this time however it dancehall experience. Tus the Outernational appeared that participants already recognized that approach of practice-as-research was pushed even the events were attempting to add value to the cul- further with this presentation of film-as-research. ture rather than sanitize it. Another issue coming Te evening continued with a full session featur- from the first that was addressed in final plenary ing Ras Muffet’s Roots Injection from Bristol and of the second: “Soundwomen in the XXIst Cen- Young Warrior from London, both with their tury” on the rise of all-female sound systems, one own sound systems, in addition to a DJ set by the of the most important movements in the current renowned filmmaker and selector . scene, that has followed pioneering soundwomen like Valerie Robinson from V-Rocket Sound System. Legs Eleven (UK) Caya (Come As You Evaluation, Exchanges Are) Sound System (UK, via Skype) and Feminine and Conversations Hi Fi (Brazil, via Skype) told their stories, stressed As the organizers of the events, clearly we cannot the need to develop the narrative of dancehall and be considered as neutral in assessing how far to work with music as a tool for social transforma- the events achieved in their aim of creating a tion. Sir Lloyd Coxsone, a founding figure of the space for exchange between research and prac- first generation the UK sound system scene, was titioner communities. Te atmosphere was con- very supportive of the work the soundwomen were vivial throughout and as organizers we received doing and proposed a “clash” between the sounds a stream of positive comments from practition- from UK and Brazil. ers. “Me never know sey that people dem in a Another lesson from the first Outernational was university interested in sound system” was one ! n° 13-2 the importance of conceiving of the event as being comment. Tis was from someone on her first double-sided with the discussion of the sympo- visit inside the College, indicating the value of its sium in the day and the sound system session in cultural capital in giving respect to sound system

Volume the night. Te evening opened in the culture and its practitioners. Another comment, 11 A Popular Culture Research Methodology... in an email from Jim Frize, one of the creators of Tere were also practical outcomes from the the 12-volt sound system movement: events in giving confidence to some younger Sound System Outernational (SSO) is a much-needed practitioners, such as Caya female run sound platform for sound system culture, a long awaited system. At the first Outernational this was an breath of fresh air. SSO presented historic information, idea-in-progress when she spoke about it in the first hand accounts, from people who were in Jamaica open session.11 Tis lead to a magazine interview during the inception of this culture. Seeing these to Caya founder Tali Lotus, links with cur- accounts presented at the symposium felt historic. It also showed me that sound system culture is still grow- rent female sound systems such as Legs Eleven, ing and evolving, it’s just as relevant today as it has ever participation in the second Outernational, cul- been. Meeting other people at the symposium who have minating in the launching of the new sound the same love and passion for sound system culture was system itself in November 2016.12 We hope that inspiring and gave me the opportunity to make connec- our events will encourage practitioner partici- tions, spark ideas and find collaborators. pation in major initiatives in this field, namely Moreover, both academics and practitioners could the AHRC (Arts and Humanities Research benefit from a challenging and unusual role-re- Council) funded Culture lead by Mykaell versal, with the supposed “researched” taking Riley at the University of Westminster as well as center stage in lectures and workshops, and the the AHRC Reggae Research Network, and the “researchers” forced to re-craft their presentations Jamaica Jamaica! exhibition as the Philharmonie in order to be attractive to a non-academic crowd. de Paris.13 Lewis, a 36-year-old vinyl collector from London In conclusion, what came across very strongly was alerted by Outernational posters in his local from the events was that the intergenerational and attended both: “It was such a dimension of the discussions with Sir Lloyd deep knowledge you can get from those people. Not the same kind you can get from books or the Coxonne and other elders made most valuable internet… Tey could share a very deep, very per- contributions, they themselves appearing to sonal knowledge… And it was for free!”9 Tis sug- value and respect how the younger generation gests the value of the different ways of knowing were keeping the music and the culture alive and that Outernational had the ambition to unearth. taking forward in their own ways. Tis value Volume Young Warrior, after presenting at the first Outer- for the oral histories of the culture in the UK as national, commented on Facebook: expressed through its still-living originators and

the music artifacts is an important theme for all ! n° 13-2 … it should be more like this. More talking events, the current research and exhibition projects and more talking-based seminars and workshops, where it’s 14 not about playing but more about learning the techni- much work remains to be done. In these ways cal side, the history, where it’s coming from and where the archive—including the symposia—can serve it needs to go...10 as an amplifying loop based on mutual respect 12 Brian D’Aquino, Julian Henriques & Leo Vidigal

and recognition of practitioners and researchers the scene. Taking up the issue of “gentrification” that remains they key value for Sound System raised above, there are dangers to turning sound Outernational. It has certainly encouraged us system culture into a “subject area” as the funded to plan to establish a network of Sound System research initiatives cited above. To a much greater Research Centers at our respective Brazilian, extend than dancehall, reggae music is essentially Italian and UK institutions. a music of rebellion and protest, as it was born One limitation of our reflexive methodology in 1960s Jamaica and as it has been adopted by is the difficulty it poses for us as the organiz- social movements in Italy and around the world. ers to be sufficiently self-critical. What is most To take the music and the scene into the aca- important to point out to colleagues who might demic fold – without undermining its raison be considering similar events in the future con- d’être—has to be with the full participation of cerns not so much any organizational shortcom- those who feel and know it. It is this that might ings, but rather being aware of their impact on present an organizer’s biggest challenge.

Bibliography

ALBRIGHT Ann Copper (1997), Choreographing HENRIQUES Julian (2011), Sonic Bodies: Reggae Difference: Te Body and Identity in Contemporary Sound-systems, performance techniques and ways Dance, Hanover, Wesleyan University Press. of Knowing, London & New York, Continuum BATEMAN Christopher & NEWMAN Al “Fingers” Books. (2016) In Fine Style: Te Dancehall Art of Wilfred — (2012), “Global Ear Kingston”, Te Wire, no 340, Limonious, London, One Love Books. p. 16. BROWNING Barbara (1995), . Resistance in — (2014), “Rhythmic Bodies: Amplification, Motion, Bloomington and Indianapolis, Indiana Inflection and Transduction in the Dance University Press. Performance Techniques of the ‘Bashment CHEVANNES Barry (1994), : Roots and Gal’”, Body & Society, vol. 20, no 364, ! n° 13-2 Ideology, Syracuse, Syracuse University Press. p. 79-112. DUNHAM Katherine (1947/ 1983), Dances of Haiti, HITCHINS Ray (2014), Vibe Merchants: Te Sound Los Angeles, Center for Afro-American Studies, Creators of Jamaican Popular Music, London,

Volume University of California Routledge. 13 A Popular Culture Research Methodology...

HUXTABLE Paul (2014), Sound System Culture, VEAL Michael (2007), Dub. Soundscapes and Shattered Celebrating Huddersfield’s Sound Systems, London, Songs in Jamaican Reggae, Middletown, Wesleyan One Love Books. University Press. MERLEAU-PONTY Maurice (1964), Te Primacy of WHITE Joy (2016), Urban Music and Entrepreneurship. Perception, Evanston, IL, Northwestern University Beats, Rhymes and Young People’s Enterprise, Press. London, Routledge.

NOTES

1. https://soundsystemouternational.wordpress.com/ 7. For the programme in full see https://soundsystemouter- (accessed 8th March 2017). national.wordpress.com/ (accessed 8th March 2017). 2. See “Sound Systems Unplugged,” Ras Muffet in con- 8. The full programme is available on our blog, versation with Julian Henriques, http://www.thewire. https://soundsystemouternational.wordpress. co.uk/audio/in-conversation/off-the-page-2014_julian- com/2016/06/24/sound-system-international-sched- henriques-with-ras-moffat_bristol-dub-club_the-sound- ule/ (accessed 8th March 2017). system-unplu-33914 (accessed 8th March 2017). 9. Conversation in a music bar in Tottenham, 8th Sep- 3. There is a well-established official exchange relation- tember 2016. Lewis recognized D’Aquino as one of ship between Goldsmiths and L’Orientale for PhD stu- the speakers at the two events he had attended and dent exchange and staff participation in seminars. wanted to share his positive comments. 4. This may be exemplified by the huge popularity of 10. Live Facebook streaming by Reggae Britannia, th South London sound system Saxon International Outernational 1, 16 Jan. 2016, https://www.face during the 1980s and 1990s. This popularity even- book.com/youngwarrioruk/videos/vb.1841219 tually had an impact on records sales in the UK and 70371/10156554081430372/?type=2&theater (accessed th abroad, with Saxon MC Papa Levi topping Jamaican 15 May 2016). Single Chart in 1982 with “Mi Mi King.” Another 11. http://www.skindeepmag.com/online-articles/skin-deep- prominent Saxon MC, hit UK charts in meets-sound-system-culture/ (accessed 8th March 2017). the 1980s with hit singles “Cockney Translation” and 12. Ibid. “Police Officer” which blended British and Jamaican 13. http://gtr.rcuk.ac.uk/projects?ref=AH/N001826/1, and cultures, eventually leading him to host a TV show on http://www.ahrc.ac.uk/newsevents/events/calendar Volume Channel Four. /reggae-research-network-symposium/; http://philharmo 5. https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/mar/11/ niedeparis.fr/en/museum-exhibitions/exhibitions/ croydon-bar-accuses-police-banning-jamaican-bash- jamaica-jamaica (accessed 8th March 2017).

th ment-music (accessed 8 March 2017). 14. Recording of the live streaming on the day still available at ! n° 13-2 6. See http://www.onelovebooks.com/Sound-SystemCul- https://www.facebook.com/Sound-System-Outernatio ture-1(accessed 8th March 2017). The concept for the nal-740364419397765/?ref=settings (accessed 8th March book comes from Mandeep Samra and it was edited 2017) and Goldsmiths Sound System Research, see and designed by Al Fingers. https://vimeo.com/180154347 (accessed 8th March 2017).