Introduction: Meiji Army, Empire and Politics 1 the Imperial Army
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Notes Introduction: Meiji Army, Empire and Politics 1 Richard Chang, Historians and Meiji Statesmen, Gainsville 1970, pp. 42, 55. On Katsura, Tokutomi Soho, ed., KOshaku Katsura Taro-den, 2 vols., Tokyo 1917; Uno Shun'ichi, ed., Katsura TarC1 Jiden, Tokyo 1993; Kobayashi Michihiko, Nihon no Tairiku Seisaku, 1895-1914, Tokyo 1996. 2 Major works on the Meiji army and expansion are Tsunoda Jun, Manshii Mondai to KokubC1 fflJshin, Tokyo 1967; Kitaoka Shin'ichi, Nihon Rikugun to Tairiku Seisaku, 1906-1918, Tokyo 1978; Takahashi Hidenao, Nis-Shin Senso e no Michi, Tokyo 1995. 3 Kaneko Fumio, 'Sengo Nihon Shokuminchi Kenkyu,' in Kaneko, ed., Iwanami Koza Kindai Nihon to Shokuminchi 4, Tokyo 1993. Ramon Myers and Mark Peattie, eds, The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895-1945, Princeton 1984; Peter Duus, Ramon Myers and Mark Peattie, eds, The Japanese Informal Empire in China, 1895-1937, Princeton 1989; Duus, Myers and Peattie, eds, The Japanese Wartime Empire, 1931-1945, Princeton 1996. Patrick Wolfe, 'Review Essay - History and Imperialism: a Century of Theory, from Marx to Postcolonialism,' American Historical Review, vols 102-2, April 1997, pp. 388-420. On social and cultural aspects of Japanese imperial ism other than in Manchuria, pioneering works include Peter Duus, The Abacus and the Sword: the Japanese Penetration of Korea, 1896-1910, Berkeley 1995, especially Ch. 9, and the continuing work of Jennifer Robertson on imperialism and popular theatre, briefly noted in her 'The Politics and Pursuit of Leisure in Wartime Japan', in Sepp Unhart and Sabine Friihstiick, eds, The Culture of Japan As Seen Through Its Leisure, Albany 1998. 1 The Imperial Army 1 Tanaka Akira, Bakumatsu no Chosh«, Tokyo 1965, p. 15, lists ChoshO stipends in 1852. Of 2599 retainers, 925 received less than 39 koku; only 661 received over 100 koku. This clearly contradicts Takane Masaaki's statement that Katsura originated from a low samurai family, The Pol itical Elite of lapan, Berkeley 1981, p. 96. 2 Tanaka 1965, pp. 26-31; Albert Craig, Chosh« in the Meiji Restoration, Camb. MA. 1961, pp. 58-80. 3 Craig 1961, pp. 132-7. 4 Katsura TarO, Shosekun, Tokyo 1912, p. 2. 5 Tokutomi SohO, KC1shaku Katsura TarC1-den, 2 vols., Tokyo 1917, rep. 1967, vol. 1, p. 356. 6 Katsura's childhood, Tokutomi 1917, vol. 1, pp. 37-69; Katsura 1912, pp. 5-10; Asahina Chisen, ed., Meiji KC1shin-roku, 2 vols., Tokyo 1915, v. 2, pp. 1030-1. 191 192 Notes 7 Tanaka 1965, pp. 93-6. 8 Katsura 1912, pp. 15-18. 9 Katsura 1912, pp. 30-3. Katsura's future patron, Yamagata Aritomo, a leading figure in the war, received 600 koku. Maejima Shozo, Mei;i no Genkun-tachi, Tokyo 1967, p. 41, considers the level of Katsura's award was influenced by his relatively high status within ChOShu. 10 Tokutomi 1917, vol. I, p. 308. 11 On Katsura in Berlin, Tokutomi 1917, vol. I, pp. 317-26. His fluency in German is confirmed in British Foreign Office records, F.O. 410-62, Anthony Rumbold (Tokyo), to Foreign Secretary Grey, 23 December 1912. On Japanese students in Berlin at the time, Sa kane Yoshihisa, ed., Aoki ShfIzrJ liden, Tokyo 1970, pp. 29-32. 12 Hirata and others organised a society for returned German students in 1876. Katsura became a member in 1881 and in 1887 succeeded Nishi Amane as principal of the society's school for German studies, Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, pp. 901-2. Tokutomi Soho, Rikugun TaishO Kawakami Soroku, Tokyo 1942, pp. 67-83 gives Kawakami's diary of his stay in 1887-88. 13 Tokutomi 1917, vol. I, p. 330. Matsushita Yoshio, Nihon no Gumbatsu ZO, Tokyo 1969, p. 120, suggests Katsura expected to become a lieutenant-colonel. 14 Oyama Azusa, ed., Yamagata Aritomo Ikensho, Tokyo 1966, pp. 228-40. Fujiwara Akira, Gun;ishi, Tokyo 1961, pp. 47-8, considers the 1873 con scription order virtually worthless, so broad was the range of exemptions, including householders, adopted sons, only sons and grandsons, etc. 15 On the 6th Bureau, see Matsushita Yoshio/Izu Kimio, Nihon Gun;i Hattatsushi, Tokyo 1937, pp. 172-3. 16 Matsushita Yoshio, Kindai Nihon Gun;ishi, Tokyo 1941, p. 93; Oe Shinobu, Nihon no Samba Hombu, Tokyo 1985, pp. 23-24; Tokutomi 1917, vol. I, p. 334. Roger Hackett, Yamagata Aritomo in the Rise of Modern lapan, 1838-1922, Camb. MA. 1971, p. 72, explains Yamagata's rapid change of offices instead as designed to restore order following Saigo Takamori's resignation and subsequent Satsuma disaffection. 17 Oyama 1966, pp. 57-9. 18 Sidney Brown/ Akiko Hirota, eds, The Diary of Kido Takayoshi, 3 vols., Tokyo 1986, vol. 3, pp. 99-101, entries 18, 23 November 1874. 19 Katsura 1912, p. 72. 20 Tokutomi 1917, vol. I, pp. 354-7. 21 Tokutomi 1917, vol. I, p. 372. 22 Katsura 1912, p. 73. 23 Okubo Toshiaki, 'Katsura Taro to Nihon Rikugun no Tanjo,' Chilo Koron, vol. 80-8, Aug. 1965, p. 337. 24 In the late 1890s, the army general staff was composed of five offices: no. 1 - strategy, location of forts, placement of troops; no. 2 - mobilisation, formulation of units in war and peace; no. 3 - overseas military intelligence, geography, statistics; no. 4 - transport, military communications; no. 5 - military history, journals, translation. 25 Oe 1985, pp. 31-4. 26 Miura GorO, Mei;i Hankotsu Cha;rJ Ichidai ki, Tokyo 1981, pp. 136-7. 27 Graduate figures, Nihon Kindai ShiryO Kenkynkai, ed., Nihon Riku-Kaigun Notes 193 Seido Soshiki Jin;i, Tokyo 1971, pp. 271-302; 1885 student preferences, Hayashi Saburo, Samba KyOiku, Tokyo 1984, p. 48. Estrangement of China experts, Fujiwara Akira, in Hashikawa Bunzo/Takeuchi Yoshimi, ed., Kindai Nihon to Chiigoku, vol. 1, Tokyo 1974, pp. 111-14. The preference for Western over Asian postings still existed in the 1920s according to Mark Peattie, Ishiwara Kan;i and Japan's Confrontation with the West, Princeton 1975, p. 22. The first student despatched to China was Banzai Rihachiro, graduated 1900, and patron of later China-hands Aoki Nobuzumi and Doihara Kenji. 28 Yamagata on geopolitics early in the 1880s, Oyama 1966, pp. 91-9; Fujiwara 1961, pp. 43-9; Banno ]unji, Mei;i - Shiso no Jitsuzo, Tokyo 1977, pp. 39-40. 29 Oyama 1966, pp. 137-8. 30 Tokutomi 1917, vol. 1, p. 398. 31 Katsura-Kawakami agreement, Katsura 1993, pp. 98-9. 32 Tokutomi 1942, pp. 59-64. 33 Meckel appointment, Matsushita Yoshio, Mei;i Gunsei Shiron, 2 vols., Tokyo 1956, vol. 2, pp. 58-9; Oe 1985, pp. 10-15; Hayashi 1984, pp. 41-5. On Meckel's personality and his activities in Japan, Ernst Presseisen, Before Aggression: Europeans Prepare the Japanese Army, Tucson 1965, es pecially pp. 112-37. Rivalry in army teaching, JOhO Yoshio, Rikugun Daigakko, Tokyo 1973, pp. 99-100. 34 Shinobu SeizaburO, ed., Nihon GaikiJ-shi, vol. 1, p. 128; Nakahara Nobuo, 'Ozaki Yukio ni okeru Tai-Gai KyOkO-ron no Ronri', Nihon Rekishi, no. 150, December 1960, p. 74. 35 Miura 1981, p. 95. 36 Oyama 1966, pp. 137-8, memo. 5 June 1883. 37 Umetani Noboru, 'Kaigun SambO Hombu no Setchi-ron no HasshO to Sono Rekishi-teki Seikaku', Nihon Rekishi, no. 252, May 1969, p. 72; Tokutomi 1917, vol. 1, p. 442. 38 Matsushita!Izu 1937, p. 182. The inter-service rivalry never died. Dur ing the Pacific war, Navy Minister Shimada ShigetarO was derided by juniors as the 'tea servant of Tojo' and a routine photo of Shimada standing behind TOjO angered naval officers as indicating subservience, Ben-Ami Shillony, Politics and Culture in Wartime Japan, Oxford 1981, p.46. 39 Tokutomi 1917, vol. 1, p. 413. 40 Fujiwara 1961, p. 68. 41 Miura 1981, pp. 155-6. 42 Koyama Hirotake/Asada Mitsuteru, Nihon Teikokushugi, 2 vols., Tokyo 1958, rep. 1985, vol. 1, p. 35. On Katsura, Matsushita 1969, p. 124. The Kodama committee was supported by Oyama who gave free rein to Katsura and Kawakami's abilities. On Katsura's relationship with Oyama, see his recollection in Nishimura Fuminori, Oyama Gensui, Tokyo 1917, p.225. 43 Details, Nagaoka Gaishi Monjo Kenkyakai, ed., Nagaoka Gaishi Kankei Monio: Kaikoroku-hen, Tokyo 1989, pp. 54-7; Tokutomi 1917, vol. 1, p. 462. Strictly speaking, there were only six divisions at this time. The imperial guards received divisional status in 1891. 194 Notes 44 The last Getsuyokai Kiji, no. 14, February 1889, shows new members were still joining to the very end. Oyama's letter of 20 February 1889, ordering all military groups to merge with the KaikOSha, was printed in Getsuyokai Sankai Kokoku. Getsuyokai influence in the Peers, Oe Shinobu, 'Shokuminchi Ryayu to Gumbu', Rekishigaku Kenkyil460, September 1978, p. II. 45 Oyama 1966, pp. 204-7, Yamagata speech of 16 February 189I. 46 Tokutomi 1917, vol. 1, p. 474. 2 Imperial Japan at War, 1894-95 1 For ongoing examples of these trends, Asada Kyoji, ed., 'Teikoku' Nihon to Ajia, Tokyo 1994 (see especially chapters by Asada, 'TO-Ajia no "Teikoku" Nihon', p. 3, and Kimijima Kazuhiko, 'Shokuminchi "Teikoku" e no Michi', pp. 55-6). 2 Oyama Azusa, ed., Yamagata Aritomo Ikensho, Tokyo 1966, pp. 196-20I. 3 Quoted in Joseph Pittau, 'Inoue Kowashi 1843-1895 and the formation of modern Japan', Monumenta Nipponica, no. 20, 1965, p. 273. 4 Ko Yamamoto Kaigun Taisho Denki Hensankai, ed., Hakushaku Yamamoto Gombei-den, 2 voIs., Tokyo 1938, vol. 1, pp. 325-39. 5 On Yamamoto's character, Matsushita Yoshio, Nihon Gumbatsu no Kobo, Tokyo 1975, p. 133. 6 Kawakami's tour, Tokutomi Soho, Rikugun Taisho Kawakami Soroku, Tokyo 1942, pp. 112-23. Fukushima's journey, Ian Nish, 'Japanese In telligence and the Approach of the Russo-Japanese War,' in Christopher AndrewlDavid Dilks, eds, The Missing Dimension, London 1984; Yamagata quote, Uno Shunichi, 'Nis-Shin Senso', Rekishigaku KenkyUkai/Nihonshi Kenkyilkai, eds, Koza Nihonshi 6: Nihon Teikokushugi no Keisei, Tokyo 1970, p.