Notes

Introduction: Army, Empire and Politics

1 Richard Chang, Historians and Meiji Statesmen, Gainsville 1970, pp. 42, 55. On Katsura, Tokutomi Soho, ed., KOshaku Katsura Taro-den, 2 vols., 1917; Uno Shun'ichi, ed., Katsura TarC1 Jiden, Tokyo 1993; Kobayashi Michihiko, Nihon no Tairiku Seisaku, 1895-1914, Tokyo 1996. 2 works on the Meiji army and expansion are Tsunoda Jun, Manshii Mondai to KokubC1 fflJshin, Tokyo 1967; Kitaoka Shin'ichi, Nihon Rikugun to Tairiku Seisaku, 1906-1918, Tokyo 1978; Takahashi Hidenao, Nis-Shin Senso e no Michi, Tokyo 1995. 3 Kaneko Fumio, 'Sengo Nihon Shokuminchi Kenkyu,' in Kaneko, ed., Iwanami Koza Kindai Nihon to Shokuminchi 4, Tokyo 1993. Ramon Myers and Mark Peattie, eds, The Japanese , 1895-1945, Princeton 1984; Peter Duus, Ramon Myers and Mark Peattie, eds, The Japanese Informal Empire in China, 1895-1937, Princeton 1989; Duus, Myers and Peattie, eds, The Japanese Wartime Empire, 1931-1945, Princeton 1996. Patrick Wolfe, 'Review Essay - History and : a Century of Theory, from Marx to Postcolonialism,' American Historical Review, vols 102-2, April 1997, pp. 388-420. On social and cultural aspects of Japanese imperial• ism other than in , pioneering works include Peter Duus, The Abacus and the Sword: the Japanese Penetration of , 1896-1910, Berkeley 1995, especially Ch. 9, and the continuing work of Jennifer Robertson on imperialism and popular theatre, briefly noted in her 'The Politics and Pursuit of Leisure in Wartime ', in Sepp Unhart and Sabine Friihstiick, eds, The Culture of Japan As Seen Through Its Leisure, Albany 1998.

1 The Imperial Army

1 Tanaka Akira, no Chosh«, Tokyo 1965, p. 15, lists ChoshO stipends in 1852. Of 2599 retainers, 925 received less than 39 koku; only 661 received over 100 koku. This clearly contradicts Takane Masaaki's statement that Katsura originated from a low family, The Pol• itical Elite of lapan, Berkeley 1981, p. 96. 2 Tanaka 1965, pp. 26-31; Albert Craig, Chosh« in the , Camb. MA. 1961, pp. 58-80. 3 Craig 1961, pp. 132-7. 4 Katsura TarO, Shosekun, Tokyo 1912, p. 2. 5 Tokutomi SohO, KC1shaku Katsura TarC1-den, 2 vols., Tokyo 1917, rep. 1967, vol. 1, p. 356. 6 Katsura's childhood, Tokutomi 1917, vol. 1, pp. 37-69; Katsura 1912, pp. 5-10; Asahina Chisen, ed., Meiji KC1shin-roku, 2 vols., Tokyo 1915, v. 2, pp. 1030-1.

191 192 Notes

7 Tanaka 1965, pp. 93-6. 8 Katsura 1912, pp. 15-18. 9 Katsura 1912, pp. 30-3. Katsura's future patron, , a leading figure in the war, received 600 koku. Maejima Shozo, Mei;i no Genkun-tachi, Tokyo 1967, p. 41, considers the level of Katsura's award was influenced by his relatively high status within ChOShu. 10 Tokutomi 1917, vol. I, p. 308. 11 On Katsura in , Tokutomi 1917, vol. I, pp. 317-26. His fluency in German is confirmed in British Foreign Office records, F.O. 410-62, Anthony Rumbold (Tokyo), to Foreign Secretary Grey, 23 . On Japanese students in Berlin at the time, Sa kane Yoshihisa, ed., Aoki ShfIzrJ liden, Tokyo 1970, pp. 29-32. 12 Hirata and others organised a society for returned German students in 1876. Katsura became a member in 1881 and in 1887 succeeded Nishi Amane as principal of the society's school for German studies, Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, pp. 901-2. Tokutomi Soho, Rikugun TaishO Kawakami Soroku, Tokyo 1942, pp. 67-83 gives Kawakami's diary of his stay in 1887-88. 13 Tokutomi 1917, vol. I, p. 330. Matsushita Yoshio, Nihon no Gumbatsu• ZO, Tokyo 1969, p. 120, suggests Katsura expected to become a lieutenant-colonel. 14 Oyama Azusa, ed., Yamagata Aritomo Ikensho, Tokyo 1966, pp. 228-40. Fujiwara Akira, Gun;ishi, Tokyo 1961, pp. 47-8, considers the 1873 con• scription order virtually worthless, so broad was the range of exemptions, including householders, adopted sons, only sons and grandsons, etc. 15 On the 6th Bureau, see Matsushita Yoshio/Izu Kimio, Nihon Gun;i Hattatsushi, Tokyo 1937, pp. 172-3. 16 Matsushita Yoshio, Kindai Nihon Gun;ishi, Tokyo 1941, p. 93; Oe Shinobu, Nihon no Samba Hombu, Tokyo 1985, pp. 23-24; Tokutomi 1917, vol. I, p. 334. Roger Hackett, Yamagata Aritomo in the Rise of Modern lapan, 1838-1922, Camb. MA. 1971, p. 72, explains Yamagata's rapid change of offices instead as designed to restore order following Saigo Takamori's resignation and subsequent Satsuma disaffection. 17 Oyama 1966, pp. 57-9. 18 Sidney Brown/ Akiko Hirota, eds, The Diary of Kido Takayoshi, 3 vols., Tokyo 1986, vol. 3, pp. 99-101, entries 18, 23 November 1874. 19 Katsura 1912, p. 72. 20 Tokutomi 1917, vol. I, pp. 354-7. 21 Tokutomi 1917, vol. I, p. 372. 22 Katsura 1912, p. 73. 23 Okubo Toshiaki, 'Katsura Taro to Nihon Rikugun no Tanjo,' Chilo Koron, vol. 80-8, Aug. 1965, p. 337. 24 In the late 1890s, the army general was composed of five offices: no. 1 - strategy, location of forts, placement of troops; no. 2 - mobilisation, formulation of units in war and peace; no. 3 - overseas military intelligence, geography, statistics; no. 4 - transport, military communications; no. 5 - military history, journals, translation. 25 Oe 1985, pp. 31-4. 26 Miura GorO, Mei;i Hankotsu Cha;rJ Ichidai ki, Tokyo 1981, pp. 136-7. 27 Graduate figures, Nihon Kindai ShiryO Kenkynkai, ed., Nihon Riku-Kaigun Notes 193

Seido Soshiki Jin;i, Tokyo 1971, pp. 271-302; 1885 student preferences, Hayashi Saburo, Samba KyOiku, Tokyo 1984, p. 48. Estrangement of China experts, Fujiwara Akira, in Hashikawa Bunzo/Takeuchi Yoshimi, ed., Kindai Nihon to Chiigoku, vol. 1, Tokyo 1974, pp. 111-14. The preference for Western over Asian postings still existed in the 1920s according to Mark Peattie, Ishiwara Kan;i and Japan's Confrontation with the West, Princeton 1975, p. 22. The first student despatched to China was Banzai Rihachiro, graduated 1900, and patron of later China-hands Aoki Nobuzumi and Doihara . 28 Yamagata on geopolitics early in the 1880s, Oyama 1966, pp. 91-9; Fujiwara 1961, pp. 43-9; Banno ]unji, Mei;i - Shiso no Jitsuzo, Tokyo 1977, pp. 39-40. 29 Oyama 1966, pp. 137-8. 30 Tokutomi 1917, vol. 1, p. 398. 31 Katsura-Kawakami agreement, Katsura 1993, pp. 98-9. 32 Tokutomi 1942, pp. 59-64. 33 Meckel appointment, Matsushita Yoshio, Mei;i Gunsei Shiron, 2 vols., Tokyo 1956, vol. 2, pp. 58-9; Oe 1985, pp. 10-15; Hayashi 1984, pp. 41-5. On Meckel's personality and his activities in Japan, Ernst Presseisen, Before Aggression: Europeans Prepare the Japanese Army, Tucson 1965, es• pecially pp. 112-37. Rivalry in army teaching, JOhO Yoshio, Rikugun Daigakko, Tokyo 1973, pp. 99-100. 34 Shinobu SeizaburO, ed., Nihon GaikiJ-shi, vol. 1, p. 128; Nakahara Nobuo, 'Ozaki Yukio ni okeru Tai-Gai KyOkO-ron no Ronri', Nihon Rekishi, no. 150, December 1960, p. 74. 35 Miura 1981, p. 95. 36 Oyama 1966, pp. 137-8, memo. 5 June 1883. 37 Umetani Noboru, 'Kaigun SambO Hombu no Setchi-ron no HasshO to Sono Rekishi-teki Seikaku', Nihon Rekishi, no. 252, May 1969, p. 72; Tokutomi 1917, vol. 1, p. 442. 38 Matsushita!Izu 1937, p. 182. The inter-service rivalry never died. Dur• ing the , Navy Minister Shimada ShigetarO was derided by juniors as the 'tea servant of Tojo' and a routine photo of Shimada standing behind TOjO angered naval officers as indicating subservience, Ben-Ami Shillony, Politics and Culture in Wartime Japan, Oxford 1981, p.46. 39 Tokutomi 1917, vol. 1, p. 413. 40 Fujiwara 1961, p. 68. 41 Miura 1981, pp. 155-6. 42 Koyama Hirotake/Asada Mitsuteru, Nihon Teikokushugi, 2 vols., Tokyo 1958, rep. 1985, vol. 1, p. 35. On Katsura, Matsushita 1969, p. 124. The Kodama committee was supported by Oyama who gave free rein to Katsura and Kawakami's abilities. On Katsura's relationship with Oyama, see his recollection in Nishimura Fuminori, Oyama Gensui, Tokyo 1917, p.225. 43 Details, Nagaoka Gaishi Monjo Kenkyakai, ed., Nagaoka Gaishi Kankei Monio: Kaikoroku-hen, Tokyo 1989, pp. 54-7; Tokutomi 1917, vol. 1, p. 462. Strictly speaking, there were only six divisions at this time. The imperial guards received divisional status in 1891. 194 Notes

44 The last Getsuyokai Kiji, no. 14, February 1889, shows new members were still joining to the very end. Oyama's letter of 20 February 1889, ordering all military groups to merge with the KaikOSha, was printed in Getsuyokai Sankai Kokoku. Getsuyokai influence in the Peers, Oe Shinobu, 'Shokuminchi Ryayu to Gumbu', Rekishigaku Kenkyil460, September 1978, p. II. 45 Oyama 1966, pp. 204-7, Yamagata speech of 16 February 189I. 46 Tokutomi 1917, vol. 1, p. 474.

2 Imperial Japan at War, 1894-95

1 For ongoing examples of these trends, Asada Kyoji, ed., 'Teikoku' Nihon to Ajia, Tokyo 1994 (see especially chapters by Asada, 'TO-Ajia no "Teikoku" Nihon', p. 3, and Kimijima Kazuhiko, 'Shokuminchi "Teikoku" e no Michi', pp. 55-6). 2 Oyama Azusa, ed., Yamagata Aritomo Ikensho, Tokyo 1966, pp. 196-20I. 3 Quoted in Joseph Pittau, ' 1843-1895 and the formation of modern Japan', Monumenta Nipponica, no. 20, 1965, p. 273. 4 Ko Yamamoto Kaigun Taisho Denki Hensankai, ed., Hakushaku Yamamoto Gombei-den, 2 voIs., Tokyo 1938, vol. 1, pp. 325-39. 5 On Yamamoto's character, Matsushita Yoshio, Nihon Gumbatsu no Kobo, Tokyo 1975, p. 133. 6 Kawakami's tour, Tokutomi Soho, Rikugun Taisho Kawakami Soroku, Tokyo 1942, pp. 112-23. Fukushima's journey, Ian Nish, 'Japanese In• telligence and the Approach of the Russo-Japanese War,' in Christopher AndrewlDavid Dilks, eds, The Missing Dimension, 1984; Yamagata quote, Uno Shunichi, 'Nis-Shin Senso', Rekishigaku KenkyUkai/Nihonshi Kenkyilkai, eds, Koza Nihonshi 6: Nihon Teikokushugi no Keisei, Tokyo 1970, p. 27. 7 Kawakami incident, Matsushita Yoshio, Nihon no Gumbatsu-zo, Tokyo 1969, pp. 241-2. Mutsu on domestic unrest, letter to Aoki Shilzo, 27 March 1894, in Shinobu Seizaburo, ed., Nihon Gaikoshi, Tokyo 1974, vol. 1, p. 166. 8 Katsura poem, Tokutomi Soho, ed., Koshaku Katsura Taro-den, 2 vols., Tokyo 1917, vol. 1, p. 528. Katsura on indulgence, undated order, SambO Hombu, ed., Nis-Shin Senso, draft, Sato Bunko, S223.6/S/5-7, pp. 14-15. Wartime public, Stewart Lone, Japan's First Modern War: Army and So• ciety in the Conflict with China, 1894-95, London 1994, Chs. 4-5. 9 Troop diet, Gifu Nichi Nichi Shimbun (GNN), 6, 10 January 1895; Lone 1994, pp. 73-4; summer uniforms, GNN, 8 December 1894; supply short• ages and Japanese merchant profiteering, Japan Weekly Mail, 22 December 1894, 5 January 1895; Hamamoto Risaburo, Nis-Shin Senso Jilgun Hiroku, Tokyo 1972, pp. 149-50. 10 Katsura order 1894, Tokutomi 1917, vol. 1, pp. 662-5. Katsura had long stressed military discipline e.g. Kaikl1sha Kiji, 89, July 1892, quoting his order of 20 November 1891. 11 Protection of Christians and Chinese civilians, Katsura 1993, pp. 125-31, Tokutomi 1917, vol. 1, pp. 672-8, Kawasaki Saburo, Nis-Shin Senshi, Notes 195

Tokyo 1896-97, 7 vols., vol. 4, pp. 239-41. Sakuma command, GNN, 6 November 1894; other examples, Kunaicho, ed., Meiji Tenno-ki, 12 vols., Tokyo 1968-75, vol. 8, pp. 510, 546; GNN, 6 November 1894. 12 Details of courts martial and army crimes, Sambo Hombu, Nis-Shin Senso, draft history, Sat<> Bunko, s223.6/s/4-15; Lone 1994, pp. 151-2. Port Arthur massacre, Inoue Haruki, Ryojun Gyakusatsu liken, Tokyo 1995; Lone 1994, pp. 153-63; Fujimura Michio, Nis-Shin Senso, Tokyo 1973, p. 132. 13 Quote on Chinese corpses, Hatori Keiichi, ed., Meiji 27-8-nen Sen'eki liigunki: Nozawa Takesaburo Shuki, Niigata 1974, p. 30. One example of bloodlust comes from the diary of a Japanese officer after he and his colleagues had killed two Chinese, 'We all shouted "banzai!" and there was nothing to compare with the joy', Hatori 1974, p. 69, diary entry for 30 January 1895. 14 Hamamoto 1972, pp. 32-3. Army Surgeon-General Ishiguro open letter, GNN, 6 January 1895. 15 Unidentified letter from Kyongsang-do, 25 September 1894, printed in GNN, 7 October 1894. Further details in Lone 1994, p. 61. 16 Imperial Headquarters order, 20 August 1894, Kunaicho 1968-75, vol. 8, p. 489. Insensitivity towards Koreans, GNN, 17, 18 July 1894, 6, 7 September 1894; F0881/6665, Hillier to O'Conor, 25 October 1895. Koreans at P'yongyang, GNN, 20, 21 September 1894. Actions against Korean guerrillas, Dai Hon'ei Fukukan, 'Wonsan Shubitaicho Hokoku'; Kuksa P'yonchan Wiwonhoe, ed., Kojong Sidae'sa, Seoul 1969, vol. 3, pp.617-31. 17 Andong Civil Administration Office regulations, GNN, 16 November 1894; Yamagata's notice to Chinese civilians, GNN, 8 November 1894, Geibi Nichi Nichi Shimbun, 9 November 1894, Kawasaki 1896-97, vol. 2, pp. 267-8. On 'The Devil Colonel' (Sam Tadashi), Shinobu Jumpei, Komura lutaro, Tokyo 1941, p. 61; Komatsu Midori, Meiji Gaiko Hiwa, Tokyo 1976, p. 103. 18 Tax remission, Ariga Nagao, Nis-Shin Sen'eki Kokusaiho-ron, Tokyo 1896, pp. 232-3. Japan's office at Andong had only a skeleton staff, with Komura doubling as his own receptionist, while branch offices elsewhere were staffed entirely by Chinese, GNN, 28 November, 4 December 1894. 19 October 1894 Diet, Kencho, Hiroshima Rinsenchi Nisshi, Hiroshima 1899, pp. 235-6; Lone 1994, pp. 86-7. 20 Kunaicho 1968-75, vol. 8, p. 495. 21 Kunaicho 1968-75, vol. 8, pp. 463-5, 497. Britain had already attempted in July to mediate a peaceful solution and, angered by Japan's intransi• gence, had forced Tokyo to pledge not to allow fighting in the region of Shanghai even though this would certainly obstruct Japan's war effort. 22 Tokutomi Soho, ed., Koshaku Yamagata Aritomo-den, Tokyo 1933, 3 vols., vol. 3, p. 176. 23 Ito memorandum, 4 December 1894, Kaneko Kentaro, ed., Ito Hirobumi• den, 3 vols., Tokyo 1940, vol. 3, pp. 134-8; Fujimura 1973, pp. 144-5. Yamagata recall order, Kunaicho 1968-75, vol. 8, pp. 601-2. Fujimura, p. 129, accepts on the flimsiest of hearsay evidence, the idea that Katsura was partly responsible for the health reports used to justify Yamagata's 196 Notes

recall and that Yamagata never forgave this, exacting revenge in 1913 by denying Katsura assistance in the Taisho political incident. The idea of a Yamagata vendetta is unlikely given the number of times between 1896-1901 that he supported Katsura for key positions. The rumour arose through a Dr. Egi who, at the height of the 1913 Taisho incident, told an acquaintance that Yamagata would desert Katsura because of lingering hatred from 1894, Hiratsuka Atsushi, ed., Zoku Ito Hirobumi Hiroku, Tokyo 1930, p. 118. 24 Siege of Haicheng, Katsura 1993, pp. 131-2; Tokutomi 1917, vol. 1, pp. 547-82; Samba Hombu, Nis-Shin Senso, Tokyo 1966, pp. 264-71; Matsushita 1969, pp. 128-30; Fujimura 1973, pp. 145-6. 25 Asada 1994, p. 3. 26 Imperial conference, 27 January 1895, Kunaicho 1968-75, vol. 8, pp. 649-51; Ozaki hard-line, Geibi Nichi Nichi Shimbun, 26 November 1894; Tani warning, Hirao Michio, Shishaku Tani Kanja-den, Tokyo 1935, p. 700; Katsura caution, Tokutomi 1917, vol. 1, pp. 687-9. 27 Diplomatic forewarnings to Japan, , Kenkenroku, Princeton 1982, pp. 164-5; Kunaicho 1968-75, pp. 667, 708. 28 Quoted in Michael Hunt, Frontier Defence and the Open Door, New Haven, CT 1973, p. 24. 29 Asada 1994, p. 2.

3 Empire: and 'The Taiwan Society'

1 Katsura Taro, 'Taiwan Shokan,' Taiwan Kyokai Kaiho, 1, October 1898. 2 Yano Toru, Nihon no Nanyo Shikan, Tokyo 1974, pp. 58-9. On pp. 12, 24-49, Yano distinguishes two strains of 'nanshin-ron'; one through Okinawa, Taiwan, Fujian and into the South Pacific; the other through the Ogasawara and Pacific Islands to New Guinea. The latter involved less diplomatic risk, was more open to emigration and trade, and so received greater attention from Inanshin' proponents such as Shiga Shigetaka. 3 Banno Junji, Mei;i: Shiso no Jitsuzo, Tokyo 1977, p. 99, quoting the issue of 6 April 1898. 4 Gaimusho, ed., Nihon Gaiko Bunsho, vol. 31-1, pp. 486-8, Yano () to Foreign Minister Nishi Tokujiro, 26 March 1898. 5 Harry J. Lamley, 'A Short-Lived Republic and War, 1895: Taiwan's Resist• ance against Japan', Paul Sih, ed., Taiwan in Modern Times, NY 1973, pp.245-55. 6 Fujimura Michio, Nis-Shin Senso, Tokyo 1973, p. 183. 7 17000 dead, Oe Shinobu, 'Shokuminchi Ryoya to Gumbu', Rekishigaku KenkYil, 460, September 1978, p. 14. Mutilation of Japanese civilians, and Japanese army brutality, James Davidson, The Island of Formosa, 1903, rep. Taipei 1963, p. 367; George Kerr, Formosa: Licensed Revolution and the Home Rule Movement, 1895-1945, Honolulu 1974, pp. 29-30. 8 Tokutomi Soho, Rikugun Taisho Kawakami Soroku, Tokyo 1942, p. 16l. Hara Keiichiro, ed., Hara Kei Nikki, 6 vols., Tokyo 1965-67, vol. 1, p. 230. Hara wrote, 'I argued that the navy and army ministries should Notes 197

control directly relevant affairs and not delegate authority to the governor• general, and also that customs, postal and communication matters be handled directly by the appropriate ministries. However, many disagreed with me.' On the British and French models, see Ito Hirobumi, ed., Hisho Ruisan Taiwan ShirylJ, Tokyo 1936, pp. 32-4. 9 Tokudaiji Sanenori diary, Yui Masaomi, 'Nihon Teikokushugi Ki no Gumbu', Nakamura Masanori, ed., Taikei Nihon Kokkashi 5: Kindai 2, Tokyo 1976, pp. 110-11. Indochina visit, Gifu Nichi Nichi Shimbun, 24 March 1898. 10 Tokutomi Soho, Koshaku Katsura Taro-den, 2 vols., Tokyo 1917, vol. I, pp.695-9. 11 Sugiyama Shigemaru, Katsura TaishiJ-den, Tokyo 1919, pp. 397-400; Tokutomi 1917, vol. I, p. 702; Katsura 1993, pp. 137-8. 12 Sugiyama Seiken, Taiwan Rekidai SlJtoku no Chiseki, Tokyo 1922, pp. 70-3. On army massacres of Taiwanese civilians, Katsura repeated the claim of relating to Port Arthur that these were in fact rebels in civilian dress. 13 The full memorandum is in Tokutomi 1917, vol. I, pp. 705-33. See also Katsura 1993, pp. 139-58. 14 Sugiyama 1922, p. 76, on Governor-General Nogi's respect for local cus• tom. On Governor-General Kodama and his civilian chief Got<> Shimpei, see Kobayashi Michihiko, 'Got<> Shimpei to Shokuminchi Kei'ei', Shirin, 68-5, September 1985, pp. 11-12. In the continuing debate as to whether Taiwan was a British-style colony, or an integral part of greater Japan along French lines, Katsura declared his position simply while prime minister in 1905. Asked by Oishi Masami in the House of Representa• tives, 'Is Taiwan part of Japanese territory, to be reformed and advanced, that is to be Japanised (Nihon-ka), or a colony where the natives are merely to be satisfied and rebels suppressed?' Katsura replied, 'Of course it is a colony. I do not believe it can be treated the same as the Japa• nese islands.' Quoted in Haruyama Akiyoshi/Wakabayashi Masatake, Nihon Shokuminchi-shugi no Sei;iteki Tenkai 1895-1934, Tokyo 1980, p. 34. 15 Sugiyama 1922, p. 66. 16 Sanitation and opium policies, Katsura Taro, 'Formosa: Early Adminis• tration', in Alfred Stead, ed., Japan By the Japanese, London 1904, pp. 581-5; 'care for the natives', Tokutomi 1917, vol. I, p. 721. Togo Minoru/ Sat<> Shiro, ed., Taiwan Shokumin Hattatsu-shi, Taipei 1916, p. 469, cites health figures for Taiwan during the period. 17 Katsura on local custom, Tokutomi 1917, vol. I, p. 721. Got<> appoint- ment, Ng Yuzin Chiautong, Taiwan Sotokufu, Tokyo 1981, p. 73. 18 Tokutomi 1917, vol. I, pp. 725-9. 19 Katsura (Stead) 1904, pp. 581-5. 20 Matsushita Yoshio, Nogi Maresuke, Tokyo 1960, p. 105. Estimate of ten days residence, Ng 1981, p. 64. 21 Tokutomi 1917, vol. I, pp. 739-41. 22 Tokutomi 1917, vol. I, pp. 738-47. 23 Katsura 1993, pp. 161-170; Tokutomi 1917, vol. I, p. 749. 24 Kitaoka Shinichi, GotlJ Shimpei, Tokyo 1988, p. 36, on Katsura's support for Goto. 198 Notes

25 Mizuno Jun, Taiwan Kyokai Kaiho, no. 1, p. 12; also Yamane Yukio, 'Taiwan Kyokai no Seiritsu to Sono Hatten', Ronshil Kindai Chilgoku to Nihon, Tokyo 1976, p. 176. 26 Taiwan Kyokai KaihO, no. 1, 20 October 1898. 27 Taiwan Kyokai KaihO, no. 1. 28 Taiwan Kyokai Kaiho, no. 1, 20 October 1898. Iwasaki Yanosuke and others donated 2500 yen each; Shibusawa Eiichi and Okura Kihachiro were among those giving 1000 yen. 29 Taiwan branch, Kusano Fumio, Takushoku Daigaku Hachijilnenshi, Tokyo 1980, pp. 57-9. Also present was Katsura's right-hand man in Nagoya and Manchuria, Major-General Kigoshi Yasutsuna, now chief of staff to the army in Taiwan. Branches in Japan, Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, p. 910. In , Mayor Uchiki Kanzaburo became branch secretary; branch presidents in Osaka and Nagoya were Sumitomo Kichisaemon and Tokugawa Yoshinori respectively. Membership in the Kobe and Nagoya branches never passed 100 and they closed within a short time, Yamane 1976, pp. 188, 215. 30 Nagai Minoru, ed., Jijo O-den, Tokyo 1939, pp. 326-8. 31 Taiwan Kyokai KaihO, no. 5, 25 February 1899. 32 Nagai 1939, pp. 336-42. 33 School plan, Taiwan KyiJkai KaihiJ, no. 17, February 1900, Yamane 1976, pp. 192-4. 34 Kusano 1980, p. 97. 35 Yamane 1976, p. 198. 36 Kusano 1980, pp. 99-104. 37 Katsura (Stead) 1904, p. 581. 38 The plan is discussed in Kobayashi 1985, pp. 11-12, and Tai Kuofei, 'Izawa Shuji to GotO Shimpei', in Hashikawa BunzO/Takeuchi Yoshimi, eds, Kindai Nihon to Chagoku, 2 vols., Tokyo 1974, vol. 2, pp. 159-61. 39 Chang Han-yu/Ramon Myers, 'Japanese Colonial Development Policy in Taiwan 1895-1906', Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 22-4, August 1963. 40 'I'Ogo/SatO 1916, pp. 392-3. 41 Ng 1981, pp. 82-3 breaks down Taiwan income and central subsidies. In 1906, the total ordinary income was 25656672 yen. Of this, the land tax constituted 11.6 per cent, opium 17.3 per cent, taxes on sugar 9.4 per cent, and monopolies on tobacco, salt and camphor 33.6 per cent. 42 Tai 1974, p. 164. 43 Hsu Shikai, 'Taiwan HOki Jiken', in Wagatsuma Sakae, ed., Nihon Seiji Saiban Shiroku - Meiji KiJ, Tokyo 1969, pp. 271-83. 44 'I'Ogo/SatO 1916, pp. 277-8. 45 Population figures, TogO/SatO 1916, p. 169. These show that in 1899, there were 2625709 Taiwanese, 99332 Aborigines, 33120 Japan• ese and 1292 foreigners. A decade later in 1909, there were 3064917 Taiwanese, 121981 Aborigines, 89696 Japanese, and 13591 foreigners. 46 Taiwan KyiJkai KaihiJ, no. 8, May 1899. One of these Honganji missions was presumably that razed in suspicious circumstances during the Boxer war. Notes 199

47 Togo/Sato 1916, pp. 174-82; Taya liM, no. 148, January 1911. By March 1915, 2824 people, or 554 families, had been sent from Japan. 48 Taiwan Society and Osaka Exhibition, Kusano 1980, p. 123; Ainu and Okinawans, Inoue Kiyoshi, Nihon Teikokushugi no Keisei, Tokyo 1968, p.296. 49 Toyo liM, no. 125, February 1909. Among the others, three students attended the Iwakura Railway School, one was at Tokyo Music School, and two were at Seisoku English Language School.

4 Burdens of Empire: Army Minister, 1898-1900

1 Oyama Azusa, ed., Yamagata Aritomo Ikensho, Tokyo 1966, pp. 228-40, memorandum of 15 April 1895. Army general staff, Yui Masaomi, 'Nihon Teikokushugi Seiritsu Ki no Gumbu', in Nakamura Masanori et al., eds, Taikei Nihon Kokka-shi 5 - Kindai 2, Tokyo 1976, p. 103. 2 Kaigunsho, Yamamoto Gombei to Kaigun, Tokyo 1966, pp. 346-64; Yui 1976, p. 104. Saigo estimated that Britain or in alliance with one other power could despatch five or six new-style iron-plated war• ships to the Far East. Consequently, Japan would be safe with four new warships in addition to the two already under construction. 3 Quoted in Maejima Shozo, Meiji no Genkun-tachi, Tokyo 1967, p. 72. 4 Katsura Taro, Katsura Taro liden, Tokyo 1993, p. 182. 5 Grand Chamberlain Tokudaiji Sanenori diary, in Yui 1976, p. 115. 6 Katsura 1993, pp. 184-5. 7 Tokutomi Soho, ed., Koshaku Katsura Taro-den, 2 vols., Tokyo 1917, rep. 1967, vol. I, p. 789. 8 Ozaki Yukio, Kindai Yilketsu-roku, Tokyo 1936, pp. 183-5. Ozaki flat• tered himself that he was partly responsible for the demise of both these men. Katsura actually termed the Kenseito as originating in two parties as different as 'coal and ice', Katsura 1993, p. 186. 9 Tokutomi 1917, vol. I, pp. 817-19. On Kenseito squabbles, see also Katsura 1993, pp. 187-8. 10 Katsura and 0kuma cabinet, Katsura 1993, pp. 186-96; Tokutomi 1917, vol. I, pp. 825-8. 11 Kimura Ki, ed., Okuma Shigenobu Sosho 1: Okuma Shigenobu wa Kataru, Tokyo 1969, pp. 119-20, 0kuma article, Taiyo, 1 October 1911. 12 Katsura 1993, pp. 196-202; Tokutomi 1917, vol. I, pp. 838-42. 13 Tokutomi 1917, vol. I, p. 868. Wakatsuki Reijiro, Kofiian Kaikoroku, Tokyo 1975, p. 64, describes Hoshi's implacable wearing down of those who disagreed with him. 14 Katsura and Itagaki, Katsura 1993, p. 204; on Hoshi, Katsura 1993, p. 208. Kenseito agreement, Hara Keiichiro, ed., Hara Kei Nikki, 6 vols., Tokyo 1965-67, vol. 1, p. 284, entry for 27 November 1898; Tokutomi 1917, vol. I, pp. 851-5; Kurihara KOta, Hakushaku Ito Miyoji-den, 2 vols., Tokyo 1938, vol. I, pp. 306-10. 15 KatO Fusakura, ed., Hakushaku Hirata Tosuke-den, Tokyo 1927, pp. 82-4. Hirata was a leader of the Yamagata faction in the . 16 Tokutomi 1917, vol. I, pp. 879-81. 200 Notes

17 Miyake Setsurei, Dojidaishi, vol. 3, Tokyo 1950, p. 180. 18 On Korea, Krasny Archive, vol. 52, Governor-General of Amur, Korf, and Privy Councillor Zinovieff (Head of Asiatic dept., ministry of foreign affairs), May 1888, in Chinese Social and Political Science Review, vol. 18, 1934-35, p. 236. Japanese harbours, Krasny Archive, above, Lobanoff memorandum, 25 March 1895, pp. 261-3. 19 Russian concern over Kojong, Seung Kwon Synn, The Russo-Japanese Ri• valry Over Korea, 1876-1904, Seoul 1981, pp. 206-8, loan and advisers to Korea, pp. 224-8; Andrew Nahm, 'Korea and Tsarist Russia: Russian Interests, Policy, and Involvement in Korea, 1884-1904', Korea Journal, 22-6, June 1982, p. 10. 20 Tokutomi 1917, vol. 1, pp. 870-l. 21 F.O. 800/163, Francis Bertie Papers, Bertie memo. 19 May 1899. 22 Moriyama Shigenori, Kindai Nik-Kan Kankeishi KenkYii, Tokyo 1987, p. 68; Synn 1981, pp. 258-60; C.I. Eugene Kim/Han-kyo Kim, Korea and the Politics of Imperialism, 1876-1910, Berkeley 1967, pp. 94-105. Krasny Archive, vol. 52, above p. 254, minutes of meeting, 1 February 1895. 23 Tokutomi Soh(), ed., Kl1shaku -den, 2 vols., Tokyo 1935, rep. 1976, vol. 2, pp. 760-3. 24 Moriyama 1987, p. 68. 25 Moriyama 1987, p. 69; Gaimush(), ed., Nihon Gaikl1 Bunsho (NGB), vol. 32, p. 231, Aoki to Kato, 7 March 1899. 26 Pavlov's action, NGB, vol. 32, pp. 246-7, Nakamura (Pusan) to Aoki, 10 May 1899. A summary of the incident is in Horace Allen, report to Secretary of State John Hay, 19 March 1900, in Scott S. Burnett, ed., Korean-American Relations, vol. 3, Honolulu 1989, p. 86. Japan's reac• tion, NGB, vol. 32, p. 248, Aoki to Nakamura, 13 May 1899; Yamabe Kentar(), Nikkan Gappl1 SMshi, Tokyo 1966, p. 14l. 27 NGB, vol. 32, pp. 248-52, Hioki to Aoki, 20 May 1899; Hayashi Gonsuke (Seoul) to Aoki, 12 July 1899. Moriyama 1987, pp. 72-3, notes that the army sent 50000 yen on 17 June and 95000 on 14 July for these land purchases. 28 Oyama 1966, pp. 254-5, Yamagata memo., 11 October 1899. Condi• tions at Masanp'o, NGB, vol 32, p. 266 Hayashi to Aoki, 16 and 26 September 1899. 29 NGB, vol. 32, p. 238, Vice Navy Minister Sait() to Vice Foreign Minister Takahira, 11 October 1899. Further details on Masanp'o and related issues, NGB, vol. 32, pp. 266-8, Kawakami (Masanp'o) to Aoki, 29 September, 10 October 1899; Moriyama 1987, pp. 77-8; Andrew Malozemoff, Russian Far Eastern Policy, 1881-1904, Berkeley 1958, pp. 120-3; Horace Allen to Secretary Hay, 21 April 1900, and 28 May 1901 (presumably misdated for 1900), Burnett 1989, pp. 87-8. Allen reported that Pavlov had gone to Japan to be treated for the bite of a rabid dog - given later myths surrounding the imperial army, some observers may have thought the animal was in Japanese pay! 30 'Katsura Jiden', quoted in Yamabe 1966, pp. 148-9. An alternative view came from Minister Hayashi Gonsuke in Seoul. He believed the troubles of 1899 had been essentially minor and could be overcome with mu• tual willingness. He ordered the Japanese press in Korea to limit its Notes 201

criticism of Russia, NGB, vol. 32, pp. 273-4, Hayashi to Aoki, 6 December 1899. 31 Liu and Zhang memorials, Ssu Teng-yulJohn K. Fairbank, China's Re• sponse to the West: A Documentary Survey, 1839-1925, Camb. MA. 1979, pp. 127-30. A translation of the alliance is in j.V.A. MacMurray, ed., Treaties and Agreements With and Concerning China, 1894-1919, Wash• ington DC, 1921, p. 81. 32 Naito juntaro, Seiden En Segai, Tokyo 1913, pp. 82-4; jerome Ch'en, Yuan Shih-k'ai, 2nd edn, Stanford 1972, p. 33. One of China's advisers was General von Falkenhayn, German army minister in 1914. 33 Sakeda Masatoshi, Kindai Nihon ni okeru Tai-Gai Ko Undo no KenkYii, Tokyo 1978, pp. 109-31, traces the founding of the TO-A Dobunkai. One study of some of its activities is Douglas Reynolds, 'Training Young China Hands: Too DObun Shoin and Its Precursors, 1886-1945', in Peter Duus, Ramon Myers, and Mark Peattie, eds, The Japanese Informal Em• pire in China, 1895-1937, Princeton 1989. 34 Ralph Powell, The Rise of Chinese Military Power, 1895-1912, Princeton 1955, pp. 161, 236, suggests that between 1901-3 the japanese army influence in China extended nationwide; On Colonel Aoki, Sato KOseki, BlJryaku Shl1gun Aoki Nobuzumi, Tokyo 1943, pp. 18-21. Chinese stu• dents in japan, Saneto Keishu, Chiigoku;in Nihon Ryugakushi, 2nd edn, Tokyo 1970, pp. 65-8 for the Seijo School. On Zhang, Daniel Bays, China Enters the Twentieth Century: Chang Chih-tung and the Issues of a New Age, Ann Arbor 1978, p. 45. 35 Oyama 1966, pp. 252-3, memo. of 27 May 1899. See also Yamagata's earlier remarks in Kokumin Shimbun, 8 March 1898. 36 NGB, vol. 30, p. 959, Shimamura (Honolulu) to Okuma, 17 April 1897, cites a population survey from September 1896 which shows: Hawai• ians 39504, Japanese 24407, Chinese 21 616, Americans 3086, English 2259, Germans 1432. 37 On President McKinley's view of Japan and Hawaii, Tyler Dennett, Ameri• cans in Eastern Asia, Boston 1922, p. 612. Komura quote, Gaimusho, ed., Komura GaiklJshi, Tokyo 1966, pp. 130-1. 38 Hoshi suggestion, NGB, vol. 30, pp. 978-81, Hoshi to Okuma, 17 and 19 June 1897. 39 NGB, vol. 30, pp. 1050-2, Shimamura to Okuma, 20 October 1897, enclosing open letter from Morgan to The Independent, 16 October 1897.

5 The Boxer War

1 Horikawa Tetsuo, Chiigoku Kindai no Sei;i to Shakai, Tokyo 1981, p. 140. On the decline of Qing state services, Kenneth Pomeranz, The Making of a Hinterland: State, Society and Economy in Inland China, 1853-1937, Berkeley 1993. 2 Muramatsu YUji, Giwadan no Kenkyii, Tokyo 1976, pp. 166-8. 3 Tokutomi Soho, KlJshaku Matsukata Masayoshi-den, 2 vols., Tokyo 1935, rep. 1976, vol. 2, p. 796, Hirata Tosuke letter to Yamagata, 3 June 1900; Katsura 1993, pp. 211-12. 202 Notes

4 Hara Keiichiro, ed., Hara Kei Nikki, 6 vols., Tokyo 1965-67, vol. 2, p. 146, entry for 16 August 1905; Tokutomi Soho, ed., Koshaku Katsura Taro-den, 2 vols., Tokyo 1917, rep. 1967, vol. 1, p. 889. Tokutomi ident• ifies Katsura's opponent only as 'one of his colleagues'. 5 Boxers as anti-Christian, Nishi Tokujiro (Beijing) to Foreign Minister Aoki, 28 April 1900, Gaimusho, ed., Nihon Gaikl1 Bunsho (NGB), vol. 33-1, p. 322. NGB vol. 33-1, pp. 2-4, Nishi (Beijing) to Aoki, 6 March, 26 April 1900; Nishi to Aoki, 22 May 1900, NGB, vol. 33-1, p. 4, as• serts, 'the Chinese government will ensure that the rebels do not reach Beijing'. Aoki's repeated insistence on joint action with the West, NGB, vol. 33-1, pp. 320-4, Aoki to Nishi, 27 April, 3 May, 25 May 1900. On 27 April, he wrote, 'Even though we do not share the Western religion, when the Boxers and other rebels disturb social order and threaten foreign residents, you should act in the same manner as the Western representatives' . 6 Yamamoto Shiro, ed., Nikki, (hereafter Terauchi Nikki), Kyoto 1980, p. 67. 7 NGB, vol. 33-1, p. 326, Nishi to Aoki, 28 May 1900; Claude MacDonald, 'The Japanese Detachment During the Defence of the Peking Legations, 1900', Transactions and Proceedings of the Japan Society, vol. 12, 1914, p. 4. 8 NGB, vol. 33-1, p. 334, Nishi to Aoki, 1 June 1900; Aoki to Nishi, 2 June 1900. 9 NGB, vol. 33-1, p. 19, Tei () to Aoki, 8 June 1900; p. 339, Nishi to Aoki, 8 June 1900. 10 Situation in Beijing, MacDonald 1914, pp. 6-7. Sugiyama incident, NGB, vol. 33-1, pp. 32-5, Nishi to Aoki, 17 June 1900. 11 Oka Yoshitake, et al., ed., Konoe Atsumaro Nikki, (hereafter Konoe Nikki), 6 vols., Tokyo 1968, vol. 3, pp. 202-8, entries for 30 June and 4 July 1900. 12 Kotoku quote, Shimomura FUjio, 'Yoron no Atsuryoku to Shihon no Atsuryoku', Rekishi Kyaiku, 10-2, February 1962, p. 47. Kotoku on the Boxer war, Kobayashi Kazumi, Giwadan Sensa to Meiji Kokka, Tokyo 1986, pp.463-84. 13 Katsura 1993, pp. 214-15; Tokutomi 1917, vol. 1, p. 894. 14 Yamamoto memorandum, 24 June 1900, NGB, vol. 33-3, pp. 940-5. 15 Katsura 1993, p. 216. 16 Gaimusho, ed., Komura Gaika-shi, (hereafter Komura), Tokyo 1966, p. 157. 17 Komura, p. 158. 18 Terauchi Nikki, p. 70, entry for 29 June 1900. Japan relied on Yuan Shikai for information, NGB, vol. 33-1, pp. 38, 66, Odagiri (Shanghai) to Aoki, 26 June, 26 July 1900. 19 Russian views, NGB, vol. 33-1, p. 396, Kat<> (Taku) to Aoki, 3 July 1900; see also p. 399, Japanese military attache at St Petersburg to Army Chief of Staff, 6 July 1900. French media, NGB, vol. 33-1, p. 354, Kurino Shinichiro (Paris) to Aoki, 13 June, p. 416, 20 July 1900. On Mitford, NGB, vol. 33-1, p. 416, Kurino (Paris) to Aoki, 20 July 1900. Kurino returned to Mitford's letter and its effect in France on 28 July 1900, pp. 428-31, and enclosed a Japanese translation. Notes 203

20 Katsura 1993, p. 218. A report by Fukushima from Tianjin is noted in Terauchi Nikki, p. 71, entry for 5 July 1900. Terauchi on allied contin• gents in August, Yamamoto ShirO, ed., Terauchi Masatake Kankei Monio: ShushO Izen, (hereafter Terauchi Monio), Kyoto 1984, pp. 39-40. This shows Britain with about 10000 men, Russia 6000, the 5000, France 3000, and Germany 250 marines. The Chinese appeal, warning Japan its own independence was at stake if China collapsed, is in Shinobu SeizaburO, ed., Nihon GaikiJshi, 2 vols., Tokyo 1974, vol. I, p.205. 21 Kuroda Koshiro, Gensui Terauchi Hakushaku-den, Tokyo 1920, pp. 215-16. 22 Terauchi Nikki, pp. 71-4, entries for 9-22 July 1900; Kuroda 1920, p. 217. Yamagata instruction on united military strategy, Terauchi Monio, pp.37-8. 23 Terauchi on supreme commander, 4 August 1900, Kuroda 1920, p. 227. Ito's view, Hattori Shiso, Meiji no Seijika-tachi, 2 vols., Tokyo 1954, vol. 2, p. 115. 24 Peter Duus, The Abacus and the Sword: the Japanese Penetration of Korea, 1895-1910, Berkeley CA 1995, p. 171. 25 Aoki on avoiding problems in Korea, NGB, vol. 33-2, Aoki to Hayashi, 19 June 1900. Hayashi (Seoul) response, NGB, vol. 33-2, p. 375, Hayashi to Aoki, 21 June 1900; Ichikawa Masaki, ed., Nik-Kan Gaiko Shiryo 8: Hogo oyobi Heigo, Tokyo 1964, p. 422. 26 Korean border situation, NGB, vol. 33-2, p. 375, Hayashi to Aoki, 18 June 1900, p. 384, Hayashi to Aoki, 16 July 1900, p. 389, Shinsho (P'yongyang) to Aoki, 20 July 1900. Japanese consular reports showed no Chinese incursion, NGB, vol. 33-2, pp. 386-9, Shinsho (P'yongyang) to Aoki, 20 July 1900. Kojong's envoy, Ichikawa 1964, pp. 423-5; Konoe Nikki, vol. 3, p. 243, entry for 19 July 1900. 27 NGB, vol. 33-2, pp. 379-80, 389-91, Hayashi to Aoki, 5 and 23 July 1900. 28 Konoe Nikki, vol. 3, p. 247, entry for 21 July 1900. NGB, vol. 33-2, p. 386, Hayashi to Aoki, 19 July 1900, shows Pavlov in Seoul made the same proposal to Hayashi. NGB, vol. 33-2, pp. 401-8, Hayashi to Aoki, 2-6 August 1900, shows that, on 23 July, Pavlov suggested to Kojong that he request Russian peacekeeping troops in north Korea and Japa• nese troops in the south. His reasoning, as he informed Kojong somewhat tactlessly, was, 'I hear your troops usually loot and maltreat the people when they enter the provinces. Should they do so when defending the north, you will have your own uprising brewing even before there are rebels on your borders.' 29 Opinions of cabinet and elder statesmen, Konoe Nikki, vol. 3, p. 247, entry for 21 July 1900. Konoe and Torio et al., Konoe Nikki, vol. 6, p. 64, entry for 22 July 1900. 30 Oka, vol. 6, pp. 66-7, entry for 30 July 1900. 31 GotO view, Konoe Nikki, vol. 6, p. 65, entry for 23 July 1900; Konoe group decisions, Konoe Nikki, vol. 3, pp. 251-3, entries for 25-27 July 1900, vol. 6, p. 66, entries for 26-27 July 1900; Boxer scheme, vol. 3, p. 265, entry for 6 August 1900. 204 Notes

32 Attempt to intimidate Ito, Konoe Nikki, vol. 3, pp. 274-80, entries for 17-18 August 1900. The Ito cabinet was satisfied with the Nishi-Rosen agreement and rejected a further proposal from Russia in January 1901 to neutralise Korea, F.O. 46/538, Hayashi Tadasu (London) to Foreign Secretary Lansdowne, 29 January 1901; Krasny Archive, Japanese govern• ment to Lamsdorf, 9 January 1901. 33 Kokumin Domeikai, see Sakai Yukichi, 'Konoe Atsumaro to Meiji SanjGnendai no Tai-Gai Koha', Kokka Gakkai Zasshi, 83-3, August 1970, and Sakeda Masatoshi, Kindai Nihon ni okeru Tai-Gai KylJklJ UndlJ no Kenkyii, Tokyo 1978, Ch. 3. 34 Oyama Azusa, Yamagata Aritomo Ikensho, Tokyo 1966, pp. 255-64. 35 Oyama Azusa, Nihon GaiklJshi Kenkyu, Tokyo 1980, pp. 198-200. 36 Saito Seiji, 'Amoy Jiken Saiko', Nihonshi Kenkyii, 305, January 1988, pp. 32-3. 37 Saito Makoto diary, 13 August 1900, quoted in Saito 1988, pp. 33-4. 38 Oyama 1980, p. 204. 39 Terauchi Papers, 121-17, Kodama letter 17 August 1900; also quoted in Yui Masaomi, 'Nihon Teikokushugi Seiritsu Ki no Gumbu', Nakamura Masanori et al., eds, Taikei Nihon Kokkashi: Kindai 2, Tokyo 1976, p. 126. Kodama on withdrawing warships, Saito 1988, p. 36. 40 Katsura order, Saito 1988, p. 37; Oyama 1980, p. 205; Yui 1976, p. 126. See also Ian Nish, 'Japan's Indecision During the Boxer Disturbances', Journal of Asian Studies, 20-4, August 1961, pp. 451-3. One scholar stress• ing the army's lead over Amoy is Nakayama Jiichi, in Shinobu Seizaburo, ed., Nihon Gaikoshi, 2 vols., Tokyo 1974, vol. 1, p. 208. 41 Terauchi Papers, 121-18, Kodama letter 25 August 1900. 42 F.O. 46/535, Aoki to Hayashi Tadasu, 28 August 1900. 43 Katsura-Yamamoto dispute, NGB, vol. 33-3, pp. 945-6, appendix to Yamamoto memorandum, 24 June 1900. Katsura-Yamamoto telegram, Saito 1988, p. 46; Oyama 1980, pp. 207-8; Yui 1976, p. 127. Aoki to British government, F.O. 46/535, Aoki to Hayashi, 29 August 1900. 44 The description of Beijing is Ernest Satow's in G.A. Lensen, ed., Korea and Manchuria Between Russia and Japan 1895-1904: the Observations of Sir Ernest Satow, Tokyo 1968, p. 12. Western 'tomb-robbers' included British Minister Claude MacDonald, correspondents Putnam Weale, Henry Savage-Landor, and George Morrison of The Times, ].O.P. Bland Papers, draft memoirs, Ch. 10, p. 6. On Tang Shaoyi, Bland Papers, diary, 25 May 1906. 45 Katsura 1993, p. 222; Tokutomi 1917, vol. 1, pp. 901-2. Matsushita Yoshio, Riku-Kaigun Sodoshi, Tokyo 1965, pp. 171-9, reports some cases of looting by Japanese officers in Beijing. 46 Terauchi Nikki, p. 80, entries for 4-6 September 1900; Terauchi Papers, 104-2, Katsura letter, 7 September 1900. 47 P.O. 46/535, Japanese Govt. to Lansdowne, 19 November 1900. 48 Katsura plans, Tokutomi 1917, vol. 1, pp. 949-51; Ito Hirobumi Kankei Monjo KenkyOkai, ed., Itl] Hirobumi Kankei Monio, 9 vols., Tokyo 1974-81, vol. 3, p. 356, Katsura letters to Ito, 14 and 19 November 1900; Terauchi Nikki, pp. 89-91, entries for 15-30 November 1900. Notes 205

6 Political Campaigns: Prime Minister, 1901-4

1 Krasny Archiv, Izvolski to Foreign Minister Lamsdorf, 1 March 1901, Chinese Social and Political Science Review, vol. 18, 1934-35, pp. 585-8. 2 Uno Shunichi, 'Dai-Ichi-ji Katsura Naikaku', Hayashi Shigeru/Tsuji Kiyoaki, eds, Nihon Naikaku Shiroku, 5 vols., Tokyo 1981, vol. 1, p. 374. Nakagawa Kojuro, Kindai Nihon no Seikyoku to Saionji Kimmochi, Tokyo 1987, pp. 1-2. On opposition to Ito from Konoe and his group, Oka Yoshitake et al., ed., Konoe Atsumaro Nikki, 6 vols., Tokyo 1968, vol. 4, pp. 26, 45, entries for 22 January, 9 February 1901. 3 Tokutomi Soho, ed., Koshaku Katsura Taro-den, 2 vols., Tokyo 1917, vol. 1, pp. 966-72; Katsura Taro, Katsura Taro liden, Tokyo 1993, pp. 234-6; Tokutomi Soho, ed., Koshaku Matsukata Masayoshi-den, 2 vols., Tokyo 1935, rep. 1976, vol. 2, pp. 808-9; Uno 1981, pp. 367-71. 4 Tokutomi 1917, vol. 1, p. 972. 5 Tokutomi 1917, vol. 1, pp. 970-81; Uno 1981, pp. 370-2; Nakagawa 1987, pp. 4-6. 6 Takahashi Tetsutaro, Katsura Ko Kozai Shiron, Tokyo 1914, pp. 9-11. Nagashima on Katsura's appetite for politics, Nagashima Ryuji, Seikai Hiwa, Tokyo 1928, p. 90. 7 Yamamoto's retention as navy minister, Kaigun Daijin Kambo, ed., Yamamoto Gombei to Kaigun, Tokyo 1966, pp. 123-6; Tokutomi 1917, vol. 1, p. 972, Inoue letter to Katsura, 25 May 1901. There was talk of Yamamoto insulting Katsura in cabinet, Ito Miyoji Diary, Library, Tokyo, entry for 9 October 1901. This reference courtesy of Dr Andrew Fraser. 8 Katsura letter inviting Komura to cabinet, Shinobu Jumpei, Komura lutaro, Tokyo 1942, p. 104. At school in the 1870's, Komura purchased a photo• graph of 0kuma Shigenobu and inscribed on the back, 'To Mr. Komura from his friend 0kuma', which he then pretended was genuine to his classmates, Shinobu, p. 30. It should be noted this was before 0kuma became a party leader. 9 Gaimusho, Komura Gaikoshi, (hereafter Komura), Tokyo 1966, pp. 206--15; summary in Honda Kumataro, Tamashii no Gaiko, Tokyo 1941, pp. 6--8. 10 Katsura on Sugiyama mission, Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, pp. 3-5, letter to Yamagata. Loan discussions between Aoki and German financiers and Sone and the French, British Foreign Office Records, P.O. 46/540, ].B. Whitehead to Lansdowne, 22 July 1901. Inoue also helped by entering highly secret discussions with an American financier in Tokyo, Katsura papers, 16--6, 16--8, 16--16, Inoue letters, 22 June, 29 July, 12 September 1901. Collapse of US negotiations, Tokutomi 1917, vol. 1, pp. 1005-7; Uno 1981, p. 375. 11 Hara Keiichiro, ed., Hara Kei Nikki, (hereafter Hara Nikki), 6 vols., Tokyo 1965-67, vol. 1, p. 374, entry for 18 December 1901; Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, pp. 12-14. 12 Negotiations in Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, pp. 19-22; Uno 1981, pp. 388-9; Hara Nikki, vol. 1, pp. 381-2, entry for 25 December 1901. Ito tele• grams to Seiyukai, Hara Nikki, vol. 1, p. 369 and 373, entries for 4 and 18 December 1901. 206 Notes

13 Tokutomi 1917, vol. 1, pp. 1055-7. The Chinese minister's comment on imperial decline is in J.O.P. Bland's draft memoirs (Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto), Ch. 12, p. 5. 14 Katsura letter to Ito, 28 August 1901, Ito Hirobumi Kankei Monjo KenkyUkai, ed., Ito Hirobumi Kankei Monio, (hereafter Ito Monio), 9 vols., Tokyo 1974-81, vol. 3, pp. 359-60. Tokutomi 1917, vol. 1, p. 1064; Masumi Junnosuke, Nihon Seitoshi-ron, 7 vols., Tokyo 1966, vol. 2, p. 401. On travel expenses, Katsura asked the palace for 30000 yen but Imperial Household Minister Tanaka Mitsuaki, a former opponent from the Getsuyo kai affair, offered only a gold watch and table-cloth as parting gifts; Katsura was forced to beg a loan of 20 000 yen from . The works by Ian Nish on Ito's trip and the alliance with Britain include, The Anglo-Japanese Alliance, London 1966, 2nd edn 1985; 'British Foreign Secretaries and Japan, 1892-1905', B.J. McKercher/D.J. Moss, eds, Shadow and Substance in British Foreign Policy, Edmonton 1984; 'Ito Hirobumi in St Petersburg, 1901', G. Daniels, ed., Europe Interprets Japan, Tenterden 1984. On Kurino, Hiratsuka Atsushi, Shishaku Kurino Shinichiro-den, Tokyo 1942, esp. pp. 255-9. Kurino was appointed on 20 September 1901. 15 Speed of Britain's response and Katsura's impatience for ItO to com• plete his trip, Tokutomi 1917, vol. 1, pp. 1075, 1080, Katsura telegrams to Ito, 17, 20, 27 November 1901; Hara Nikki, vol. 2, p. 3, entry for 12 February 1902. Katsura's attempt to blame Ito for the resulting confu• sion, Tokutomi 1917, vol. 1, p. 1060. 16 F.O. 800/134, Lansdowne Papers, Lansdowne to MacDonald (Tokyo), 31 March 1902. 17 Details of naval expansion, F.O. 46/555, MacDonald to Lansdowne, 30 October 1902. British concern over Japanese financing, F.O. 46/552, MacDonald to Lansdowne, 2 July 1902. 18 Sakeda Masatoshi et ai., ed., Tokutomi Soho Kankei Monio, 2 vols., Tokyo 1985, vol. 2, p. 67, Katsura letter, 9 August 1902. On Ito's apparent support, Katsura Papers, 70-38, Yamagata letter 29 April 1902. 19 Hara Nikki, vol. 2, pp. 28-33, entries for 15 September, 29 October, 6 and 7 November 1902. 20 Katsura Papers, 66--2, Utsumi Tadakatsu letter, 10 November 1902; Katsura 1993, p. 264; Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, pp. 35-7; Ito Monio, vol. 3, p. 362, Katsura letter, 30 November 1902; Hara Nikki, vol. 2, pp. 34-5, entries for 14 and 25 November 1902. 21 Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, pp. 37-41, 56; Hara Nikki, vol. 2, pp. 36--9, entries for 25, 29 November, 2, 4, 5 December 1902. Nakagawa 1987, p. 10, gives Katsura bumping into Saionji in the palace on 6 December and asking tearfully, 'What on earth do you intend to do with me?' To which Saionji cheerfully replied, 'Well, it can't be helped, can it.' The story no doubt amused Katsura's enemies. 22 Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, pp. 43-7, letter of 6 December 1902; Katsura 1993, p. 267. 23 Katsura speeches, Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, pp. 49-57, letter to Yamagata, 14 December 1902, pp. 59-61. Government campaign against Ito and the coalition, Hara Nikki, vol. 2, pp. 40-2, entries for 12 and 23 December 1902. Notes 207

24 Diet member on military parity, Mochizuki Kotaro in Matsushita, pp. 522-3. Meetings with Konoe and Ito, Hara Nikki, vol. 2, p. 41, entries for 19-20 December 1902. Katsura talks with Inukai et aI, Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, pp. 71-7. Government non-interference in election, Hara Nikki, vol. 2, p. 53, entry for 5 March 1903. 25 Hayama talks, Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, pp. 82-3; Katsura Papers, 70-47, Yamagata Aritomo letter, 26 January 1903; Kat5 Fusakura, ed., Hakushaku Hirata TOsuke-den, Tokyo 1927, pp. 105-6. Discontent with closeted politics, Katsura Papers, 66-3, Utsumi Tadakatsu letter to Sone, 29 January 1903; Hara Nikki, vol. 2, pp. 55-8, entries for 12 March, 25 April 1903. 26 ItO's unreliability, Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, p. 114, Katsura letter to Yamagata, 19 May 1903. Yamagata response, Katsura Papers, 70-51, Yamagata letter 19 May 1903. 27 SeiyUkai factions and resignations, Hara Nikki, vol. 2, pp. 57-66, entries for 14-18 April, 20, 21 May, 6 June 1903. 28 Katsura on battle with the Diet, Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, pp. 114-16. On Ito's party dealings and links with Katsura, Hara Nikki, vol. 2, pp. 61-4, entries for 23-31 May 1903. 29 Okamoto Shumpei, The Japanese Oligarchy and the Russo-Japanese War, NY 1970, pp. 69-71, details the conference at Murin'an. On Britain's position, Lord Lansdowne cabinet memorandum, 10 September 1903, in Briton Cooper Busch, Hardinge of Penshurst, Connecticut 1980, p. 66. 30 Katsura resignation, Tokutomi, vol. 2, pp. 132-7; Ito's conspiracy be• lief, papers, vol. 28, p. 364, Tsudzuki Keiroku letter, undated; SeiyUkai response, Hara Nikki, vol. 2, pp. 69-72, entries for 7-19 July 1903. 31 Hara Nikki, vol. 2, p. 90, entry for 5 February 1904. Kodama predic• tion, Watanabe Ryasaku, Kindai Nit-Cha Seiji Koshoshi, Tokyo 1977, p. 95. See also Terauchi Masatake letter to Yamagata, 29 April 1903, in Tsunoda Jun, Mansha Mondai to Kokubo Hoshin, Tokyo 1967, p. 162. 32 Oyama memorial in Rikugunsho, ed., Meiji Gunjishi, 2 vols., Tokyo 1966, vol. 2, pp. 1243-4, 1256. Minister Yamamoto had no interest in conti• nental expansion and refused to allow the navy chief of staff to counter-sign the memorial. A list of Kogetsukai members is in Okamoto 1970, p. 73. On police guards for Ito and Okuma, F.O. 46/567, MacDonald to Lansdowne, 22 November 1903. 33 Tomizu Kondo, 'Kaikoroku', in Imai ShOji, ed., Gendai Nihon Kiroku Zensha 7: Seiji to Gaiko, Tokyo 1971, pp. 111-23. In fact, the doctors were not all pro-war. Some advocated war only as a last resort, while Tomizu urged pre-emptive war to win 'living space' in Asia following immigra• tion barriers against Japanese in America and Australia. See also Somura Yasunobu, Kindaishi Kenkya Nihon to Chagoku, Tokyo 1977, pp. 80-3; Ito Masanori, Shimbun Gojanenshi, Tokyo 1943, p. 173. 34 Katsura and activists, Ito Monjo, vol. 3, p. 367, Katsura letter, 10 No• vember 1903; Komura, p. 343; Okamoto 1970, p. 84. Miyaji Masato, 'Kokuminshugi-teki Tai-gai Koha-ron', Shigaku Zasshi, vol. 80, nos. 11-12, Nov-Dec 1971, p. 4. 35 On Kono's action, Hara Nikki, vol. 2, pp. 83-5, entries for 2-11 December 1903. 208 Notes

36 Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, pp. 121-2, 160. 37 Yamagata quote, Katsura Papers, 70-54, Yamagata letter, 19 August 1903; also quoted in Tsunoda 1967, p. 220. On Ito's apparent resignation to war, Katsura Papers, 70-62, Yamagata letter, 25 November 1903. Hara meeting, Hara Nikki, vol. 2, pp. 87-8, entry for 5 January 1904. 38 Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, pp. 185-7. On rumours of Russian intentions, Katsura Papers, 70-64, Yamagata letter, 5 December 1903; EO. 46/567, MacDonald to Lansdowne, 25 December 1903. 39 Katsura Papers, 70-65, Yamagata letter, 21 December 1903; Tsunoda 1967, p. 224. Yamagata sent similar messages to Terauchi and Kodama. 40 Katsura-Terauchi visit to Yamagata, Tsunoda 1967, p. 225. Imperial head• quarters, Morimatsu Toshio, Dai Hon'ei, Tokyo 1980, p. 114. 41 Gaimusho, ed., Nihon Gaiko Nempyo narabi Shuyo Bunsho, 2 vols., Tokyo 1965, vol. 1, pp. 217-19; EO. 46/567, MacDonald to Lansdowne, 26 December 1903. Katsura and Komura rejection of Chinese approaches, Komura, p. 304, Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, p. 214. Proposal to bring China in to the war, Terauchi Nikki, p. 190, entry for 9 December 1903. 42 Chinese military assistance, Sa to KOSeki, BCJryaku SMgun Aoki Nobuzumi, Tokyo 1943, pp. 9-10, 63-7, 397-401; Doihara Kenji Kankokai, ed., Hiroku Doihara Kenji, Tokyo 1972, pp. 35-7; Louis T. Sigel, Tang Shao-yi (1860- 1938): The Diplomacy of Chinese Nationalism, unpub. PhD, Harvard University 1972, p. 134. As early as July 1902, during discussions in London pursuant to the Anglo-Japanese alliance, Major-General Fukushima had already stated that the Chinese in Manchuria would be sympa• thetic to Japan and Britain in the event of war, and would 'actively help the troops in the matter of transport and supplies', F.O. 46/560, British war office, letter to foreign office, 24 July 1902. 43 Kindai Chagoku Kenkya 1M, Tokyo 1981, pp. 1-5, Major-General Semba TarO, commander Japanese forces Tianjin, letter to Major-General , 11 December 1903; Stephen MacKinnon, Power and Politics in Late Imperial China: Yuan Shih-k'ai in Tianjin and Beijing, 1901-8, Berkeley CA 1980, p. 73; Doihara 1972, p. 47. The Chinese military reorganisation bureau was established in December 1903. Banzai, recalling this time thirty years later, described how the nineteen or so Japanese army instructors in Tianjin avoided contravening the nomi• nally secret Sino-Russian treaty by growing long hair and sporting Chinese dress. 44 Ito proposal, and Katsura request to be replaced, Hirata TOsuke diary, in KatO 1927, pp. 314-17; also Katsura Papers, 71-4, Yamamoto Gombei letter, 29 January 1904.

7 Wars and Peace, 1904-5

1 On the impossibility of a Russian indemnity, Inoue Kaoru told the na• tion's bankers at Katsura's official residence on 28 January 1904; 'We have come to the point where we must gamble the fate of the na• tion .... Even if we are victorious, there will be no indemnity', Sakatani YoshirO papers quoted in Uno Shunichi, 'Dai Ichiji Katsura Naikaju', Notes 209

Hayashi Shigeru/Tsuji Kiyoaki, eds, Nihon Naikaku Shiroku, 5 vols. Tokyo 1981, vol. I, p. 404. 2 Denis and Peggy Warner, The Tide at Sunrise: a History of the Russo• Japanese War, 1904-1905, London 1975, p. 204. 3 Ichikawa Masaaki, ed., Nik-Kan GaikiJ ShiryiJ 8: Hogo Oyobi HeigiJ, Tokyo 1964, rep. 1980, pp. 14-15, details the negotiations and terms of the agreement of 23 February 1904. 4 Kodama plan, Morimatsu Toshio, Dai Hon'ei, Tokyo 1980, pp. 121-3; Oe Shinobu, Nihon no SambiJ Hombu, Tokyo 1985, pp. 90-3; Yamamoto Shiro, ed., Terauchi Masatake Nikki, (hereafter Terauchi Nikki), Kyoto 1980, pp. 225-6, 239, entries for 7-10 and 24-25 April 1904. The Manchurian staff included Major . On discriminatory treatment of re• ports by the Manchurian command, Oe 1985, pp. 110-12. Terauchi's comment, F.O. 46/593, MacDonald to Lansdowne, 2 August 1905. 5 Morrison quote, J.O.P. Bland Papers, draft memoir, Ch. 2, p. 10. On Tokutomi, John D. Pierson, Tokutomi Sohli: A Journalist for Modern Japan, Princeton 1980, pp. 278-9, and Sakeda Masatoshi et al., ed., Tokutomi Soho Kankei Monjo, 3 vols., Tokyo 1982-85, vol. 2, p. 382, Yamagata letters, 15 and 22 June 1904; On James' departure, J.O.P. Bland Papers, letter to London, 19 September 1904, notes, 'James is a good man, but I fear that if he talked to the Japanese military men as he talks to Uapanese Consul] Odagiri here, their desire to put him under arrest is not entirely surprising!'. On the Oyama send-off, Bland Papers, Bland to Morrison, 15 July 1904. Japanese correspondents, however, faced equal restrictions, Ito Masanori, Shimbun Gojiinenshi, Tokyo 1943, pp. 183-5. The anger of Japanese entrepreneurs denied access to Yingkou by the Japanese army in Manchuria is noted at length in Gifu Nichi Nichi Shimbun, 2 August 1904. 6 Quote from P.A. McKenzie, From Tokyo to Tif/is, London 1905, p. 277, and fear of attack on journalists by Japanese troops, pp. 272-3. 7 Terauchi quote, Terauchi Nikki, p. 269, 15 September 1904. Prewar ap• peals for British finance, P.O. 46/576, Lansdowne to MacDonald, I, 5, 6, January 1904 and P.O. 46/577, MacDonald to Lansdowne, 14 Janu• ary 1904. 8 Katsura speeches in Tokutomi Soho, Koshaku Katsura Taro-den, 2 vols., Tokyo 1917, vol. 2, p. 202-6. See also his speech as home minister, 12 February 1904, in Taikakai, ed., Naimushoshi, 4 vols., Tokyo 1982, vol. 4, p. 342. Yamagata letter, 9 February 1904, quoted in Uno 1970, p. 409. 9 Baron Suyematsu (sic), The Risen Sun, London 1905, pp. 294-5. See also, Suyematsu, 'The Problem of the Far East', in Alfred Stead, ed., Japan By the Japanese, London 1904. Ito Hirobumi Kankei Monjo KenkyUkai, ed., Ito Hirobumi Kankei Monjo, 9 vols., 1974-81, vol. 4, p. 93, gives a secret report to Katsura from Kaneko on 3 April 1904, describing American opinion as mixed but with the major cities presently favouring Japan and even San Francisco, hitherto aggressively anti-Japanese, at this time reversing its stance. On Japanese wartime propaganda, Robert Valliant, 'The Selling of Japan', Monumenta Nipponica, 29-4, 1974. 10 Katsura interview reported in F.O. 46/578, MacDonald to Foreign Secre• tary Lansdowne, 29 May 1904. Katsura also attacked the idea that Japan's 210 Notes

modernisation was a superficial copy of the West, insisting: 'Japan is an old country with a history which it will always read with a proper pride, for the civilisation of what we now call Old Japan was one of a high order, and comprised elements which New Japan has no desire to change.... The old tree still stands but the new branches have been grafted into the tree.' 11 Katsura explained his readiness to work with the parties in terms he knew Yamagata would accept, telling him; 'On the question of national unity, we would lose face and authority overseas, particularly towards our enemy, if all kinds of debate were to boil over the Diet floor', letter of 21 March 1904, in Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, pp. 220-1. Terauchi Nikki, pp. 218-19, entries for 15-19 March 1904, includes the police report; Hara Keiichiro, ed., Hara Kei Nikki, (hereafter Hara Nikki), vol. 2, pp. 92-6, entries for 5-26 March 1904, for government-party negotiations. 12 Katsura letter to Yamagata, 18 May 1904, 'I want the difficulties of the situation to waken [the bankers] from their complacent dreams', in Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, p. 222. Paraphase of Kobe Chronicle in P.O. 46/ 578, MacDonald to Lansdowne, 18 May 1904. 13 Hirata TOsuke, 'Senji ni okeru Kokumin no Kakugo', quoted in Kat<> Fusakura, ed., Hakushaku Hirata TOsuke-den, Tokyo 1927, pp. 111-17. 14 Toyogawa and bank support for the war, Uzaki Kumakichi, Toyogawa Ryohei, Tokyo 1922, pp. 197-200. Yamagata's insistence on continuing the war irrespective of the financial, and thus social, cost is evident in his advice to Katsura almost as soon as the 1905 budget was cleared away to seek another major international loan: 'We should not worry about the various turns in our national situation and consequent rise in interest rates, but go ahead now and with resolve. The finance min• istry and economists will argue a good deal but I hope you will not hesitate'. Katsura papers, 70-80, Yamagata letter, 13 February 1905. Katsura's response is in Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, pp. 233-4, Katsura letter to Yamagata, 23 March 1905. 15 Quotation, Hara Nikki, vol. 2, p. 117, entry for 6 December 1904. Saionji speech of 26 November 1904, Nakagawa Kojuro, Kindai Nihon no Seikyoku to Saionji Kimmochi, Tokyo 1987, pp. 45-7; see also Hara Nikki, vol. 2, p. 116, entries for 19, 26 November 1904. 16 Hara Nikki, vol. 2, p. 125, entry for 18 February 1905. Army Minister Terauchi also noted, with some apprehension, the new authority of the SeiyUkai, Terauchi Nikki, p. 305, entry for 18 February 1905. Saionji speech in Nakagawa 1987, pp. 50-1. 17 Gaimusho, ed., Nihon Gaiko Nempyo narabi Shuyo Bunsho, 2 vols., Tokyo 1965, vol. I, pp. 224-8. On the May cabinet meeting, see also Peter Duus, The Abacus and the Sword: The Japanese Penetration of Korea, 1895-1910, Berkeley 1995, pp. 183-6. 18 NGB, vol. 37-1, pp. 569-78, Wakamatsu (Mokp'o) to Hayashi, 2 April, Hayashi to Komura, 8 April, Komura to Hayashi, 6 May 1904. 19 Nagamori incident, Yun Pyongsang, 'Ilbonin ui Hwangmuchi Kaechok• kwon Yogu e tae hayo'. Yoksa Hakhoe, ed., Han'guksa Nongmun Songnip, Seoul 1976, vol. 6, pp. 228-30; Kuksa Pyonchan Wiwonhoe, ed., Kojong Sidaesa, (hereafter Sidaesa), 6 vols., Seoul 1972, vol. 6, p. 5, and for Notes 211

Hwangsong Sinmun of 12 january 1904, pp. 93-8. japanese gendarmes, Kojong Sidaesa, vol. 6, p. 98. 20 Koyong's cauldron, Kuksa Pyonchan Wiwonhoe, ed., Yun Ch'i-ho llgi, 6 vols., Seoul 1973, vol. 6, pp. 22-3, entry for 26 April 1904. japanese bribes to Foreign Minister Yi Chiyong and Confucian scholars, Sidaesa, vol. 6, p. 13; also NGB, vol. 37-1, p. 464, Hayashi Gonsuke (Seoul) to Komura, 11 january 1904. Ito donations to Kojong, Kojong Sidaesa, vol. 6, pp. 38-9. Sending Ito or Okuma to Korea, Hara Nikki, vol. 2, p. 106, entry for 28 july 1904, and vol. 2, p. 115, entry for 16 November 1904. 21 Terauchi Nikki, p. 190, entry for 9 December 1903. 22 Tonghak in Hwanghae and P'yongan during February 1904, Sidaesa, vol. 6, pp. 21-2. 23 Ilsinhoe manifesto discussed in Han Sang-ii, Nik-Kan Kindaishi no Kii kan, Tokyo 1984, pp. 154-5. Origins of the group, Keijo Kempei Buntai, ed., 'llchinhoe Ryakushi', (hereafter llchinhoe), unpub. Seoul 1910, University, pp. 1-5; Benjamin Weems, Reform, Rebellion, and the Heavenly Way, Thcson 1964, p. 56. 24 Sidaesa, vol. 6, p. 35, Japanese troops, fearing an uprising, attacked a Tonghak meeting on 20 March 1904 causing death and injury. 25 NGB, vol. 37-1, pp. 936-41, reproduces Song Pyongjun's letter of 2 December 1904 to Colonel Matsuishi Yasuharu. See also Nishio YOtaro, Yi Yonggu ShOden, Fukuoka 1978, pp. 51-64, and Han 1984, pp. 155-6. 26 japanese reports on the IlsinhoelIlchinhoe's effectiveness, NGB, vol. 37-1, pp. 477-87, Hayashi to Komura, 5 November, 26 November, 31 December 1904, and report to Vice Chief of Staff Nagaoka from the chief of staff to army in Korea, 9 November 1904. For Komura's in• struction, NGB, vol. 37-1, p. 485, Komura to Hayashi, 30 December 1904. Subsequent Ilchinoe activities, including plans for an agricultural company to develop Korean waste lands in the north, Ryakushi, pp. 11-12. 27 Katsura on new Russian forces, Hara Nikki, vol. 2, p. 115, entry for 16 November 1904. Katsura speech to Japanese bankers noted in F.O. 461 591, MacDonald to Lansdowne, 24 March 1905. Raymond &thus, Theodore Roosevelt and Japan, Seattle 1966, p. 64, notes that Terauchi privately in• formed US Minister Griscom on 8 March that fighting should end there. 28 Yamagata assessment, Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, pp. 243-8. April strategy, Terauchi Nikki, p. 317, entry for 7 April 1905; Gaimusho, Komura Gaikl1shi, (hereafter Komura), Tokyo 1966, p. 487, for Ito memo. 29 March 1905. 29 Selecting Japan's plenipotentiary, F.O. 46/592, MacDonald to Lansdowne, 23 June 1905; Komura, pp. 474-5; Terauchi Nikki, p. 33, entries for 19-21 June 1905. Yamaza remark at Shimbashi station, Shinobu Jumpei, Komura Jutarl1, Tokyo 1942, p. 169. To his credit, Komura is said to have been amused by the irony. 30 Hayashi added the caveat that Manchuria would be returned to China 'as soon as circumstances permit ... subject to such guarantees of re• form and improved government as will insure peace and good order', F.O. 46/590, Lansdowne to MacDonald, 30 January 1905. January peace terms and Komura's rejection of Ito's proposal, F.O. 46/591, MacDonald to Lansdowne, 26 January 1905. 212 Notes

31 See Katsura to Hayashi (London) on 18 August 1905, as reported in F.O. 800/134, Lansdowne Papers, Hayashi Tadasu letter, 18 August 1905. Japan's nervousness about Germany was obvious during Edward the Seventh's visit to Kiel in mid-1904, F.O. 46/578, MacDonald to Lansdowne, 25 June 1904; see also Esthus 1966, p. 45. 32 28 August meeting, Hara Nikki, vol. 2, p. 147, entry for 31 August 1905. According to F.O. 800/163, Lansdowne papers, Sir Francis Bertie (Paris) letter, 28 July 1905, Witte had earlier told Bertie that Russia might pay Japan a disguised indemnity for the maintenance of large numbers of Russian prisoners, stating, 'in that matter we can be very liberal'. Katsura rejection of six new army divisions, Hara Nikki, vol. 2, p. 140. Yamagata on financial reasons, Oka Yoshitake, Yamagata Aritomo, Tokyo 1958, p. 97. 33 Hara Nikki, vol. 2, pp. 131-2, entry for 16 April 1905. Katsura also assured Hara that the House of Peers, while probably opposing the transfer to Saionji, would not be able to stop it. 34 Kotoku letter, 8 September 1905, quoted in Hyman Kublin, 'The Japa• nese Socialists and the Russo-Japanese War', Journal of Modern History, 22-4, December 1950, p. 337. Katsura letters to Yamagata, 2 and 18 September 1905, quoted in Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, pp. 296-7, shows he expected trouble but hoped to keep it a political rather than a social problem. 35 Komura, pp. 625-7. 36 EO. 800/134, Lansdowne Papers, Lansdowne to MacDonald, 27 August 1905, confirms the British foreign secretary's belief that a protectorate of Korea is 'indispensable from the Japanese point of view' and that Britain would 'not object even if the protectorate were to lead to an• nexation, and I have, in my conversations with Hayashi, taken this line'. MacDonald comment on Japanese violence against Koreans, Charles Hardinge papers, MacDonald letter, 10 August 1905; his warning to Komura on benefits for the Koreans, F.O. 46/592, MacDonald to Lansdowne, 29 June 1905. On negotiations for the revised alliance, Ian Nish, The Anglo-Japanese Alliance, London 1966, pp. 326-30. On Katsura's role, Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, pp. 261-2. 37 Roosevelt's private comments as reported by Shanghai barrister, Venn Drummond, are noted in EO. 46/579, MacDonald to Lansdowne, 30 December 1904. See also, Esthus 1966, pp. 38-41, for earlier Roosevelt comment along these lines. 38 Ralph Eldin Minger, 'Tafts' Mission to Japan: A Study in Personal Diplomacy', Pacific Historical Review, 30-3, August 1961, pp. 280-2. English text of the Katsura-Taft memorandum in Gaiko Nempyo, vol. I, p. 240. A report to the British foreign office in August suggested that Komura had at one point suggested to Taft that the US formally join the Anglo• Japanese alliance, F.O. 800/134, Lord Lansdowne Papers, Sir Mortimer Durand (NY) letter, 4 August 1905, detailing Theodore Roosevelt con• versation of 3 August 1905. 39 General details on the Harriman affair, Richard T. Chang, 'The Failure of the Katsura-Harriman Agreement', Journal of Asian Studies, 21-1, November 1961. Notes 213

8 The Army and Continental Imperialism, 1906-7

1 Katsura assisted in the choice of Agriculture-Industry Minister Matsuoka KOki and Yamagata's son, IsaburO, as communications minister, Hara Keiichiro, ed., Rara Kei Nikki, (hereafter Rara Nikki), 6 vols., Tokyo 1965- 67, vol. 2, p. 143, 14 August 1905, pp. 159-60, 17-21 December 1905, p. 164, 7 January 1906; Katsura Papers, 47-2, letter from Saionji Kimmochi, 1 January 1906. Katsura's role as adviser to the Saionji cabinet on for• eign affairs, Gifu Nichi Nichi Shimbun, (GNN), 18 June 1907, 3 July 1907. Katsura and Europe, Rara Nikki, vol. 2, p. 143, entry for 14 August 1905. 2 KunaichO ed., Mei;i TennCJ Ki, 12 vols., Tokyo 1968-75, vol. 11, p. 461, entry for 15 January 1906. For a comparison which flatters ItO over Cromer, see Toyabe Shuntei in Mei;i Jimbutsu Ronshii, Tokyo 1969, p. 22. 3 Full regulations, Kim Chungmyong, ed., Nik-Kan GaikCJ ShiryCJ Shflsei, Tokyo 1964, vol. 6-1, pp. 104-9. General staff opposition, EO. 371/ 179, MacDonald to Grey, 30 December 1905. Yui Masaomi, 'Nihon Teikokushugi Seiritsu Ki no Gumbu', Nakamura Masanori et al., ed., Taikei Nihon Kokkashi 5: Kindai 2, Tokyo 1976, p. 139, quoting Terauchi to Yamagata, 27 December 1905. 4 Yamamoto Shiro, ed., Terauchi Masatake Nikki, (hereafter Terauchi Nikki), Kyoto 1980, pp. 360--1, entries for 4,9 January 1906. Katsura advice, Terauchi Papers, 104-10, Katsura letter 11 January 1906. Imperial edict quoted in Kunaicho 1968-75, vol. 11, p. 460. Tanaka on strategy, Kitaoka Shinichi, Nihon Rikugun to Tairiku Seisaku, 1906-1918, Tokyo 1978, pp. 34-6. 5 Iriye Akira, Nihon no Gaiko, Tokyo 1966, p. 52. Military administrative offices, Shimada Toshihiko, Kanrogun, Tokyo 1965, p. 6; Yui 1976, p. 136. 6 Tao quote, Gaimusho, ed., Nihon Gaiko Bunsho (hereafter NGB), vol. 39-1, pp. 841-2, Tao letter in Uchida to Acting Foreign Minister Saionji, 12 March 1906. Japanese abuses in Manchuria, NGB, vol. 39-1, pp. 836-37, Uchida (Beijing) to Foreign Minister Kato, 20 January, 1 March 1906. 7 Ito Masanori, Kato Takaaki, 2 vols., Tokyo 1929, vol. 1, pp. 583-5; Shinobu Seizaburo, ed., Nihon Gaikoshi, 2 vols., Tokyo 1974, vol. 1, p. 229. 8 NGB, vol. 39-1, pp. 843-6, Uchida to Acting Foreign Minister Saionji, 16 and 19 March 1906. 9 NGB, vol. 39-1, p. 837, Uchida to Kato, 2 March 1906. 10 British complaints, FO 410/47, MacDonald to Saionji, 19 March 1906. US minister in Beijing, W.W. Rockhill, took a different view of com• plaints against Japan. W.W. Rockhill Papers, Houghton Library, Harvard University, letter to Arthur Hippisley, 29 March 1906, reads, 'Last year's trade returns are excellent for the US except kerosene. I fancy all the kicking of American exporters to China was because they overstocked in anticipation of the war continuing. We'll soon know the facts. Rodgers tells me he is preparing a report on it which will nail the lies on a certain number of persons in Shanghai and elsewhere.' In a further letter to Hippisley on 21 April 1906, Rockhill named ].O.P. Bland, The Times correspondent in Shanghai, as one of the troublemakers. 214 Notes

11 FO 410/47, MacDonald to Grey, 23 March 1906. London enthusiasm for Japanese loans, Sir Charles Addis diary, entry for 29 March 1905. 12 Tsunoda Jun, Manshu Mondai to Kokubo Hoshin, Tokyo 1967, pp. 301-5. 13 Gaimusho, ed., Nihon Gaiko Nempyo narabi Shuyo Bunsho, 2 vols., To• kyo 1965, vol. 1, pp. 260-3. A fuller record of the debate is in Tsunoda 1967, pp. 319-31; also, Kurihara Ken, 'Nichi-Ro Sengo ni okeru Manshu Zengo Sochi Mondai to Akibara Shodai Mukden SOryoji', Kurihara, ed., Tai-Man-Mo Seisakushi no Ichimen, Tokyo 1966, pp. 16-25. Saionji in Manchuria, Wakatsuki Reijiro, Kofiian Kaikoroku, 2nd edn., Tokyo 1975, pp.68-73. 14 Shukuri Shigeichi, Kodama Gentaro, Tokyo 1942, p. 749; Kitaoka Shinichi, Goto Shimpei, Tokyo 1988, pp. 83-4; Harada Katsumasa, Mantetsu, Tokyo 1981, pp. 39-41. 15 Wakatsuki 1975, p. 86. Shukuri 1942, pp. 750-1. 16 Choice of Goto as president, Tsurumi YUsuke, Gota Shimpei, 4 vols., Tokyo 1937, rep. 1965, vol. 2, pp. 660-2, Sugiyama Shigemaru tele• gram to Goto, 28 June 1906. Imperial edict establishing Mantetsu, Minami Manshu Tetsudo Kabushiki Kaisha, Minami Manshii Tetsuda Kabushiki Kaisha Sanjunen Ryakushi, Dalian 1937, rep. Tokyo 1975, pp. 2-5. 17 Got<> fears in Manchuria, Tsurumi 1937, vol. 2, pp. 662, 677; Kitaoka 1988, pp. 85-6. Goto and Kodama, see Kurihara 1966, p. 27; Harada 1981, p. 49. Goto suggestion regarding Yamagata, Hara Nikki, vol. 2, p. 190, entry for 2 August 1906. 18 Hara Nikki, vol. 2, p. 190, entry for 2 August 1906. Also Kitaoka 1978, p.55. 19 Discussions (or the lack thereof) with Chinese leaders, Miyazaka Hiroshi, "'Mantetsu" Soritsu Zengo', Kokusai Seiji Gakkai, ed., Nihon Gaikl1shi Kenkya - Nit-Chfl Kankei no Tenkai, Tokyo 1961, pp. 30-1. Harada 1981, p. 78, lists the numbers of Chinese among total Mantetsu employees: in 1907, these were 4129 of a total 13217; by 1942, the workforce had jumped over twentyfold to 296213 of whom 33489 were Chinese. On the creation of Mantetsu and its early problems, see also Ramon Myers, 'Japanese Imperialism in Manchuria: the South Manchurian Railway Com• pany, 1906-1933', in Peter Duus et al., eds., The Japanese Informal Empire in China, 1895-1937, Princeton 1989, especially pp. 101-9. 20 Hayashi and Goto's advisory position, Ito Hirobumi Kankei Monjo Kenkyakai, ed., Itl1 Hirobumi Kankei Monjo, (hereafter Itl1 Monjo), 9 vols. Tokyo 1974-81, vol. 5, p. 73, Saionji Kimmochi letter, 31 August 1906; Kurihara 1966, p. 254. 21 Tsurumi 1937, vol. 2, pp. 971-2, Goto letter to Ito, 7 October 1907; Itl1 Monjo, vol. 6, pp. 412-13, Hayashi Tadasu letter, 10 October 1907; Kitaoka 1978, p. 56. 22 On Prince Qing, Jordan Papers, F.O. 350/4, letter to Francis Campbell, 7 March 1907. On Yuan, Watanabe RyUsaku, Kindai Nit-Chfl Kl1sMshi, Tokyo 1977, pp. 102-8, and Stephen MacKinnon, Power and Politics in Late Imperial China: Yuan Shih-k'ai in Beijing and Tianjin 1901-1908, Berkeley 1980, pp. 70-71. F.O. 800/68, Edward Grey Papers, MacDonald to Grey, 19 February 1908, notes, 'I was very much struck last spring Notes 215

coming from japan (where the alliance and we are immensely popular) by the unpopularity [here] of the japanese and to a certain extent of the alliance.' 23 Terauchi Nikki, p. 378, entry for 18 july 1908. Ito Monio, vol. 3, p. 373, Katsura letter 9 October 1906, vol. 4, p. 105, Kaneko Kentaro letter, 29 july 1906, vol. 5, p. 73, Saionji Kimmochi letter, 31 August 1906. 24 A view accepted by Moriyama Shigenori, Kindai Nik-Kan Kankeishi Kenkyfi, Tokyo 1987, p. 201. 25 Lord Salisbury's definition of Cromerism, quoted in Afaf Lutfi AI-Sayyid, and Cromer, London 1968, p. 4. ItO on minimising costs in Korea, speech to the Oriental Society, 2 February 1907, Komatsu Midori, ed., Ito Ko Zenshii, 3 vols., Tokyo 1933, vol. 2, p. 451. Quality of japanese troops in Korea, Oe Shinobu, Nichi-Ro Sensa to Nihon Guntai, Tokyo 1987, pp. 377-81. In February 1907, the force in Korea was reduced to just the 13th with increased gendarmerie to fill the gaps. 26 F.O. 371/179, Cockburn to Lansdowne, 10 December 1905. 27 On the Chajanghoe, Kuksa P'yonch'an Wiwonhoe, ed., Yun Ch'iho Ilgi, vol. 6, pp. 227-8, entry for 6 May 1906; Kang Chaeon, CMsen Kindaishi Kenkyii, 2nd ed., Tokyo 1982, pp. 441-44. Its Japanese adviser was Ogaki Takeo. A slightly different view of Ito's attitude, stressing his lack of racist contempt for Koreans, is Peter Duus, The Abacus and the Sword: The Japanese Penetration of Korea, 1895-1910, Berkeley 1995, p. 198. 28 Kim 1964, vol. 6-1, p. 484. 29 Loan details, Residency-General of Korea, 'Administrative Reforms in Korea', January 1907, in F.O. 371/383, Henry Cockburn (Seoul) to Grey, 4 June 1907, Goto opinion, Tsurumi 1937, vol. 2, pp. 624-5. Regula• tions against Japanese abuses in Korea, RO. 371/179, Cockburn to Grey, 15 May 1906. 30 Ito warning of March 1906, Kim 1964, vol. 6-1, p. 123. McLeavy Brown quoted in Willard Straight diary, 9 October 1905, Herbert Croly, Willard Straight, NY 1924, p. 172. For Prince Ui-hwa, Kim 1964, vol. 6-1, pp. 186-8, 201. 31 Kim 1964, vol. 6-1, pp. 236-8, 375-6; envoy's arrest, North China Herald, 29 June 1906. 32 Speech of 27 November 1905, quoted in Japan Daily Mail, 30 Novem• ber 1905. itO's description of Kojong was made to Ambassador MacDonald in Tokyo, F.O. 371/179, MacDonald to Grey, 26 June 1906. Japanese restrictions on Kojong, Taruzaki Kanichi/Togano Tadao, CMsen Saikinshi, Tokyo 1912, p. 63; Ito warning to Kojong, Kim 1964, vol. 6-1, pp. 236-8. 33 KokuryOkai, Nik-Kan GapPlJ Hishi, 2 vols., Tokyo 1930, rep. 1966, vol. 2, p. 10. Uchida's appointment to Ito's staff, Kitazawa Makoto, HylJden Uchida RylJhei, Tokyo 1976, p. 207. 34 F.O. 410/52, Cockburn (Seoul) to Foreign Secretary Grey, 4 June 1908, records Ito's view that the IIchinhoe were genuinely liberal in outlook. Moreover, he was convinced of their patriotism and, somewhat con• trary to their actual position, had warned Tokyo 'that if any proposals were made for the annexation of Korea, the whole body of the IIchinhoe would join their fellow countrymen in determined resistance'. 216 Notes

35 Uchida approach to the Ilchinhoe, Nishio YOtaro, Yi Yonggu Shaden, Fukuoka 1978, pp. 67-8; Uchida Ryohei, Koseki Gojilnenpu, Fukuoka 1978, pp. 112-18. On Song's release, Baba Tsunego, Kiuchi Tilshiro-den, Tokyo 1937, pp. 163-7; Kokuryukai 1930, vol. 1, pp. 44-5; Han Sang-il, Nik• Kan Kindaishi no Kilkan, Tokyo 1984, p. 159. On the Ilchinhoe newspaper, Han'guk Sinmun Yonguso, ed., Han'guk Sinmun Paengnyon, Seoul 1975, p. 63. The paper had begun publication on 6 January 1906, supported by ex-governor, Kim Segi. 36 Ita Monjo, vol. 6, p. 196, Tsuruhara Sadakichi letter, 12 January 1907. Ito and Hasegawa, KokuryUkai 1930, vol. 1, pp. 52-5. 37 Hatsuse RyUhei, Denta-teki Uyoku Uchida Ryohei no KenkYil, Fukuoka 1980, p. 122. Yamagata/Terauchi meetings, KokuryUkai 1930, vol. 1, p. 153; Han 1984, p. 160. Rumour of Katsura as new resident-general, KokuryUkai, vol. 1, p. 140. 38 KokuryUkai 1930, vol. 1, p. 152; the gift of 100000 yen is noted in vol. 1, p. 240. Terauchi quote, Terauchi Nikki, p. 396, entry for 20 March 1907. 39 NGB, vol. 40-1, p. 124, ItO to Hayashi, 13 April 1907. See also Masato Matsui, 'The Russo-Japanese Agreement of 1907: Its Causes and the Progress of Negotiations', Modern Asian Studies, 6-1, 1972, p. 43. For the text of the 1907 agreement, including the secret clause on 'further development' in Korea, Nihon Gaika Nempya, vol. 1, pp. 280-l. 40 On Song's appointment and ItO's warnings of May 1907, Kim 1964, vol. 6-1, pp. 482-3, 488. Kojong's hatred of Yi Wanyong, Kim, vol. 6-1, p. 494, Ito to Hayashi and Saionji, 4 June 1907. 41 Kokuryukai 1930 vol. 1, pp. 269-70. 42 Ito warning to Kojong, Kim 1964, vol. 6-1, pp. 475-9. An undated letter from April 1907 shows that Uchida also knew of the secret en• voys, Kokuryakai 1930, vol. 1, p. 195. On Hulbert's mission, see the introduction by Clarence Weems Jr. to Homer Hulbert, History of Korea, 2 vols., London 1962, vol. 1, p. 52. 43 Kim 1964, vol. 6-2, pp. 600-1, Hayashi to ItO, 12 July 1907. The record of this meeting identifies by name only the votes of Yamagata and Terauchi. However, Yamagata had written to Katsura on 10 July saying, 'I believe the policy outline we agreed the other day should in no way be aItered' and specifically asked for Terauchi to be present at a meet• ing on 12 July, thus suggesting that Katsura's opinion was the same as Yamagata's rather than Terauchi's, see Katsura Papers, 70-98. This letter is dated 1908 in the guide to Katsura's papers but 1907 in the Kyo Kizokuin GojGnenshi collection of the . 44 Removal of Kojong, Komatsu Midori, Meiji GaiklJ no Hiwa, Tokyo 1976, pp. 247-50; Taruzaki/Togano 1912, pp. 104-5. Full text of the 1907 agreement, Nihon GaiklJ NempylJ, vol. 1, pp. 276-7. The quotation from a member of the British foreign office is in F.O. 371/383, notation on translation of the 1907 agreement as received 26 July 1907. 45 Komatsu 1933, vol. 2, pp. 455-9, Ito speech of 29 July 1907. 46 Hasegawa proclamation, Seoul Press, 10 September 1907, in F.O. 371/ 383, Cockburn to Grey, 26 September 1907. Guerrilla attacks, F.O. 371/ 383, Cockburn to Grey, 26 September 1907, reporting on the period Notes 217

August to September 1907; also North China Herald, 4 October, 13 De• cember, 20 December 1907; Kuksa Pyonchan Wiwonhoe, ed., Ko;ong Sidae'sa (hereafter Sidae'sa), 6 vols., Seoul 1972, vol. 6, p. 664. Guerril• las existing in name only, C.l. Eugene Kim/Han-kyo Kim, Korea and the Politics of Imperialism 1876-1910, Berkeley CA 1967, p. 20l. 47 EO. 371/383, undated, on 34377, McKenzie telegram to Daily Mail, 21 September 1907. The paper did not print the report out of consideration for the Anglo-Japanese alliance. 48 EO. 410-53, MacDonald (Tokyo) to Grey, 6 December 1908; Oe 1987, pp. 394-5, produces slightly different figures. Oe also notes that in 1908, 11562 Korean insurgents were killed and only 1417 captured. 49 Sidae'sa, vol. 6, p. 68l. 50 Ito Mon;o, vol. 6, p. 84, Vice Resident-General Sone Arasuke letter, 23 February 1909.

9 The Oriental Society: Imperial Education and Enterprise, 1907-8

1 Katsura speech, 3 February 1907, Yamane Yukio, 'Taiwan KyOkai to Sono Hatten', Ronshil Kindai Nihon to Chilgoku, Tokyo 1976, pp. 201-2. The provincial press reported the meeting, for example, Gifu Nichi Nichi Shimbun, (GNN), 5 February 1907. 2 GotO comments, GNN, 5 February 1907. 1906 membership figures, Kimijima Kazuhiko, 'Toyo Takushoku Kabushiki Kaisha no Setsuritsu ', part I, Rekishi HyrJron, 282, November 1973, p. 36. 3 Yamane 1976, pp. 204-5. 4 Komatsubara report to Oriental Society, 1 July 1907, TrJyrJ KyrJkai Enkaku, (hereafter Enkaku), 2 vols., unpublished, Takushoku University Library (HachiOji), vol. 2, pp. 179-88. 5 Katsura speeches, 17 April 1908, TrJyrJ JiM, 116, May 1908, pp. 83-86, also Kusano Fumio, Takushoku Daigaku Hachijanen-shi, Tokyo 1980, p. 123; and 27 April 1912 at Oriental Society School, Kusano, p. 142. See also Katsura speech to Kwantung Governor-General Oshima at an Ori• ental Society dinner, 27 May 1908, TrJyrJ JiM, 117, June 1908. 6 In the 1908 academic year, the Oriental Society School (Tokyo) had 308 students but, in 1909, this dropped to 269, Enkaku, vol. 2, pp. 409-23, 532-39, 633-43, annual reports 1908-1910. On March 1908 graduates, Katsura speech, 27 May 1908, TrJyrJ JiM, 117, June 1908. By March 1910, there had been 538 graduates of the Oriental Society Schools. Of these, 55 had found work in Taiwan, 71 in China, 81 in Japan, and 197 in Korea. The leading employers of graduates and the numbers recruited annually in the years 1908-10 were: Government-general of Taiwan (12; 12; IS), Bank of Taiwan (1; 2; 2), Korean administration or financial associations (42; 30; 29), Korean Customs (0; 0; I), Korean Agricultural and Industrial Bank (0; 0; I), Research Faculty Oriental Society School [Seoul] (0; 0; 3), Bank of Korea [Dai-Ichi Bank] (2; 1; 2), Mantetsu (4; 4; 5), Army Volunteer (3; 12; I), (2; 0; 0), Yokohama Customs (3; 0; 0), Mitsubishi Ltd. (0; 0; 2), Mitsui Industries 218 Notes

(0; 0; 1), Enkaku, vol. 2, pp. 409-23, 532-9, 633-43, annual reports for 1908-1910. Annual figure for graduates in these years: 1908-76; 1909--82; 1910-90. This last figure includes graduates from the school at Seoul. See also pp. 526-31, Katsura speech to 12th General Meeting of the Oriental Society. 7 Enkaku, vol. 2, pp. 526-31, Katsura speech, 12th general meeting, 8 May 1910. 8 Port Arthur and Dalian schools, Kusano 1980, p. 130; corporate dona• tions, Enkaku, vol. 2, pp. 633-43, annual report for 1910. 9 Enkaku, vol. 2, pp. 526-31, Katsura speech, 8 May 1910. 10 Karl Moskowitz, 'The Creation of the Oriental Development Company: Japanese Illusions Meet Korean Reality'. Occasional Papers on Korea (Uni• versity of Washington), 2, March 1974, p. 99, writes, 'A major reason Katsura and some, if not all, of his Toyo Kyokai members might well have had for creating the ODC was to by-pass Resident General Ito and his controls over the military and police in Korea. If so, then it follows that when the Yamagata-Katsura group actually did take over the Resi• dency General, the ODC would no longer be critically important to them.' As has already been seen, Katsura made no more to limit Ito's authority over Japanese troops in Korea when this was an issue in early 1906. 11 Gaimusho, ed., Nihon Gaiko Bunsho (hereafter NGB), vol. 40-2, pp. 672-4, Okabe Nagamoto committee to Oriental Society President Katsura, 21 December 1907. The committee included, among others, Shibusawa Eiichi, Yasuda Zenjiro, Toyogawa Ryohei, and Nitobe Inazo. 12 A summary of Japanese historical opinion, largely critical, on the ODC is in Kimijima 1973, part 1, pp. 28-32; Uno Shun'ichi, 'Dai Ni-ji Katsura Naikaku'. Hayashi Shigeru/Tsuji Kiyoaki, eds, Nihon Naikaku Shiroku, 5 vols., Tokyo 1981, vol. 2, p. 78, Kuksa P'yonch'an Wiwonhoe, ed., Kojong Sidaesa, (hereafter Sidaesa), 6 vols., Seoul 1972, vol. 6, p. 722. Katsura on East India Company, Kimijima 1973, part 1, p. 41; NGB, vol. 41-2, p. 294, Nomura Motonobu (Vladivostok) to Hayashi Tadasu, 22 June 1908, reports Russian press comment on the similarity. 13 Kurose YUji, 'Nichi-Ro Sengo no "Chosen Keiei" to !oyo Takushoku Kabushiki Kaisha', Chosenshi KenkyUkai, ed., Chosenshi Kenkyukai Rombunshu 12: Kindai ChOsen to Nihon Teikokushugi, Tokyo 1975, pp. 100-1. Japanese carpetbaggers, Ito interview, North China Herald, 10 August 1906. 14 On Komatsubara, and discussions for the ODC, Kimijima 1973, part 1, pp. 40-1. 15 Hara Keiichiro, ed., Hara Kei Nikki (hereafter Hara Nikki), 6 vols., Tokyo 1965-67, vol. 2, pp. 261, 263, entries for 29 September, 8 October 1907. 16 Hara Nikki, vol. 2, p. 277, entry for 16 December 1907; Tokutomi Soho, ed., Koshaku Katsura Taroden, 2 vols., Tokyo 1917, vol. 2, pp. 327--8. 17 Enkaku, vol. 2, pp. 298-308, Katsura speech of 7 November 1907. The dating of this speech is obviously suspect given Katsura's illness and return to Japan in late October. 18 Details of the speech, Enkaku, vol. 2, pp. 269-72 and Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, p. 329; Hara Nikki, vol. 2, p. 271, entry for 25 November 1907. Notes 219

19 Sakatani-Yamagata dispute, Yamamoto Shiro, '1908 Nendo Yosan Hensei Keii', Hisutoria, 84, September 1979; Banno Junji, Taisho Seihen, Kyoto 1982, p. 34. Sakatani development bureau plan, Kimijima 1974, part 2, Rekishi Hyoron, 285, January 1974, p. 47. Katsura and army support for retrenchment, Furuya Tetsuo, 'Dai lchi-ji Saionji Naikaku', Hayashi/Tsuji 1981, vol. 2, pp. 40-l. 20 Ito objections, Katsura Papers, 52-10, Sone Arasuke letter, 19 January 1908; Kimijima 1974, part 2, pp. 48-9. Ito support, Kusano 1980, p. 122. 21 Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, pp. 333-6, letter to Yamagata Aritomo, 15 Janu• ary 1908. Yamagata anger at Saionji, Katsura papers, 70-95, letter, 16 January 1908. 22 Hara Nikki, vol. 2, p. 287, entry for 28 January 1908. 23 Nagashima Ryuji, Seikai Hiwa, Tokyo 1928, p. 117. 24 Usagawa appointment, Katsura Papers, 52-12, Sone Arasuke letter, 14 January 1908. This letter is misdated 14 October 1908 in the National Diet Library guide to the Katsura papers. ODC committee, NGB, vol. 41-2, p. 294; Kurose 1980, pp. 102-5. 25 Kurose 1975, p. 103, citing Nagashima letter to ShOda, 29 January 1908. 26 Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, p. 930. 27 Katsura Papers, 18-31, It() Hirobumi letter, 10 March 1908; Hilary Conroy, The Japanese Seizure of Korea, 1868-1910, Philadelphia 1960, pp. 483-4; Peter Duus, The Abacus and the Sword: the Japanese Penetration of Korea, 1895-1910, Berkeley CA, 1995, pp. 306-7. Yamamoto Shir(), ed., Terauchi Masatake Nikki, Kyoto 1980, p. 430, entry for 6 March 1908, describes It()'s attitude to the ODC plan as 'extremely strange'. 28 Hara Nikki, vol. 2, p. 298, entry for 21 March 1908, 'general enthusi• asm', Moskowitz 1974, p. 89. 29 F.O. 410/51, Claude MacDonald (Tokyo) to Foreign Secretary Edward Grey, 11 April 1908. Kat() Takaaki, former minister to London and rela• tive of the Mitsubishi family, was even more scathing. MacDonald reported that Kat(), 'Condemned the [ODC] measure, but added that I need have no fear as to the ill results it would cause in Korea, for it would never get that far. He cynically remarked: Why should it? The government guarantee good interest on the capital; the Directors will be satisfied to draw their dividends and do nothing.' 30 TlJylJ JihlJ, 116, May 1908. See also Komatsubara warning against haste, TlJylJ JihlJ, 115, April 1908. 31 Compare this with the statement by Moskowitz 1974, p. 89, that the Yamagata-Katsura group wished to create further disturbances in Korea to undermine It()'s civilian rule but were being thwarted as, 'The forces under It()'s command were successfully quelling the uprisings, but growing resentment against Japanese actions, including the wholesale abuse of the populace in putting down disturbances, was adding to the number of insurgents and increasing the frequency of incidents. The only areas that were completely safe for Japanese civilians were in centers where there were permanent garrisons.' Clearly, It()'s success was not absolute. 32 Katsura to It() and Usagawa, It() Hirobumi Kankei Monjo Kenkyakai, ed., ItlJ Hirobumi Kankei Monjo, (hereafter ItlJ Monjo), 9 vols., Tokyo 1974-81, 220 Notes

vol. 3, pp. 374-5, Katsura letters to Ito, 12 May 1908, 26 May 1908. General agreement on the ODe, Taya Jiha, 117, June 1908; Ita Monio, vol. 3, p. 375, Katsura letter to Ito, 20 June 1908. Katsura invitation to Korean cabinet, Katsura Papers, 18-33, Ito letter, 17 June 1908; Ita Monio, vol. 3, p. 375, Katsura letter, 20 June 1908. 33 Katsura dissatisfaction with Saionji, Ita Monio, vol. 3, p. 374, Katsura letter, 12 May 1908, also p. 375, Katsura letter, 20 June 1908; HaTa Nikki, vol. 2, pp. 306-7, entry for 29 May 1908. Decision to replace Saionji, HaTa Nikki, vol. 2, p. 309, entry for 29 June 1908. 34 Katsura cabinet and military expenses, GNN, 13, 17,24 July, 16 August 1908, also Katsura speech on war bond redemption, GNN, 18 August 1908. 35 Uzaki Kumakichi, Toyogawa Ryahei, Tokyo 1922, p. 194, dates the origi• nal Eel Society as 1889. Frequent participants, Maejima Shozo, Meiii no Genkun-tachi, Tokyo 1967, pp. 175-6. Katsura's candour with members, Wakatsuki Reijiro, Kofiian Kaikoroku, Tokyo 1975, pp. 158-60. 1908 financial policy, Nagashima 1928, p. 120. 36 Tokutomi and Katsura, John Pierson, Tokutomi SoM: A Journalist fOT Modern Japan, 1857-1953, Princeton 1980, p. 297. Katsura on SeiyUkai attack, Katsura letter to Inoue Kaoru, 8 February 1909, quoted by Uno in Hayashi/ Tsuji 1981, vol. 2, p. 64. Wakatsuki 1975, pp. 136-7, describes how, during this term of office, Katsura would send him to Hara and Matsuda Masahisa to explain that the prime minister wished to see them. Hara would ponder awhile and then ask Matsuda. 'Well, shall we go along?' During the talks, Hara would counter everything Katsura said by assert• ing the opposite. Matsuda would remain silent. Katsura would repeat the government's position time and again until, eventually, Hara would say, 'Well, maybe we'll just go back and consult everyone.' Matsuda would reply. 'Hmm, it's a difficult question.' They would then leave, with all present recognising that matters had been decided. Wakatsuki describes this as 'an interesting spectacle'. 37 ODe committee, Kurose 1975, p. 110. A standing committee was ap• pointed of nine Japanese and three Koreans, including Vice Finance Minister Wakatsuki, ODe President-elect Usagawa, Professor Matsuzaki Kuranosuke of the Imperial University and Oriental Society, Kiuchi JITshiro of the residency-general, and Han Sangryong, director-general of the Hanyang Bank in Korea. Katsura's son-in-law Nagashima RyUji and Kodama Hideo served as committee secretaries. Concerns about migra• tion, 'Colonization in Korea', North China Herald, 19 September 1908. Korean delegation, Taya JiM, 120, September 1908. Ito speech, Komatsu Midori, ed., Ito Ka Zensha, 3 vols., Tokyo 1922, vol. 2, pp. 467-72. 38 Usagawa statement, P.O. 410/53, Arthur Hyde Lay (Seoul) to Foreign Secretary Edward Grey, 14 May 1909. ODe appointments, Ito Monio, vol. 3, p. 377, Katsura letter, 20 December 1908; Taya Jiha, December 1908; Kimijima 1974, part 2, p. 55. 39 P.O. 410/52, MacDonald to Grey, 4 October 1908. 40 Kurahara attack, P.O. 410/55, MacDonald to Grey, 1 April 1910. Sone and Usagawa on Korean farming skills, P.O. 410/53, Lay to Grey, 8 April 1909; P.O. 410/55, MacDonald to Grey, 1 April 1910. Korean Notes 221

resentment towards ODC, Sidaesa, vol. 6, p. 838. Korean purchase of ODC shares, Kimijima 1974, part 2, p. 54. Ito on 'open door', Komatsu 1922, vol. 2, pp. 494-5, speech 23 April 1909. 41 Migrant figures, YUbo Kyokai, ed., Shirya Senshii Taya Takushoku Kaisha, Tokyo 1976, pp. 179-80, 191-2; Conroy 1960, p. 483; Duus 1995, pp. 307-8.

10 Empire and Order, 1908-10

1 Diplomat on Saionji cabinet, Gifu Nichi Nichi Shimbun (GNN), 22 July 1908. Japanese-American talk of war, Raymond Esthus, Theodore Roosevelt and Japan, Seattle 1966, p. 188; Eleanor Tupper/George McReynolds, Japan in American Public Opinion, NY 1937, pp. 42-3. Charles Denby, whose remarks on Japan at the end of the Sino-Japanese war have been quoted earlier, was one of those fuelling rumours of war. 2 Katsura memorandum, circa July 1908, Tokutomi SohO, ed., KiJshaku Katsura Taro-den, 2 vols., Tokyo 1917, vol. 2, pp. 341-58. Katsura quote, F.O. 410/53, MacDonald (Tokyo) to Grey, 14 May 1909. In 1908, Katsura was seen as 'very pro-English and a staunch supporter of the Anglo• Japanese alliance of which he declares himself to be the agitator', F.O. 371/471, MacDonald to Grey, 14 July 1908. MacDonald, like Katsura a former soldier and colonial administrator, claimed, 'There are few Japa• nese for whom I have so great a personal regard', F.O. 371/471, MacDonald to Grey, 20 July 1908. 3 F.O. 800/68, Edward Grey Papers, MacDonald to Grey, 17 May 1909. F.O. 410/53, MacDonald to Grey, 14 May 1909, describes Katsura as 'straining every nerve to get on the friendliest terms with Russia'. 4 Roosevelt comment, F.O. 371/471, undated, circa February 1908, memo. of MacKenzie King report. U.S. ambassador's enquiry about British position in event of Japanese-American war, F.O. 410/50, Sir Arthur Nicholson (St Petersburg) to Foreign Secretary Edward Grey, 19 January 1907. 5 Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, p. 341. 6 Katsura assurance to Roosevelt, GaimushO, ed., Nihon GaikiJ Bunsho (here• after NGB), vol. 41-2, p. 662, Acting Foreign Minister Terauchi to Minister Takahira (Washington DC), 17 July 1908. Katsura briefing, Nitobe InazO, Ijin GunziJ, Tokyo 1931, p. 318. 1Upper/McReynolds 1937, p. 44, quotes the New York Post, 'Towards the close of the reception ... The Japanese and captains raised Ambassador O'Brien on their shoulders and marched around the deck with him, everybody on board cheering wildly. The same performance was repeated with Rear- Sperry, and each of the other American Admirals present.' One wonders what would have happened had the Rear-Admiral accidentally been dropped overboard. 7 Aoki proposal, Hayashi Tadasu, The Secret Memoirs of Hayashi, London 1915, pp. 241-2. Komura speech, F.O. 410/53, MacDonald to Grey, 5 April 1909; also Shinobu Jumpei, Komura JutariJ, Tokyo 1942, p. 260. San Francisco office, Katsura Papers, 70-156, Yamagata Aritomo letter, 12 May 1909. 222 Notes

8 US bans on Japanese, North China Herald, 27 March and 1 May 1909. Knox description, F.O. 800/248, Sir Beilby Alston Papers, Mitchell Innes (Washington DC) to Francis Campbell, 2 November 1910. In his auto• biography, Wilson admits his negative view of Japan was in place when he arrived as Tokyo legation secretary in 1897, Memoirs of an EX-Diplomat, Boston 1945, p. 52. 9 Quoted in Joseph Fry, 'In Search of an Orderly World: US Imperialism, 1898-1912', John Carroll/George Herring, eds, Modern American Diplomacy, Wilmington 1986, p. 15. 10 Bland Papers, draft memoir, Ch. I, p. 8, Straight letter, February 1908. On Knox and US business in Manchuria, Michael Hunt, Frontier Defense and the Open Door, New Haven 1973, p. 187. 11 Knox telegram to London, 6 November 1909, W.W. Rockhill Papers. Straight and Yuan allies in Manchuria, Bland Papers, letter from Lord ffrench (Pauling and Company), 6 October 1909. 12 Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, pp. 435-7. Ito wartime suggestion, EO. 46/579, MacDonald to Lansdowne, 22 November 1904, record of conversation between Ito and legation secretary Thomas Hohler, 12 November 1904. To limit the effect of Ito's statement, Henry Denison of the Japanese foreign ministry informed Hohler that Japan did not consider the Liaodong leased territory as part of Manchuria as this belonged to Russia under the terms of the lease. 13 Kunaicho, ed., Meiji Tenno Ki, 12 vols., Tokyo 1968-75, vol. 12, p. 341, entry for 13 January 1910. Chinese origins of Knox plan, Yamamoto Shiro, ed., Terauchi Masatake Nikki (hereafter Terauchi Nikki), Kyoto 1980, p. 477, entry for 12 January 1910. 14 Naoichi Masaoka, ed., Japan To America, NY 1914. 15 Katsura on Chinese reform, EO. 410/53, MacDonald to Grey, 14 May 1909. 1908 memorandum, Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, p. 347. 16 Army general staff and Sun, Kojima Kazuo, Ichi Ro Seijika no Kaiso, To• kyo 1951, pp. 120-1. Ito conversations with Katsura and Goto, EO. 410/51, Cockburn (Seoul) to MacDonald, 12 November 1907, and MacDonald to Grey, 22 December 1907, reporting MacDonald conver• sation with Ito, 20 December 1907; Tsurumi Yilsuke, Goto Shimpei, 4 vols., rep. Tokyo 1965, vol. 2, pp. 971-2, Goto letter to Ito, 7 October 1907. 17 Komatsu Midori, Meiji Gaiko Hiwa, rep. Tokyo 1976, pp. 257-59; Tsurumi 1965, vol. 2, pp. 955-70. 18 Cabinet decision, September 1908, Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, p. 395. Ito warning to Katsura, 6 December 1908, Katsura Papers, 18-38. Katsura quote, EO. 410/53, MacDonald to Grey, 14 May 1909; also Katsura let• ter to Ito, 12 January 1909, Ito Hirobumi Kankei Monjo Kenkyakai, ed., Ito Hirobumi Kankei Monjo, 9 vols., Tokyo 1974-81, vol. 3, p. 378. Co• operation with Britain, F.O. 410/53, MacDonald to Grey, 13 May 1909; F.O. 800/68, Grey Papers, MacDonald to Grey, 5 January 1909. 19 Katsura Papers, 45-27, Munakata KotarO report, 11 December 1909; Kamiya Masao, ed., Munakata KotarlJ Monjo, Tokyo 1975, pp. 233-5. Japan and Chinese officials, ].O.P. Bland papers, letters from Lord ffrench, 11-12 September 1910; North China Herald, 9 September 1910. Andong-Mukden Notes 223

line, Kitaoka Shinichi, Nihon Rikugun to Tairiku Seisaku, 1906-1918, Tokyo 1978, pp. 39-40. 20 GotO on unifying control, Katsura Papers, 6-8, Gom memorandum, July 1909. Katsura view, Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, pp. 345-6. Thus far, the governor-general of Taiwan and the governor of Sakhalin had been re• sponsible to the home minister, and the Kwantung governor-general subject to the foreign minister. In August 1911, just as Katsura resigned the premiership, the South Manchurian Railway Company was also trans• ferred to the Development Bureau, but it was foreign ministry concern at losing authority in Manchuria which led to the bureau being abol• ished in 1913. A development ministry was created in 1929. ItO opposition, F.O. 410/56, MacDonald to Grey, 24 June 1910. Kobayashi Michihiko, Nihon no Tairiku Seisaku 1895-1914, Tokyo 1996, p. 201, on Katsura cabinet. 21 ItO on insurgency, Katsura Papers, 18-38, ItO letter, 6 December 1908. Lack of trade, North China Herald, 6 June 1908. 22 Komatsu Midori, ed., Ito Ko Zenshii, 3 vols., Tokyo 1933, vol. 2, pp. 485-90. Imperial tour, Kuksa P'yonch'an Wiwonhoe, ed., Kojong Sidaesa, (hereafter Sidaesa), 6 vols., Seoul 1972, vol. 6, pp. 809-11; Arthur Hyde Lay (Seoul) to Grey, 15 January 1910, F.O. 371/645. Ito original pro• posal, Katsura Papers, 18-39, Ito letter, 5 January 1909, misdated 25 January in the guide to Katsura's papers. 23 Kaneko Kentaro, Ito Hirobumi-den, 3 vols. Tokyo 1940, vol. 3, pp. 811-14, 821. 24 Northern tour, Sidaesa, vol. 6, pp. 813-17, Keijo Shimpo quote, F.O. 371/ 645, Lay (Seoul) to Grey, 11 February 1909. Song on U.S. missionaries, Asahi Shimbun, 16 February 1909. 25 F.O. 371/645, Lay to Grey, 30 April, 7 September, 18 October 1909, 25 January 1910. 26 Ito on annexation, Shinobu 1942, p. 300. Komura note and Katsura approval, Gaimusho, Komura Gaikoshi, Tokyo 1966 edition, p. 835. 27 Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, p. 454; Yamabe Kentaro, Nik-Kan Gappo Shoshi, Tokyo 1966, p. 219. Yamagata agreed Deputy Resident-General Sone should be appointed to replace Ito as a matter of course and because there was no other suitable appointee at that time, Katsura Papers, 70-110, Yamagata letter, 18 April 1909. 28 F.O. 410/54, Lay to Grey, 25 September 1909. 29 Nishio Yotaro, Yi Yonggu ShOden, Fukuoka 1978, p. 112. 30 Keijo Kempei Buntai, ed., lsshinkai Ryakushi, unpub., Seoul June 1910, loyo Kenkyujo, Gakushilin University, pp. 22-30. 31 Katsura to Sugiyama, Baba Tsunego, Kiuchi !iishiro-den, Tokyo 1937, p. 220. Sone advice, Katsura Papers, 52-17, Sone letter, 14 September 1909. 32 F.O. 410/54, MacDonald to Grey, 28 October 1909. 33 Ichikawa Masa'aki, ed., Nikkan GaiklJ ShirylJ 8: Hogo oyobi HeiglJ, Tokyo 1964, rep. 1980, p. 318. Ilchinhoe-Taehan Hyophoe declaration on reno• vation, KeijO Kempei Buntai 1910, p. 24, 48-51. 34 Sone and Ilchinhoe, Komura GaiklJshi, p. 844; Komatsu 1976, p. 267; Katsura Papers, Terauchi to Katsura, 16 December 1909, enclosing a telegram on Sone from General Okubo to Terauchi dated 15 December. 224 Notes

These letters are translated in Hilary Conroy, The Japanese Seizure of Korea, 1868-1910, Philadelphia 1960, pp. 432-3. On one point Conroy translates, 'Ishizuka (Eizo) feels it will cost too much money to reverse opinions in Seoul with regard to annexation or to weaken the anti• I1chinhoe arguments.' From a more recent transliteration in the National Diet Library, this seems to be 'taikin 0 yo sezaru' - 'it will not require a lot of money'. 35 Komura assurance, F.O. 410/55, MacDonald to Grey, 17 December 1909. Sone gave a similar assurance to the British consul in Seoul, Henry Bonar (Seoul) to Grey, 31 December 1909. Accusations of Katsura back• ing for the I1chinhoe, C.I. Eugene Kim/Han-kyo Kim, Korea and the Politics of Imperialism, 1876-1910, Berkeley 1967, p. 213; Conroy 1960, p. 431, citing KokuryUkai, Nik-Kan Gappa Hishi, 2 vols., Tokyo 1930. Conroy rightly questions the KokuryUkai version of events. 36 Katsura on timing of annexation, memorandum, undated, Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, pp. 464-5. Internal evidence suggests this was written about April 1910. Katsura to Ilchinhoe, KokuryUkai, 1930, vol. 2, pp. 572-3; Hatsuse Ryiihei, Dentl1-teki Uyoku Uchida Ryl1hei no Kenkyu, Fukuoka 1980, p. 108, Katsura memo., 2 February 1910; Peter Duus, The Abacus and the Sword: the Japanese Penetration of Korea, 1895-1910, Berkeley 1995, p.240. 37 Russo-Japanese talks, Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, pp. 440-2; F.O. 410/55, Nicolson to Grey, 12 May 1910. 38 British warnings to Komura, F.O. 410/55, MacDonald to Grey, 19 and 22 May 1910. 39 Hara Keiichiro, ed., Hara Kei Nikki, (hereafter Hara Nikki), 6 vols., Tokyo 1965-67, vol. 3, pp. 23-6, entry for 12 May 1910; Terauchi Nikki, p. 505, entry for 4 May 1910; Komatsu 1976, p. 268. Sone had written to Katsura on 17 January, 'as you said, and as I noted yesterday, the best way to effect union would be for an appeal to come from the Korean emperor. On this aspect, I will take your direction'. Katsura Papers, 52-19, Sone Letter, 17 January 1910; see also 52-20, Sone to Katsura, 1 March 1910. Campaign against Sone, KokuryUkai 1930, vol. 2, pp. 616-17; Baba 1937, pp. 229-30; Conroy 1960, p. 434; Terauchi Nikki, pp. 475-86, entries for 6, 10, 22 January 1910. 40 Katsura on autumn annexation, Hara Nikki, vol. 3, p. 22, entry for 3 May 1910. Committee deliberations, Komatsu 1976, pp. 269-71. One recommendation, ultimately rejected, was to alter the name of Korea to Nankaido so as to complement Hokkaido. 41 Komatsu 1976, p. 274-80. Ilchinhoe offer to form a cabinet, Terauchi Nikki, pp. 500-2, entries for 11, 14, 21 April 1910. 42 Komatsu 1976, pp. 280-4; Kunaicho 1968-75, vol. 12, pp. 453-6, Terauchi report; Terauchi Nikki, p. 518, entry for 16 August 1910. 43 Chinese responses, Imamura Yoshio, 'Nik-Kan Heigo to ChOgoku no Nihon-kan', Shisl1, no. 537, March 1969, pp. 388-9; English-language press in China, F.O. 371/878, Muller (Beijing) to Grey, 20 September 1910. US Minister O'Brien, Tokyo, quoted in F.O. 371/878, MacDonald to Grey, 4 October 1910. Katsura apology to Britain, F.O. 410/56, MacDonald to Grey, 10 October 1910, '(Katsura) was of the opinion Notes 225

that the annexation had taken place too soon; it was his intention to wait until treaty revision was out of the way, and then to declare Korea annexed, but events had forced his hand'.

11 The End of Meiji: Army, Empire and Taisho Politics, 1911-13

1 Hara Keiichio, ed., Hara Kei Nikki, (hereafter Hara Nikki), 6 vols., 1965--67, vol. 3, p. 56, entry for 27 November 1910. 2 Army Reservists Association, Richard Smethurst, A Social Basis for Pre• war Japanese , Berkeley 1974, especially introduction, pp. xiv-xix. Army factionalism, Uzaki Kumakichi, Satsu no Kaigun Chli no Rikugun, Tokyo 1911, pp. 133-7; Fujiwara Akira, Gunjishi, Tokyo 1961, pp. 115-20. 3 Katsura Taro, Shosekun, Tokyo 1912, p. 93. See p. 146 for his criticism of Japanese youth. 4 Katsura 1912, pp. 154-5. 5 Katsura on resignation and treaty revision, Hara Nikki, vol. 3, p. 71, entry for 14 December 1910. 6 Zaiseikai, Tokutomi Soho, KC>shaku Katsura TarO-den, 2 vols., Tokyo 1917, vol. 2, pp. 511-14; Carol Gluck, Japan's Modem Myths: in the Late Meiji Period, Princeton 1985, p. 91; work law, Yamamoto Hirofumi et aI, Kindai Nihon Keizaishi, Tokyo 1980, pp. 99-100. 7 Yamamoto Shiro, ed., Terauchi Masatake Kankei Monjo: Shusho Izen, (here• after Terauchi Monjo), Kyoto 1984, pp. 598-603, memorandum, December 1910. 8 Oyama Azusa, ed., Yamagata Aritomo Ikensho, Tokyo 1966, pp. 334-7, Yamagata memo, to Katsura cabinet, 31 July 1911. Katsura Papers, Yamagata letter, 2 August 1911. Kitaoka Shinichi, Nihon Rikugun to Tairiku Seisaku, 1906-1918, Tokyo 1978, pp. 69-70. 9 Naval plan, Kitaoka 1978, pp. 68-9; Banno Junji, TaisM Seihen, Kyoto 1982, pp. 62-3; Matsushita Yoshio/Izu Kimio, Nihon Gunji Hattatsushi, Tokyo 1937, p. 253. Katsura on military expenses, and Kokuminto alli• ance with Yamamoto, Hara Nikki, vol. 2, p. 395, entry for 4 January 1910, and vol. 3, p. 25, entry for 12 May 1910. 10 Katsura-Seiyokai announcement, Hara Nikki, vol. 3, p. 66, entry for 11 December 1910. Najita Tetsuo, Hara Kei in the Politics of Compromise, 1905-1915, Camb. MA 1967, pp. 82-4, considers Katsura's announce• ment unprecedented and an embarrassing c1imbdown, clearly ignoring his role in arranging the 1898 compromise with the JiylIto. Army-navy responses, Banno 1982, pp. 72-7. 11 Okuma Shigenobu, in Taiyl1 1 October 1911, noted Katsura's influence in the new Saionji cabinet, Kimura Ki, ed., Okuma Shigenobu Sl1sho, Tokyo 1969, vol. 1, p. 122. See also Uno Shun'ichi, 'Dai Niji Katsura Naikaku', Hayashi Shigeru/Tsuji Kiyoaki, ed., Nihon Naikaku Shiroku, 5 vols., Tokyo 1981, vol. 2, p. 95. 12 Support for Qing, Hara Nikki, vol. 3, p. 177, entry for 20 October 1911; Ikei Masaru, 'Japan's Response to the Chinese Revolution of 1911'. Journal of Asian Studies, 25-1, 1965-66, p. 214. Support for revolutionaries, Oka 226 Notes

Yoshitake, ed., Ogawa Heikichi Kankei Monjo, 2 vols., Tokyo 1974, vol. 2, pp. 397-8. 13 HaTa Nikki, vol. 3, p. 177, entry for 20 October 1911. On splitting China, Banno Junji, Meiji - Shiso no Jitsuzo, Tokyo 1977, p. 141. See also Yamamoto ShirO, 'Shingai Kakumei to Nihon no DOkO', ShiTin, 49-1, January 1966, p. 33; Kurihara Ken, Tai-Man Ml1 Seisakushi no Ichimen, Tokyo 1966, pp. 289-90. 14 Katsura Papers, 62-29, Terauchi letter, 7 January 1912. Morrison on 'smashing' Japan, J.O.P. Bland Papers, diary, 26 January 1908. 15 Yamagata on despatch of troops, Katsura Papers, 70-139, Yamagata let• ter, 15 January 1912. A variant of this letter, giving one army division instead of two, appears in Oyama 1966, pp. 337-8, November 1911 British appeal on Beijing-Mukden railway, Ikei 1965-66, p. 217; Yui 1969, p.4. 16 Yamamoto opposition, Banno 1982, p. 95. Warning to Russia, Tanaka Giichi letter to Yamagata, 17 January 1912, quoted in Yui 1969, p. 7. 17 Katsura Papers, 70-140, Yamagata letter, 9 February 1912. It may be appropriate here to consider a question from February 1913. Katsura was once more premier and, amidst the fury of the Taish5 incident, was visited by Sun Yatsen as head of railway development in the new republican government. Katsura was later reported to have told Sun that future Japanese policy would be to abandon the Anglo-Japanese alliance, push Britain out of the Far East, and join with China to liber• ate the peoples of and India. This is the account given by Sun's interpreter, Tai Jitao, in his Jihpen-lun (Shanghai 1928) and accepted by Harold Schiffrin, Sun Vat-sen, Boston 1980, p. 172, and , The Japanese and Sun Vat-sen, Camb. MA 1954, p. 159. A sugges• tion that journalist Akiyama Teisuke, who helped arrange the meeting, was trying to persuade Katsura to desert Britain for an alliance with Germany is also accepted in a remarkably inept article by Miyake Masaki, 'German Cultural and Political Influence on Japan, 1870-1914', in John Moses/Paul Kennedy, ed., Germany in the Pacific and Far East, 1870- 1914, St. Lucia 1977. For the Katsura-Sun talks, see also Ishikawa Jun, 'Katsura Taro to Son Bun', Kaigai Jiio, 7-1, January 1959; Kojima 1951, p. 125. One may question a book in 1928 which supports Western suspicions of a Japanese conspiracy. One may also question this sud• den reversal in Katsura's thinking from alliance with the West to Pan-Asianism. Given the infant nature of China's new polity, the evi• dent incompatibility of Yuan and Sun, and the increasing assertiveness of China's regions, it is highly unlikely Katsura would have envisaged so easily abandoning an alliance he had taken pride in creating and extending, and siding instead with a fragile republic. 18 Letter to Terauchi, 21 February 1912, quoted in Yui 1969, p. 11; also Banno 1982, p. 96. Japanese youth support for China's revolution, Katsura Papers, 62-69, Terauchi Masatake letter, 7 January 1912. Japanese press opinion concerning the revolution's impact on Japan, Nozawa Yutaka, 'Shingai Kakumei to TaishO Seihen', Yui Masaomi, ed., RonshfI Nihon Rekishi 12: TaisM Demokurashii, Tokyo 1977, pp. 54-5. 19 Saionji on army minister choice, letter to Yamagata, April 1912, cited Notes 227

in Joho Yoshio, RikugunshO GunmukyokuchO, Tokyo 1979, p. 147. Tanaka on showdown, letter to Terauchi, 30 March 1912, in Koketsu Atsushi, 'Tanaka Giichi Kenkyu Noto'. Sei;i Keizai Shigaku, 205 August 1983, p. 22. Uehara and his group, Kitaoka 1978, pp. 74-6. 20 Katsura to emperor, Wakatsuki Reijiro, Ko(iian Kaikoroku, Tokyo 1975, p. 177. Katsura quote on being Ito's successor, Japan Chronicle, 11 No• vember 1909, in George Akita, 'Ito, Yamagata, and Katsura: the Changing of the Guards', unpublished paper, p. 2, 1908 offer to lead a party, Kagawa Etsuji, Dura Kanetake-den, Tokyo 1921, pp. 162-3. Katsura in Yamagata faction to 1912, Kobayashi 1996, p. 192, 214. 21 Honda Kumataro, Sen;in 0 Kataru, Tokyo 1939, pp. 60-80. Wakatsuki 1975, pp. 180-1, describes the trip. 22 Katsura reaction, Wakatsuki 1975, p. 184. Katsura on retiring Yamagata, Kojima 1951, p. 134. Divergent views on Yamagata's intention, Oka Yoshitake, Yamagata Aritomo, Tokyo 1958, p. 122; lrie Kanichi, Yamagata• ko no Omokage, Tokyo 1922, p. 149; Rara Nikki, vol. 3, p. 245, entry for 13 August 1912; Banno 1982, p. 103; Kobayashi 1996, p. 278. 23 Nitobe InazO, I;in GunziJ, Tokyo 1931, p. 321. Katsura and promotion to field-marshal, Kobayashi 1996, p. 278. 24 F.O. 410/59, Lieutenant-Colonel John Somerville report in MacDonald to Grey, 19 September 1911. 25 Oyama 1966, p. 287, Yamagata memorandum, August 1905; Oe Shinobu, Nihon no SambiJ Rombu, Tokyo 1985, pp. 118-19; Kitaoka 1978, pp. 67-8. 26 Terauchi Mon;o, pp. 583-6. Yamamoto does not identify the author of this memorandum but its content suggests Tanaka Giichi or one of his subordinates. Wakatsuki visit to Yamagata, Kitaoka 1978, pp. 70-1. 27 Kobayashi 1996, p. 282. 28 Rara Nikki, vol. 3, pp. 246-50, entries for 17-18 and 30 August 1912. KOketsu 1983, p. 20, interprets the same passage on Katsura's compro• mise as an increase of two regiments and the revision of status of the temporary Korean forces. 29 Najita 1967; Peter Duus, Party Rivalry and Political Change in TaisM Japan, Camb. Mass. 1968, particularly pp. 38-49; Roger Hackett, 'Yamagata and the TaishO Crisis, 1912-1913', Studies on Asia, 1962; Jackson Bailey, 'Prince Saionji and the TaishO Political Crisis, 1912-1913'. Studies on Asia, 1962. 30 Rara Nikki, vol. 3, pp. 264-6, entries for 23-5 November 1912. 31 Terauchi Monio, pp. 587-8, Tanaka Giichi telegrams to Terauchi, 5 De• cember 1912. Saionji resignation, Sakeda Masatoshi et al., eds., Tokutomi SoM Kankei Monio, 3 vols., Tokyo 1982-87, vol. 2, p. 269, Suginaka Tanekichi letter, 9 October 1912. Yamagata fear, Oka 1958, p. 124, Irie 1922, pp. 155-6. 32 In October 1912, Matsukata and Inoue, with Oyama Iwao accompany• ing, had barged into a cabinet meeting to urge the suspension of new projects and a return to Japanese financial stability, Sakeda et al., 1982- 87, vol. 2, p. 270, Abe Tsurunosuke letter, 15 October 1912; Banno 1982, pp. 106-9. 33 Kitaoka 1978, p. 133. 34 Changes to ministerial qualifications and Manchurian administration, 228 Notes

Kobayashi 1996, pp. 286-7, 291. Tanaka appeal, letter to Katsura, 17 December 1912, in Kitaoka 1978, p. 135. 35 Quoted in Uno 1981, vol. 2, p. 137. 36 F.O. 410/62, Rumbold (Tokyo) to Grey, 23 December 1912. 37 Uno 1981, p. 135; Kitaoka 1978, p. 136. 38 Uno 1981, p. 143; Tokutomi 1917, vol. 2, pp. 625-6. 39 Kat5 promise, Kobayashi 1996, pp. 287-9. On the army's fear of Katsura, see also Kitaoka 1978, pp. 136-7. 40 Yamamoto Shiro, 'Katsura no Shin Seit5 Soshiki ni tsuite', Nihon Rekishi, 242, July 1968, p. 103, quoting Den diary, 17 January 1913; Uno 1981, p. 148. Banno on 1913, Kindai Nihon no Shuppatsu, Tokyo 1993, pp. 410-11. 41 Kimura 1969, p. 128, Okuma appraisal of Doshikai, pp. 127-32, 136-7. Ozaki's denunciation of military domination in the colonies, Haruyama Akiyoshi/Wakabayashi Masatake, Nihon Shokuminchishugi no Seijiteki Tenkai, 1895-1934, Tokyo 1980, pp. 43-4. 42 Kimura 1969, pp. 136-7. 43 Duus 1968, pp. 42-49, examines some of the members and their rea• sons for joining. See also Banno 1993, p. 413; Kobayashi 1996, pp. 287-9. 44 Yamamoto visit, Wakatsuki 1975, p. 197; also Motoyama Katsuragawa, Katsura Taro to Hara Kei, Tokyo 1935, p. 215; Uno 1981, p. 153. 45 Nagashima Ryuji, Seikai Hiwa, Tokyo 1928, p. 129. On the decline of Katsura's health from April 1913, Sakeda et al., 1982-87, pp. 49, 72, Oura Kanetake letter, 21 April 1913, and Katsura Taro letter, 10 May 1913. 46 Yamamoto 1968, p. 117, and again in 'Taisho Seihen to Gumbu', Rekishigaku KenkyfI, 334, March 1968, p. 62.

12 Conclusion

1 Ramon Myers/Mark Peattie, eds, The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895- 1945, Princeton 1984, introduction, p. 8. 2 Lin Yutang, A Leaf in the Storm, London 1943, pp. 69-76. Peattie 1984, pp. 7-10, for his comments on the proximity of Japan's empire, and a contrasting view both of the 'exoticism' of Japanese tales of expansion and ideas of a Japanese 'mission' to save Asia. Bibliography

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Allen, Horace, 81 Army Staff College (Rikugun Aoki, Nobuzumi, 17, 71, 102 Daigakko), 17, 19 Aoki, Shuzo, 10, 14, 19, 64, 76--7, Asia Studies Society (Ajia Gakkai), 141 79, 81-2, 85, 87, 157 army, japanese, 2-4; and China, 3, Banzai, Rihachiro, 102, 208n 17-18; 25-32, 35-40, 42, 60, Boxer war, 74-81, 83-8 70-2, 76--81, 83-8, 102, 126, Britain, and China, 68, 76--7, 160, 171-5, 201n, 208n; 79-80, 93-4, 174; imperialism, 6, conscription, 11, 16, 155; and 41, 48, 53, 56, 93-4, 113, 122, constitutional politics, 4, 12, 16, 128, 188; and japan, 13, 28, 18, 23, 172-84, 186, 189; 77-80, 87, 93-5, 98, 105, 107-8, discipline, 30-2, 35, 155, 170, 118, 125-7, 138, 155-6, 161-2, 177, 186, 189; education, 9, 17, 166--7, 174, 195n, 214n, 226n; 60, 71; expenses, 11, 23, 60-1, and Korea, 118-19, 138 64-5, 89, 92, 96--8, 147, 151, brutality, military, 44, 57, 138, 169, 172, 175, 177-82; factions, 195n, 197n 21-3, 106, 170; fear of West, 26, businessmen, japanese, 42, 111, 46, 72-3, 87, 107-8; French 145, 153-4, 187 influence, 9, 15; German influence, 9, 14, 18-19; guerrilla Chajanghoe, 131, 165 conflicts, 43-4, 57, 138, 164; and China, and Britain, 68, 76--7, imperialism, 26, 42, 43-4, 121-3, 79-80, 93-4, 125, 174; and 171, 182, 187-8; intelligence, 13, japan, 13, 17-18, 19-20, 25-32, 17, 102; internal disputes, 21-3, 35-40, 70-2, 74-81, 84-8, 92, 105-8; and Korea, 4, 34, 66--70, 102, 123-30, 141, 160-3, 169, 81-3, 105, 114-16, 120-3, 131, 171-5, 203n, 208n, 226n; 134, 138, 150, 152, 164, 169, military reform, 16--17, 28, 71, 215n; and Manchuria, 31-2, 35, 102, 201n, 208n; revolution 123-8, 162, 172; and navy, 20-1, (1911), 173-5; and Russia, 43, 37-8,95, 175, 177, 181, 193n; 67-8, 70-1; war with France, organisation, 9, 11, 12-13, 14, 19-20; and US, 125, 157-9; and 15-16, 18-23, 60, 123, 128, Western imperialism, 42-3, 71, 192n; and political parties, 36, 74-80,88 50-1, 59, 61-6, 172-84, 186, Choshu, 5, military engagements, 189; public support, 29-30, 170, 7-8; military reform, 6--7 180; and Russia, 51, 60, 66--70, Christians, in China, 31, 75, 77 99, 101-3, 105, 111; Russo• Chuo Club, 175 japanese war, 105-8, 116--18; civil war, japan (1868), 8 Sino-japanese war, 29-40; conscription, 11, 16, 23, 192n violence, 31-2, 34, 44, 57, 138, constitutional politics, japanese, 4, 195n, 197n 11, 23, 61-6, 89, 96--8, 103, Army Reservists Association (Zaigo 110-12, 118, 147, 170, 172, Gunjinkai), 170 175-84, 189

242 Index 243

Cromer, Lord, 122, 131 Hirata, Tosuke, 10, 97, 111, 141, 145, 150, 180 Doshikai, 176, 182-4 Hirose, Katsuhiko, 86 Duan, Qirui, 102 Horie, Yoshisuke, 23 Hoshi, Toru, 63-4, 73 East India Company, British, 128, Hulbert, Homer, 136 144, 153, 162 Huntington Wilson, F., 157 education, for Japanese colonialism, 54-6, 141-3 Iguchi, Shogo, 99, 106, 123 Eel Society (Unagi-kai), 151 Ilchinhoe, 115-16, 133-8, 164-8, emigration, Japanese, 42, 48-9, 52, 215n 58, 72-3, 113, 132, 140, 144-5, imperialism, British, 93-4, 113, 147-50, 152-4, 157, 162, 198n, 122, 128, 137, 144-5, 188; 199n French, 44-5, 48, 57; Japanese, emperor, Meiji, 16, 37, 39, 45, 63, 2-4, 13, 32-6, 40, 41-58, 77-8, 88, 98, 105, 123, 159, 170-1, 112-16, 119, 121-2, 124, 128-39, 176-7; TaishO, 177, 181 140-50, 152-4, 159, 162-9, 171, 175, 182, 186-8, 197n, 212n factions, Japanese military/political, Independence Club, 67-8, 115 2, 9, 21-3, 62-3, 93, 170, 181 Inoue, KakugorO, 52, 54 France, army, 9, 12; and China, Inoue, Kaoru, 8, 14, 54, 61, 90, 19-20, 75; imperialism, 44-5, 48, 118-19, 124, 137, 145, 148, 150, 57; and Japan, 7, 9, 19-20, 39, 205n, 208n, 227n 80 Inukai, Ki, 97, 183 Fukushima, Yasumasa, 28, 35, 52, Ishimoto, Shinroku, 173, 175 79,208n Itagaki, Taisuke, 53, 62, 64 Fukuzawa, Yukichi, 17, 29, 56 ItO, Hirobumi, 19, 140-1, 160-1; and army, 36-8, 80, 122-3, Germany, army, 9-10, 12, 19, 71, 126-7, 134; and China, 37-8, 201n; and China, 42, 71, 74, 75, 102, 117, 160; and Katsura, 90-1, 80; and Japan, 39, 80, 87, 117, 93, 95-9, 118; and Korea, 82-3, 156, 175, 212n 114, 121-3, 130-9, 145-50, Getsuyokai, 21-3, 194n, 206n 152-3, 163-6, 215n, 218n, 219n; GotO, Shimpei, 1, 49, 51, 53-5, and Manchuria, 119, 125-8, 56-8, 82, 86, 128-30, 140-1, 158-9; and politics, 61, 76, 83, 150, 160-2, 165, 176, 180-1 88, 89-91, 95-9; and Russia, 93-5, 99-101, 103, 116, 156, Hara, Kei, 44-5, 65, 97-9, 111, 165-6; and Russo-Japanese war, 116, 118, 140, 149, 152, 170, 98-103, 116-17, 119; and 173, 177, 179, 184, 196n Sino-Japanese war, 36-8; and Haraguchi, Kenzai, 114 Taiwan, 44-5, 46, 53 Harriman, E. H., 119-20, 159 Iwasaki, Yanosuke, 53, 198n Hasegawa, Yoshimichi, 115, 134, Izawa, Shuji, 54 138 Hayashi, Gonsuke, 81, 114, 116, James, Lionel, 107, 209n 200n Japan, and Britain, 13, 37, 71, Hayashi, Tadasu, 130 76-7, 79-80, 87, 98, 107-8, Hibiya riots, 118 117-18, 126-7, 155-6, 161-2, Higashi Honganji, temple, 86 166-7, 174, 195n, 212n, 214n, 244 Index

226n; and China, 13, 17, 25-32, 132-4, 136-7, 141-50, 163-9, 35-40, 42-3, 47, 70-2, 75-80, 224n, 225n; and Manchuria, 83-8, 92, 102, 109, 123-30, 125-7, 142-3, 158, 161-2, 180; 141-3, 160-3, 169, 171-5, 208n, military service (Choshu), 7-8; 226n; fear of West, 17, 26, 37, and Oriental Society, 140-3; and 46, 72-3, 82, 160-1; and France, Oriental Development Company, 19-20, 39, 80; and Germany, 10, 143-50, 152-4; overseas study, 39, 80, 87, 156, 175, 212n; and 9-10, 14, 19; and political Korea, 13, 28, 33-5, 66-70, parties, 61-6, 88, 90, 92-3, 96-9, 81-3, 101, 104-5, 112-16, 110-12, 147, 152, 167, 172-3, 119-23, 130-9, 141, 143-50, 175-84, 220n; relations with 152-4, 163-9, 178-9, 212n; and Meiji leaders, 8, 11, 51, 90-1, Russia, 14, 26-8, 37, 39, 66-70, 118; and Russia, 67-70, 82, 93-5, 80-3, 98-103, 105, 107, 109, 98-103, 108-9, 116-18, 156, 111, 116-18, 124, 135, 156, 165-7, 176, 221n; and Saionji 165-7, 174, 176, 200n, 204n; Kimmochi, 121, 147, 175, and Taiwan, 13, 38-9; and US, 179-80, 213n; Sino-Japanese war, 6-7, 31, 39, 72-3, 87, 92, 29-32, 38-9; and Sun Yatsen, 119-20, 145, 155-9, 169, 175, 226n; and Taisho incident, 209n, 212n, 221n 175-84; and Taiwan, 45-51; and JiyOto, 50, 57, 61-4 Taiwan Society, 52-6; and US, Jordan, Sir John, 174 119-20, 155-9, and Yamagata Aritomo, 11-12, 14, 51, 53, 63-6, Kaikosha, 23 90, 91, 108, 117-18, 176-9; and Kamio, Mitsuomi, 71 Yamamoto Gombei, 76, 78, 87, Kaneko, Kentaro, 109 91, 183, 205n; and West, 21, Kang, Youwei, 77 78-80, 88, 107-10, 209n Kato, Takaaki, 124, 182, 184, 219n Kawakami, Soroku, 5, 10, II, 18, Katsura, Taro, and army disputes, 19, 21-2, 25-6, 28, 36, 44, 62, 21-3, 105-8, 125-7, 175-81; and 82 army expenses, 23, 62, 64-5, Kensei Honto, 97, 110-12, 167 92-3, 96-8, 151, 172, 176-82, Kenseito, 61-5 189; army reform, 12-13, 15, 17, Kigoshi, Yasutsuna, 105, 175-6, 18-23; and Britain, 94-5, 118-19, 179, 181, 198n 155-6, 160, 166-7, 169, 174, Kiuchi, Jilshiro, 138, 220n 221n, 226n; and businessmen, Knox, Philander, 157-9 Ill, 151; childhood, 5-7; and Kodama, Gentaro, II, 22, 23, 44, China, 17, 77-80, 85-8, 160-3, 48, 54-5, 56-8, 85-7, 91, 97, 99, 180, 226n; and constitutional 100-3, 106-7, 118, 124, 128-9; politics, 16, 23, 50-I, 61, 76, and Katsura, 45, 51, 56, 88, 90 100, 103, 110-12, 176-7, 182-4, Kodama, Hideo, 141 21On; and Getsuyokai, 21-3; Kogetsukai, 99, 123 family, 5, 9, 90-1; illness, 45, 96, Kojong, monarch of Korea, 66-7, 130, 146, 183-4; and 81, 114-16, 123, 132-7 imperialism, 26, 41, 45-50, 78, Kokumin DOmeikai, 83, 89, 100 171; and Ito Hirobumi, 88, 90-1, KokumintO, 167, 175, 180, 183 93, 94-9, 118, 122-3, 127, 134, KokuryOkai, 99, 133, 146-50, 164-5, 176, 218n, 219n; Komatsu, Midori, 168 and Korea, 82-3, 94, 113-15, Komatsubara, EitarO, 141, 145, 150 Index 245

Komuchi, Tomotsune, 92, 100, 116 Min, Yonggi, 69, 152 Komura, Jutaro, 35, 72, 91-2, 95, Mitford, Algernon (Lord Redesdale), 98, 102, 114, 116-17, 119-20, 80 146, 159, 164, 167, 205n, 211n Mitsubishi, 151, 217n Kondo, Rempei, 52, 151, 159 Mitsui, Hachiroemon, 53 Kono, Hironaka, 100 Mitsui Industries, 54, 143, 145, Konoe, Atsumaro, 71, 77, 82-3, 89, 217n 97,99-100 Miura, Goro, 16, 18, 20, 22-3, 40, Korea, 17; and China, 20; 64 guerrillas, 138, 164, 217n; and Miyake, Setsurei, 65 Japan, 10, 13, 14, 28, 29, 33-5, Mizuno, Jun, 52, 54 40, 66-70, 81-3, 101, 104-5, Morrison, G.E., 107, 174, 204n 107, 112-16, 119-23, 130-9, Mutsu, Munemitsu, 25, 32 141-50, 152-4, 163-9, 178-9; 212n; and Russia, 66-70, 167 Nagamori, Tokichiro, 114 Kotoku, Shu sui, 77, 118, 171 Nagaoka, Gaishi, 176 Kuga, Katsunan, 43 Nakamura, Zeka, 141 Kurahara, Korehiro, 153 Nakasone, Yasuhiro, 54 Kurino, Shinichiro, 94, 133 navy, Japanese, 121, 199n, 207n; Kwantung, Japanese government- and army rivalry, 20-1, 38, 60, general, 123, 129-30, 141, 143, 95, 112, 175, 181, 190, 193n; 162 and China, 85-7; expenses, 60, 95-7, 151, 172; and Korea, 68-9, Lansdowne, Lord, 95 163-4; organisation, 20-1, 27, Lin, Yutang, 188 60, 95-7; and political parties, Liu, Kun'i, 70-1 172-3, 175, 181, 183; and Russo• Japanese war, 105, 117; and MacDonald, Claude, 77, 119, 125, Sino-Japanese war, 29, 38 149, 156, 162, 166-7, 204n Nishi, Tokujira, 76 McKenzie, F. A., 138 Nitobe, Inaza, 157, 177, 218n McLeavy Brown, John, 132 Nogi, Maresuke, 48, 51-3 Manchuria, Japanese presence, 35-6, 38, 119, 123-30, 141-3, Okabe, Nagamoto, 144, 150 157-63, 174-5, 180, 222n, 223n Okubo, Haruno, 164 Mantetsu (South Manchurian Okubo, Toshimichi, 12 Railway Company), 92, 128-9, Okuma, Shigenobu, 50-1, 53, 61-4, 141, 143, 153, 162, 214n, 217n 68, 72, 96, 100, 114, 182-4, Masuda, Takashi, 53-4, 151 205n Matsuda, Masahisa, 93, 97, 220n Okura, Kihachira, 52, 53, 57, 129, Matsukata, Masayoshi, 22, 50-1, 198n 61, 76, 90, 126, 137, 145, 148, opium, Japanese colonial policy 150, 180, 227n on, 49, 56 Matsuo, Shinzen, 111 opium wars (1839-42), 6 Matsuoka, Yasuke, 141 Oriental Development Company Meckel, Clemens, 19, 22 (Taya Takushoku K.K.), 92, Megata, Tanetara, 115 143-50, 152-4, 219n, 220n Meirinkan (school), 6-7 Oriental Society (Taya Kyakai), Military Academy (Rikugun Shikan 140-6, 148-50, 152; and schools, Gakka), 19, 21 140-3, 154, 217n 246 Index

Oshima, Yoshimasa, 123, 129-30, Shibusawa, Eiichi, 152, 198n, 218n 141 ShimpotO, 51, 61, 63, 65 Oyama, Iwao, 8, 9, IS, 18, 19, 21, Shinagawa, Yajiro, 9 23, 29, 82, 99, 106, 116, 124, shipping, Japanese, 49, 58, 92 137, 145, 193n, 227n Shoda, Heigoro, 151 Ozaki, Yukio, 20, 39, 54, 62-3, 91, Shoda, Kazue, 148 93, 97-8, 100, 159, 182 Sino-Japanese war (1894-95), 25-40, Pak, Chejun, 69, 135 Soga, Sukenori, 22, 60 parties, Japanese political, SO-I, Sone, Arasuke, 9, 91, 97, 110, 146, 61-6, 167, 170, 172, 175, 182-4 153, 165-7, 223n, 224n Pavlov, Aleksandr, 68-9 Song, Pyongjun, 115, 133-7, Poanhoe, 114 146-7, 164 Port Arthur, massacre (1894), 31-2 South Manchurian Railway Company (see Mantetsu) racial attitudes, 10, 31, 34-6, Stevens, Durham White, 113, 115 39-40, 72-3, 78, 108-10, 160-1, Straight, Willard, 158 186, 188 students, Japanese overseas, 10; radicalism, in Japan, 118, 170-1, Chinese in Japan, 71 175 Suematsu, Kencho, 109 railways, Japanese overseas, SO, Sugiyama, Akira, 77 57-8, 119-20, 128-30, 158-9, Sugiyama, Shigemaru, 7, 90, 92, 162-3 133, 165 Rockhill, W.W., 213n Sun, Yatsen, 160, 173, 226n Roosevelt, Theodore, 119, 156-7 Russia, and China, 43, 67-8, 70-1, Taehan Hyophoe, 165-6 75, 159; and Japan, 14, 26-7, 39, Taft, William Howard, 119, 157-8 66-70, 80-3, 98-103, lOS, 107, Tai-Ro DOshikai, 100 111, 116-18, 135, 165-7, 174, Taisho, political crisis (1912-13), 4, 176, 200n, 204n; and Korea, 175-84 66-70, 81-3, 167, 203n Taiwan, 13, 38, 71, 86, 140; Japanese colonialism in, 42-58, Saga uprising, 12, 122 197n, 198n Saigo, Takamori, 8, 10, 14 Taiwan Society (Taiwan Kyokai), Saigo, Tsugumichi, 46, 62-4, 76, 52-6, 140-1 199n Taiwan Society School, 54-6 Saionji, Kimmochi, 99, 111-12, Takahashi, Korekiyo, 151 118, 120-1, 124-5, 137, 147-8, Takarabe, Takeshi, 99, 173 173-5, 178-80, 182-4, 206n Takashima, Tomonosuke, 45, 50-1 SaitO, Makoto, 85, 87, ISO-I, 172, Takasugi, Shinsaku, 7 181 Takehashi riot (1878), 15 Sakatani, YoshirO, 52, 147 Takushoku University, 54, 143 samurai, 5-6, 12, 14 Tanaka, Giichi, 99, 123, 173-6, Satsuma, military engagements, 180-1, 184, 190, 209n 7-8; uprising, 14-15 Tanaka, Mitsuaki, 206n Seiy1ikai, 83, 88, 93, 96-9, 110-12, Tang, Shaoyi, 88, 102 118, 147, ISO, 152, 167, 172, Tani, Kanjo, 22-3, 39, 60, 64 175, 179, 181, 183-4, 190 Tarui, TOkichi, 56 Shibata, Kamon, 168, 181 Terao, TOru, 100 Index 247

Terauchi, Masatake, 76, 79-80, army expenses, 60, 178, 186, 85-7, 101, 106, 108, 115, 116, 210n; and army organisation, 118, 123, 134-7, 140, 148, 11-12, 15-16, 60, 192n, 195n; 150-1, 166, 168, 174-5, 178-80, and Britain, 28, 94; and China, 184-5, 216n 13, 17-18, 20, 26, 28, 72, 80, 84, TOa DObunkai, 71, 77, 82 87, 172-5; fear of West, 26, 28, Tokugawa, attacks on ChOshu, 7-8 72, 87; and Katsura, 11-12, 23, Tokugawa, Ieyasu, 6 38,45,51,90, 117-18, 176-9, Tokugawa, Yoshinobu, 8 184; and Korea, 69, 81-3, 134-5, Tokutomi, SohO, I, 6, 22, 107, 137, 166, 216n, 223n; and 151, 182 Manchuria, 124-6, 129, 172-5; Tomizu, Kondo, 100 and political parties, 23, 36, Tonghak, 113, 116 50-I, 59, 61, 63-6, 75, 176, Torio, Koyata, 82 180-1; and Russia, 26, 60, 69, TOyama, Mitsuru, 83, 100 82, 101, 103; and Russo-japanese Toyogawa, Ryohei, 111, 148, 151, war, 106, 108, 116-18; and 218n Satsuma uprising, 14; and Tsuruhara, Sadakichi, 60, 141-2, 148 Sino-japanese war, 29, 35-8; and Taisho incident, 176-82 Uchida, Ryohei, 99, 133-6, 165-6, Yamagata, Isaburo, 147 173 Yamaguchi, Motoomi, 80 Uchida, Yasuya, 124-5 Yamamoto, Gombei, 27, 44, 69, Uehara, Yusaku, 176, 178-80 78, 82, 85, 87, 98, 102, 106, Ugaki, Kazushige, 54 110, 121, 126-7, 146, 163, 167, United States of America, and 174-5; and Katsura, 64, 76, 87, China, 125, 157-9, 213n; and 172-3, 183, 190, 205n, 207n; japan, 7, 31, 39-40, 72-3, 87, and Taisho incident, 180, 183 119, 125, 145, 155-9, 169, 175, Yamaza, Enjiro, 92, 99, 148 209n, 212n, 213n, 221n Yano, Fumio, 43 Usagawa, Kazumasa, 148, 150, Yasuda, Zenjiro, 53, 218n 152-3, 220n Yi, Wanyong, 67-8, 131, 133, 135, 137-8, 146, 152, 165-6, 168 Wakatsuki, Reijiro, 128, 176, 178, Yi, Yonggu, 115, 133, 165 181, 220n Yoshihara, Saburo, 152 war correspondents, foreign in Yuan, Shikai, 17, 62, 71, 75, 102, japan (1904-5), 107-8 123, 127, 158, 161-2, 174 Witte, Sergei, 212n Yun, Ch'iho, 114, 131

Yamagata, Aritomo, 19, 22, 24, 27, Zaiseikai, 171 5~ 9~ 9~ 10~ 121, 145; and Zhang, Zhidong, 70-1, 77