ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

www.elkjournals.com ………………………………………………………………………………………………………

ON THE ORIGIN AND SPREAD OF LANGUAGES: PROPOSITIONING TWENTY- FIRST CENTURY AXIOMS ON THE EVOLUTION AND SPREAD OF LANGUAGES WITH CONCOMITANT VIEWS ON LANGUAGE DYNAMICS

Sujay Rao Mandavilli

ABSTRACT

This paper purports to be a starting point to revisit existing approaches dealing with the origin and spread of languages in the light of the changed circumstances of the Twenty-first century without in any way undermining their applicability across space and time. The origin of spoken languages is intricately and inseparably interwoven and intertwined with the origin of human species as well, and in this paper, we propose a ‘Wholly- independent Multi-Regional hypothesis of the origin of Homo sapiens’ in response to both the highly-controversial and arguably antiquated ‘Out-of-Africa theory’ which we have stridently and vehemently opposed, along with all its protuberances and the contending Multi-Regional Hypothesis as well. The key tenets of this paper are therefore articulated based on this fundamental premise which is likely to upend existing presumptions and paradigms to a significant degree. Having said that, we must hasten to add that the evolutionary biology of language encompassing physical anthropology or genetics and other related areas of study, are wholly outside the purview of this paper. Structural linguistics and semantics are also outside the scope of this paper. In this paper, we examine the origins of spoken and written languages in pre-historic, proto-historic, historic, pre-globalized and post-globalized contexts and propose an ‘Epochal Polygenesis’ approach. As a part of this paper, we also provide a broad overview of early and current theories of the origin and spread of languages so that readers can compare our approaches with already existing ones and analyse the similarities and differences between the two. We propose and define several new concepts under the categories of contact-based scenarios and non-contact based scenarios such as the autochthonous origin of languages, the spread of properties of languages from key nodes, ‘Theory of linguistic osmosis’ and the need to take historical and political factors into account while analysing the spread of languages. In this paper, we also propose among others, the ‘Theory of win-win paradigms’ and the ‘Net benefits approach’. We also emphasize the need to carry out a diachronic and synchronic assessment of the dynamics of languages spread and propose that this be made a continuous process so that the lessons learnt can be used to tweak and hone theories and models to perfection. This paper is likely to significantly up the ante in favour of a dynamics-driven approach by undermining the relative torpor now observed in this arguably vital sub-discipline and contribute greatly to the rapidly emerging field of language dynamics. We also hope that synchronic linguistics will finally get its due place under the sun in the post-globalised world, and will become a major driving force in linguistics in the Twenty-First Century. ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

An Introduction to language languages in the world today, some of A language may be defined as a mode of which are unlikely to be full-blown or communication which is intrinsic to all independent languages in their own right, human societies around the globe and some of which are unaccompanied by regardless of their social or intellectual scripts or literary traditions. The count of advancement or accomplishments. A languages, of course varies widely from language is usually specific to a source to source, and depending in part on community and is a mode of the methodology adopted for considering communication with a set of rules which languages as full-fledged ones. According are formalized over a period in time. to one survey carried out by the Academie According to Noam Chomsky, “A francaise, there were only 2,796 full-blown language is a either a finite or infinite set of languages in the world towards the end of sentences, each finite in length and the Twentieth century, though other constructed out of a finite set of elements.” sources and surveys suggest a larger According to Edward Sapir, language, may number of full-fledged languages. At the be defined as “A purely human and non- other end of the spectrum, The Ethnologue, instinctive method of communicating listed the total number of languages in the ideas, emotions and desires by means of world as 6,809. Unlike written languages, voluntarily produced symbols.” (Sapir the date of origin of spoken languages 1921:8) According to Bloch and Trager, cannot also be pinpointed with accuracy in “A language is a system of arbitrary vocal the absence of direct or indirect evidence, symbols by means of which a social group despite the fact that some work has been co-operates.” (1942:5) According to Hall, done by researchers such as Alello and “Language is an institution whereby Dunbar, among others and estimates of the humans communicate and interact with date of origin of spoken language vary very each other by means of habitually and oral- widely between 75,000 years before the auditory arbitrary symbols.” (Hall present to over a million years before the 1968:158) Languages have been known present. Languages may be primarily and attested from at least the dawn of classified into two forms i.e. spoken and human history, although they are likely to written. Written languages typically be much, much older. There are believed to comprise of a formal dictionary of symbols be between five to seven thousand or lexemes, while spoken language itself is comprised of a formal grammar, and relies ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) on patterns or combinations of sounds to with nationalism and ethnocentrism … is express ideas and thoughts, and so closely tied to the individual self. Fear combinations of such ideas or thoughts, to of being deprived of communicating skills express extremely complex ideas and seems to raise political passion to a fever thoughts. All languages spoken around the pitch.” 1 2 3 world today demonstrate some level of Properties of language standardization and complexity, although this may not necessarily have been the case Language is characterized by several during the dawn of spoken language. distinct properties such as Displacement Language is typically acquired by humans (Ability to encode messages that refer to early in childhood by imitation, and the past, present, future or other locations), language is typically formal or structured Semanticity or meaning, Syntax or with a set of codified or uncodified rules. combination of phonemes to convey more Language is the basis of much of human complex ideas, Encapsulation of messages, accomplishment in the fields of science, Arbitrariness (Absence of a direct co- arts, music or literature, and human relation between an object and the word civilization as we know it, would most representing it), Productivity or Creativity certainly not have been possible without and the constant coinage of new words language. Language also plays a critical through innovation and change, Cultural role in the transmission of knowledge, and transmission to future generations, therefore augments civilizational Discreteness of words and their meanings, complexity. Language is also inseparably Learnability (a speaker of one language can associated with culture and human emotion learn almost any other language subject to as the ability to communicate is seen as a certain constraints and limitations), very vital tool and is deep-rooted in the Interchangeability between speakers and human psyche. As Henry Bretton (1976, p. listeners, Organization of sounds to form 447) points out: “Language may be the distinct meanings, Specialization of most explosive issue universally and over function, Phonetic and orthographic time. This is mainly because language representation, and transferability from one alone, unlike all other concerns associated medium to another. Linguistic ability is

1 Narrative: A critical linguistic introduction: 3 Fighting Words: Language Policy and Ethnic Michael J. Toolan Routledge, 1988 Relations in Asia Edited by Michael E. Brown and 2 Semantics: A course book J. R Hurford and Sumit Ganguly Brendon Heasley, Cambridge University Press, 1983 ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) also associated with Competence or ability species have only possessed relatively to communicate in a structured and logical more primitive forms of communication. fashion, and Performance or the act of Anthropologists once thought that other communicating efficiently. species such as Neanderthal man did not possess the attributes of speech, but recent An overview of research in linguistics research and evidence seems to contest this The philosophy of language or the ability view, and speech capabilities must have of language to express the breadth of evolved only gradually in primates and human experience, has been debated since humans. Research on language, ancient times, particularly since the times evolutionary biology and human instinct (a of the Greeks in the first millennium before field of study wholly outside the purview the Christian era. Other branches of of this paper) is also rapidly evolving and linguistics such as semantics or the linguists such as Steven Pinker have made relationship between language and many contributions to this field in recent meaning were also formalized since the times. Fields of study such as language times of the Greeks. Languages are also dynamics are nascent, and we believe that typically classified into language groups, this is an area of study with a vast untapped (an idea first proposed by August potential.4 5 6 7. Linguistics on the other Schleicher, an early believer in Darwinian hand, may be defined as a formal, a ideas of evolution) even though some such scientific and a structured study of all classifications may now be archaic or facets of language including its origin, questionable in the face of newer research. spread, transmutation and all other aspects The number of languages spoken may have such as grammar, phonology, orthography gradually declined since historic times, and ,semantics, and semiotics and may the rate of decline has accelerated in alternatively be defined as the science of modern times due to the onslaught of language. The term linguistics can be globalization. Language was once believed traced to the Nineteenth century, even to have been unique to the species Homo though a formal study of language began Sapiens, and it was thought that other

4 The Language Instinct: The New Science of the Concepts – Methods – Visualization Edited by language and mind: Steven Pinker, Penguin Books Heiner Fangerau, Hans Geisler, Thorsten Halling 1995 and William Martin 5 Classification and Evolution in Biology, Linguistics 6 Language thoughts and reality: Selected writings and the History of Science of Benjamin Lee Whorf, The MIT press 1956 7 The origin and evolution of language Brian Stross, WMC Brown Company publishers, 1976 ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) long before this. Analyses of the spread of Iraq, theories, hypotheses and speculation languages may also be classified into a on this topic have never been in short diachronic and synchronic analysis of supply throughout recorded human history, language spread, the former being a and this topic is probably as hotly debated temporal analysis and the latter being a and widely discussed among scholars and non-temporal analysis of language spread. intellectuals as discussions about the Linguistics or Linguistic Anthropology is weather are in quotidian conversation. 8 9 also a major sub-discipline of 10. According to a story told to Herodotus, Anthropology, and comprises Historical the Egyptian Pharaoh Psammetichus I had linguistics, descriptive linguistics and carried out an experiment, known as the sociolinguistics. Linguistics may also be Psammetichus experiment in the 7th classified into theoretical and applied Century BC, and had concluded that linguistics. Applied linguistics applies the speech was innate to all humans. This is principles of linguistics to practical and one of the earliest tests of linguistics real-world situations including language known to man. Linguistics developed policy and planning. independently in China and India before the dawn of the Christian era unaffected by Curiosity about language has aroused the the concerns of the West and constraints human mind and attracted the attention of imposed by work carried out elsewhere. great scholars and thinkers since aeons Chinese linguistics began around the fourth leading to rampant speculation and a century BC. The Xiaoxue, the Erya (An plethora of competing theories. While data ancient dictionary) and the Xiao Erya were on the early origins of language has proven the early notable works from China. The to be hard to find, given the fact that spoken following are the two outstanding early language typically leaves no concrete and works from India: incontestable record for posterity, and evidence of full-fledged written language  The scholar Panini wrote a represented by true logo-syllabic begins grammar of Sanskrit (somewhere only from around 3200 BC in present-day between 500 BC and 300

Palmer's Studies in the History of Western 8 R.H. Robins's book A Short History of Linguistics (1986, Cambridge Press: New York). Linguistics (4th Edition, 1997, Longman: New York), Pieter A.M. Seuren's Western Linguistics: An 9 Language: The basics R.L Trask Routledge 1995 Historical Introduction (1998, Blackwell Publishers: 10 The Miracle of Language Richard Lederer Pcket Malden, Mass.), and Theodora Bynon and F.R. Books, 1991 ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)  BC) called Astadhyayi (literally Latin grammar Ars Grammatica in 'eight books'). Many scholars the early Christian era, and this is accredit him with having played a considered to be a notable work of crucial role in early linguistics. its time. Cross-cultural studies also  Tolkappiyam: was an early took root in this period due to the grammar of the Tamil language and travels and narratives of Hiuen was written around the second Tsang and Fa Hien both of whom century BC Greek scholars such as had travelled from China to India Herodotus (whom some believe to and produced copious narratives of be the world’s first anthropologist) their travels. Alexander the Great’s , Plato, Protagoras of Adbera, conquest of India and Prodicus, Aristotle, Heraclitus, Megasthenes’ accounts had also Sextus Empiricus, Hippias and kindled interest in distant lands. Apollonius made major Most of the linguistic work from contributions to various facets of the Middle Ages was focused on the study of language, and set a grammar, and was merely an motion a process that continued extension of Latin and Greek well into later times and impacted analyses. Some notable scholars of the Romans as well. The Greeks the Middle ages were Isidore of also initiated philosophical studies Seville of the 6th Century AD, Peter on the origin of languages, and Helias, Thomas of Ertfurt, William discussions on such topics can be of Ockham, Priscian and the Arabic found in the works of Plato. scholar Sibarwaih. Linguistic Alexandrian grammarians also studies assumed added importance made important contributions to towards the end of the Middle various fields of linguistics such as Ages, and a significant amount of the formal definition and study of scholarly output was observed in various parts of speech. The this era. Arabic and Hebrew literary Romans did not make major traditions had also reached a zenith changes to Roman ideas but during this period. An acute interest modified them in the context of the in exotic cultures was also Latin language. Aelius Donatus, prompted by the travels and Honoratus and others compiled the accounts of Marco Polo and Ibn Khaldun. During the Renaissance, ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) grammatical treatises were written important by-product of this period, and for several European languages. historical linguistics can also be traced to Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Manuel this epoch due to the pioneering and Chrysoloras, Dante Alighieri and ground-breaking work of William Jones Pierre Ramee were notable scholars and other scholars. The Nineteenth Century of this era. The Académie française is sometimes referred to as the golden age and the British Royal Society also of philology. The Twentieth Century saw a did a lot of pioneering work on shift towards structuralism, formalism and linguistics in this era. J. G Herder, behaviourism, and major scholars were James Harris, James Burnett and Franz Boas, Edward Sapir, Noam Sir William Jones were the leading Chomsky and B.F Skinner. The Sapir- linguists of Eighteenth Century Whorf Hypothesis or the theory of Europe. The writings of the French linguistic determinism which argues that philosopher Montesquieu in the language moulds man’s perception of Eighteenth Century also triggered reality, and the perception of reality and the an interest in other cultures and ability to process thoughts would vary languages, and indirectly depending on the language of the speaker contributed to linguistics. The is an important product of the Twentieth Nineteenth Century on the other Century. Noam Chomsky’s generative hand, produced scholars such as grammar, William Labov’s and Peter Wilhelm von Humboldt, Friedrich Trudgill’s sociolinguistics, Michael von Schlegel, Jakob Grimm, Franz Halliday’s System Functional linguistics Bopp, Ferdinand de Saussure and and Kantor’s Psycholinguistics. Research August Schleicher, many of whom linking linguistics with diverse fields such worked on pioneering fields such as as Anthropology, Genetics, Evolutionary the origin of language, Biology and Brain Psychology is currently Transformation grammar and under way, and this is already leading to a Comparative linguistics. fundamental transformation in many fields of linguistics. Evolutionary linguistics is The Neo-grammarians made pioneering another promising area of study. Even efforts towards the reconstruction of the though progress has been slow in the past Proto Indo-European language and an due to the fact that spoken language can analysis of its grammar. A formal, leave no tell-tale evidence whatsoever, the structured study of grammar was also an field of evolutionary linguistics has ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) evolved rapidly since the 1990’s with rapid that languages evolved continuously from progress in fields such as the late 1980s, the the grunts and the noises made by primates field has been revived in the wake of and other less complex animal progress made in the related fields communication systems, while the latter of psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, evol propose a more discontinuous approach utionary anthropology, evolutionary towards language evolution. Most scholars psychology, universal grammar, such as Mario Alinei and Steven Pinker and cognitive science. One recent approach support Darwinian models, while a few is an adaptanionist or a Darwinian scholars such as Noam Chomsky support approach towards language origins (which Non-Darwinian models, and an example of also encompasses sexual selection and kin the latter is the Emergent Phenomenon selection), which is endorsed by scholars theory. Likewise, Stephen Jay Gould too such as Steven Pinker. Computational has on occasion has stated that he does not modelling is another promising field which support Darwinian models fully, and states may eventually solve many riddles and instead that language is a by-product of puzzles which were previously considered many complex forces..15 to be too overwhelming and baffling to Early theories on language grapple with. Research is also being carried We now present some early theories on the out on Phylogenetic, Ontogenetic and origin of languages. These theories are Glossogenetic aspects of linguistic largely considered to be obsolete now, and evolution. The identification of the FOXP2 given the acrimony debates around them gene or the language gene has proven to be tended to generate, discussions on these another important milestone in topics were even banned by the Societe linguistics.11 12 13 14 Linguistique de Paris in a formal Language theories may also be sub-divided communication dated the 8th of March into two subgroups, i.e. Continuity theories 1866. However, a few aspects of some of and Discontinuity theories. The former, these theories would still have currency also related to Darwinian models, propose even in the Twenty-first century, and some

11 The study of language by George Yule 14 Buckley, C., Steele, J. (2002). “Evolutionary Cambridge University Press 2010 Ecology of Spoken Language: Co-Evolutionary 12 Grimes, B.F. (Ed.), The Ethnologue, SIL Theories are Testable”. World Archaeology 34 (1): International, Dallas, 2001 26-46 13 Guy Deutscher. The Unfolding of Language: An 15 Chomsky, Noam 1986. Knowledge of Language. Evolutionary Tour of Mankind's Greatest New York: Praeger Invention, Henry Holt and Co, 2005 ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) others would prove to be instructive on disproven compellingly), most words in slip-ups early linguists tended to make, and various languages spoken around the world it is for this very reason that we reproduce today do not bear any resemblance to summaries of them below. While there sounds made by objects associated with may be no consensus on the origin of them, and in fact are far removed from language, few would deny that it was a them, apart from minor exceptions. In major cultural innovation with profound English, in addition to cuckoo, we have and far reaching consequences for the words such as splash, bang, boom, rattle, human species and a major milestone in buzz, hiss and screech. While many of cultural evolution. Thus, while language these words may be of relatively recent was facilitated by the evolution of speech origin, we would like to hypothesize, based organs, language itself was a by-product of on a common sense approach, this social, cultural and technological changes. evidence and evidence from other 16 languages, that onomatopoeia may have once been common in languages around 1. The Bow-wow theory or the the world, and the early attempts of humans Sound Mimicry theory to speak may indeed have been based on

The Bow-wow theory or the sound human imitations of such sounds, but was mimicry theory refers to the idea that replaced in due course by more complex speech arose from people imitating the and abstract vocabulary in the manner sounds that various living and non-living described elsewhere in this paper. things make in the natural world: Examples The bow-wow theory also refers to being sounds made by dogs, cats, snakes, theories by various scholars, cows, rivers, streams, rain, thunder, including Jean-Jacques lightning etc. This theory was extremely Rousseau and Johann Gottfried Herder, on 17 18 popular some two hundred years ago. the origins of human language. While there is a possibility that early human language from derived from 2. The Pooh-Pooh theory onomatopoeia (It is highly unlikely that The Pooh-pooh theory (also known as the this hypothesis can ever be proven or expressive theory, the interjectionist theory

16 Language: The Cultural tool Daniel Everett 18 The Evolution of Language W Tecumseh Fitch, Profile Books 2012 Cambridge University Press, 2010 17 Francis S Collins. The language of God. Free Press, New York, 2006 ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) or the expressions of emotions theory) connected with real-world objects, and that refers to the idea that speech comes from objects were named after their real-world involuntary vocal responses to pain, fear, properties. Per this hypothesis, splash surprise, excitement, pleasure or other would have become the word for rain and emotions. Such sounds are made by some oink would have become the name for pig. animals too, and yet speech is unique only However, this hypothesis does not explain to humans. Examples of such words in the how abstract words were named. This English language include Ouch!, Aaah! hypothesis also fails to satisfactorily and Wow!. The percentage of words account for most words in modern attributable to such sources in modern languages, and must resultantly be languages is believed to be extremely approached with a fair amount of small, and there is some variation between skepticism. This theory was originally such words and the related sounds proposed by Max Muller, though he associated with such words. We do not himself later abandoned it. 19 know how ancient these words are, and there is enough reason to believe that some 4. The Yo-he-yo theory, the Yo- of these words are recent. Our assessment heave-ho theory or the Social is that while early languages may have Interaction source indeed contained words based on such The Yo-he-yo theory, the Yo-heave-ho exclamations, these may have been theory or the Social Interaction source eventually overridden by more reflects the idea that speech started with the sophisticated and abstract vocabulary in rhythmic chants and grunts people used to the manner described elsewhere in this coordinate their physical actions when they paper. Max Muller, who is known for his worked together. According to this theory, popular and scholarly jousts with Darwin, language evolved from the grunts, groans, appears to have supported this theory for made by humans while doing heavy some time, before abandoning it. physical labour. This theory does not explain where the words themselves came 3. The Ding-dong theory from. It cannot also account for all words The ding-dong theory refers to the idea that in any language. This theory may also be speech reflects a resonance or harmony somewhat over-imaginative as only a small

19 Friedrich Max Müller. Lectures on the Science of Language. Lugmans, Green and Co., Fifth edition, 186 ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) percentage of words may be attributable to words in any language. Another similar such sources. This theory is also somewhat theory is the Lah-di-dah theory. Theories difficult to verify in comparison with other such as these would more appear to reflect theories. the flights of fancy of their respective creators than be mired in ground realities. 5. The Ta-ta theory and the Chew- chew theory 7. The Ma-Ma theory The Ta-ta theory proposed by Richard Paget refers to the idea that early human The Ma-ma theory reflects the idea that speech originated from the use of tongue easiest syllables were attached to and mouth gestures to mimic manual significant objects in order to create words. gestures and gestures of the hand. For While this may be a possibility, it is by no example, saying ta-ta is like waving means the only one, and word coinage may goodbye with your tongue. Even Charles perhaps be contributed to many different Darwin’s ideas appeared to have supported sources. this hypothesis at one point. However, the 8. Singing theory origin of most words cannot be satisfactorily explained through the Tata- According to the singing theory, words theory. A similar theory is the Oral gesture were invented as a result of humans’ early theory or the Chew-chew theory which efforts to sing, dance and mimic the sounds proposes that language originated from emanating therefrom. It is highly unlikely gestures that early humans made with their that this is a plausible idea and it is unlikely mouths. that a significant portion of the vocabulary

in any source was created through this 6. The La-la theory or the Woo-woo source. hypothesis

9. Babbling theory The la-la theory reflects the idea that speech emerged from the sounds of love, According to the babbling theory, words romance poetry, and music. This theory were created based on the sounds produced was proposed by the Danish linguist Otto by infants for no particular purpose. Other Jesperson and others. This theory is scholars argue that this is somewhat somewhat far-fetched, and it is unlikely to improbable and unlikely, given that few account for a significant percentage of ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) adults would take infants chatter seriously warn other humans of dangers arising or ascribe meanings to them, and few from reptiles, wild animals, fire or such objective scholars would be willing to other perils or hazards. It is highly attribute a large number of words to this unlikely that a significant proportion of source. the words in any language were attributable to this source. However, this 10. Hey-you theory source would undeniably account for some basic vocabulary at the very least. According to the hey-you theory formulated by Geza Revesz in 1956, 13. Watch the birdie hypothesis language arose from an assertion of one own identity and belonging and a calling to This theory was proposed by E.H others. It is highly unlikely that a Sturtevant. According to this theory, significant proportion of words arose from humans invented language for their own this source. selfish ends and to deceive other humans. This hypothesis appears to be way off the 11. Eureka theory or Invention theory mark and would barely even merit a According to the Eureka theory, words footnote in a list of plausible hypothesis. were invented as a result of the creative underpinnings of man, and by adopting no 14. Hocus pocus theory particular formal or structured methods. In other words, the coinage or words was This theory was proposed by C. George wholly random and arbitrary. We endorse Boiree and others and claims that this theory wholeheartedly in our paper, as languages originated from magical and we believe this would account for a religious acts and other similar rituals that significant proportion of word coinage, were performed by early humans. It is even though we believe it must be studied highly unlikely that any modern scholars in conjunction with other approaches to would take this seriously. arrive at a holistic picture. 15. Co-operation theory 12. Uh-oh theory The Co-operation theory was originally According to this theory, words were proposed by Grace de Laguna. This theory coined as a result of a human’s desire to proposes that speech originated from early ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) humans’ effort to co-ordinate their daily Adam personally named all living social activities in the context of a clan, creatures including beast and fowl tribe or community. (Genesis 2, 19–20). This theory would imply that language is as old as humans, 16. Contact theory or the Wah-wah and all things considered, this is highly hypothesis unlikely. The Biblical theory based on the famous Tower of Babel incident also states This theory was proposed by Geza Revesz. that the whole world once spoke one According to this theory, language was language, and this language split up to give developed based on the human need to birth to multiple languages as humans express and share emotions with other spread around the world. This approach is members in the group or to satisfy some also sometimes referred to as the Noah’s other desire. Ark theory. Other religions too appear to have endorsed the Divine origin theory in 17. Verb Theory some form. According to some Hindu theologists, language originated from This theory was originally proposed by Saraswathi, the Goddess of learning who A.S. Diamond. According to this theory, was also the wife of Brahma, the creator of language originated from requests made by the universe according to the Hindu holy one or more individuals in a group to other trinity. individuals for assistance, and the issuance of orders for executions. This approach 19. The gossip and grooming hypothesis barely scratches the tip of the iceberg and (or the Yakkety-yak theory) does not account for the origin of nouns, Gossip and grooming, according to Robin adverbs and adjectives. Dunbar in his book “Grooming, Gossip and the Evolution of Language”, did for 18. Divine origin theory early societal humans what manual Another theory postulates that language grooming did for apes and chimpanzees: it was innately divine and was God’s gift to allowed individuals to service their humans. While few linguists would take relationships and maintain alliances on the this hypothesis seriously, many early basis of the principle of mutual co- societies actually believed in this theory, operation. A similar theory is the looky- and theory had currency well into pre- look theory which also proposes that modern times. According to Genesis 2:20, ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) language arose primarily from social successive approximations”. According to interaction. an example provided, a child is making unintelligible sounds, such as hi-hi, a-a-a-a 20. Ritual/speech coevolution and proceeds to say "mi”. The mother, on The ritual/speech coevolution theory was hearing this, gets excited, and then says originally proposed by Roy Rappaport and "Oh, do you want milk?. She then gives was later extended by Chris Knight, Jerome some milk. After a while, the novelty of Lewis, Nick Enfield, Camilla Power and "mi" wears off and mother insists that the Ian Watts. These scholars argue that baby say "milk" before she provides language is not a separate adaptation but an another bottle of milk. internal aspect of human symbolic culture as a whole. 23. Noam Chomsky’s theory of Universal Grammar 21. Putting the baby down theory Noam Chomsky proposed the theory The ‘Putting the baby down theory’ was of Universal Grammar: an idea of pre-fixed originally proposed by Dean Falk. grammatical categories, such as a noun According to this theory, interactions category and a verb category found in between mothers and their babies in early various related and unrelated languages human societies eventually led to a coinage that facilitate the entire language of words. The name ‘Putting the baby development process in children and down’ arose from the idea that mothers language processing in adults. This theory could not carry infants on their backs and states that grammar is largely based on had to somehow reassure them that they logic. According to the Universal Grammar still loved them. It is highly unlikely that theory, children instinctively know how to this theory can account for a significant combine a noun (e.g. a child) and a verb (to proportion of the words in widespread use play) into meaningful, correct phrases (A today and to most people, such proposals child plays) and further use them to would appear to be somewhat over- formulate ore complex sentences and ideas. imaginative. This is a mostly descriptive approach that 22. Behaviourism offers neither any clues on the origin of B. F Skinner proposed that language is language not makes any predictions about behaviour, and like all other patterns of the future direction of linguistic change. behaviour, it is learnt. This learning is Another somewhat similar concept is the enforced through “reinforcement of Theory of Construction grammar which is ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) a theory of syntax in which constructions this theory argue that imitation is a and form and function pairings are the uniquely human trait, not possessed by any central unit of grammatical representation. other species. 20 21David Hume had proposed that 26. Morris Swadesh’s theory on the languages are established by human origin of language conventions over a period in time. Similar proposals have also been made by other Morris Swadesh proposes that the linguists such as David Lewis of Princeton evolution of language be classified into the University. However belief in language eoglottic period, the paleoglottic period, universals is by no means universal: it has the neoglottic period and the historical been called into question by other period, and that the evolution of language researchers such as Nicholas Evans and occurred in radically different ways in each Stephen Levinson. 22 of the four periods. He also advocated the monogenesis of language and this would 24. Conversation Theory contrast our proposals. The Conversation theory was originally 27. Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution proposed by Gordon Pask. Conversation of language theory proposes that social systems are symbolic, language-oriented systems Darwin's model of the origin of languages, whose responses depend on one person's proposes that different aspects of language interpretation of another person's were acquired sequentially, and one after behaviour and attitudes, and where the other. Darwin's first stage in the meanings are agreed through conversations acquisition of language was a greater between two or more individuals. development of cognition. The second step is known as musical protolanguage or 25. The Meme theory prosodic protolanguage. Darwin argues According to this theory first proposed by that the evolution of a key aspect of spoken Susan Blackmore, language arose out of language, vocal imitation, was driven by the human ability to imitate animals, objects and other humans. Proponents of

20 Goldberg, Adele (1995). Constructions: A 21 Fillmore, Charles J. and Paul Kay. 1995. A construction grammar approach to argument Construction Grammar Coursebook. University of structure. Chicago/London: University of Chicago California, Berkeley Press. 22 Thy Myth of Language Universals: Nicholas Evans and Stephen Levinson 2009 ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) sexual selection and also to woo members Jackendoff and Steven Pinker proposes the of the opposite sex. 23 idea of ‘Universal Grammar’, and holds that natural selection plays a key role in 28. The Mother Tongue hypothesis or enhancing the communicative efficiency the Monogenesis theory for language. Other scholars such as According to the Mother Tongue Bickerton, Seyfarth and Cheney have Hypothesis or the Monogenesis theory, argued for via media approaches or a language originated from a single group of combination of these approaches. humans who probably originated in Africa Bickerton proposes a dual-stage model, and spread throughout the world. This where a proto-language first developed hypothesis is in diametric opposition to our from primitive grunts, and this in turn view which argues for polygenesis. Our developed into more complex languages. approach is therefore related to, and Noam Chomsky’s work once supported the derived from the Candelabra theory idea of ‘Universal grammar’ but he has since moved to more complex models’. 29. More recent work on the origin of Jackendoff has also laid out a scenario for languages the various stages in the evolution of More recent work carried out by scholars human language from primate like such as Noam Chomsky and Steven Pinker communication. Some of the steps have also debated the origin of grammar proposed by him are: Use of symbols in a and syntax. There are many theories on situation-specific manner; Use of an open, how syntax evolved. Some theorists such unlimited class of symbols; Concatenation as Michael Tomasello argue that syntax did of symbols; Development of a not evolve at all and that language is a phonological combinatorial system ; Use culturally-derived by-product reflecting of symbol position to convey basic the breadth of human experience. Thus, semantic relationships; attainment of language developed as a result of a cultural Proto-language; Symbols that explicitly process of grammaticalization. An encode abstract semantic relationships; opposite view advocated by Ray Definition of Grammatical categories;

23 The Linguistic Creation of Man: Charles Evolutionary Theory Robert J. Richards The

Darwin, August Schleicher, Ernst Haeckel, University of Chicago

and the Missing link in Nineteenth-Century ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) System of inflections to convey semantic to atavism. If such approaches are to be relationships; System of grammatical thrown out of the window, scientifically functions to convey semantic relations; accurate approaches that are marketed attainment of Modern language. Other appropriately to the laypeople, taking the scholars have also proposed models that perceptions, sensitivities and insights into are variations of Jackendoff’s approach. account are of supreme importance. Do This paper also emphasizes the pressing this, and we will be on the verge of a great need to dispel traditional myths, dogmas new revolution in popular scientific and superstitious beliefs in the Twenty-first awareness. century and a scientific approach towards Towards a ‘Wholly Independent Multi- evolutionary linguistics followed by an regional hypothesis’ on the origin of eventual widespread dissemination of Homo Sapiens contemporary scientific approaches in anthropology and linguistics should be One of the anchors of this paper is what we seen as a powerful tool towards this goal. would like to refer to as the “Wholly Likewise, ideology-driven approaches and independent multi-regional hypothesis of approaches driven by parochialism and a the origin of Homo Sapiens”. This desire to boost sectarian pride also need to approach which is a modified version of the be marginalized and eventually eliminated, Multi-regional hypothesis rejects the recent and given the interrelationship between Out-of-Africa origins of Homo Sapiens linguistics, other branches of and argues that humans, like other Anthropology and other disciplines such as universal, semi-universal or pervasive Sociology and Historiography, a scientific species such as canines, felines, bovines, approach to linguistics can prove to be of equines and pachyderms, appeared great value to society as a whole. It is independently around the world having highly unfortunate that highly antiquated followed similar but distinct evolutionary approaches akin to the divine source origin paths, and without in any way undermining of language continue to pervade large Charles Darwin’s principles of Natural segments of the popular public Selection or necessitating ideas such as consciousness. We also bear witness to the teleology or pre-determinism given that sporadic resurgence of maverick and fact that evolution as it is known today does dilettante approaches such as new age not plan for the future, have any long-term movements and quasi-religious goals and is primarily driven by local movements that are an obvious throwback ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) considerations. This is the core tenet of this other explanations fail, migrations may be approach, and one which will impact any the only plausible explanation. (Refer the analysis of the origin of languages Ten golden rules associated with human considerably. Our approach would migrations in this paper). Also, never over- constitute a form of polygenism. While simplify: solutions to real-world problems there would undoubtedly exceptions to this are seldom simple, straight-forward, in the form of human migrations, these will sensational or based on politically-correct need to be attested or inferred either premises and strategies. Approaches such directly or indirectly using some form of as these are expected to remain reliable evidence. An example for this controversial for some time in the absence would be the somewhat scanty evidence for of reliable evidence, but time alone will human fossils and primates in North bear testimony to the eventual outcome of America which appears to be the icing on complex debates such as these. the cake for recent Out of Africa Thankfully, critics of the much-maligned proponents. Instead of basing hypotheses but yet popular and widely marketed purely on existing or available evidence, it (particularly to the non-specialist and the would be preferable to adopt more man in the street) recent Out-of-Africa comprehensive and multi-disciplinary theory are becoming ever more forceful approaches, and look for alternative and vocal, and it is now indeed time for this explanations wherever possible: examples movement to pick up some more of these could be possible low populations momentum; clearly, the salad days of the of primates and early humans in the region, OAT are over. While most early hominin loss of fossil records etc. Another fossils such as Sahelanthropus tchadensis, possibility is that migrations may have (This is believed to have lived during the happened much earlier and in smaller LCA or the Last Common Ancestor numbers. Region-specific approaches and epoch), Ardipithecus ramidus, proposals and a combination of both Australopithecus afarensis, approaches may also bring us closer to the Australopithecus afriicanus and Homo truth, but autochthonous origins would be Habilus have indeed been found in the a much safer bet for most regions than African continent, such over- miscegenation. Dialectical approaches simplifications would appear to fly in the would help too, and reconciling viewpoints face of common sense. Human fossils have from the opposite ends of the spectrum also been found in China and Indonesia to would not be inapposite either. Wherever boot, and migrations to every nook and ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) corner of the world from an African human migrations need to be studied much homeland without a compelling reason more critically when migrations involving may not be justified. Recent Out of-Africa larger geographical distances are claimed. proponents flaunt supposed Mitochondrial (d) The possible motives for human DNA evidence as their trump card. How migrations need to be studied much more valid their interpretations are, remain open critically when migrations to regions with to scrutiny, but very little headway will less salubrious weather conditions, or those perhaps be made without inter-disciplinary unconducive to agricultural, economic or collaboration, and serious ventures to this intellectual development are claimed. (e) effect may not materialize in the immediate The ability of the region in question to future. In any case, the Ten Golden rules produce the numbers to facilitate associated with human migrations as migrations also needs to be taken into proposed by us in an earlier paper must account, i.e. a reconciliation of the always be borne in mind, and we reproduce populations of the source location to the them as under proposed size of the migrations needs to be carried out. By this we can avoid fantastic (a) The possible motives for human claims of large-scale migrations into India migrations which can be broadly classified which are unsupported by genetic into pull factors or push factors need to be evidence. (f) A reconciliation of the studied on a case to case basis, they key claimed size of migrations with the assumption for our purpose being that population of the destination likewise humans need not migrate unless they need needs to be carried out. If this had been to do so. Even if this assumption does not done in the case of India, we could have always hold good in the real world, we will easily concluded that the number of nonetheless insist on it, as it automatically migrants were small in relation to the places the onus on those proposing such Harappans or the residents of the Indus migrations to carry out a basic Valley Civilization, and that simplistic introspection. This may render invalid any models of language replacement in this possible fantasies or over-simplifications context would have been virtually like the crude Out-of-Africa theory. (b) impossible. For example, in the case of The possible motives for human migrations Ancient India, acculturation involving need to be studied much more critically small groups of people can very easily be when larger numbers of migrants are explained from what we call a ‘Lost tribe claimed. (c) The possible motives for hypothesis’ – a small group of individuals ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) accidentally crossed the Khyber Pass on auxiliaries still have an unfortunately large horseback, and did not know how to get fan following to this day particularly back, triggering a series of acculturations among the laity and less-informed public. that was explained. It is expected that the Many leading scholars have already number of migrants will be compared with expressed their gravest concerns about the the pre-existing populations of various dogged persistence of such antiquated destinations taking into account the beliefs among the general public, and it estimated population of source would be instructive to read the destinations. (g) The geographical features publications of Alain F. Corcos among of the regions involved must always be others on this issue.24 25 26It is the sacred kept in mind. (h) It is expected that a duty of the concerned and the better reasonable quantum of additional direct informed to lead the way and to serve and and indirect evidence will be sought in torchbearers so that the rest of the support of any model to prevent an population can follow suit and eventually ideological misuse. This many include fall in line. Haplogroups and linguistic or archaeological evidence. (i) It ethnobiological identity perhaps fit the bill is expected that this study is done in true much better that the hazy and nebulous letter and spirit and is used to test any concept of race, and what the author has model. (j) It is expected that this study is observed in his native India over the past done in true letter and spirit and is used to several decades are continuously varying formulate ‘Linguistic transformation physical features of human populations models’ for each destination separately. from region to region. A keenly observant Another concept we refute is the notion of anthropologist will even be able to discern human races canonically, orthodoxly and differences in physical features among erroneously classified as Caucasian, populations residing in different parts of Mongoloid and Negroid or admixtures of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, both being these. This concept is perhaps virulently states in modern India. The idea of race anti-scientific and badly outdated in the itself may have originated in a narrow twenty-first century, even though such European and North American context to concepts along with their less-desirable account for wide difference in physical

24 The Myth of Human races, Alain F. Corcos, 26 The Myth of Race: The troubling persistence of Wheatmark, 1997 an unscientific idea: Robert Wald Sussman, 2014, 25 The Concept of Race, Ashley Montague, The Harward University Press Free Press, New York 1997 ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) features between European immigrants and Clumsy theories based or a loose populations from Africa, and inferences on interpretation of a highly ambiguous the equality or inequality of races may have concept still regularly continue to do the been built over this narrow and limited rounds, an example of which can be found understanding.27 Awareness of cultures in in the book “IQ and the Wealth of Nations” other parts of the world in the Twenty-first Richard Lynn and Tatu Vanhaven. 28 This century and universality of scholarship book, which was heavily criticized by other should have proven to be the final nail in scholars and directly or indirectly endorsed the coffin for such concepts, but they never by some racist’s attempts to measure IQ or fully disappeared from the popular public the Intelligence Quotient based on consciousness. Even the much-criticised nationality. The Flynn effect on the other Hindu Caste system argued for a more hand, presumes that intelligence increases complex hierarchy which was perhaps among the general population due to reflective of the complex ethnic origins of nutritional and other factors. 29 30 31We the populations of South Asia. The idea of would like to strike a fine balance between intelligence is perhaps even more poorly racist interpretations on one hand, and defined that the idea of race, and measures utopian and romantic notions on the other to test intelligence are probably far from here. While the interests of long-term perfect. The term ‘Cognitive ability’ is science and scholarship should perhaps a much more scientific and undoubtedly take precedence over all other measurable term than intelligence and is concerns, there are many aspects that probably a much safer and surer bet in the should merit very serious consideration in long-term. Hence, all arguments on “race” addition to the many uncertainties and “intelligence” however wonderfully or associated with arriving at a satisfactory artfully presented and articulated, are more definition of the term intelligence. A short often than not, likely to be allied with list of issues that need to be effectively and vested interests and ulterior motives or at systematically eliminated before as least be gross misrepresentations incapable assessment of cognitive ability of global of doing justice to all aspects of the debate. populations is carried out includes (a)

27 The inequality of Human races Arthur Comte 30 The Mismeasure of Man, Stephen Jay Gould, W the Gobineau H. Fertig, 1999 W Norton and company, 1996 28 IQ and the Wealth of Nations by Richard Lynn 31 The Bell curve, Richard J. Herrnstein, Charles Murray, 1994 and Tatu Vanhaven Westport, CT Praeger

29 What is Flynn effect? James R Flynn Cambridge University Press, 2007 ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) Nutritional deficiencies in populations in Theories of language spread and specific parts of the world due to low language dynamics income levels (b) Biases and deficiencies What is language dynamics? of IQ tests (c) Factors attributed to Verbal intelligence or the absence thereof and Language dynamics is a rapidly evolving language specific-skills; (d) Difference field (in the late Twentieth and early arising from educational ability (d) Twenty-first centuries) and comprises a Difference arising from Cultural factors systematic investigation of how languages such as parental and peer-pressure (e) change over a period in time, how changes Aspirational factors and the presence of take place due to contacts with speakers of aspiration deficit in some cultures (f) other languages and how languages and Differences in parental initiation across dialects compete with each other for cultures and sub-cultures (f) Economic viability, and either survive, thrive and factors playing spoilsport to ambitions (g) prosper or decline and die out over a period Variations in career paths chosen among in time. Language dynamics also partly different nationalities due to economic and covers the birth and death of languages. other factors. We need to ensure that all The formal study of language dynamics is effects directly or indirectly arising from divided into theoretical frameworks of these or other similar factors need to be various kinds attempting to address various disregarded before a balanced assessment issues pertaining all aspects of the subject, is arrived at. This is an issue that only a formal and investigative data analysis and indirectly and circuitously affects the core computational modelling. Language and underlying theme presented in this dynamics may be classified into diachronic paper, but is nevertheless symbolic of our analysis (also known as historical core values and we therefore do not deem linguistics) and synchronic analysis which it inapt to take the liberty of mentioning it is a formal study of language dynamics and in passing. We also reiterate that all future changes in languages at a point in time. tests and measures must be designed in Another interesting area of study is how such a way that differences arising from diachronic factors impact a synchronic such factors are nullified and neutralized. analysis of language dynamics. Thus, this sub-field explores the co-relation between

diachronic linguistics and synchronic linguistics. Changes to language may also ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) be classified as internally-generated or Classical theories of spread of language induced or changes wrought through We will now examine some classical external influences including contacts with theories of language spread and linguistic speakers of other languages. another way change which had relatively strong of classifying changes are changes from following in the Nineteenth and early above encompassing changes brought Twentieth centuries. about through political influences and intellectual traditions and changes from Tree model below which encapsulate more natural changes. The terms “conservative” and The Tree Model was first popularized by “innovative” may also be used to describe August Schleicher over one and a half the rate of linguistic change. The terms centuries ago. In its most basic form, the “Transformation” or “Progression” are ‘Tree model’ consists of supposed Proto- sometimes also used to describe linguistic Language, say ‘Proto-languages ‘A’ change. Analysis of linguistic change may branching into languages ‘B’, ‘C’ and ‘D’. also be classified as real-time analysis ‘B’, ‘C’ and ‘D’ in turn may further branch which assumes that significant changes to form newer language. This is described take place during the lifetime of a speakers through a phylogenetic tree or a cladistic and apparent time analysis which assumes tree. From our perspective, this antiquated that linguistic ability is primarily acquired model is too simplistic and theoretical to during a young age. Real-time analysis have any practical value in the real world. detects linguistic variations and changes It may be difficult to demonstrate real- over a period in time. Apparent-time world examples of the Tree model, and this sociolinguistics surveys different model does not perhaps address all kinds of generations of populations at a given point real-time scenarios and may therefore be in time. 32 The approach proposed in this conceptually and fundamentally limited in paper is expected to be somewhat in its real world applicability apart from being variance with the existing approaches in very badly outdated. 33 the marketplace. The Wave Model

The Wave Model was first proposed by Hugo Schuchardt and Johannes Schmidt

32 Apparent and real time in studies of linguistic 33 Linguistics: The ultimate language test Adrian J. change and variation by M. Teresa Turell Williams ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) around 1870 as an alternative to the ‘Tree language changes and evolves in tune with model’. Under the Wave Model, an its users’ needs and the needs of society, instance of language change arises usually and language is a meaning-making from within a geographical region, and exercise. This theory appears to focus more from there spreads to adjacent speaker on lexical changes than other types of groups. The propagation of the change is changes. Words may therefore be coined to therefore like a ‘wave’ which expands reflect technological changes, new legal away from its centre as the new feature is requirements, new discoveries, slang etc. adopted by other languages usually in the The Random Fluctuation theory proposed region. Additionally, different features by Paul Postal and Charles Hockett may spread independently of each other in proposed that linguistic changes are different directions and different periods of unpredictable, and linguistic changes are time. According to Bloomfield (1933: more or less random. The Substratum 317), “Different linguistic changes may theory of linguistic change proposes that spread, like waves, over a speech-area, and changes in language occur as a result of each change may be carried out over a part external changes such as trade relations, of the area that does not coincide with the migrations, invasions, networking and part covered by an earlier change.” The cultural contacts. The S-Curve Theory of Wave Model, along with along its complex Linguistic change proposed by Chen extensions, may not address all kinds of (1972) and Bailey (1973) proposed that the scenarios arising out of Human migrations, rate of linguistic change resembles an S- and is already ingrained as a part of one of Curve, remaining low initially, increasing the scenarios proposed in our paper. 34 35 rapidly and then levelling off. This theory also proposes that changes in language take More recent theories of linguistic change place mainly on account of social factors. We will now provide a high-level overview According to Peter Trudgill’s Gravity of some alternative models of linguistic Model of linguistic diffusion, linguistic change proposed by scholars in the more changes take place due to social contact recent past. According to the Functional between speakers of different languages. theory proposed by M.A.K Halliday, Changes are proportional to factors such as

35 Principles of Linguistic change WillIiam Labov 34 Indo-European linguistics: An introduction James Wiley Blackwell 2010 Clarkson Cambridge ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) distance or proximity and population size. part of emergence of social values and According to the Parameter theory of cultural processes in society or culture. Linguistic Change, there are core and Merits and demerits of these approaches subset parameters set during the language apart, any approach will also need to acquisition process, and these are not prone address underlying causes of linguistic to conscious manipulation or alteration change over a period of time and across during adulthood. There are other geographies including Social factors, parameters reflecting factors which pertain Political factors, Technological factors, to or lead to language changes. The second Cultural diffusion which may arise due to set of parameters typically induce contact with speakers of other languages linguistic changes. According to the etc. Our basic assumption here is that the Theory of Lexical Gaps, a word will be rate of linguistic change is never constant invented or borrowed to fill in gaps in and may fluctuate very widely due to a usage. This theory states that linguistic result in an interplay of various factors in a changes are mainly driven by lexical gaps. manner that future trends can be predicted, Steven Pinker and Paul Bloom for example but to a limited degree and subject to recommend adaptationist approaches.36 certain constraints. It would also be Evolutionary Biology is a systematic necessary to understand such changes in investigation of the evolution of sound conjunction with various factors so that patterns in speech and their typological linguistic changes can be better-justified or distributions across space and time. analyzed with underlying causes, and Juliette Blevins’s theory of evolutionary periods of relative non-linguistic change phonology attempts to account for can be segregated from periods of relative synchronic phonological patterns as the linguistic change and similarly justified result of phonetic changes in the with sound reasoning. There are many transmission of sound systems from underlying causes of linguistic change and generation to generation over time. 37 Lev we reproduce a few of them below: Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of human Efficiency, economy and simplicity learning or the ‘Language as a tool’ theory describes learning as a social process as a

36 n and Cognitive Sciences Massachusetts Institute NATURAL LANGUAGE AND NATURAL SELECTION , of Technology Steven Pinker and Paul Bloom Department of Brai 37 A Theoretical Synopsis of Evolutionary Phonology Juliette Belvins ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) Speakers typically feel the need to express and conjunctions. Languages must also be their thoughts and ideas not just lucidly and clear and unambiguous; it must possess eloquently but through the judicious use of inbuilt mechanisms to minimize confusion words. If these principles are not satisfied, arising from incorrect usage. If these linguistic changes may result over a period principle is not satisfied, linguistic change in time, and these may manifest themselves may result. in a variety of different ways. For example, Expressiveness and comprehensiveness the emergence of Vulgar Latin as a of vocabulary counterweight to Classical Latin, the relative decline of French versus English as Language must be expressive enough to a global lingua franca and the emergence of cover the needs of its users in a wide Hinglish (a combination of poorly spoken variety of situations. If this principle is not English and Pidgin Hindi) across India and satisfied, words will either be invented or various pidgins and creoles around the borrowed from other languages to fill in world in recent times in lieu of Standard gaps and satisfy this principle.

English are cases in point. Role-based suitability

Naturalness A language must be inherently and innately

Languages must also be as natural to the suitable for the role it is expected to play. speaker as possible and must be suited to If this does not happen, such as the loss of expressing the speaker’s thoughts and functions of a language. ideas without unnecessary strain or effort. User or ethnic prestige and pride A related principle is the ‘Principle of least Language must also cater to user prestige effort’. If this principle is not satisfied, it and pride. If this does not happen, other may trigger changes to language in the consequences may result. For example, long-term, or in some way, lead to its speakers of certain basilect of Telugu are decline. known to abandon their language very Emphasis and Clarity easily as they move to Non-Telugu

Language must satisfy the principle of speaking regions. emphasis to a reasonable degree i.e. the Response to technological and other tight emphasis must be placed on different changes worlds and parts of speech including different verbs, nouns, adverbs adjectives ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) Languages must also respond to Changes due to geographical separation technological, legal, economic or cultural of users changes. If this is not effected in a formal Changes may also result from geographical and structured fashion, and in a way that separation of users. When speakers of a will satisfy all other principles discussed language move away from each other, and here, other kind of changes will result such lose contact over a protracted period in as the ceding of functions to other time, language usage may diverge. languages, or word borrowings. American English separated itself from Innovation due to language contact British English due to this very principle.

Changes often take place due to contacts Changes due to increased competency of with speakers of other languages. This may speakers often be due to migrations of speakers from Changes may also take place due to the one region to the other or cultural increasing competency of speakers as a imperialism. In the post-globalized world result of increasing standards of education physical contact between speakers of among the wider populace, the different languages may not even be universalization or near-universalization of necessary; The Internet, Satellite education and any resultant intellectual television, mobile phones and other revolution leading to an illumination and modern technologies may empower people enlightenment among the masses. and facilitate intra-cultural contacts among them. Changes due to the abandonment of a language by its own native speakers Changes due to imperfect learning In some cases, a language may be Changes to language may often take place abandoned by its own native speakers. In due to imperfect learning. If a significant some cases, native speakers of a language proportion of speakers of a language do not continue to use a language only in some learn a language properly, it may result in contexts. This may result in a loss of some linguistic decay in the long term. Imperfect functions in a language. For example, the learning may also occur when a large number of English schools (Where English number of non-native speakers try to learn is the primary medium of instruction has a language thereby impacting the way increased manifold in the state of Andhra native speakers use the language. Pradesh since the year 2000. Thus many native speakers of Telugu are rapidly ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) losing competency in written Telugu, and place additional emphasis on them, and are yet more comfortable with spoken choose to leave out certain other words Telugu than spoken English. More which are no longer in widespread use. interestingly, the second language taught in Types of Linguistic Changes many of these schools in not Telugu but Hindi. As a result, standards of written According to Marcel Cohen and others, the Telugu are falling precipitously while types of linguistic change encompassing standards of spoken and written English both internal and external change are as and Hindi are not increasing appreciably. follows. These changes usually are widely This trend is expected to lead to an overall accepted over a period in time by speakers decline in linguistic ability among native of the language or by more influential Telugu speakers in general in the long- speakers and become the linguistic norm. term. Thus, linguistic change occurs. Another way a change can occur is through lexical Changes due to Innovation diffusion. In such a case, changes to a Changes may also take place due to phoneme gradually spread throughout or to constant innovation and refinement and a a part of the language’s vocabulary language like English has lent itself fairly bringing about a language-wide change. 38: well to various types of innovation such as Lexical changes word coinage and word borrowings from other languages. Speaker innovation may Examples of lexical changes include the or may not percolate into the community; it continuous coinage of new words and is in the second case that changes to expressions particularly in vibrant language typically take place. languages such as English. English has also borrowed liberally from other languages all Changes due to transmission of language around the world, including less from generation to generation prestigious ones and this has endowed it Changes can also take place due to with enormous flexibility and adaptability transmission of language from generation not seen in languages such as French. On to generation. A generation may transmit the other hand languages such as Japanese additional words to the next generation and most modern Indian languages have which are more in tune with the times, or borrowed words informally from English.

38 Language: It’s structure and evolution, Marcel Cohen, Souvenir Press ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) The use of English words in Indian phonological system itself changes. In languages is widespread even where local general, phonetic drifts tend to take place equivalents are available, this process in many languages over a period in time. appears to have happened entirely Spelling changes informally, and not by imposition of authority. On the other hand, attempts to Spelling changes have also been observed artificially create words in Rajbhasha or in language. The spelling in American official Hindi have thus far failed English is at variance with the spelling in miserably. Lexical changes may also lead British English; the former is relatively to a loss of words, as they drop out of simpler than the latter. Spellings in both general or popular usage. In some cases, English and French have changed over the the word is retained but the meaning itself past few centuries, and standardization of changes either subtly or significantly. spelling and orthography is a relatively Thus, lexical changes are of three main recent concept and was largely kickstarted categories, addition of new words, word due to widespread literacy. borrowings and deletion of words from the Semantic changes vocabulary through disuse. Semantics refers to a formal, structured Phonetic changes study of the meanings of words in

Changes to pronunciation have also been language. Semantic changes refer to observed in a relatively short span in time, changes in the meanings of words over a a case in point being the emergence of period in time. Some types of Semantic American English. Subtle changes in changes include pronunciation have also been observed in (a) Amelioration: In this case, a terms American English from the 1920’s till date. connotations become more positive Changes to pronunciation have also been (b) Pejoration: In this case, a term’s observed in Proto Indo-European or Base connotations become more Indo-European as it morphed due to negative contacts with other languages. A scientific (c) Broadening: In this case, a term study of phonology encompasses a formal acquires additional meanings study of the rules by which acoustic signals (d) Narrowing: In this case, a term are generated. In contrast to phonetic loses some of its meanings changes, phonological changes are said to take place when the languages ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) (e) Taboos: In this case a word Our approach towards Origin of becomes a taboo word and drops languages and linguistic change out of use Our approach towards linguistic change (f) Adoption of euphemisms in lieu of categorizes linguistic changes into changes words that become socially induced by human migrations, and changes unacceptable that are not induced or accompanied by Syntactic change human migrations in such a way that scenarios triggered by human migrations Syntax constitutes an independent level of are further analysed in the context of more description from either phonology or general scenarios proposed as a part of this semantics. Syntax regulates the paper. The evolution and epigenesis of arrangements of words into larger units languages as per our ‘Epochal Polygenesis’ such as phrases and sentences, which are approach will also be naturally be impacted crucial to determine meaning. Syntactic by changes brought about by migrations changes refers to the evolution of the wherever these are applicable, and we syntactical structure of a language. Many therefore present them below. While these languages including languages that do not scenarios had initially evolved in the possess literary traditions have actually narrow context of the Indo-European been demonstrated to be syntactically and debate and the Indo-Europeanization of the grammatically complex, and the reason for world, and solutions proposed by us in this this is a mystery. Syntactical changes regard, these are general and include changes in word order such and the comprehensive enough to be universalized development of SVO languages into SOV across time and space and can probably be languages and vice versa. applied, with insignificant and petty Morphological changes modifications in any general context. Our Morphological changes may include presentation of human migration-induced addition of affixes, loss of affixes, changes changes before non migration-induced of language from analytic to synthetic and changes is deliberate and intentional; the synthetic to analytic etc. An interesting effects of migration-induced scenarios on example is the reduction in the inflexional linguistic change and evolution will then be complexity of English between the logical and self-descriptive. The Epochal fourteenth and seventeenth centuries, the Polygenesis approach categorizes human causes of which are still poorly understood. pre-history and history into the Pre- ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) historical period, Proto-historical period, classification in a generalized context, but Historical period, the Modern pre- we will make an earnest attempt to address globalized period and the Post-globalized them in the truest spirit of a collaborative period. approach.

The Ten types of Linguistic (a) Complete replacement or Annihilation Transformations associated with of languages: We had proposed in our Human Migrations earlier paper that this would be a very simplistic view, and one that may be From our perspective, Linguistic practically rare and inapplicable to most transformations arising out of Human situations. A scholar wanting to prove or Migrations can be of the following ten demonstrate the real-world applicability of types, and we briefly explain them below. such a scenario, is expected to provide Some concepts have already been put forth adequate data ruling out all other scenarios. by J P Mallory, Witzel and other scholars, Such scenarios have however, been again in the specific context of Indo- observed in the real-world on occasion European studies, even though our examples being the annihilation of native compilation and classification of scenarios languages in the USA and other parts of the is much more comprehensive and detailed. world. This can be justified on account of These typically involve changes to two or factors such as the degree of development more languages, and such changes can be of languages native to the region vis-à-vis of many types including lexical changes, those of immigrants, political factors, and semantic changes, syntactical changes etc. the fact that immigrants populations may These will have widespread and universal have been able to assert their identity. The applicability in the pre-historical, proto- latter contributed to the linguistic historical, historical, modern and post- suzerainty of English. In spite of this, globalized periods. These are not intended French, another immigrant language, is to be close-ended, and other scholars may only slowly dying out in Louisiana, and is still identify more scenarios and add them far from dead in Quebec, where it is to this list. Our approach is not to discard actually thriving, and is the chief language them altogether but to make an earnest of the province. This process appears to attempt to generalize them in the overall have taken place in Southern Sri Lanka as backdrop of linguistic changes induced by well, though in slow motion, as immigrants human migrations. We anticipate some from North India in 600 BC may have been criticism and animosity as regards the ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) relatively small in number. It is likely that and North Africa, Modern standard Arabic other languages of the region, like those is only used as a formal and a literary spoken by the present-day Veddahs of the language, and the levelling of various region, were subsumed over a protracted dialects of Arabic still appears to be span of time. However, as these languages nowhere in sight. Thus, Arabic is not only may have also heavily influenced the polycentric but also diaglossic. John language of the immigrants, and this may Gumperz and Robert Wilson (1971) be a fit case for what me may refer to as a provide data from Kupwar, a small village roller-ball model, and not plain-vanilla or in South-Western India, whose residents simplistic case of linguistic annihilation. mainly speak Marathi, Urdu and Kannada The classification of this scenario as a (A few also speak Telugu). These roller-ball model may also be in order languages have co-existed for centuries because the Sinhala language in its present without encroaching on, or destroying each form certainly did not exist when other. This may be in part due to the fact immigrations were purported to have taken that none of the languages in this case was place, and Sinhala is a product of Sri dominant and all languages were therefore Lankan soil and is of relatively more recent able to flourish alongside each other. All origin. Furthermore, other languages have these examples should serve to illustrate not disappeared completely from Sri Lanka that complete replacement or annihilation and languages other than Sinhala and is not necessarily the de facto method of Tamil are still spoken in pockets including linguistic transformation. On the contrary, in areas where both Sinhala and Tamil are it may be relatively rare and needs to be the majority languages. This may also be justified or demonstrated though referred to as the Survival of the fittest incontrovertible or relatively strong model as observed in the case of the USA. evidence. It is also a well-known fact that On the other hand, a dialect of English some languages of the Indo-European which was once spoken in the London area family are SVO languages, and some quickly became the standard variety of others are SOV languages. The process of English. The death of other dialects of change in the word order of languages (this English was however only an extremely itself may be relatively rare) may also be slow process only aided by factors such as studied in detail so that linguistic urbanization, education, internal transformations may be categorized migrations and the popularity of English appropriately. If the transformation of SVO outside the UK. In much of the Middle East languages into SOV languages or the other ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) way around cannot be justified, we would successive waves of immigrations of have hit another linguistic jackpot: this mostly low-end workers in recent times. would automatically throw light on the This has led to some changes to the Turkish nature of linguistic transformation in language as spoken by immigrants, but the different cases. arrival of the Turkish language in Europe has barely impacted languages such as (b) Linguistic Sub-ordination: Linguistic German and French, and even where an Sub-ordination was another concept we impact has been observed, they have been had discussed in our previous paper, and insignificant and trivial. 39 Another study may be relatively more common, at least in has documented the effects of Hindi and the short to medium term. We had also even Punjabi and English on Bagri, a introduced the ‘Doctrine of dialect of Rajasthani which in turn, is Insubordination’ where we discussed that variously categorized as an independent languages could cede functions to other language or a dialect of Hindi. In this case, languages much more easily, thereby changes have again been found to be uni- losing them, rather than complete directional. annihilation. This concept has been explained in detail in one of our previous (c) Roller-ball model (Single loop): In this papers. Linguistic sub-ordination would case, an alien language spreads up to a lead to lexical, syntactical, morphological certain point in a given region, loses its and semantic changes over a period of original form, and takes over time, as well as the coinage of words and characteristics and influences of a language expressions and word borrowings. It may or set of languages native to the region. The also lead to a loss of vocabulary in some languages native to the region are also cases, and the loss of functions of a heavily influenced by the alien language, language. This process would typically such that they are transformed lead to changes in a languages role as well significantly. This process would lead to a over a period in time. Another interesting transformational change in both languages. example that may fit the bill here is the One possible variation to this theme is the spread of the Turkish language is swathes emergence of new kinds of multiethnolect of Western Europe on account of Englishes in the USA first as a result of

39 Linguistic Effects of Immigration: Language Western European Turkish. Ad Backus, J. Choice, Codeswitching, and Change in Norman Jorgensen and Carol Pfaff

ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) immigrants from Africa, and then more into the Gangetic plains taking over the recently from Asia and other parts of the influences the ancestors of Prakrits and world. We believe the Sinhala language other indigenous languages before originated this way. Hybridized languages disappearing and reinventing itself as a or a mixture of one or more languages are lingua franca and a liturgical language. also an interesting phenomenon. However, this type of linguistic change may be generalized outside the perspective (d) Roller-ball model (Double or Multiple of IE studies to cover all kinds of special loop) (This scenario may also be and complex scenarios applicable in a generalized to cover all-kinds of complex specific geographical context or time frame and one-off scenarios that have widespread that cannot be satisfactorily fitted into the and universal applicability): We had first other types of linguistic change. Future developed this in the narrow context of researchers must make an earnest attempt Indo-European studies and the impact of to identify as many complex scenarios as Proto Indo-European or Base Indo- possible within their jurisdiction or area of European on languages in outlying regions, study, particularly those not covered under particularly India, and this was an other scenarios mentioned in this paper. extension of the Single Loop Roller-ball This must be a conscious and deliberate model where both groups of languages process to avoid over-simplifications and keep influencing each other. Refer our over-generalizations of different sorts. One detailed model on the relationship between example we can think of that can be the PIE, Sanskrit and Prakrits which is also classified under the category of relatively presented in our earlier papers.40 41 42 Such complex scenarios are changes in the complex scenarios may be relatively rare in Bengali language on account of the other contexts and situations, and may have settlement of Bengali speakers in Hindi taken place as a result of special conditions. states. The resultant changes to the Bengali In this case, a descendant of base Indo- language may then be further magnified on European continued to propagate in ancient account of the eventual relocation of these India, into and out of the Vedic homeland,

40 Syncretism and Acculturation in Ancient India: A transfer of power from the Harappan to the Indo- new Nine phase model explaining the process of Aryans Part Two Sujay Rao Mandavilli ICFAI transfer of power from the Harappan to the Indo- Journal of History and Culture, 2010 Aryans Part One Sujay Rao Mandavilli ICFAI 42 The Demise of the Dravidian, Vedic and Journal of History and Culture, 2009 Paramunda Indus myths Sujay Rao Mandavilli 41 Syncretism and Acculturation in Ancient India: A new Nine phase model explaining the process of ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) Bengali language speakers back to their borrowings, and it would be interesting to home state. 43 As already stated, a thorough note that many Greek words entered understanding of the specifics of the region languages like English through Latin. and the time-frame under consideration Additionally, Greek loan words were will unlock the full potential of this borrowed directly into English as well. approach. This clearly demonstrates the complexity of factors causing or determining the (e) Extended Roller-ball model (Roller-ball interrelationship between the world’s model combined with Billiard-like languages, and we would again add a extensions): In this model, a language cautionary note urging scholars to desist spreads up to a certain point through one of from simplistic assumptions. The key the methods described above, and then evidence for a billiard-like of a spread spreads primarily through cultural comes from the wide variations in the diffusion at later points in time to various dating of various languages belonging to other outlying regions. This may explain the IE family, and this approach may be the Indo-Europeanization of most of applied if the process of Indo- Europe as Latin, already a member of the Europeanization in a given region began Indo-European language family, began to late. To study this methodically, a thorough influence several other languages of knowledge of histories in various regions Europe to give birth to languages such as along with a knowledge of the Ancient and French and Italian. This largely happened modern languages of the region is due to the power of the Roman Empire and mandatory. This type of a scenario several other political events which took manifested itself in Ancient India too, with place during and immediately after the fall both Prakrits and Sanskrit influencing of the Roman Empire. Latin heavily various Dravidian languages influenced Old English as late as the Tenth independently. Typically, the second type century, and French and even Scandinavian of a spread begins after the language has languages also similarly influenced Old already planted itself in a given region or English. However, this was unlikely to has established itself; examples here are have been a direct or a simplistic Greek, Latin or Sanskrit. This explains how replacement as presumed by most scholars. Sanskrit influenced the languages of South Most of the influences were through word

43 Bengali in contact with Hindi, Bornini Lahiri the Linguistic Society of India Volume 76, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, Journal of Numbers 3-4, 2015 ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) East also. A critical analysis of all our (h) Transhumance movements without findings would of course rule out any linguistic change: In this scenario, there in notion that spread of languages necessarily minimal or no interaction between happened in tandem with the movement of speakers at least in the short-term to the peoples. No other assumption can perhaps medium-term and both languages continue be as damaging to our cause than this. to exist in parallel without one language impacting the other permanently or to any (f) Assimilation: The language(s) of the significant degree. Such scenarios have immigrants die out completely over a been observed in India too, and may have period of time, leaving behind virtually no been more common in case of pre-historic trace. This is diametrically opposed to the migrations. These were also a idea of annihilation of languages, and may characteristic of some scenarios of likewise happen under rare or special language spread in colonial times. An circumstances. Examples of such scenarios example of this scenario is the case of are Non-English speaking immigrants into French in Pondicherry in India. the USA, and the decline of the Telugu language in Tamil Nadu. Persian in India (i) Lateral influences (or other influences): did not survive long after the decline of the Lateral influences were observed in the Mughal Empire in spite of the fact that it context of Indo-European studies. I.e. did impact the languages of the region. lateral influences between Iran and India which played a key role in the evolution of (g) Cultural diffusion without Vedic Sanskrit. This concept therefore transhumance movements or ‘Pure needs to be generalized to make it Acculturation’: We had declared this to be applicable to various other contexts. For relatively rare from the perspective of example, Hindi, which is a modern Indo- Indo-European studies as linguistic Aryan language was greatly influenced by changes unaccompanied by human Persian during the medieval era and migrations would have been rare in various other influences. Thus, the Ancient times. However, such paradigms evolution of Hindi and Urdu can be traced are common in the Twenty-first century to many complex factors. We may adopt a due to the ubiquity of technology. For layer by layer approach here. We may also example, English has spread worldwide as generalize this scenario and categories a lingua franca without accompanying influences into influences from major human migrations. Refer the section on sources and minor or secondary sources. A ‘Linguistic Osmosis’ in this paper. ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) case in point may the impact of English and expected that a scholar would analyse them Hindi on Kannada which are likely to be on a case to case basis. major. On the other hand, the impact of (a) The number of immigrants vis-à-vis Telugu and Tamil or Kannada are expected the numerical strength of the local to be minor. population (j) Variants or combinations of the above scenarios may also be pervasive in the real- (b) The technological and cultural world and as such it is only expected that superiority or attributes of the immigrants scholars will take cues from the above vis-à-vis the local population scenarios. Thus we wish to sidestep over- (c) Cultural attributes and policy adopted regimented approaches at every stage of by the local populations the discussion.

We would refer to these as the ‘Ten types (d) Attitudes or linguistic loyalties of the of linguistic transformations associated immigrants with Human migrations.’ In our view, and (e) The Linguistic distance between the at least from our much more focused languages of the immigrants vis-à-vis the perspective which is centred on linguistic local languages change wrought by transhumance movements, the above classification would (f) The degree of linguistic inequality constitute a vastly superior approach to between the languages of the immigrants existing classification models which are vis-à-vis the local languages. This will also discussed in passing in this paper, and encompass sentence structure and aspects should address linguistic changes arising of Grammar too; for example we had used out of transhumance movements at an the fact the IA languages are SOV enhanced level of granularity. This languages unlike most other IE languages approach always talks about two or more which are SVO languages to campaign for streams of languages and adds several a Roller-ball model. more dimensions the issue, including mandating a knowledge of local histories (g) Other factors such as ‘Linguistic and issues. Osmosis’ (Refer to the ‘Theory of Linguistic Osmosis’ proposed in our paper) The following issues would also be central – This will include both extraneous factors to the above-mentioned debate, and it is ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) and internal considerations like ethnic effort between scholars of various hues and rivalry etc. colours, across cultures and varying backgrounds, in such a way that the (h) The level of evolution of the language resultant synergies lead to an exponential of the immigrants increase in knowledge. Linguistic changes due to migrations and language contacts (i) The level of evolution of the can also be categorized as Lexical changes, languages of the destination area Phonetic changes, Semantic changes, (j) The standing of the immigrants in the Syntactic changes, Changes to spelling and social hierarchy of their newly adopted Morphological changes. The key here homeland. would be to accomplish a thorough understanding of the history of the region (k) Any other factors or considerations in question, a thorough knowledge of the understood from a detailed analysis of the languages in question and the principles of issue in question. language change.

Any discussion will be wholly null and Non migration-induced linguistic void unless accompanied by a thorough changes knowledge of the local history or histories, culture, languages both ancient and Epochal Polygenesis approach modern, and a working knowledge of any We present the Epochal Polygenesis other extraneous factors impacting such approach as explained below. We divide issues. A familiarity with the linguistic and the origin of language and explain the archaeological evidence pertaining to the possible high-level changes to language area is also highly preferable. Thus, we do into five major epochs for the purpose of not propose a model where a scholar is our study and our analysis. These are the required to acquire proficiency in a large Pre-historic period (encompassing the number of additional or distantly related Stone Age (The Palaeolithic age and the languages in an unreasonably short span of Mesolithic age) and the Neolithic age), The time. For the author, or virtually anyone Proto-historic age (encompassing the else in question, this would essentially be Neolithic age and the Early Chalcolithic an unworkable proposition and a age), The historic period (encompassing humongous waste of human resources or the Late Chalcolithic age, The Old world, time. What is required is a collaborative The Iron age, The Ancient world, The ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) Medieval era, The Renaissance, The Age 1. Instinct and facilitated of discovery and The Georgian era), The experimentation driven by Modern Pre-globalized era (from the ontogenetic and other factors Victorian era to the end of the Twentieth 2. Innovation and creativity century), The Age of globalization. (The 3. Necessity and dire necessity end of the Twentieth century and the 4. Societal pressure, peer pressure and Twentieth Centuries). (Refer Table No.1) societal needs

Pre-historic period Instinct and Facilitated experimentation driven by Ontogenetic factors The idea of language The theory of facilitated experimentation This approach is based on four carried out by early humans which was fundamental pillars or premises. We refer made possible due to the sufficient to these as the four key drivers of spoken evolution of human speech organs, language. These are very fundamental, and language processing centres in the brain taken together, are meant to encompass all such as Broca’s area and the Wernicke’s facets of early human endeavour and other area and also mirror neurons. All these factors leading to the emergence of spoken factors must be studied together, as even language. We believe that all other theories dogs possess the ability to understand basic and hypothesis will be subservient to these words, though they cannot reproduce them. four drivers. We also believe that the idea These factors, along with the relative of spoken language would have been advanced social and cultural status of even autochthonous to most early human early humans vis-a-vis other animals societies and basic proto-language would would have led to accelerated have evolved independently in most early experimentation even in the very early human societies, though at different days. This would have led to the production periods in time. It is also likely that of primitive speech and was perhaps the innovation was driven by a few clans and first step in the evolution of spoken tribes and then imitated by others in a language. It is most likely that the region. development of speech organs was a We believe the four key drivers of the gradual one. Some primates possessed emergence of spoken language are: remarkable cognitive ability in relation to other species in the animal kingdom, and some reproducibility of sound patterns. ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) There is also increasing fossil evidence that possessed the ability to deal with these Neanderthal man and other early hominins technologies. Another evidence for this such as Homo Heidelbergensis possessed a comes from baby-talk and the penchant for much greater capacity to process and infants to not only produce gibberish but reproduce speech than previously also to transition to speech smoothly even imagined. These factors, taken together with minimal structured or formal training, with Darwinian models of evolution would given that even those who are not imparted naturally point towards a much slower grammar lessons possess language. Infants process of linguistic evolution than early also speak because they want to linguists had acknowledged. All these communicate their fears, concerns, factors call for a more leisurely pace of anxieties, pleasure or joy. Speech may also linguistic evolution in the Pre-historic be considered instinctive because an epoch, and these fit the co-ordinates of our infant’s prattle may often be at variance approach rather well indeed. The idea of with the rules of a formal structured language as an instinct was originally language. While all this is undoubtedly proposed by Charles Darwin way back in true, we believe that this approach has its 1871 and has been ratified by Steven own limitations; one must make a Pinker as well in his book “The language distinction between speech and language. of instinct: The New Science of Language While primitive speech may be instinctive; and Mind”, and according to him, this is full blown language may not; it must be one of the reasons language has become so taught like an art or a science. Wherever it complex. Darwin’s idea of language may is not formally or correctly taught, either be summed up in what he calls “an through an external entity or through self- instinctive tendency to acquire an art.” learning, the quality of even spoken Steven Pinker’s ideas are endorsed by language or linguistic ability is bound to be some other scholars such as Noam relatively limited, even in native contexts. Chomsky who propose that language is an Therefore, one suggestion is to propose innate human instinct, and was therefore three classifications. One, the capacity for ubiquitous is all early human societies. speech would be purely instinctive; Speech This was quite unlike other technologies would be partly instinctive and partly such as early transportation technology and learnt. Full-blown language would be metallurgy which were more consciously mostly learnt and driven not just by instinct learnt and transmitted in ancient cultures; but by the four key drivers described in this furthermore only a specialized few paper namely instinct, innovation and ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) creativity, necessity and dire necessity, grammatical concepts without consigning societal needs, peer pressure and societal them to writing and without resorting to pressure but to varying degrees. Even self- complex or formal memory aids. There an help and a desire to succeed would be abundance of data from cultures around the driven by peer-pressure or societal needs to world to support this view. The literacy rate some degree. This may also be driven by in India was just 9% in the early Twentieth instinct in part. This would be applicable century rising very slowly to 12% in 1947, across all epochs and is applicable to to 75% in 2011 and close to 80% in 2016. almost all contexts and situations. This is Parts of Africa have fared much worse than yet another cornerstone of our approach. India with countries like Liberia, Mali, Fully-developed language has also been Sudan and Burkina Faso demonstrating observed in people with mental disabilities, literacy rates below 50% even in 2015. schizophrenia, people suffering from Literacy rates may have never exceeded autism and even Alzheimer’s disease. 1% in Ancient Mesopotamia and writing However, speech disability is common was the sole prerogative of scribes. among the deaf, and those with Dyslexia. Likewise, full-fledged literacy arising from Even the deaf, who lack language, often the upkeep of administrative records was make some attempts to communicate. known to perhaps even smaller number of Future researchers may perhaps adopt people in the Indus Valley. In spite of these scenario-driven research taking a complex factors oral language has been able to set of similar parameters as inputs. (Refer propagate from generation to generation Table No.2). Another related concept remarkably well, and across cultures, and would be ‘Mentalese’, a term coined by the role of written language in influencing Steven Pinker. A related concept is the transmission of language was perhaps ‘Language of thought hypothesis’ or limited in early times. Proto-language was LOTH, a concept first put forth by the never coupled with speech and may have American cognitive scientist Jerry Fodor. naturally constrained a free flow of ideas. Another similar concept we could recall When true writing appeared, it was here is i-language or internal or extremely limited in application, having internalized language and e-language or been limited to royal records, decrees and externalized language, a term which was administrative records. Similarly the Rig first introduced by Noam Chomsky. These Veda of Ancient India, having been relate to man’s supposed inborn propensity compiled between 1650 BC and 1380 BC to grapple with complex linguistic and ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) in the Gangetic plains was not consigned to creativity. Some of them were also driven writing until well after the Buddhist era in by necessity and dire necessity. spite of limited literacy in the region. This is nothing short of miraculous, and the role Necessity and dire necessity of writing in regulating the evolution of The principle of necessity would have spoken language may have enlarged more ensured that experimentation no longer recently, and this may have been non- remained within the realm of purist goals uniform across regions. and objectives but began to be applied to

practical uses and the solution of real- Innovation and creativity world problems. The Theory of dire The principle of Innovation and creativity necessity would extend the Theory of would ensure that early human speech was necessity a step further and would ensure then further extended in multifarious that language was greatly orchestrated as a directions to make it more sophisticated tool of social progress. It would ensure that and capable of handling more wide ranging dire necessity played a major role in use. Constant innovation and refinement linguistic evolution, and that as the popular could be expected in any language and this adage goes, necessity was always the would have been more common in the early mother of invention. Thus, language would days before languages evolved into literary have led to social and cultural progress, and languages ,and before dogma and tradition- this in turn would have necessitated more induced rigidity took over. Evidence of complex language. This would have one of innovation and creativity in early the key drivers behind linguistic evolution, languages may be hard to obtain. However, and would represent some kind of a circular a formal study of the evolution of modern or a Logarithmic Spiral approach. languages may greatly help here as far as Linguistic development would also be the evidence will allow it, and parallels can stimulated and galvanized by several be drawn which will enable us to triggers examples being evolving needs of hypothesize on the trajectory of society, technological factors, social development of early languages as well. factors, cultural factors, contact with Most Nineteenth century theories such as neighboring regions, quasi-political the Bow-wow theory and the Eureka factors, political factors, the development theory, (some of which were partially of proto-writing, the development of endorse) were based on innovation and writing etc. ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) Societal needs, Peer influences and (c) Proto-language would have would Societal influences have owed its early origins to the Peer influences and other societal key drivers mentioned above all of influences may have greatly facilitated the which would have manifested development of languages as the creative themselves is most parts of the synergies of society may have played a world. much more positive role in fostering the (d) All other theories and hypothesis development of languages. Cross- discussed as a part of this paper or borrowing of words both in the ‘Pull mode’ proposed by any scholar would be and the ‘Push mode’ would have been subservient to these four key driven by societal needs. Similarly the drivers desire to pass on knowledge of language (e) Among all other theories and from generation to generation, and the hypothesis, we pick the Bow-wow desire to acquire language would also have theory, the Pooh-pooh theory and been driven largely by societal influences, the Eureka theory as the most and peer influences. (Refer Fig.1 or Table plausible and accounting perhaps No.3) for the largest number of words. The evolution of Proto-language in the (f) We would like to categorize the Pre-historic period evolution of Proto-language into (a) There would be no single proto- distinct phases as stated below. language, but several; and language Different parts of speech and would have evolved in scores of figures of speech (wherever different places, at different points applicable) are associated with in time. either of these phases. This (b) Our approach towards proto- classification is purely indicative, language must not be confused with and may be subject to the mechanistic split up of reinterpretation or reclassification supposed proto-languages to form by other scholars. Within each daughter languages as per the tree phase, we advocate no particular model (we have all along been order for the emergence of parts or highly critical of this concept); it is figures of speech. expected that readers will draw a clear distinction between the two. In addition, we propose the following additional theories of origin of language, ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) which we believe would have played a familial traditions and would have later crucial role in the development of early spread through one or more other proto-language. We also emphasize that approaches. In this case, patriarchal or language would have owed its origins not matriarchal traditions may have been just to one source, but multiple sources strong, or conversely, the political structure including those we propose below, and of the clan or tribe may have been weak or others which were already discussed in this non-existent. paper. Follow the leader theory or Big man Theory of Vocal effectiveness and Theory auditory emphasis In this case, words would have been words Vocal effectiveness and sound emphasis coined in a clan or group by a man would also have been a primary possessing clout or inventiveness and the consideration in the coinage of new words. rest of the population would have followed In this case, more emphasis would have suit. Words may have been coined using been placed on verbs (particularly some the ‘Eureka’ approach, or other approaches classes of verbs). This would have been such as the Bow-wow approach. Words followed by some categories of nouns, and invented through this approach would have then adjectives and adverbs. Thus, an been also overridden by more complex emphasis would have been places in most words at a later date as per our ‘Epochal cases on the right syllables to produce a Polygenesis approach’. Our approach maximal and a satisfactory auditory and therefore proposes repeated overrides of acoustic effect in line with the word’s words and grammatical concepts at various meaning, and taking into account the points in time in the pre-historical, proto- listener’s perceived needs or reactions. historical and historical periods. Words This would account for some early word coinage though the ‘Eureka’ approach may coinage, but such words have been have consciously avoided the use of overwritten at a later date with more onomatopoeia, as it would have required a complex words as per the ‘Epochal crucial seal of authority or approval, and Polygenesis approach’. may have had to demonstrate or exhibit genius to the laity as well. Words invented The Familial Initiation Theory through this approach necessarily had to be As per this theory, language would have different from the words in common use at been first invented in the narrow context of the time, and would have had to eschew ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) onomatopoeic crudity and be language would be the added power it representative of sophistication and bestowed upon leaders, and their ability to erudition. enforce their writ with relative ease. They would then have tried every trick in the ‘Show off before the big man’ Theory book to standardize spoken language even As per this hypothesis, language would in the pre-literate era often adopting have arisen from less influential families in innovative means such as contact with a clan or tribe to imitate more influential subsidiary or remote regions. This is an families, show off in front of them, earn approach many leaders follow even today. their respect or win favours from them by Clan contact Theory any other means. Thus, less influential families would have acquired language to As per this hypothesis, the idea of language prove their mettle. This would have was borrowed from other either friendly or produced more complex scenarios in the antagonistic tribes and then modified to real world, as less influential individuals suit the tribes own needs. The key premise would have made constant effort to bridge of this hypothesis are first of all that the gaps in proficiency. This would have been duration of contact with the other tribe one of the key drivers in early spoken would have been extremely limited, and language acquisition. that only the idea of speech could have been borrowed. Secondly, the requirements Follow thy neighbour’ Theory of each clan would have been different, and As per this hypothesis, language would speech would have been modified to suit have gradually spread from one family to the clan’s own needs. This would have another in a clan or tribe due to mutual ensured that early proto-languages would contact. Language may have typically not have been uniform in a given region. spread from one influential family to However, standardization of speech would another influential family before spreading have taken place at a later point in time due to less influential families in the clan or to the factors discussed in this paper, as tribe. We may also refer to this as the ‘Keep early proto-languages would have been up with the Jonases’ theory. constantly over-ridden.

More power to the big man’ theory Clan codification Theory

According to this hypothesis, a key driver Clan codification leading to behind early attempts to standardize standardization of proto-language would ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) have taken place at some time in the society. This is just an isolated example, context of the clan of the early society in and many others will readily spring to question and would have replaced even mind; tool-making too would have made more primitive speech, but within a narrow life infinitely more complex, as would have geographical contact. This would be one of been the advent of the Chalcolithic age.44 45 the earliest stages of replacement as per the In this case, it would be necessary to ‘Epochal polygenesis approach’, but would arrange the factors in the current have in turn been overridden at a later date. chronological sequence which would be: Development of speech organs followed by The Logarithmic Spiral Theory Development of primitive speech then As per this theory, evolution would have followed by an increase in the complexity been first triggered by either a linguistic or of society and later by new discoveries and a non-linguistic factor (The earliest such the rapid communication of such factor would have been instinct-driven discoveries to other societies. This in turn rather than non-instinct driven), which would necessitate the invention of more would have then induced augmented complex language. This would naturally societal complexity. This would have resemble an outward spiral. As necessity further amplified the need for language. characteristically triggers and fosters According to Frances D. Burton and creativity, language would have been Richard Wrangham, the discovery of fire a adopted either through pull factors, push few million years ago was an important factors or subconscious adoption, or a trigger in human evolution because it combination of all these, and would have paved the way for other complex spread rapidly, literally like wildfire. discoveries. It also had a far more profound (Refer Table No.4) effect than most would imagine not only We would also like to classify the because it chased away the darkness and evolution of Proto-languages into four dispelled the fear of wild animals and the stages or phases as follows. These would forces of nature, but because it lead to other typically be sequential, though not discoveries such as cooking, which may necessarily always so: have triggered the need for agriculture much later, and further complexity in

44 Fire: The spark that ignited human evolution 45 Catching fire: How cooking made us human Frances D. Burton University of New Mexico Press Richard Wrangham Profile Books, 2009 2009 ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) Proto-language Stage A: An early Proto- mode’. In the case of the former, necessity language in “finished” or “near-finished” and dire necessity would be the driving form arising purely due to indigenous factors behind adoption. In the case of the efforts. latter, a ‘Push’ would not be possible without reciprocity, and here, societal Proto-language Stage B: A proto-language needs, peer pressure or societal pressure in “finished” or “near-finished” form would be the key drivers behind adoption. arising due to influences from neighbouring regions. The development of proto-languages is also conditioned by the following factors. Proto-language Stage C: A proto-language The presence of the factors would lead to that exhibits some level of basic linguistic boundaries or isoglosses. Similar standardization over a wide geographical factors would also lead to the emergence of region. This would have happened due to a dialect isoglosses. repeated spread of influences over a protracted span of time, in some cases (a) Geographical features such as lasting several hundred or a few thousand lakes, mountains, rivers, deserts or years. This would have also occurred due semi-arid land which prevented to spread of influences from major nodes to contact between regions. lesser nodes and then to other areas. In (b) Other factors not conducive for some cases, it would be wise to assume that intra-regional contacts such as a intra-nodal exchange of information preference given by residents of a occurred to a fair degree. In other words, region for trade with other regions no node was dominant it the region. due to geographical proximity with other regions. Proto- language Stage D: A proto-language (c) “Weak signal”: Influence of a that has achieved hegemony in a region is too weak on another geographical region and is slowly region and influences are at best marginalizing other proto-languages in the restricted to word borrowings or region. In some cases, other proto- marginal or peripheral influences. languages continue to flourish or thrive for A key inference from this is that some more time, and these eventually early proto-languages may have morph into linguistic isolates. Changes in been almost never been spoken all the four stages may be brought about over a wide geographical region. either through a ‘Pull mode’ or a ‘Push ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) (d) Presence of quasi-political factors neighbouring geographical regions. More such as clans, confederates, remote regions would have been impacted patriarchies, skirmishes, feuds and at a much slower rate. The following are altercations. the key features of the approach. (e) Cultural factors (Non-linguistic) (a) This type of transmission would accounting for kinship and affinity have occurred from key nodes or disdain, disregard or derision because they were more likely to among clans. have been hotbeds of early cultural (f) Social factors such as the presence and linguistic innovation, and their of disparate or distinct ethnic possible association with relatively groups within a region constraining more advanced technology than contacts. outlying regions. Such nodes may It would also be illuminating to trace back also have been located in strategic the origin of modern languages back in locations, and may have been time, always following region-specific anchors or some form of primitive methods and approaches, as far as data will pre-historic trade. Of course, there allow for, and drawing reasonable were no roads or digital highways inferences and speculations therefrom. The in those days, but it is still very study of the emergence of language groups logical to assume, that there would may also be an enriching and rewarding have been key influencing regions, experience, and may throw up further vital and this would have in many cases, clues on the origin of language. We hope been determined by the physical that this will eventually be done for every features of the region. Even if language and dialect in the world, innovation had taken place in other following the principles in this paper. regions, they may have been less influential. The ‘Neural mode of transmission’ of (b) In certain cases, it would be proto-language and linguistic features impossible to identify a key node, in the Pre-historic period but two or three nodes may have According to the ‘Neural mode of cross-influenced each other first transmission’ which we propose features of before the new proto-language proto-language would have spread from spread to outlying regions. We may key nodes to lesser nodes, and then to refer to this as a ‘Staging area’. ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) (c) Transmission would have occurred isolation and an emphasis on in multiple stages, and over a tradition. protracted span of time to lesser (f) Changes would have been either modes and outlying regions. through the ‘Push mode’ or the (d) Transmission would have been ‘Pull mode’, although in some wholly random and sporadic cases one would be hard-pressed to observing or following no defined draw a clear distinction between the or observable pattern. Thus, some two. The ‘Push mode’ would also lesser nodes and outlying regions imply some utility and reciprocity would have been impacted and at the receiving end. A weaker been linguistically transformed at version of the ‘Pull mode’ may be varying rates from the others, with referred to as ‘Subconscious far-reaching changes observed to adoption’, where changes or large geographic segments only innovations are subconsciously over an extended span of time. adopted, often due to prolonged (e) Transmission would have been at exposure. irregular intervals and not at regular (g) Changes here would have primarily been or predetermined intervals; an of three types. The first type of changes analogy may be drawn from would be lexical and would include new Stephen Jay Gould’s Theory of vocabulary and expressions. These would Punctuated Equilibrium’ in be more likely to be through the ‘Eureka’ evolutionary biology. Thus, there and conscious invention approach, and would have been rapid periods of would have relied less heavily on linguistic evolution followed by onomatopoeia or methods such as the periods of less accentuated or bow-wow method. These would have discernible change. Rapid periods replaced earlier words in outlying regions of linguistic evolution would have over a period. This would have occurred been driven by social changes, primarily due to two reasons (a) Prestige cultural changes, technological associated with the new words and their changes, political innovation, perceived superiority (b) Practicality due increased complexity of society etc. to the applicability of words over a wide On the other hand, periods of non- geographical region. The second stage change would have been as a result would be a basic or a partial level of of cultural stagnation, political standardization in ‘grammar’ comprising ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) syntax, verb inflection and conjugation language was a slow process. (Refer besides some other parts of speech such as Fig.2, 3 or 4) pronouns. Some level of Phonetic The formation of Proto-language groups standardization would also have been As per our approach, proto-language observed as a result. We do not know if groups (a somewhat ambiguous term) any countervailing forces in the form of would be formed when defining features ethnic pride existed but they have been and characteristics are shared from one or minor for several reasons. Firstly, early more nodes, and often across nodes over societies of this nature may have practiced time. This is also expected to be a gradual need-based innovation and were probably or a layered approach. Thus, proto- not tradition-based given their absence of languages are formed when recorded tradition. Secondly, such societies perhaps imposed their writ only (a) Defining characteristics of over a narrow geographical region, and grammar such as verb structure, were keen to borrow ideas and concepts verb conjugation patterns and from larger groups. Thirdly, such changes inflectional characteristics are perhaps took place slowly thus eventually shared across proto-languages marginalizing all forms of resistance. A without levelling unique features of parallel would be the popularity of Thai individual proto-languages. food in Mexico and vice versa. Thai food (b) Defining phonetic characteristics of may at first become popular with elites in languages are shared with each Mexico City. It may then spread to upper other over time. middle class joints in the same city, before (c) Mutual sharing of new words making inroads into smaller cities. It particularly higher order words spread into rural areas may be a long- among languages. drawn process, and it is highly unlikely (d) Proto-language groups are formed that it will ever replace the local cuisine. when geographical distances are If such a thing has to happen, it might relatively large and the “Weak literally take ages given the sophistication signal syndrome” manifests itself. of Mexican cuisine and its association Thus, borrowings are mostly with local culture. There are many limited to concepts only. Proto- differences between food and language, language groups are also formed but there are some parallels. That is why when borrowed features or we believe that the evolution of spoken requirements are not able to ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) override local requirements or part of the Dravidian language preferences. family. (e) Language groups are also formed (g) Language groups are also formed due to what we call the ‘Unequal due to political and quasi-political development syndrome’. If at any factors such as invasions, given point in time, proto- conquests, military hegemony etc. languages in say, Region A and In such cases, changes to language Region B are highly unequal in take place rapidly but are unable to their development, Region B, if it is override local languages fully or associated with the less developed completely. proto-language, pulls words and (h) Language groups may also be grammatical concepts from Region formed when two or more A, while retaining its own unique languages develop in a features. This leads to the formation geographically isolated region. of language groups. (i) Language groups may also be (f) Language groups are also formed formed when two or more proto- due to ‘Geographical languages influence each other encirclement’; A language that may early in their development. have evolved independently devoid (j) In some cases, a language can split of extrinsic influences, may have up from a parent language to form been impacted by more developed a new language. This clearly languages in its geographical happened in the case of Malayalam, vicinity at a later point in time due a Dravidian language. Malayalam to geographical encirclement or earlier constituted the geographical isolation to such a Manipravalam dialects of Tamil, an degree that it is mistaken for a older Dravidian language, but has member of the larger language become a language in its own right groups or is undistinguishable from since the 15th Century AD. them in respect of most of its Although both of them belong to characteristics. For example, the the same language family, they are Toda language may have once no longer the same language. The evolved independently, but is now standard word for ‘Dog’ in considered by most linguists to be a Malayalam is ‘Nai’ which is the same as in Tamil. In the Kozhikode ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) region however, another word or a ‘Subconscious adoption’, and may ‘Patti’ is used, and in the also have been associated with political Kodungallur region, ‘Naipatti’ is power. used. This is an example of how (n) More causes are likely; for this languages can split up and morph globalization of science and intellectual from one another. awareness is multiple regions would be (k) Language groups may also be the key, and the involvement of formed under special researchers and investigators from circumstances. For example, refer diverse cultural backgrounds would be our acculturation model explaining the key; it will prevent narrow the process of transformation of perspectives, unbridle a plethora of Harappan India to Post-Harappan new opportunities and prevent not only India. One may want to use this monopoly and geographical model to trace the origin of the concentration of endeavour, but also Marathi language, and its oligopsony which are twin and relationship with the Gujarathi and mutually interdependent evils. Oriya languages. The status of spoken language at the (l) The formation of Language groups is end of the Pre-historic period expected to be a gradual or a ‘stage by (a) We have every reason to believe stage approach’. Linguistic evolution based on fossil and other evidence that may also never take place at a constant spoken language had evolved rate, a similar analogy being ‘The theory independently in many different parts of Punctuated Equilibrium’ in of the world long before the end of the evolutionary biology. Thus, there would Chalcolithic age. Proto-languages be period of rapid and immense change would have initially evolved in narrow followed by periods of non-change. geographical contexts, and the number Changes are also expected to take place of such languages would have successively at irregular intervals, driven increased multifold in the early pre- either by innovation in upstream historic period. locations or by an amplification of trade (b) We have every reason to believe or cultural contacts during a period in that language had attained a fair question. degree of grammaticalization at this (m) Changes may take place either through a ‘Pull mode’, a ‘Push mode’ ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) point, and at least in some parts of archaeological evidence, we have the world; every reason to adduce that the (c) We have every reason that development of proto-writing has language encapsulated some begun sometime before this. This abstract ideas at this point and at may be a crude and a defective least in some parts of the word. analogy, but we have no other way (d) We have a reason to adduce this of knowing for sure. The second based on our knowledge of proto- reason we make this point rather writing towards the end of the Pre- emphatically is the rapid evolution historic period. The Vinca symbols of proto-writing to full blown logo- dated to around 6000 BC (These syllabic writing by 2800 BC and may never be deciphered in the early alphabetic scripts (Proto- traditional sense of the term) Sinaitic) by 2000 BC which would exhibit several properties which indirectly but rather strongly imply were way ahead of their time. that spoken language would have Firstly they exhibit standardization reached some stability before this. over a fairly large area. Secondly, Other discoveries include the they were highly abstract. Thirdly, Dispilio tablet dated to about 5000 they appear to have demonstrated BC and the Tartaria tablets dated to an early effort to combine two signs 5300 BC and these imply that the to create new complex meanings, use of proto-writing was though this property was still in its widespread in the Fifth and the infancy. We also know that these Sixth Millennium BC. symbols were purely non-linguistic (e) We do not know yet, neither will and had no speech-encoding we ever know what kinds of properties. However, these appear meaning these symbols conveyed, to have served as semi-formal but even if we assume that abstract mnemonic aids. However these ideas were first conveyed through demonstrate both abstraction and proto-writing, abstraction would standardization, and as a crude rule have existed at least at this time. of thumb, we may infer that The importance of abstraction innovation in spoken language should not be under-estimated, that predated innovation in proto- would represent another great leap writing. Given the rather limited forward in linguistic evolution, and ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) would in our view, be as important followed by the Coffin texts of an innovation as writing. This may 2100 BC, and the later ‘Book of the merit an altogether new sub-field of dead’. This is enough to deduce that study, with new conjectures and complex and reasonably hypothesis. We know that standardized forms of spoken Sumerian was a highly developed language long pre-dated these texts. language with a rich vocabulary 46 and was also agglutinative in nature (f) Our approach for the multi-regional with a complex verb structure by origin of languages would also be 2500 BC, with literature such as the vindicated by the fact that Epic of Gilgamesh dated to 2100 Sumerian was a language isolate. BC and the Instructions of Akkadian, on the other hand, Shuruppak dated to 2500 BC. despite its relative geographical Before 2800 BC, we have only proximity and its overlapping time proto-writing and not writing in the frame, appears to have been an region, but the constraint here was early form of a Semitic language as the development of writing. is also Eblaite. The earliest attested Therefore, we have every reason to languages of Ancient Egypt, on the believe that Sumerian was other hand, are thought to belong to syntactically and grammatically the somewhat imprecise Afro- complex long before this, as an also Asiatic family. Even though the be inferred from the general fact Afro-Asiatic family itself may be that linguistic evolution in the pre- contestable as per our model, few historic world may have been would deny that it puts the slower than in the proto-historic hypothesis of recent African origins and the historic periods. Sumerian of humans in very serious doubt, was also reasonably standardized, and as such, we now even feel despite the presence of dialects. tempted to call Out-of-Africa The earliest Egyptian literature are hypothesis adherents their bluff. the Pyramid texts and can be dated The recent African origin to 2400 BC, and these were hypothesis also fails to

46 The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts R.O Faulkner, 2007 ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) satisfactorily account for linguistic will certainly be warranted on a isoglosses and linguistic isolates case to case basis to suit unique, both of which will be abundantly special and one-off situations clear from our approach; in many which must be the focus of cases, ‘special conditions’ or concentrated study. However, we ‘special historical conditions’ believe these are unlikely to upset would apply, examples of these the overall principles of this being the Indo-Europeanization of approach. the world from a Central Asian 2. This approach presumes that Homo homeland, the acculturation Sapiens more or less evolved process accounting for the independently around the world transformation of Harappan India (with minor exceptions that need to to Post-Harappan India. All these be proven either directly or are fairly complex scenarios, being indirectly) in a way that does not region and time specific, and to contradict the Darwinian principles reiterate there can be no substitute of natural selection. This for a thorough knowledge of the hypothesis is expected to have a period and region in question. Our bearing on future research on the approach would also be to early origins of language. aggregate scenarios from all over 3. Consequently, we propose that the world, always theorizing and language independently around the conceptualizing better theoretical world and did not originate from a frameworks, and identifying core single source, and that no single and universal concepts and outliers. theory can explain the origin of (Refer Fig.5) spoken language comprehensively. Language arose due to what we Other inferences from the would like to call ‘facilitated ‘Theory of Epochal Polygenesis’ experimentation’. We also propose 1. The outline proposed as a part of that spoken language arose at this hypothesis is expected to work widely differing periods across the in the widest variety of globe (This is a very reasonable circumstances, and in any part of hypothesis, but may never be the world. However, minor proven), and similarly the state of modifications to this hypothesis evolution of spoken language ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) would have varied widely from the modern period and the post- region to region at any given point globalized period. The decline in in time. This naturally includes the the number of language is expected present as well. to increase in the Twenty-first 4. Therefore, while all languages in century, but will eventually level the world are reasonably complex, off due to the limitations of the it would be fallacious to claim that ‘Theory of Linguistic Osmosis’. that there are equally complex. 6. This paper proposes that different While most languages in the world hypothesis such as the Bow-wow are grammatical, syntactically and theory and a combination of them inflectionally complex, other would have played a role in the attributes of language such as formation of language, with some richness of vocabulary, and the hypotheses being more likely that active or common vocabulary of the other. However, the role played native speakers of different by each of these hypotheses would languages vary very widely. vary widely from epoch to epoch. Likewise, some languages may 7. Word coinage during an epoch have naturally attained or would have been replaced (in many demonstrated complexity much cases not just once, but perhaps earlier than some others. repeatedly) in an overwhelming 5. Resultantly the number of majority of cases at a later stage in languages would have increased at the same epoch, or in later epochs, first during the stone age, and and modern language was formed would have then gradually declined as a result of polygenesis. as a result of contacts between 8. This approach also advocates various societies in the pre-historic constant refinement by analyzing period and the proto-historic scenarios from all over the world; period. The rate of decline of this approach is emphatic in stating languages would have then have that the probability that any two accelerated slowly owing to the scenarios would be alike is factors discussed in this paper, and extremely low; Therefore, this the rate of decline in the number of approach proposes constant spoken would have further refinement of models through increased in the historical period, analysis of scenarios and case ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) studies, and garnering data from subsequent adoption in the Indus Valley such studies. and other regions. Another innovation 9. Language is a purely cultural would have been proto-writing both in construct; it is not in any way Southern Europe and the Middle East, influenced by ‘race’, and the idea of though its use may have been somewhat race is itself very fuzzy and limited, and may not have influenced imprecise, if not outright erroneous spoken language significantly. The spread and misleading. of agriculture during the Neolithic period in the Levant or the Eastern Mediterranean, The Proto-historic period and followed by China and India would The Proto-historic period would have been have further stimulated economic activity marked by larger clans, social groups and and would have undoubtedly been a the rise of confederates and the earlies harbinger of greater innovation and proto-kingdoms with a quasi-political complexity in spoken language collimating structure. These would have culminating in grammatical concepts and “Universal even larger kingdoms such proto-dynastic grammar”. Interestingly, many core Egypt before morphing into full-blown concepts of grammar would have been civilizations. This process would have similar regardless of their geographical accelerated the standardization of language origins, and this may bear testimony to across larger and larger geographical their logical underpinnings. It may have territory. The languages spoken in key and also triggered the need for proto-writing other nodes would have continued to (which saw greater abstraction and a influence and override proto-languages combination of signs to convey more spoken in more isolated regions. This complex meanings during this period), and epoch would have been characterized by eventually would have led to full-fledged innovations in transportation technology literacy. This epoch would have seen such as the invention of the wheel from greater grammatical, syntactical and after 6000 BC, horse-riding in Central Asia inflectional complexity as well as a rapid probably near the Dnieper River in present- increase in vocabulary and standardization. day Ukraine after 4000 BC and the Another factor that has been given the short invention of the bullock cart either in shrift was the possible emergence of oral Mesopotamia or other locations such as the traditions at a very early date, possibly as Maykop culture in Southern Russia or early as the Palaeolithic age in elsewhere around 3500 BC and its Mesopotamia, Egypt, China, India (Vedic, ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) Jain and Buddhist religions have had a would not have however, not been possible strong tradition of oral transmission in spite during much of the historical period, owing of the existence of a rather limited literacy to low levels of literacy. Most early in the region, and this included not just literature in Egypt and Mesopotamia was religious literature, but complex medical driven by royal diktat or degree and not texts such as Sushruta Samhita), South through the creative urges of common man; America and elsewhere. These are not just The Indus valley civilization stuck out like a reasonable, but a very strong possibility a sore thumb, and deserves to be studied in and may have been driven by the desire to an altogether different light. Even though transmit folklore and traditions. It is also the Indus script may have been fully logo- likely that oral traditions pre-dated the syllabic, it may have lagged considerably historical period. Parallels in English behind its contemporaries in the production literature exist in the form of Caedmon’s of a corpus of literature except hymn and the later Beowulf. administrative records, given the absence of kingly patronage. Another unique The Historic Period feature of this epoch would be the non- The historic period would have borne permeation of literary or liturgical witness to the culmination of trends first languages in the popular context due to its observed in the proto-historic period. Full- association with religious and ecclesiastic fledged writing or true writing emerged in tradition in particular, and with tradition in this period, and as early as in the middle of general. An example of this was Vedic the Third millennium BC, though the use Sanskrit, which may never have been in use of acrophony, the Rebus principle and as a widely language at any point in its determinatives. A key and a distinct feature history. In some other cases, the popular of the historic period would have been the usage of a language may have diverged ever-increasing role played by political from its literary form to result in diaglossia. factors in modulating the role of language Also, the vocabulary of spoken languages and setting the direction for its future would have been rather limited in evolution. This would have been the comparison with its written variants due to forerunner of changes brought about non-universalization of literacy. This through Intellectual enlightenment, observation holds good for most Indian artificial regulation of languages, or further languages as well. We propose to call this changes brought about through universal ‘Dialexia’. (To put it simply, dialexia literacy such as ‘plebianization’. These would refer to a situation where the ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) vocabulary in widespread use is small even from Maharasthri Prakrit records in the though the total vocabulary of the language Second is relatively large). This may sound like a Century BC in the Shatavahana Kingdom bagatelle, but it can throw up crucial clues which flourished in the Krishna Godavari on the origin of languages when studied in basin, and one of the oldest literary combination with several other factors. anthologies in India, Hala’s Satta Sai was Some scenarios would be a low active compiled in Maharashtri Prakrit language vocabulary and a low total vocabulary in the region. In this context, Maharashtri resulting in no dialexia at all, a low active Prakrit appears to have been borrowed vocabulary and a moderate total from North India for epigraphic and vocabulary, a moderate active vocabulary administrative needs, while the common and a high total vocabulary. It would be man’s language was either an ancestor of instructive to carry of a root cause analysis Telugu, or an early form of Telugu. The of each of these scenarios, and for each Bhattiprolu inscription of Guntur district in language. Another feature of this epoch Andhra Pradesh is dated to 200 BC, but is would have been the continuation of not in Telugu. Telugu was heavily geographical and social dialects, also influenced by Prakrits and Sanskrit in known as sociolects or ethnolects, due to parallel, but these languages appear to have limited literacy and the possible sanctity of impacted Telugu from above, and the formal language. Standardization of impact in rural areas appear to have been language would have undoubtedly marginal. Furthermore, the impact of progressed throughout this epoch, but Prakrits and Sanskrit on Dravidian would have been limited by the factors languages could not have begun earlier specified above. The case of Telugu, the than 600 BC, while early dialects and Dravidian language with the maximum ancestors of present-day Dravidian number of speakers is extremely languages would have pre-dated them by interesting indeed. This language did not tens of thousands of years, perhaps much, break out into a literary language until the much more. On the other hand, the earliest Seventh Century after the Christian era, inscription in Kannada is the Halmidi even though Iravatham Mahadevan inscription of 450 AD. It has also been predicts that older literature existed. The recently suggested that an Asokan rock earliest relic of the Telugu language is in edict found in Brahmagiri in Karnataka the Kalamalla inscription of 575 AD. The dated to 230 BC contains some Kannada language is however indirectly attested words. Among all the Dravidian languages, ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) Tamil was the first to break out into a prevalence of a caste system and other literary language even before 200 BC. A social ills particularly in rural areas. careful comparison of all this data, and its Literacy in Telugu-speaking regions has critical examination along with historical increased rapidly only since the 1980’s, factors would appear to endorse our and most parents today prefer English approach on the origin of language and schools. The results of this are very should eliminate ethnic rivalries of various interesting, indeed. Speakers in most rural kinds besides opening up new avenues for regions, especially amongst the lower study. The evolution of these languages strata of society exhibit a rather limited was therefore, clearly a protracted and a vocabulary, not exceeded a few thousand long-drawn process. The Later Telugu very basic words. This is in spite of the fact kingdoms spanning the Andhra, Telangana that Telugu is a much more evolved and a and Rayalaseema regions included the complex language, and has borrowed Kakatiya dynasty of the 13th Century AD, heavily from the Prakrits and Sanskrit. and the Vijayanagara Empire of the 14th Advanced vocabulary has clearly not yet and the 15th century AD. In spite of its long percolated into daily, regular use, and there history, all Telugu-speaking regions were are some indications that it never will. never united except for a brief period Many native speakers prefer the use of between 1956 AD and 2014 AD. The English words (In spite of the fact that most Telugu-speaking regions are also spread cannot speak English competently or over a large area with extreme ends comfortably) despite the existence of separate from each other, and resultantly, Telugu equivalents. This has led to what dialects have not been snuffed out yet. one may refer to as ‘Hybrid language’. Dialect levelling has been accomplished Telugu grammar and sentence construction only partly in urban regions, while this are the norm, even though they are liberally process appears to be in an early stage in peppered with English words and phrases. rural regions. The Telugu spoken in In modern Telugu, the English words extremely isolated regions is barely ‘wait’, ‘problem’ and even ‘red’, ‘blue’ and intelligible to urban speakers, and often ‘green’ are often used more frequently than appears crude and unsophisticated, their Telugu equivalents, of late even in although it is essentially the same rural contexts, and often by speakers language. Social dialects also exist in possessing a rudimentary knowledge of Telugu owing to the geographical isolation English. This may be because native of some of its rural areas, and the Telugu speakers may be more comfortable ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) with Telugu syntax, and yet English words and Tamil speakers, these languages may carry more prestige, are sometimes have been annihilated a long time ago. The simpler, and possess more universal Kumaoni and the Garwhali languages both applicability. Even a Telugu speaker with of which are Pahadi languages, are spoken practically no English knowledge typically by over a million people each. These are possesses a knowledge of a few thousand being overridden by Hindi, and are being English words, and may even be clueless as slowly marginalized. It is even doubtful if to the origin of these words. In Hyderabad they will survive the present century. city, Telugu has borrowed liberally not only from English but from Hindi and Urdu The Munda family of languages refers as well. We categorize this as an example to a group of languages spoken in Central of subconscious change, and one that is India. The Munda group of languages of driven by popular demand. We do not the Austroasiatic family is spoken by so- when, if ever, these changes will be called 'tribals' in central and eastern India. formalized or regularized. We also do not They are classified into North and South know if the process of dialect levelling will Munda. The Munda group of languages ever be complete. The situation has consists of languages such as Sora, Ho, become more complex and interesting Gorum, Gta, Gutob, Remo, Kharia, Juang, since 2014, with the formation of the Bhumij, Asuro, Korwa and Kurku, but Telangana state, which speaks its own Santhali is the most widely spoken, They dialect of Telugu. Another interesting fact are the least well-known and most poorly is the Chenchu language of Andhra documented languages of the Indian Pradesh and Telengana states which are subcontinent, and the history of the spoken by no more than 30,000 people, evolution of these languages in mostly tribes. The speakers of this notoriously unreliable despite the fact that Dravidian language live in isolated regions some work has been done by Norman and some are not in regular contact with Zide, Heinz Jurgen Pinnow, Peter W speakers of Telugu. Likewise, the Toda, Schmidt, Michael C. Shapiro, Harold F. the Badaga, the Irula and the Kurumba Schiffman, Jeremy H. C. S. Davidson and languages of Tamilnadu, though many others. It is thought that these Dravidian, are distinct, and some of these languages are in some way related to are related to old Kannada. Had it not been Khymer and Vietnamese. To understand for the cultural and social divides between the evolution of this group of languages, speakers of these languages and Telugu and its interrelationship with other ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) languages in the region, a thorough extinct, moribund or endangered, are very knowledge of the local history or histories, large in number, possibly due to the and the formulation of historical modes limited contact between speakers of many using multi-disciplinary approaches is of of these languages. Many of these are great importance. This is what we have isolates, and many are unclassified. A attempted to do. South Asia has two major proposal has been made to classify all language isolates i.e. Nihali and these languages into broad families such Burusharski. Nihali is spoken in Madhya as Eskimo-Aleut, Na-dene and Amerind. Pradesh and Maharashtra in Nimar and Proponents of this approach may be Buldhana districts, is threatened and skating on thin ice because these contains many words which do not exist in classifications may correspond to a any other language. It contains many geographical distribution of features. words that belong to the “Indo-Aryan What is likely is that language family of languages”, and some Dravidian development was largely an indigenous words. (Read our acculturation model to effort in many different regions, occurring find out why this may have been so. It also at different points in time, and full-blown reinforces our model on the origin of languages evolved in the manner languaes). It also appears to be related to explained in this paper. What is also the Korku language. Burusharski is obvious, in the case of North American another linguistic isolate spoken in the Indian languages, is that this process Gilgit-Baltistan region in the culminated in a rather abrupt end. A northernmost tip of Pakistan. A large dialect may be defined as a form of number of linguistic isolates exist in language which may be unique to a Papua New Guinea due to the geography or to a social group, and are geographical and cultural isolation of typically sub-ordinated to the main many of its tribes. It appears logical and language in question. Dialects are plausible that many such linguistic typically mutually intelligible, although isolates existed in different parts of the this is not always the case. Dialects also worlds barely a few centuries ago, but did sometimes form continuums, and dialects not survive till the present day. A that are geographically close to each other thorough study of such languages to the may often be closely related to each other. extent data will allow may validate our Dialectology may be defined as a formal model. The indigenous languages of study of dialects, and is a branch of North America, many of which are sociolinguistics. Dialectology has ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) attracted the attention of many scholars in exponents claim is an independent the recent past, such as Peter Trudgill and language. William Labov. Surveys of dialects have Dialect levelling may be categorized into often been carried out in the past, such as the following types: a formal survey of the dialects in the English language in the 1960’s. A (a) Replacement of dialects by the grammatical codification of dialects has dialect spoken in one region i.e. been attempted in the past, but the field is from one node to lesser nodes, and still nascent. Dialect levelling refers to the then to outlying regions. This is process by which variations between often referred to ‘Geographical dialects disappear over a period in time diffusion’. This typically happened usually, though not always merging into in England, where the dialect the standard form of the language. Dialect spoken in the London area i.e. levelling happens due to a universalization Cockney, overrode most other of education, movement of people from dialects in England and some one region to another, urbanization, effect Scottish dialects. In spite of this of the popular media, ability to many dialects such as Cheshire, differentiate between standard and non- Cumbrian, various Lancashire standard forms of speech and dialects, Northumbrian Highland gentrification of neighborhoods. English and Yorkshire have Opposing factors include social continued to thrive, even though stratification, geographical separation of there is some assimilation. (Refer speakers, and the desire to boost ethnic Fig.6) pride. Dialects are classified into (b) A much more limited form of geographical dialects and social dialects. levelling where dialects are levelled Social dialects are also known as within a limited geographical sociolects. Social dialects may be region, known as ‘diffusion’. classified into three types, namely (c) Cross-influences between two or acrolects, mesolects and basilects. In the more dialects spoken in different descending order of prestige. Speech nodes or regions which then spread habits unique to a person are referred to as to other regions. This happens due ideolects. An example of a social dialect to ‘mutual accommodation’ or the may be Ebonics or African American inability of one region to exert an vernacular English, which some influence over other regions. ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) (Trudgill 1986: 1-4). A parallel in is spoken over a very wide Cultural Anthropology is ‘Cultural geographical region comprising Synchronization’. most of the Arabian Peninsula and (d) Part-replacement of dialects by the North Africa and comprises many dialect spoken in one region (Some dialects classified into dialect regional features continue to be groups such as Egyptian Arabic, used). This has been observed in Cypriote Arabic, North African the case of Britain, and it is unlikely Arabic, Iraqi Arabic, Gulf Arabic in a majority of situations that and Hassaniya Arabic. In addition dialectal differences will vanish Standard Arabic or Literary Arabic entirely due to the factors discussed is widely used across all Arabic- in the paper speaking regions in formal (e) Spread of the sphere of influence or contexts. one or more dialects in a concentric (g) Dialects evolve into two or more fashion. This will happen slowly, different languages: An example of and over a period in time. It is this is the dialect continuum seen of unlikely that dialect levelling takes the Dutch-German border. Many of place in such a linear or a these dialects are now systematic fashion, and scholars disappearing, and are being may be hard-pressed to absorbed into either Dutch or demonstrate real-world examples. German, depending on their (f) Parallel use of dialects: both the geographical proximity. standard language and dialects (h) Diaglossia: the standard languages continue to be used alongside each are used in formal contexts and one other as in the case of France. In or more dialects continue to be used France, languages such as Picard, informally. In some cases, Limousin, Provencal, Gascon and widespread differences between Aranese are similar to French but dialects may not exist, yet the may be independent languages. informal variety differs widely These are thriving in spite of the from the formal variety. Examples dominance of standard French. In of diaglossic languages as Arabic addition, many French-based and Tamil. Diaglossia may arise creoles are also used in former due to many reasons, but a common French territories. Arabic, similarly explanation is a rapid change in ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) colloquial forms of a language with to interact with the upper classes slower innovation in formal (Interaction). In the second case, language. Another reason may be the lower classes tend to emulate the institution of one variety of a the upper classes. (Emulation and spoken language as the formal Conscious adoption). In the third language and its reinforcement case, social dialects are levelled due through tradition. better education, or the spread of (i) Widespread prevalence of two or technology (Empowerment). In the more varieties of a language as in fourth case, social dialects weaken the case of English. In such a case though economic ascendancy American and British English may (Economic Ascendancy). In the continue to exist alongside each fifth case, social dialects are other with minimal cross-influence levelled due to geographical and little chance of convergence. movements of its speakers (h) The elimination of social dialects (Geographical Dispersion). All due to the universality of education other factors may be lumped and plebianization. (Social together as residual factors (E.g. diffusion) In this scenario, the elites Mass media). move up the socio-economic (j) The emergence of Pluricentric or ladder, bring about a linguistic Polycentric languages such as change in society, and provide Hindi and Urdu or West-Armenian some kind of a feedback to the rest and East-Armenian is another of the population. They may either scenario. In such a case, there are provide a model for the rest of the two or more standard versions world to emulate or keep the rest of which are unlikely to encroach on the population out of the economic each other. Hindi and Urdu and equation through elitism. This kind mutually intelligible to each other’s of an action may often result in the speakers. However, they follow a elimination of basilects or the different script. Some researchers enrichment of vocabulary. Social claim that Arabic is pluricentric as dialects would also tend to weaken well. In Yugoslavia, many with the passage of time. This can languages are spoken. These are happen through several modes. In Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, the first case, the lower classes tend Macedonian, Albanian, Hungarian, ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) Turkish, Bulgarian, Romanian etc. and in formal usage. Although Out of these, linguists opine that education has been traditionally in Serbo-Croatian in not one Spanish, the trend is now changing, language, but two and the usage and education is now being made and preferences for words vary in available in Guarani as well. The each of these languages. Jivaros or Shuars of Equador have (k) Reversal of dialect levelling due to succeeded in implementing their ethnogenesis takes place when language in education, and Spanish speakers of a dialect demonstrate is only taught in addition to the heightened ethnic awareness. This local language. Likewise, Swahili, may result in the dialect diverging unlike other languages native to the from other standard varieties of the region, has made some progress in language and the manifestation of checking the spread of English in centrifugal tendencies. Another Tanzania, and Bambara, has made related concept is the emergence of some progress in challenging the new dialects which may take place power of French in Mali. This is in due to geographical separation and contrast to countries like Zambia social stratification. Bhojpuri has where English reigns supreme, but seen a revival in recent times in has led to a cultural alienation India, and is now associated with a between the privileged speakers of vibrant entertainment industry, and English and the rest of the its speakers have now begun to population. Ngugi wa Thiong’o demand official recognition by the likewise blames English for government of India. Spanish in creating a gap between the haves Paraguay is estimated to be spoken and the have-nots in Kenya (Ngugi by only seven percent of the 1981). population as a native language. It In all such cases, we reaffirm that a root is known to a larger percentage of case analysis be carried out, and these may the population in the country, throw insights that will help analyse however. Guarani is the mother scenarios from other related contexts and tongue of ninety percent of the help draw parallels for a more detailed population, and a large percentage study. of the population is bilingual, with Spanish only more popular in cities ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) Historical Period terminologies that were coined during this The historical period is chiefly era, the spread of the printed word and the remembered not just for its expansion of end of feudalism would have greatly political power and rise of larger kingdoms impacted the development of important ad civilizations, but also for the rise of European languages, but a systematic study intellectual traditions in many parts of the of lexical borrowings and new word world. These were often not driven by coinage studied against the backdrop of the political writ, but by the aristocracy, the changes in this period may be required. elite and independent scholars. Among the Even though we know that many world early civilizations, none probably matched were introduced into the English language the intellectual achievements of Greece, during this period (The number of words in and Greek philosophers included Plato, the English language is said to have Aristotle, Herodotus, Pythagoras and doubled between 1500 and 1650 AD), the Herodotus. The Greeks made stellar earliest dictionaries such as those complied contributions to philosophy, art, by Robert Cawdrey, Thomas Blount, architecture, astronomy, mathematics, Thomas Elyot Knight and Edward Phillips historiography, linguistics and literature, contain only a partial compilation of and their contributions were not matched words. Of these, the work by Edward even by the Romans. The renaissance Phillips may have been the most which began in the 14th Century in Europe, comprehensive, containing 11,000 words was triggered by the invention of the in 1656, 17,000 words by 1696, and 38,000 printing press and the rediscovery of Greek words by 1706 (This is on par with many philosophy. It saw stalwarts such as modern languages). The standardization of Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, the English language also appears to have Mirandola, Lorenzo Valla and Machiavelli. begun in the 1500’s and phonetic changes The fall of Constantinople in 1453 also known as the ‘Great vowel shift’ took place boosted the renaissance movement as at this time. The English version of the many intellectuals fled the region to the Bible contains around 7,200 words, West. There was an explosion of scientific Shakespeare is said to have used around knowledge around this time, and Tycho 22,000 words, and Milton 17,000. Today, Brahe, Nicholas Copernicus, Johannes the English language has over a million Kepler and Galileo lived in this era. The words (1.025 million, according to one increasing number of scientific count). On the other hand, even the most optimistic surveys conducted a few ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) decades earlier, place the count at 700,000 A study of complex factors leading to the to 800,000. The Oxford dictionary emergence of modern languages must be however, lists some 250,000 distinct words carried out wherever required, in excluding technical words and newly collocation with historical factors, and in coined words. The English language general one must be prepared to deal with probably has more words than any other a fair degree of complexity where such language on the planet, as a result of its complexity appears warranted. An readiness to borrow, and as a result of the example was the spread of a component of fact that many major scientific Base Indo-European into the Vedic contributions were made by English- homeland in the northernmost tip of India speaking countries. English also became a and its subsequent spread into the Gangetic global lingua franca to boot, and is plains. This language absorbed influences understood in most parts of the world. Most of remote ancestors of the Prakrit other major modern languages like French languages as well as influences of the and German boast a large number of words ancestors of the present-day Munda family too, though nowhere near English. Some of languages, before dousing itself out, and measures to measure linguistic complexity reinventing itself as a liturgical language have been proposed, but there is no and a lingua franca of the elite. The remote consensus on the efficacy of these ancestors of Prakrits, spoken in the Indus measures. Thus, modern languages. The Valley Civilization, morphed into the early growth and development of the English Prakrits of the Gangetic plains, and were language were never artificially regulated subjected to a large number of changes by any entity, and this should validate our from sources both internal and external to approach to linguistic evolution. One the the region before developing into modern other hand, L‘academie francaise has languages of the Gangetic plains. attempted to regulate the development of Similarly, there is every reason to suppose the French language and counter the that the Genetic input from North India to infiltration of English words into the Sri Lanka would have been extremely French language. The fact that such bodies small, and instead of proposing massive were supported by many governments migrations (This would any way be shows that language is still seen as a source unfeasible), we will need to strike a fine of political power and cultural hegemony. and a delicate balance between data drawn from myriad and opposing forces. This data will then need to be used to reconstruct ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) the proto-history and history of the Sinhala collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of language, the seed of which was clearly the pre-internet age similarly saw many implanted from outside. Therefore, this is a changes to language. The age of discovery migration-induced scenario. The origin of from the 1490’s saw overseas exploration Tamil is likewise complex in its own on an unprecedented scale, and led to the unique way, and though a Dravidian discovery of the America’s. The USA language, borrowed liberally from Prakrits would later become a major economic and Sanskrit. The evidence for this comes power, and this would later lead to a from the description of such words as alien paradigm shift in economic power and play in the ancient Tamil treatise on grammar, a role in ushering in liberalization. The Tholkappiyam. Likewise, history of Industrial Revolution refers to the writing is likely to be at variance with the introduction of several new technologies history of spoken language in an and manufacturing processes from around overwhelming majority of scenarios and 1750 AD to 1840 AD. This included a circumstances, and we have demonstrated replacement of manual methods of this convincingly in our previous papers. production by machines, new chemical Another point to be borne in mind is that manufacturing and metal production the historical period would be associated processes, new techniques to harness water with the heavy borrowing of vocabulary power, the introduction of steam power, the including those that are not in daily or introduction of machine tools and large- regular use. An example of this is the scale industrialization including the rise borrowing of words from Latin, French and and diversification of the textile industry. German into English and from Prakrits and The industrial revolution first began in Sanskrit into Telugu, Kannada and Tamil. England and spread elsewhere. The These are some of the critical takeaways Industrial Revolution marked a major from our approach, and aspects that must turning point in history; and every aspect of be kept in mind under all circumstances daily life of the people was radically and will constitute the key swivel around transformed. This also led to a general which all analysis must be orchestrated and increase in the standard of living for large coordinated. sections of society, and for all but the most deprived people. Income levels began to Modern Pre-globalized period exhibit unprecedented growth and The modern Pre-globalized period, which population also increased due to a fall in lasted till around 1990, coinciding with the the death rate and increased standard of ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) living. The Second Industrial revolution spread of universal literacy in many parts which began in the 1870’s lasted well into of the world, and most developed countries the 20th Century, though it is usually dated made school attendance mandatory. This till 1914. The Second Industrial revolution would have naturally led to a rapid increase lead to the expansion of several new in active vocabulary in language. We may technologies such as the railroad and the also choose to categorize the causes for telegraph, and ushered in the electric and transformation in languages, into ones that the automotive age. The rise of form a part of the general principles of the colonialism, despite its association with ‘Epochal Polygenesis approach’, and ones economic exploitation, lead to the spread that must be analysed taking historical, of the English and French language in geographical, cultural, social, economic many parts of the world, and lead to a and political factors into account. A study spread of Western technologies in many of language must be logically and parts of the world. This sowed the seeds for inseparably tied to all these factors. We the emergence of global languages, and our would like to reiterate that there is simply ‘Theory of linguistic Osmosis’ would not no other way. Neglecting this vital fact have been possible without this. The would not only be doing a grave injustice English language also borrowed liberally to the field, but would also lead to a flawed from many languages around the world, and erroneous analysis on all counts. This including less important ones, and this is one very core reflection from our inquiry includes interesting borrowings from into the subject. Likewise, simplistic and across India such as ‘Jungle’ from Hindi, politically-correct notions of the equal ‘Mango’ from Tamil, ‘Catamaran’ from complexity of languages as proposed by Malayalam and ‘Bandicoot’ from Telugu. Charles Hockett, Rulon Wells and others The vocabulary of major languages like need to be analysed critically from a English increased exponentially during Twenty-first century standpoint. The rate these period, and many new words were of evolution of various languages diverged purely technical in nature. Many words rather widely during this epoch. were also as a result of intellectual The Post-Globalized era traditions and the exponential increase in scientific knowledge. Many words were While some researchers such as Andre also coined by thinkers, writers and Gunder Frank consider globalization to intellectuals or were subject-specific have been a slow process that was first put jargon. This epoch also witnessed the in motion by the emergence of Old ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) Civilizations (This is known as a Deep diplomacy. This is not to say English has a historical analysis of globalization or complete monopoly or stranglehold simply Archaic globalization), most other worldwide. English has made little scholars trace globalization in its present headway in penetrating certain Non- form to the past couple of decades or so and English bastions, and the use of English in widespread use of the term ‘globalization’ China, other parts of Asia, parts of Europe dates to as recently as the 1970’s. Modern and South America is rather limited. The globalization emerged as a result of several spread of English has been unprecedented factors which emerged at more or less the and unparalleled in recent times, but it same time. One of them is the wholly would be foolish to assume that this would unanticipated and sequential collapse of be the case forever, and the concepts in this the communist regimes in Eastern Europe paper should be instrumental in proposing followed by the collapse of the USSR. The and evaluating scenarios. While the French second was the easing of autarchic language was seen in deep and terminal measures in countries like China and India, decline around the world, pundits are which led to their rapid integration into the predicting a small reversal as of the 2010’s. world economy. The third was the dawn of Spanish, Chinese and Arabic too, are the internet age, due to the ubiquity of the making strong cases for themselves as internet, arguably the most important global languages. English, which once invention of the second half of the borrowed amply from a plethora of Twentieth Century. This led to the different and unrelated languages, has now technological, cultural, economic and become the biggest donor of words to other social integration of world economies on a languages such as German, French and scale that was considered unimaginable Spanish. Many of these words, including just a few decades earlier. Globalization technical words and non-technical words also led to the spread of English have permeated into other languages, and worldwide, and the cultural, political, yet there is a yawning lexical gap between economic and technological clout that the English and other languages. What is even English language enjoys worldwide is more interesting is how languages have unparalleled by any other language. spread in the complete absence of contacts English also has become the most widely between speakers of different languages. used language on the internet, in science The British had sowed the seeds for the and technology, in commerce and business English language in India a few centuries as well, and increasingly even in ago, and the language had only spread ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) rapidly since the Nineteenth century, many factors opposing the globalization of entrenching itself gradually in languages and the decimation of minor administration, trade, commerce, higher languages by major languages. These education and technology. It stranglehold would be not just factors working against in many realms is near-complete, even globalization, but also factors driven by the though fluent speakers of English only properties or attributes of language, and form a small proportion of the population. cultural factors. We had referred to these as It is possible for an English speaker in India role-based suitability, context-based to speak English fluently without ever suitability (including social, cultural and having come into contact with a native geographical contexts), role-based English speaker. Contrarily, for most other indispensability, and context-based citizens of India, English is quite literally, indispensability (including social, cultural Greek and Latin, and English has also and geographical contexts). Other factors become a discriminator between the elites include educational and social factors and and the non-elites. English plays a cultural and linguistic pride. Nonetheless, complementary role in India vis-a-vis other factors stimulating globalization are Indian languages, and can never supplant expected to outweigh factors working them. Similar situations prevail in most against globalization, and this may lead to parts of Africa, where English or French the death of languages, their are lingua francas of the elite, and are marginalization, the rise of pidgins, creoles widely used for administrative purposes. In and hybrid languages and the role-based the Post-globalized world, we believe that use of languages. non-contact based scenarios would have a Role-based suitability much greater role to play than contact- driven scenarios. This kind of a scenario is Role based suitability would depend on relatively new and unique to the modern lexical factors, technological factors, world, and would have been unthinkable cultural factors, social factors, political when modern communication systems and factors and economic and other factors. As the mass media did not exist. However, the a result, English is widely used in India in role of contact-driven scenarios should not science, technology, higher education and be undermined (as these can never be administration, while is use in cultural and eliminated), and this would ensure the religious domains is virtually non-existent. continuing role for minor and other Similarly, in the entertainment industry indigenous languages. There would be Hindi and other Indian languages dominate ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) while the role of English is rather limited. Basic English) or in some cases, Role-based suitability would also be non-linguistic codes. similar to Function-based suitability, (i) Peripheral or Secondary usage though the idea of a function may be In addition, a language may play other somewhat more limited and constricted in subsidiary roles which may often be driven comparison to role. by intangible factors. Examples of these The following are examples of the are: different roles that a language can play in (a) Language as a symbol of linguistic a geographical region: pride (a) Primary language (b) Language as a symbol of cultural (b) Primary language with a deficit of power one or more functions (c) Liturgical, sacerdotal or religious (c) Business or commercial usage usage only

(d) Administrative usage only (e) Quotidian usage only with

minimal written or administrative Context-based suitability usage Context-based suitability would span (f) Literary usage Social, Cultural and Geographical factors. (g) For external communication only The command over English among less- (h) Lingual franca (Lingua francas can privileged social groups in rather limited, be of many different types, and and this in turn effects their employability lingua francas can themselves play and their social mobility. Cultural mores different roles in different affect the use of the English language as contexts). Samarin (1968, p. 661) well. In parts of India, the English language lists five potential types of lingua is associated with social ascendancy while francas: a trade language (e.g., in others it is a semi-taboo or associated Swahili in East Africa); a contact with colonialism and imperialism. language (e.g., Greek in the Ancient World); an international Role and Context based indispensability language (e.g., English throughout The idea of indispensability takes the idea much of our contemporary world); of suitability a step further. For example, and an auxiliary language (e.g., ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) English would become indispensable in resultant inconvenience Non-English global trade and commerce if lexical gaps speakers may be put to. In Nepal, English with other languages increase, and if its is widely used, and mandatory in schools spread increases unchecked. If this despite the rather limited proficiency of happens, the language would be further most Nepali children in the English entrenched making it indispensable. This language. In Bhutan, a much more would further increase the demand for it, geographically isolated country, and a and in certain cases, endowing it with multi-lingual country as well, the greater legitimacy to encroach other stranglehold of English is much more languages. A language may also become complete than in Nepal, and the so-called indispensable in the context of a geography national language, Dzongkha plays only a or a social group for similar reasons. In the subsidiary and a subservient role. It would specific context of the Post-globalized be edifying to articulate the spread of world, the dynamics of language spread languages, region by region and in various would be attributable to both Contact- roles and contexts, and isolating the factors driven and Non contact-driven scenarios. involved. In the context of Post-globalized However, the role played by Non contact- scenarios, we propose that language driven scenarios would naturally not dynamics would be primarily driven by increase beyond a certain point, and ‘Linguistic Osmosis’ and we present the beyond this both contact-driven scenarios ‘Theory of Linguistic Osmosis’ as a part of and non contact-driven scenarios would this paper. continue to play a role in determining the Types of contacts between speakers of dynamics of language spread. Examples of different language influencing language Non-contact driven dynamics is the rapid dynamics in various epochs are below. spread of English into Oman, Nepal and (Refer Table No.5) Bhutan, none of which were ever a part of the British Empire. In Oman, English as a The Theory of Linguistic Osmosis very limited role to play in the street; it is Before we delve into the intricacies of the however, the preferred language of choice ‘Theory of Linguistic Osmosis’, we deem in science and technology, and it appropriate to lay bare all the core increasingly, in education. It is also concepts. A key aspect and building block beginning to play a vital role in commerce, to be understood is that of linguistic unit or and there are fears of the marginalization of entity. Linguistic units or entities can be at Arabic in vital spheres of public life and the various levels; the lowest level here is the ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) linguistic community, which may have one linguistic or cultural traits, or alternatively, or more subsets. This term is already is may comprise of a geographical zone already in use, and has been defined by where dynamics of language are similar to Charles Hockett (1958:8) as “Each one another, closely influence each other, language defines a speech community: the or are driven by the same factors. A whole set of people who communicate with linguistic block may or may not comprise each other, either directly or indirectly, via of a region with speakers of the same the common language.” An alternative language or the same group of language. definition that has been provided by However, in most cases, they would speak William Labov is as follows “The speech related languages. A linguistic block may community is not defined by any marked or may not equate with a ‘Political or agreement in the use of language elements, Economic entity’, (both terms have so much as by participation in a set of completely different meanings) which is shared norms; these norms may be another definition for our purpose, and may observed in overt types of evaluative or may not overlap with them. In case they behaviour, and by the uniformity of are synonymous with one another, the abstract patterns of variation which are dynamics or language spread within the invariant in respect to a particular level of linguistic area are also determined by usage.” (1972: pp 120-21) However, in political or economic factors brought into real-world scenarios, linguistic effect by such a political or economic communities around the world typically entity. In case, the linguistic area does not have several linguistic minorities within correspond to a political or an economic their territory in addition to a majority or a entity, such political and economic entities dominant group. Linguistic communities will still need to be identified and defined, may also be characterized by the presence and their relationship with the linguistic of a large number of dialects, both area and the resultant bearing they have on geographical and social. In extreme cases, the dynamics of language spread of each speakers of various dialects may be rival or other analysed. Therefore it is of utmost even mutually antagonistic to each other. importance to get the concept of a linguistic The next higher level may defined as a block correctly to avoid errors of any kind, linguistic block, which may also be and therefore some examples are provided described as a linguistic zone or a linguistic in this paper for benefit of readers. We area, and this comprises various linguistic must also reiterate at the very outset that communities which share common the dynamics of language spread outside ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) the linguistic community or a linguistic carried out at various linguistic blocks, the block can have a very strong bearing on the results of all of which need to be taken into dynamics of language spread within the account. The end result will be an analysis linguistic community or the linguistic of the dynamics of language spread at a block. Similarly, the dynamics of language global level. The results may then be spread within the linguistic community or worked back to linguistic blocks and the linguistic block can have a bearing on linguistic communities to the extent it is the dynamics of language spread outside applicable. This process may be repeated the linguistic community or the linguistic ad infinitum diachronically, but usually block. However, all the principles of ‘The only when some kind of changes are Theory of Linguistic Osmosis’ will apply. observed at one or more levels which Thus, the internal dynamics will always warrant a re-analysis. take precedence in determining the spread While doing this, the following factors of languages within the linguistic need to be taken into account. community or block, the linguistic (a) Linguistic attributes and linguistic community or the block will always be a complexity: These need to be taken tighter linguistic unit. There may be into account as they would exceptions such as the influence of indirectly impact the dynamics of ubiquitous pan-regional or global trends, language spread and may be partly but these must always be studied (though certainly not fully) for separately. However, for the purpose of our Rwanda’s recent switch from analysis, we will always adopt an inside- French to English, as English was out approach first, and then follow it up stated to be simpler. A large with an outside in approach for maximum number of measures have been efficacy. In other words, the dynamics of proposed to assess linguistic language spread within a linguistic complexity, though measures are community or the lowest sub-unit will be currently far from perfect, and there analysed first, using one or more of the is no consensus among linguistics principles described in this paper. These among linguists in identifying the will then be aggregated sequentially, and most optimal measures. Measures analysed thoroughly at all levels. The last may be classified into Syntagmatic level of analysis will be an analysis at the complexity (measure of syllables, global level, and an analysis at this level phonemes and morphemes), will comprise the results of all analysis, ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) Paradigmatic complexity (Parts of Korean and Hindi, on the other speech and grammatical hand, are SOV languages. Filipino complexity), Organizational and Tuareg are VSO languages, complexity (Number of ways while Malagasy is a VOS language phrases and clauses can be as are also Mayan languages and arranged), Hierarchic Complexity Fijian. A speaker of the SVO (Recursion and lexical-semantic language may find it hard to learn hierarchies). an SOV language and vice versa. (b) Linguistic distance: Measure of (c) Demographics: Demographics and linguistic distance are crucial to our ‘Demographic power’ must be analysis because difficulty of expressed not in terms of just learning language is largely relative overall population, but also other and not absolute. A common factors such as the Total fertility measure is Levenshtein distance rate, longevity and population which measures the distance structure, purchasing power, and learning. Various measures have level of education must also be also been proposed to assess the considered in an overall analysis. speed and efficacy of second This would be important because language acquisition, such as the counties like Japan are associated Input hypothesis and monitor with economic clout, but a model of Stephen Krashen, shrinking birth rate. According to a Michael Long’s interaction report by the United Nations in hypothesis, Merrill Swain’s output 2015, the world population will hypothesis, Richard Smith’s reach 9725 million by 2050 and noticing hypothesis, Elizabeth 11213 million by 2100. Out of this, Bate’s competition model, the the population of almost all model proposed by Chiswick and continents is expected to shrink Miller, and some of these are purely after 2015, the sole exception being empirical methods. Another Africa. Nigeria alone is expected to approach may be the classification have 600 million inhabitants later of languages based on word order. this century, putting it just behind English, French and Bantu as SVO India and China. However, per languages or Subject Verb Object capita income is expected to remain languages. Japanese, Turkish, low. However, some Francophonie ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) associations fail to take this into than every country in the Middle account while calculating the East, and close to that of Sub- projected importance of the French Saharan Africa. However, fertility language in the Twenty-first appears to be falling rapidly century. They also erroneously everywhere, and India on the whole assume that all inhabitants of may reach a replacement TFR of Francophonie West Africa will be 2.1 children per woman between fluent French speakers. Another 2027 and 2031, and it is unlikely interesting question is to what that any state will have a TFR of extent Population dynamics can over 2.1 children per woman by have a bearing on the overall 2031. language dynamics of a country (d) Political power: The Political like India. This is of great relevance power possessed by Linguistic in India were skewed Total Fertility communities, Linguistic units and Rates have been observed, and Linguistic blocks will add more hence the percentages of people complexity to the issue, but must be speaking different languages is assessed nonetheless. Countries expected to change widely in the like the USA do not need to spread coming decades. TFR’s by state English as a demand has already have varied from a low of 1.6 been created for it, and language Children per woman in West adoption happens through a Pull Bengal to 3.5 Children per woman mode. On the other hand, the Indian in Bihar in 2014. If Union government promotes Hindi Territories are included, abroad, but not Bengali, Marathi or Chandigarh has a total fertility rate Assamese. The French government of just 1.3 children per woman. If spends a large sum of money in TFR is taken at a district level, the promoting its language and culture variations in TFR will become abroad, but not so much so, the much wider as Kolkata has a TFR Italian government. This may be of just 1.2 Children per woman necessary because India and France while Shravasthi in Eastern Uttar lack the political or economic Pradesh has a TFR of 5.9 children might, and this must be studied not per woman or twice as that of standalone, but in combination with Pakistan or Bangladesh, higher ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) all other factors discussed in this speak a smattering of Hindi in paper. unexpected places such as Sri (e) Economic power: The Economic Lanka and the Middle East. power of a Linguistic community Japanese Cultural power is known or a Linguistic block will pay a role as ‘Kuru Japan’, and icons of too in influencing the dynamics of Japanese cultural power are J-pop, languages spread at a global level. Manga comics, Anime, Sake and For example, Japan never Sushi. China is making attempts to possessed a major military prowess promote Chinese civilizational to speak of after its surrender in the values abroad, and aspects of Second World war and neither did Indian culture such as Yoga, it embark on a major campaign to Ayurveda, Bollywood and Indian promote its cultural influence, but cuisine are well-known abroad. A came to be equated with economic more extreme version of cultural might very rapidly in a few decades power is cultural imperialism. For after this. Mandarin Chinese is now example, a large number of one of the most sought after courses television programs in in the USA particularly since the Scandinavian countries are of 1990’s, and there is similarly, some American origin, and English demand for Hindi language courses words are widely used in most now in the USA and the Middle European countries. East. (g) Use of the language: In what role? (f) Cultural power: The Cultural power The predominant or preeminent of soft power of a Linguistic role played by the language must community or a Linguistic Block always be taken into consideration can play a part in swaying trends. in such an exercise. For example, American music, pop and rap and Chinese, Arabic, French or led to the promotion of American Japanese may never challenge the culture and raised the demand of hegemony of the English language English language learning in some in the realms of science and areas. The rise of Bollywood has technology, and this alone may similarly increased the demand for bestow upon it unrivalled and a knowledge of Hindi, and it is not unparalleled supremacy in the short uncommon to find people who can to medium term. On the other hand, ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) the role played by the English providers are also being asked to language in other spheres is rather make sure that their services are limited and a role-based analysis of compatible with at least two Indian language may be in order. languages; this is to be ramped up (h) Religious factors: Religious factors gradually to cover all Indian will play a role in inducing languages; wikipaedia is linguistic change to a fair or increasingly providing material in moderate degree. For example, the Indian languages; what role this living language Arabic has seen fair will play in checking the demand across the world, in places supremacy of the English language as far apart as Indonesia and India remains to be seen. owing to its association with the (j) Ideological factors: An example of Islamic religion and clergy. ideology impacting language Sanskrit, taught throughout India dynamics is the resistance to the and beyond, but it cannot impact promotion of Hindi and the language dynamics majorly given proposed replacement of English its status as a dead and a non-living by Hindi as the Central language. Government’s sole official (i) Technological factors: language by Dravidian parties in Technological factors have played Tamilnadu and other language a major role in the critical success speakers in other parts of India. of English beyond the English This has consequently hampered speaking countries and have the success of Hindi within India, ensured its edge in key fields of and its success elsewhere. The science. English has also emerged opposition of DMK, a Tamil party as the dominant language of the to Hindi imposition was so colossal internet, though this dominance in that it prompted the Central now slowly eroding as other Government to reexamine its languages play the catch up game. language policy and to continue The Digital India mission for with English indefinitely as an example seeks to empower Indian administrative language or ‘an languages as the languages of the associate official language’, along Internet and science and with Hindi. Another interesting technology; mobile service case is the proposal of the Gambian ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) government to drop English and may not have been widely altogether despite its increasing known to most planners at the time popularity worldwide. How well of India’s independence. A treaty this proposal will work if it is signed in 1919, for example, implemented is open to question. attempted to ensure recognition of (k) Legal considerations: The Indian many minorities in Europe. Article constitution states that Hindi is the 27 of the International Covenant on Official language of the central Civil and Political Rights (1966) government and that English shall states “In those states in which be the ‘Associate official language’ ethnic, religious, or linguistic as long as Non-Hindi speaking minorities exist, persons belonging states opt for the continuance of to such minorities shall not be English. Furthermore, Non-Hindi denied the right, in community with speaking states are allowed to adopt other members of their group, to their own official languages in enjoy their own culture, to profess official peoples, and most states and practice their own religion, or have chosen the local language and use their own language.” A major English. The adoption of Hindi as survey was carried out by the UN in an official language in many parts 1979 to identify the judicial and of India is a touchy issue, and even conceptual aspects of linguistic though “Hinglish” a hybridized discrimination. The UN charter mixture of Hindi and English is also forbids discrimination on the rapidly becoming an entry level basis of language, and calls upon lingua franca, English is preferred nations to formulate equitable in formal usage outside the Hindi policies. The Conference on speaking states because it is the Security and Co-operation in least controversial. A similar Europe (CSCE, the Helsinki situation prevails in Senegal where accords) contains a detailed French is mostly used in formal proposal to protect linguistic rights. situations even though Wolof is The Council of Europe’s proposed increasingly being used as a spoken European Charter for Regional or lingua franca in many parts of Minority Languages recommends a Senegal. The idea of linguistic massive support for minority rights is a relatively new concept languages. Several European ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) Parliament resolutions, including the government of Rwanda may the Kuijpers resolution of 1987 have no option but to continue with recommend the teaching of French for both internal and minority languages. The UNESCO external usage. Our approach can is also working on the rollout of a be productively and prolifically “Universal Declaration of used in the Francophonie and the Language Rights.” Many other Pan-African to determine the studies such as one by the Nuffield eventual conclusion of the French Foundation in 2000, emphasize the versus English debate in the region dangers of linguistic hegemony and and what it portends and recommend the teaching of foreshadows for the world in multiple languages. 47 general. (m) The Test of True Multi-Lingualism: (l) Unipolarity, Polarity, Bi-polarity According to most estimates, India and Multi-polarity: Unipolarity, is by far the most multi-lingual Polarity, Bi-polarity and multi- country in the world with twenty- polarity would play a major role in two official languages and more determining the comportment and than five hundred living dialects. orientation of language spread. For While Papua New Guinea, example, French was associated Indonesia and Nigeria may have a with the Rwandan genocide and the larger number of languages than massacre of the Tutsi populations India in theory, the number of in 1994, and consequently, the official languages in those government of Rwanda left no countries are less in number. Also, stone unturned to orchestrate its India is unique in that many of the downfall and replace it with languages in India are highly Kinyarwanda and English. Had it developed, literary languages, and not been for the international it should be fairly obvious that no importance of the English other country in the world has such language, and its lead of the French a large number of written, literary language as a global lingua franca, languages with traditions, in some

47 The Nuffield Languages Inquiry (2000) Languages: the next generation London: The Nuffield Foundation ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) cases, going back two thousand deemed to be dialects of the other years or more. There are several language or languages spoken in language diversity indices currently the country? in use. One is Greenberg’s LDI. (b) Is the linguistic distance One is the related Index of between the most-unrelated but Linguistic Diversity from widely spoken languages in the Terralingua.org which emphasizes country large? changes in linguistic diversity, while another LDI measure has (c) Does the country comprise of been proposed by the United speakers belonging to more than Nations Educational, Scientific and one language group? Are the Cultural Organization. While all speakers of languages belonging to measures unanimously place at least two language groups India’s LDI far above China’s (the significant? latter can hardly be considered (d) Do the speakers of more than multi-lingual from our point of one language adopt a semblance of view), most of these measures have political power, or are demanding intrinsic limitations in that they fail political autonomy with the chief to consider Linguistic Distances, objective of maintaining linguistic the state of evolution of languages, status quo or linguistic hegemony? political boundaries and other (e) Does the country have a history political and cultural factors. We of discord in protesting the propose the following Twelve linguistic power structure or the measures to determine if a country dominance of one linguistic group, is truly polyglot or not, and the and have such fissures led into result would be deemed to be demands for significant changes in positive if the answer to even one of power structure or autonomy? the questions is in the affirmative. (f) Is the power structure of the (a) Does the country have one or country sufficiently decentralized more than one fully independent to allow speakers of linguistic languages spoken by significant groups to exercise some autonomy segments of the population, which or have a say in policy-making? are not for the purpose of our study ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) (g) Do the speakers of the most (l) Is the Chief integrating factor in widely spoken language in the the country something other than country account for less than sixty language, or is the role of language percent of the population? in this regard limited?

(h) Is the total number of languages If the answer to one or more of the and dialects in the country, above questions is in the including less developed languages affirmative, the country, by our or dialects, and variants of major reckoning, is deemed to be languages, large? polyglot. In the case of India, the answers to all the questions would (i) Do regions of the country share be a resounding yes, and in such a close economic, cultural or case, few would deny that some linguistic ties with other country, form of enforced multi-lingualism often in precedence to economic, would be conducive to harmony. cultural or linguistic ties with other India may be thus considered truly parts of the same country? polyglot compared to China: In (j) What is the Least Common China, for example, speakers of Denominator of all the major Cantonese and Mandarin may at linguistic groups in the country in times even claim that they speak the terms of linguistic structure, shared same language. However, speakers cultural elements etc.? Is the range of various dialects of Chinese may of the LCD insignificant to not be able to converse with each moderate? other easily or comfortably: from a (k) What is the Least Common linguists’ point of view, they may Denominator of all the linguistic actually speak different languages, groups in the country including the and the distance between the outlying or the less important or the various dialects of Chinese may be insignificant ones in terms of relatively large. However, they will linguistic structure, shared cultural be able to communicate with each elements etc.? Is the range of the other much more effectively LCD very insignificant to through their shared writing moderate? system. While India has undoubtedly had had periods of ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) political unity since ancient times, them to learn other languages. and pan-Indian cultures have Another rival hypothesis promotes exhibited a fairly high degree of a radically different view. The underlying cultural or religious possible effects of each approach unity, India’s common bonds are may vary depending on the context more cultural than linguistic; this is and scenario, and must be assessed despite that fact that various Indian by taking all factor proposed in our languages and language groups paper into account. However, one have influenced each other, and the approach would to assess the fact that some ancestor of Brahmi strength of the languages and the morphed into all modern day LDI. It may be emphasized that alphabetic scripts, North and South enforced multi-linguicism is a very Indian. For the Chinese, on the reliable and attractive alternative other hand, a shared writing system national integration strategy, and is and a shared linguistic inheritance one that is likely to work in a wide along a strong tradition of political, variety of scenarios, and especially social, and cultural unity constitute truly multi-lingual countries. Many their identity. India is truly a multi- countries such as Canada and lingual country from a linguist’s Switzerland have adopted such point of view, while China may not strategies successfully. Some other fall into this bracket. countries have also granted national recognition to two or more (m)Enforced Multilingualism: languages, examples of these being There are two competing Belgium, Finland, Ireland, hypothesis in this respect. One Luxembourg and Malta. Some hypotheses states that Enforced other European countries have also Multilingualism is necessary for recognized some minority natural integration and for languages at the regional or a protecting minor languages from municipal level, examples being disappearing. This approach also Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, states that Enforced Germany, Hungary, Italy, Multilingualism protects speakers Lithuania, the Netherlands, of minor language, gives them a Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, and the feeling of security, and encourages United Kingdom. France, however, ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) has a long tradition of not outside their linguistic group. It is recognizing minority languages. In not therefore, uncommon for a a multilingual country like member of a tribe to speak several Singapore, many people can speak languages. However, Tucano is more than one language. Singapore used as some kind of a lingua franca has four official languages: in the region, owing to its ability to English, the Mandarin variety of fulfil a need that other languages of Chinese, Tamil, and Malay, the last the tribe cannot. of which is also the national (n) Long-term factors versus short- language. However, the majority of term factors. It also naturally its population are native speakers of becomes necessary to isolate short- a dialect of Chinese. Singapore’s term factors from long-term factors national language policy promotes and concentrate more on the latter. English as the mainstream As per our terminology, we need to international language, and the eschew ‘presentism’, and promote preferred language of trade and ‘aeternitism’ and ‘omnimodism’ commerce, Mandarin as the i.e. factors that will work across international ‘Chinese’ language, space and time. An example of a Malay as the ‘National language’, short-term factor is Brexit, but can and Tamil as the language of one of it override other factors working in the four ethnic groups in the favour of English? However, local country. Enforced multi-lingualism factors need to be studied as they may also obviate the need for a are likely to have a ripple effect lingua franca within the region across geographies. under many circumstances, as There are many inferences and many people would learn more than one different kinds of simple or complex language. Another interesting analysis this approach will readily lend example to illustrate itself to. Any analysis would demonstrate multilingualism is the case of the that Hindi may not spread easily outside Tucano tribe who live along the India given the resistance within India to Vaupes River in Columbia and the spread of Hindi overseas using political smaller parts of Brazil in South methods as a tactic to modify or alter the America and practice linguistic dynamics of language spread in India by exogamy, normally marrying ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) political or artificial methods. Even if it country fairly recently and speakers’ does spread over a protracted time span, it attitudes towards it (Durmuller: 1984). He may have difficulty replacing other observed that the Swiss preferred English languages in India even after it has next only to their native languages and over supplanted or subordinated other languages their other national languages. The in select regions outside the country such dynamics of language in Switzerland are in as Suriname or Fiji except if it happens in turn impacted by the dynamics of language conjunction with several other factors over spread in Europe after the emergence of the which we presently have no knowledge or European Union, leading to the rise of control. Thus, the resistance to Hindi English across the continent and the within India, may in some way impede its decline of French in the continent, largely spread outside India. Another example of independent perhaps of trends in England this is the spread of English outside itself. Likewise, the popularity of English England over the past few centuries. in Switzerland and in Scandinavian However, the spread of the English countries would help bolster its popularity language outside England has not been able across Europe. The popularity of English in to exterminate the dialects of English in Europe would also be impacted by and England or other languages, or annihilate would in turn impact the spread of English other languages like Welsh completely. around the globe, and perhaps trigger a These have revived through the principle of decline in the importance French as well, cultural ethno genesis. Thus, regions may both in Europe, and beyond and at least in be approached distinctly for the purposes the longer-term. On the other hand, if the of such studies, and may be further broken power of French in Francophonie Africa is down as required so that a thorough region- to be challenged, a concerted and a well- specific analysis taking into account the orchestrated effort involving multiple peculiarities and the unique characteristics nations is required, as this is a Political or of the region may be applied. Thus, the Economic entity for our purpose. The dynamics of language spread internal to political inertia in the region may not lend Switzerland and its multi-lingual nature itself very easily to change either, and the has helped popularize English in the region may prove to be immune to global country. Durmuller, for example, has trends at least in the short-term. The impact investigated through questionnaires and of Brexit on the relative importance of the interviews, the internal usage of English in English and the French language has Switzerland, which entrenched itself in that already been hotly debated. A ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) comprehensive analysis based on the 1. A linguistic community or a sub-unit or principles mooted in this paper may be a linguistic community is always the warranted and may throw further light on tightest linguistic unit. this issue. Another noteworthy example in 2. A linguistic community or a sub-unit or this regard is the very rapid spread of a linguistic community normally sets the Sanskrit in Post-Harappan India from the patterns for itself, and the spread of Gangetic plains to the north-west of India languages within the linguistic community as a lingua franca even though political would be dictated by the dynamics of unity across the region was non-existent, language spread within the linguistic the only common cultural threads being community. This is because forces what one may refer to as over-riding operating within this level are much elements of ‘Aryan’ culture. This, in due stronger than, and therefore take course, effected the popularization of precedence over other factors. Sanskrit as a cultural symbol of the region, and greatly enhanced its prestige. This in 3. The dynamics of language spread within turn played a role as its eventual a linguistic community can also be importance as a cultural and religious influenced by external factors. symbol of much of Ancient India, led to a 4. A linguistic community can influence compilation of a vast corpus of oral the dynamics of language spread in traditions and written literature, and later neighbouring linguistic communities, or in led to an interest in the language and its a wider region. However, dynamics of study worldwide. The concepts in this language spread in other regions would be paper are only illustrative and we define also determined by other internal and only two levels (a) The linguistic external forces. community along with various sub- 5. The dynamics of language spread within community and (b) The linguistic block. the linguistic community normally play a We also define the term ‘Political or greater role in determining outcomes Economic entity.’ The other levels must be within the community, than external defined on a case to case basis as explained. factors. There may be exceptions, and Therefore, we may lay down the these need to be evaluated on a case to case following broad rules: basis and justified.

6. The spread of languages within a linguistic block would primarily be ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) dependent on the dynamics of language the linguistic block may lie partly within spread within the block. However, the the political or economic entity and partly dynamics of language spread of the outside it. constituent linguistic communities would 9. Thus the workings of the political or also play a role. economic entity will come to bear on the 7. The spread of languages within a dynamics of language spread in the linguistic block can also impact and be constituent linguistic blocks and vice versa. impacted by the dynamics of language If the linguistic block partly lies outside the spread at the next level which can be user- political or economic entity, it needs to be defined, as the concepts in this paper are logically split into two. only illustrative. For example, while 10. As the levels proposed here are purely English may have once been a Hobson’s indicative, the researcher is well-advised to choice in India, its domestic strength prepare a schema before he begins. largely grew as a result of its international strength. 11. An analysis should ideally commence at the level of a linguistic community, and 8. In order to understand how the dynamics should be ideally aggregated by of language spread in linguistic block geographical region. affect the dynamics of language spread within the political or economic entity, the 12. This exercise must always be carried patterns of intersection between the out in conjunction with a context-based linguistic block and the political or analysis and a role or a function-based economic entity need to be understood. analysis (See section on Contextual There may be many possible patterns of Suitability and Role-based suitability in intersection between the two. In scenario this paper) to understand the forces of A, the two may be synonymous. In language spread more accurately. scenario B, a linguistic block may be a 13. This exercise may also be carried out in subset of a political or economic entity, and conjunction with the other principles in the the political or economic entity may have paper such as the Theory of win-win only one linguistic block. In scenario C, a propositions, and an exercise in this section linguistic block may be a subset of a explains how this can be done to greater political or an economic entity, and the effect. political or economic entity may have more than one linguistic blocks. In scenario D, ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) 14. The key to getting this approach correct symbol of Pakistan and Islam. Though this would be to define Linguistic policy appears to have worked well in West Communities, Linguistic blocks, Political Pakistan, where Sindhi. Punjabi, Baluchi and Economic entities and other levels and Pashto were widely spoken, the correctly. For example, if India is chosen as “imposition” of Urdu was not well- the focus area of study, a linguistic state received in East Pakistan or Bangladesh, would ideally be a linguistic community. In despite the language’s neutrality to all the some cases like Karnataka, the state can be provinces of Pakistan, East Pakistan split up into two levels. However, a region included. Thus, not only linguistic pride, comprising Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh but geographical distance, and a feeling of or Gujarat and Rajasthan, or even the cultural separation played a role here, as whole of South India (despite the fact that globalization in its present-form was they speak languages belonging to a unique unknown then. The Theory of Linguistic language group) can never be a linguistic Osmosis may apply here, as East Pakistan block as such a region can produce no was a separate linguistic community within unique dynamics and would be irrelevant a combined Pakistan for our purpose. This for the purposes of such studies. Likewise approach can be put to practical use in a such a region, or even an Indian state, wide variety of situations, and can be a except in rare circumstances in case of the great boon and can be used to predict latter, cannot be chosen as a Political or language trends in specific regions or Economic entity either as such is region or across the world, including spread or a state does not qualify to be a political or decline of languages. Readers can also an economic unit of any kind. Another evaluate for themselves to what extent the interesting picture emerges from the study Indian Government’s attempts to spread of Bangladesh which attained Hindi outside India, and at an international independence in 1971 from Pakistan, when level, would succeed in altering the then comprised of two wings, West dynamics of language spread outside and Pakistan and East Pakistan, separated by a within India, given that Hindi is hardly few thousand kilometres of alien and spoken in a handful of countries outside hostile Indian territory. Urdu was chosen as India. The spread of English occurred a link language in Pakistan as it was neutral because it satisfied the principles laid down to all language speakers and was the in this paper, and English Language mother tongue of a very small group of Teaching programs have succeeded in the people. Moreover, it was seen as a cultural recent past because of the underlying ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) demand for such programs, and the large Central Government would be much, much gap between demand and supply. On the higher, even from the long-term contrary, even costly Francophonie perspective of Indian national integration. programs may at best consolidate the Hindi has already killed, or is in the process position of the French language in the short of killing many minor languages in North to the medium term, and may not prevent India. In major urban centres like Mumbai, its long-term decline unless a new set of Hindi has marginalized Marathi as an factors which we do not have any entry-level lingua franca, even though the knowledge of currently manifest written use of Hindi in practically non- themselves. On the other hand there is no existent. Hindi still continues to play huge demand-supply gap for the learning second fiddle to English in commerce, of Hindi outside India, and it may be wrong science and technology, and the to promote the language of one region to replacement of English by Hindi as the exclusion of all other Indian languages envisaged by Hindi chauvinists and zealots in a federal set-up like India, or even to appears to be nowhere in sight. mislead foreigners about the linguistic We also believe the changes in language scenario in India. Such efforts would be ill- take place through the following three conceived in a post-globalized context. Per dimensions: the principles of this paper, and to put it Geography-driven propagation: In this extremely crudely, such endeavours would type, language spreads primarily through be tantamount to throwing money out of geographies, and usually has one or more the window. Instead, the same money can roles to play. In the 1930’s, the Gujarati be used to increase literacy levels or language was very widely used in Bombay, improve the standard of education across now known as Mumbai, and was likely to all regions of India. Alternatively, all have been widely spoken in the streets. Its Indian languages can be promoted outside prominence has somewhat declined as of India, given the increased interest in India today, and Hindi and English are widely across the world in recent times, and the spoken in addition to Marathi. In addition, Indian government can play a key role in Marathi less widely spoken than formerly. ensuring that awareness is created for the Marathi is however the medium of learning of Indian languages outside India, instruction in many schools and there is a and that key institutes and universities are popular resurgence of Marathi linguistic roped in for the purpose. In the second pride in the state and attempts to save it case, the Return on Investment for the ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) from encroachment from other languages diffusion, Syntactical changes, phonetic or possible eventual marginalization or changes etc.: We had already discussed this irrelevance. Another kind of question one in our paper, although these would be, for may want to ask is this. While Marathi may all practical purposes irrelevant to a study have been sidelined in Mumbai, it is still of language dynamics. A formal and a thriving in rural areas in the state. Will well-structured analysis of changes across Marathi be decimated over a period of time all the three dimensions may be carried out in rural areas as well? To what extent will from time to time as it would provide this be driven by migrations from other further empirical data for analysis and states? How long might this process take? corroboration with other approaches Social hierarchy-driven propagation: In presented in this paper. This will also this type, dialects may be levelled, thereby include a ‘Change of status quo.’ adding to the prestige of the language. Alternatively, trends observed among the We also propose the following modes by upper classes or elites permeate through all which languages can spread in a given echelons of society, and example being the region: current rage for learning the English Push: In this mode, a language is initially language. Role-driven changes: In this imposed from an external source or entity. scenario, role encroachment takes place, A typical example is the ‘imposition’ of and a language spreads by taking on more English on India and other languages. and more roles, and eventually restricting However, this must take into account the the role played by other language. An principles of language spread espoused in example of this may be the demand for this paper, otherwise failure or unintended science and mathematics classes in the consequences will result. Push factors may English language worldwide. The either be hard or soft (i.e. Hard push and popularity of English music in Germany is Soft push). The former is associated with another example of the soft power of the political and military factors and the latter English language. We have discussed this is predominantly associated with cultural under the heading ‘Intangible roles played factors. by a language’. A term we would like to Pull: In this mode, a language is learnt use here is ‘Role encroachment’ where a because demand exists for it. An example language cedes the one or more roles of this is the demand for the learning of the played by it to other languages gradually Sanskrit language. Another example for and over a period in time. Lexical ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) this is the implementation of the English are sending English language teachers.” language in Rwanda, and its recent (International House Brochure, 1979). introduction in Gabon. Pull-Churn or Push-Pull-Churn: In this Push-Pull: This is a combination of Push mode, a language is introduced in society and Pull modes. In this mode, a language is and spreads internally due to the language first introduced by push techniques, and is dynamics of the region in keeping with the later willingly adopted by a countries or principles mooted in this paper. regions denizens. If this is to work, a Pull-Churn-Feedback or Push-Pull-Churn- language must offer specific benefits to the Feedback: In this mode, a language is people or at least a section of society. An introduced in society and spreads internally example of this is the popular adoption of due to the language dynamics of the region the English language in India. While in keeping in the principles mooted in this English was undoubtedly spread by force paper. This then provides feedback to in colonial times, the USA has both directly neighbouring or non-neighbouring regions, and indirectly played a much greater role in and impacts the dynamics of language the spread of English since the dawn of the spread at a broader level. Twentieth century than Britain, and the Subconscious adoption: Subconscious United States has played a much greater adoption is a more subtle variant of the Pull role in shaping the forces of globalization mode. This type of scenario may typically as well. Contemporary arguments in favour be non-contact based and may be more of English are mostly driven by the state of common in the Post-globalized era or the market for English and Force of epoch. argument i.e. rational analysis in the light Porosity Analysis of available information. Thus, a huge demand has been created in the recent past Linguistic Blocks and Linguistic units for the learning of English in places as far may also be categorized on the basis of apart as Senegal and Papua New Guinea, their porosity, and this aspect also needs to and the worldwide demand for English be borne in mind while carrying out any learning has even begun to play a not-so- analysis. The three possible classifications insignificant role in Britain’s economy. As are: a director of a chain of international (a) Highly porous: In this case, there is schools put it, “Once we used to send very little legal protection for linguistic gunboats and diplomats abroad. Now we groups, and languages are open to ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) influences from other linguistic Latency time groups. An example of this scenario The Latency time refers to the time taken may be Sri Lanka which does not for changes to propagate within a linguistic follow a federal structure. India may be community, linguistic block or globally. less porous because of its federalism While there are no reliable measures for but is constrained in this respect by the measuring this, it is expected that the free movement of peoples across its latency time will gradually decrease owing state borders. Pakistan may actually be to the improvement of communication on a better footing than India because systems, a general rise in the standard of the chosen link or national language is living and improved levels of literacy, and neutral to all its provinces, unlike India then eventually level off beyond a point. (b) Moderately porous: An example of this Factors influencing dynamics of would be a linguistic block comprising language spread in Pluri-lingual fully independent political units. societies Examples that would readily come to our mind are the European Union and We now propose some factors that will Francophonie West Africa. invariably and inevitably affect human (c) Low level of porosity: Examples of behaviour, and consequently alter the such blocks would be a hypothetical dynamics of language spread in any pluri- block comprising all English speaking lingual society. While there were countries or a hypothetical block contemplated in the narrow context of comprising all countries where French India, arguably the world’s most diverse is the official language. pluri-lingual and multi-ethnic society, they are bound to work in the context of any The porosity of a linguistic block would be pluri-lingual society and the world in determined by the legal rights available to general, and most are based on the its speakers, the political structure fundamentals of human behaviour and including degree of autonomy in decision disposition. We therefore strongly believe making granted to speakers of various that these principles will be applicable to languages, the design of the federal varying degrees in most societies in the structure, the design of the education word. There may be other kinds of pluri- system, the relationship between speakers lingual societies however, where these speaking various languages, the dominance principles will not apply. One interesting of one or more linguistic groups etc. example to illustrate a unique form of pluri- ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) lingualism is the case of the Tucano tribe Theory of aggregated personal who live along the Vaupes River in advantage Columbia and smaller parts of Brazil in In this scenario, humans subconsciously or South America and practice linguistic consciously evaluate what is good for exogamy, normally marrying outside their them, and act accordingly. For example, linguistic group. It is therefore, extremely most South Indians, reject Hindi as a common for a member of a tribe to speak replacement for English, and use Hindi several languages. This therefore only in situations and circumstances where constitutes a different and a unique form of they stand to benefit. pluri-lingualism where the principles described in this paper will not apply. Theory of perceived aggregated personal advantage We must also always bear in mind the fact that a combination of two or more factors This is a modification of the previous described in this paper will come into play scenario, and in this case, humans act on in most practical and real-word situations. the basis of perception. Thus, there is a The factors specified must be necessarily craze for English schools in India, and this studied for each language and role and may epitomize a herd mentality. within a geographical, cultural and social According to a recent report, the highest context before any analysis is done. While growth in enrolment in English schools carrying out this exercise, DPPF was in the Hindi-speaking states. It was the techniques or Dialogue between past, highest in Bihar, where it grew 47 times or present and future techniques that we had 4,700 percent, while enrolment in Hindi proposed in a previous paper can also be schools grew by just 18 percent. In Uttar used. The weightage given to these factors Pradesh, enrolment in English schools during an analysis will influence and partly grew over 10 times or by over 1,000 determine the dynamics of language spread percent compared to just 11 increase in in the region. A few of these may be purely Hindi-schools. In other Hindi speaking micro factors, but can nonetheless be states too, increase in English schools aggregated or ignored if not applicable. increased steeply -- Haryana 525 percent, Jharkhand 458 percent, and Rajasthan 209

percent. In states like Jammu and Kashmir, almost all students study in English schools. What is worse still, is that few opt ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) for their native tongues even as a second judgement, but let themselves be carried language. In most situations, Hindi is away by current or prevalent trends. This chosen. As a matter of fact, the situation is would led to further amplification or so bad that the Bharatiya Bhasha Suraksha magnification of current trends, or at the Manch has demanded the shutting down of barest minimum ensure that such trends all English schools in Goa, and their perpetuate unchecked and unimpeded. replacement by Konkani and Marathi Linguistic attitudes and loyalties schools. Linguistic attitudes can play a role in Theory of simplicity, practicality and influencing dynamics of language spread. convenience Tamils, and other linguistic groups in India In an overwhelming majority of situations, are undoubtedly worried that the spread of practicality and convenience would weigh rapid Hindi may lead to cultural in. This may explain the rise of Hinglish in homogenization at a certain level, India, and the slow and steady decline of obviating the need for outsiders to learn the French language in Laos, Vietnam and other Indian languages, thereby pushing Cambodia. In Laos, the decline of the them down the road towards eventual French language has been slow, but is oblivion. The opposition towards the being slowly being eroded by English. The imposition of Hindi in Tamilnadu has had decline of the French language has been a long history. The first Anti-Hindi more rapid in Cambodia, even though there agitations in Tamilnadu took place in 1937, has been some revivalism. The French nearly a decade before Indian language also slowly declined in Vietnam independence and were led by Periyar and after the Second World War, even though other Dravidian nationalists, as a result of there has been a slow rebound. Per our attempts to make the learning of Hindi approach, all analysis must be data-driven, mandatory in the Madras presidency. Anti- and attempts must always be made to carry Hindi agitations resurfaced in 1965 when out a root-cause analysis keeping in mind an attempt was made to position Hindi as the principles mooted in this paper. the sole official language after a fifteen year hiatus. Needless to say, there were Theory of non-judgment minor Anti-Hindi agitations in other parts This is a more extreme version of ‘follow of India such as the Sambalpur agitation of the herd’ mentality where speakers of a Odisha. Some Bengali and Telugu likewise language exercise practically no opposed the promotion of Hindi at the cost ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) of other Indian languages or the mandatory respectively. Linguistic loyalties to this study of Hindi. Nonetheless, reactions to degree may not be exhibited by all other the promotion of Hindi varied widely from communities in India. The Bengali region. One factor may have been language movement of East Pakistan was a linguistic loyalties which may have varied similar linguistic movement which sought widely from region to region. The some rights for the Bengali language in a centrality of language to culture also varies united Pakistan such as its usage in media, widely from community to community, administration, education and politics. and this aspect may need to be understood Many Thais also consider the Lao language by planners as well. Not all traits exhibited to be inferior, while many Laos tacitly by various ethnic groups may be seen to accept the ‘cultural superiority’ of the Thai desirable in a global context. Some may Language. Most linguists accept the theory exhibit a high degree of ethnocentrism, of inequality of languages, and the French consciously or unconsciously, and may in use the term ‘Langue de Culture’ to part be even driven by inward-looking distinguish culturally evolved languages approaches and a lack of awareness of from less evolved ones. On the other hand, other cultures. Ethnocentrism has being even languages that may be considered observed in many cultures across the primitive may have a fair degree of world, cultural relativism being the exact complexity. For example, a study by opposite point of view. In any case, Daniel Everett of the Piraha language Community sentiment, which R.M McIver spoken in the Amazon region has shown and Page associate with a “we-feeling” and that it is by no means primitive, and a “role-feeling” is common throughout the possesses a complex protean verb structure world, but to varying degrees. In the state and prosody. Many new fields such as of Tamilnadu in India, the Tamil language Ethnolinguistics which deals with social is widely worshipped as a God or a Demi- interactions and its relationship with God, and Goddess Tamil or Thamizhthai is language are emerging as distinct fields of deified. This concept is less well- study. Such factors are also determinants of entrenched in Andhra Pradesh and the effects of language in fostering cultural Telangana where the concept of Telugutalli pride or a sense of ethnicity among nonetheless exists. Nonetheless, the songs speakers of different languages. From our “Invocation to the Goddess Tamil” and “To point of view, one reason for the inequality my Mother Telugu” are the state languages of languages is the stalling of the of Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh development of specific languages in ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) various epochs due to social, cultural, As per this hypothesis, fashionableness, economic and political factors besides trendiness and chicness play a major role in dominance from other languages. Research propagation of language. For example, is currently underway into the extent of speakers of certain basliects of Telugu, social and linguistic accommodation of abandon their language for Tamil within a different cultures, including assimilation generation of migrating to Tamilnadu. As and adjustment, and all these factors should observed by the author in a study in the have a bearing on language dynamics as early 1990’s, this can happen very rapidly well. These may vary widely for each indeed, and less than a generation. linguistic community, and must be However, speakers of more prestigious evaluated on a case to case basis dialects of Telugu, particularly those higher up in the economic ladder, prefer to Ideological factors learn English instead and opt for a The opposition of Dravidian parties to the combination of Telugu and English. imposition of Hindi was not just logical or Theory of Linguistic dominance analysis-driven; it was also largely ideology-driven. The Dravidian parties, Per this scenario, more dominant and who have somewhat mellowed down now, established or entrenched languages were seen as Anti-North Indian, Anti- continue to propagate while less dominant Aryan, Anti-Bramhinical and Anti-Hindu languages are further pushed into as well. Another well-known movement at irrelevance and obscurity. This is that time was the xenophobic Thani representative of the ‘Big fish eats the Thamizh Iyakkam movement which sought small fish syndrome’ and languages to eliminate all Sanskrit word borrowings spoken by smaller number of speakers may from the Tamil language which were be gradually pushed into irrelevance. This considered impure. Consequently, the may also be referred to as the ‘Strong Tamilnadu government does not teach language versus weak language Hindi in schools run by it, and proficiency syndrome’. In this case the number of in Hindi is by far the lowest in Tamilnadu speakers of a language, their geographical among all Indian states. distribution, the clout enjoyed by them, the lexical strength of the language, and its Theory of fashionableness, trendiness suitability for various roles will make a and chicness difference in a speaker’s choice. ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) Theory of Elitism little Sinhala, and among these, speakers at the bottom of the social pyramid, speak As per this scenario, elites alter the virtually no Sinhala. Tamils living in dynamics of language spread so as to Colombo on the other hand, have some maintain their power, pelf or relative knowledge of Sinhala as do many advantage. However, only very rarely will upcountry Tamils or Indian Tamils. The they be successful in preventing others knowledge of Tamil among Sinhala from emulating them. Linguistic elitism is speakers is rather limited, though it varies exhibited by English-speakers in India and from region to region. Thus, individuals by French-speakers in parts of Africa. need to know a language before they can Theory of Emulation use it. Thus, the use of the Hindi language Per this scenario, language speakers tend to is not widespread in Tamilnadu because emulate speakers of other languages and most people do not know it. dialects, and this leads to linguistic change Theory of Need to know and affects language dynamics. For As per this scenario, individuals acquire example, the popularity of Bollywood in proficiency in a language only where it is India, has led to an increase in the demand absolutely necessary. For example, the for the Hindi language and may eventually dominance of English and Hindi in India erode the popular base of other dialects of has ensured that few Non-Kannada Hindi and other Indian languages. Speakers speakers make any attempts to learn the of some dialects may tend of emulate Kannada language in Bangalore. The speakers of other acrolects leading to Kannada Rakshana Vedike, a Pro-Kannada linguistic change willy-nilly, and this organization, argues that this is slowly would in turn pave the way for dialect killing the Kannada language. levelling, and other forms of linguistic change. Theory of Mutual consensus

Theory of Pre-existing knowledge or As per this theory, two individuals agree familiarity upon a language through mutual consensus during the course of an interaction. Often, As per this scenario, the existing language this may be a sub-conscious process. Thus, fluency of proficiency would continue to a Nepali language speaker who marries a dictate linguistic trends. For example, the Bengali language speaker opts for either Tamils living in the Northern Province and English of Hindi as their language of Eastern Province in Sri Lanka speak very ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) communication. This must be aggregated As per this theory, speakers prefer a neutral to understand its impact on the dynamics of language for all their interactions. The language spread. benefit of this is that it does not give the speakers of one language undue benefits Theory of Mutual comfort over speakers of one or more other As per this theory, two individuals speak languages. This may have ensured the the language they are most comfortable in. survival and predominance of English in Thus, a Nepali language speaker who formal, written contexts in almost all parts marries a Bengali language speaker opts of India. This is a trend which is likely to for Hindi over English as their language of continue into the foreseeable future. In oral communication, bypassing English most parts of Africa, linguistic boundaries which may be restricted for more formal do not equate to political boundaries, and situations. In this case, both parties must be this has propped up the demand for either relatively or reasonably comfortable in the English or French. chosen language. The language usually Theory of Force of habit chosen would be a subset of the ‘Least Common denominator’ of the linguistic In this scenario, a speaker who is skilled in repertoire of both the parties. This factor many different languages, chooses the must be aggregated to understand its language he is most used to speaking, and impact on the dynamics of language typically on a constant basis. This factor spread. Another interesting variant of this will be aggregated across various speakers would be two speakers of different dialects speaking one or more languages to of the same language speaking a different determine the dynamics of language spread languages because the dialects vary in a region. somewhat widely. The Author has Theory of Relative fluency witnessed such scenarios. In this scenario, a speaker who is skilled in Interlocutor preference theory many different languages, chooses the As per this theory, a speaker prefers to use language he is most fluent of comfortable the language the other person or people in in. This factor will be aggregated across the conversation are familiar with, so as to various speakers speaking one or more make them feel comfortable. languages to determine the dynamics of language spread in a region. Theory of Neutrality Theory of formal initiation ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) In this scenario, a speaker prefers the French language is now actually thriving, language is formally taught or grounded in. and widespread legislative measures have Thus, a man who is taught in an English been implemented to prevent an school in India, prefers to send his children encroachment by English. to English schools it turn. This naturally Immigrant language hypothesis increases the demand for the English language over time. As per this hypothesis, immigrants bring their language to a region, impacting the Theory of Social Interaction language dynamics in that region. This According to the Theory of Social gives the language a toehold in that region interaction, a speaker’s preferences are which enables it to spread its wings even shaped by the company he keeps, and this further. drives language dynamics. For example, Rival language hypothesis lower-middle class families in India generally do not speak English in social According to this hypothesis, the spread of contexts, whereas elites do. a language will also be influenced by the existence and prevalence of other Local language theory alternatives, and other viable alternatives. The Local language theory which is a part Limitations of, and difficulties in of ‘Nativity versus immigrants’ debate Second language acquisition proposes that speakers prefer to speak the local language of the region as far as According to this hypothesis, the dynamics possible or practicable. An example to of language spread would be influenced by illustrate this, is general fact that Tamils the ability or the inability of speakers of prefer to learn the language of the region one or more languages in a region to learn they migrate to, but prefer to use their own the other more dominant languages in the language within their ethic homelands. region. This would determine the spread of This may have allowed English to languages in a region, both in totality and eventually triumph in the United States by role. As Fishman, Conrad and Rubal- with barely a whimper of protest from Lopez have pointed out, acquiring a new speakers of other languages. The Cajun language requires changes in language French dialect of Louisiana appears to have behaviour of speakers. According to survived but is now slowly dying. An Cooper, a new language requires exception to this rule is Quebec, where the ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) awareness, evaluation, awareness and use, 1982) and Bahasa Malaysia has become a and such changes typically take time. symbol of Malaysian identity and English cannot play this role. Practical versus Non-practical considerations Context-based suitability, Role-based suitability, Context-based indispensability As per this approach, a complete list of and Role-based indispensability practical considerations influencing the spread of language must be made. Needless to say, this would be crucial to Examples of such causes are technological any analysis and naturally cannot be given superiority, economic factors and even role the short-shrift given the fact that these and context based suitability and would play a crucial role in language indispensability. Non-practical dynamics, but we have already discussed considerations would include emotional these factors elsewhere in the paper. and cultural aspects or linguistic pride. Judgement-driven, Rule of thumb Without getting into a discussion about the driven and instinct-driven approaches moral and ethical aspects of such debates, we will at least state that a list of practical Judgement-driven, Rule of thumb driven and non-practical considerations must be and instinct-driven approaches may be made, and their impact assessed on a case driven by experienced planners and to case basis. One hypothesis is that assessors without resorting to formal practical considerations would outweigh evaluation methods. These approaches non-practical consideration in the longer may however lead to errors in many cases. run, thereby impacting the dynamics of Changes to factors influencing the language spread, but we would like this dynamics of language hypothesis to be tested more empirically. Changes to factors influencing the This may also be alternatively be recast as dynamics of language in a pluri-lingual Tangible factors and Intangible factors. society can be artificially induced through Tanglible factors include factors driven by at least the following five methods. economic or social considerations, while However, by no means can such Intangible factors include cultural pride, a endeavours ever override the core tenets feel-good factor associated with language and principles outlined as a part of our etc. Again, for example, Swahili paper: symbolizes local ethnicity in East Africa, in a way English simply cannot, (Scotton: ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) (a) Obfuscation of free flow of linguistic osmosis’ to determine information: This approach was this for themselves. attempted in many Marxist and (c) Waiting for cultural changes to Semi-Stalinist societies. For manifest themselves. This is example, Television was typically a slow process, as practically controlled by the Indian languages is often seen to be central government prior to the to cultural and ethnic identity. liberalization of the Indian Community sentiment, which R.M economy in the 1990’s, and an McIver and Page associate with a attempt made to telecast “we-feeling” and a “role-feeling” is predominantly in Hindi and not in common throughout the world, but other Indian languages. Similar to varying degrees. policies were followed in the (d) Changes to the education system: erstwhile USSR. Whether this Examples of this are the non- approach is workable in the long introduction of Hindi as a run is debatable, as totalitarian mandatory subject in Tamilnadu societies have collapsed already. schools resulting in a lack of (b) Creating a situation of knowledge among the public of the indispensability: Another approach language and the low importance is to create a situation of given to English in some Hindi indispensability. The English speaking states. language has entrenched itself (e) Political and ideological worldwide primarily by the ‘Push- opposition: Examples of this were pull’, ‘push-pull-churn’, the ‘push- the Anti-Hindi agitations of pull-churn-feedback’ and the ‘sub- Tamilnadu in 1937 and 1965. conscious adoption’ modes. The While these cannot influence the Indian government is promoting dynamics of language directly, they Hindi abroad with the hope that it can serve to create awareness will influence the dynamics of among the larger public and the language spread within India. laity. Pro-English and Pro-Hindi Whether they will be successful is campaigns many of them shallow anybody’s guess, by readers can and devoid of any substance are use the principles of the ‘Theory of common on the internet even today. ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) Theory of Win-Win Paradigms (d) Language interactions need to be studied with specific reference to a We also propose the Theory of Win- region and the role played by the Win Paradigms as follows language in that region and in a (a) The Theory of Win-win specific context. propositions as opposed to the (e) The Theory of Win-Win paradigms principle of Unnatural Control must be applied in conjunction with states that within a given set of all the other principles in this paper. circumstances, languages spread in (f) Proposals to address discrimination such a way that they provide as far may be classified into ‘Intrinsic as possible, a win-win proposition bargains’ and ‘Non-intrinsic to all stakeholders, and any bargains as discussed in this paper. paradigm which results in a win- (g) In case language interactions are lose proposition would either fail or based on win-lose paradigms they throw up a counter-reaction. will be successful only in specific (b) All language interactions are conditions and must be studied in typically based on the theory of conjunction with other principles of win-win paradigms. In other words, language spread. the usage of languages in specific (h) If this principle is not met, a break- situations (based on contexts and up of the linguistic unit may result roles) must lead to some kind of a e.g. the disintegration of USSR, gain to all the parties involved in Pakistan and civil war Sri Lanka. the interaction. Alternatively, dissatisfaction may (c) There may be exceptions to the result. theory of win-win paradigms and in (i) In some cases, the principles of the such a cases the paradigm fulfilling Theory of win-win paradigm may the conditions of this theory to the lead to some kind of loss to one or greatest extent usually prevails over more parties. In this case, the losing the paradigms fulfilling the party would attempt to adopt the conditions of this theory to a lesser ‘minimum loss’ approach by extent or not fulfilling the adopting the next best scenario. We conditions of this theory at all and have also discussed the ‘Doctrine subject to other principles of of Insubordination’ in this paper. language spread. ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) (j) In many other cases, linguistic cause unintended consequences in paradigms lead to some kind of a the long term. loss to a specific set of users, and Let us now attempt to explain this by these may have other intended means of suitable examples. Maharashtra is consequences, such as the one of the most industrialized states in extinction of languages. We have India. Its capital Mumbai (formerly known discussed this in another section of as Bombay) is the commercial capital of the paper under the ‘Net benefits India, and one of the largest metropolises approach’. However, this may not in the world. Pune is another important city necessarily be a violation of this in the state and is known for its IT and theory, as will be discussed. automobile industries. The state language (k) While it is unlikely that systematic of Maharashtra is Marathi. Like Hindi, violations of this principle can Marathi is a part of the Indo-Aryan family happen, we would like exceptions of languages. It is one of the oldest to this theory, if any, to be formally surviving languages of this language group documented and assessed by other and dates to at least the 10th Century AD. It scholars to preclude any possible is written in the Devanagari script, like confirmation bias. One exception Hindi, though another script namely the we can think of is acculturation or Modi script was once used. Mumbai was a enculturation, and a cosmopolitan city long before India marginalization of, or a total attained her independence. In the 1930’s, disregard for speakers of a Bombay was home to Parsis, Gujaratis, and language, but this is typically a very some North Indians and South Indians as slow process. We would like such well. Maharashtra offered very little scenarios to be evaluated on a case resistance to India’s post-independence to case basis. language policy. This may have been partly (l) Even if the Theory of Win-Win because of Marathi’s similarity to Hindi. paradigms has bonafide exceptions, However, the language of business and few would deny that planners need commerce is English, and the elites send to evaluate all proposal against this their children to English-medium schools , in the interests of short to medium or schools where English is the medium of term communal harmony as instruction. Marathi is the administrative violations of this principle can language of the state, and all state ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) government offices use Marathi. There is constitute a small proportion of the some use of English in administration at population. Let us now analyse different the state-level. However, Hindi is almost scenarios in Mumbai city. Hindi remains is never used as the administrative language a popular entry level lingua franca in of the state. Moreover, the state Mumbai. This is by virtue of the fact that government runs most of its schools in the percentage of Marathi speakers is Marathi. The state government also runs constantly declining in the city. While some Non-Marathi schools for the benefit English is too elitist, the education system of linguistic minorities. However, Hindi is is also largely to blame. Many parents send widely used as a spoken entry-level lingua their children to English schools with Hindi franca in Mumbai city because the city is as a mandatory second language, thereby home to a large migrant population and a relegating Marathi to the backburner. Let floating population who have not taken the us now analyse what this entails for Hindi trouble or initiative to learn Marathi, the speakers. This is virtually a bonanza and a language of the state. There are now only a manna from heaven for them, as it would few Marathi strongholds in Mumbai such appear to validate their cultural superiority as Shivaji Park. English is too elitist to be and numerical strength, and ratify the case used as an entry-level spoken language due of Hindi as a national or a link language. to its association with India’s elites, and the There are no downsides for them either. fact that only a small number of people are The benefit of this for citizens for whom comfortable with it. It is also not symbolic neither Hindi nor Marathi is their native of Pan-Indian values. However, the use of language is an ease of communication and Hindi as a formal, written language is the fact that their target audience may not rather limited, given the fact that the elites be comfortable in English either. Such an and a significant proportion of Hindi individual would make an effort to learn speakers, and almost all those who really basic Hindi (and usually not Marathi) over matter, prefer English schools. Thus, we a period in time. However, such a speaker say a triangular fight exists between three would rarely make an attempt to acquire different languages in the state. No other perfection in Hindi, and neither would he language really matters in the state. send his children to a Hindi school. This Marathi speakers continue to raise provides as win-win paradigm, but only concerns about the marginalization of their within a very limited realm. For Marathi language particularly in Mumbai city speakers, Hindi would at first prove to be a where native Marathi speakers only total loss. It only providers some other ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) fringe benefits such as their entry into chasm across social lines given most Central government jobs, their ability to peoples’ unfamiliarity with it. This is communicate at a Pan-India level and the something Hindi supporters harp on. Hindi exposure it provides to the Hindi states also famously neglected the study of entertainment industry. However, this has English due to their Rajbhasha led to friction of sorts. The demand for a complacency. The support for Hindi by the Marathi-speaking state was strong in the business sector is also fraught with risks 1950’s and lobbying and politicking given the provisions of international law ensured that their efforts materialized. and possible objections from minorities. In However, India’s language is sometimes a this setting, English is seen as the only source of friction in the state. The Shiv viable alternative. Experience in India and Sena Party’s and the Maharashtra other parts of the world has borne out the Navnirman Sena’s verbal broadsides fact that a neutral language or a language against North Indians in 2008 is a case in that is not native to any ethnic group within point. Some years later, a legislator by the the society is ideally-suited to become the name of Abu Azmi, who was a native Hindi lingua franca of that society. Sanskrit, speaker was slapped for taking his oath in Persian and English have played these roles Hindi in the Maharashtra assembly. Similar in different periods in Indian history with incidents manifest themselves at sporadic varying degrees of success. (Refer Table intervals. Another much more important No.6) consequence however, is that India’s The Theory of Win-win propositions may language policy appears to have cemented have worked in colonial times and rather the role of English in India helped to a remarkably and admirably. The English significant degree by its international pre- rulers promoted the English through clever eminence. Another consequence could be strategizing and careful planning. English the breakup of the nation, or the loss of its was seen as a tool for empowerment by dynamic stability, but India’s language Indian clerks in the East India Company policy may be too illogical to be a (who constituted a very small percentage of harbinger such scenarios. It is as a result of the population) and other Indians who this that English is widely entrenched in wanted all kinds of favours from the business and commerce. English provides British, including employment a win-win paradigm for almost everyone in opportunities. This principle was this context given its popularity within and undoubtedly applied subconsciously in outside India. However, English creates a ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) other English and French colonies also, and had the larger interests of the nation in the colonized elites were handed out a mind. Thus, we can even argue that India’s carrot-and-stick approach by the language policy is structurally flawed. colonialists. Another strategy adopted by Win-win propositions must again be the imperial rulers, among others, was to intrinsic or built into the structure of the divide Indian elites from non-elites for proposal itself, as opposed to non-intrinsic whom language policy may have mattered propositions. Thus bargains involving little, and to again divide Indian on reservations for non-Hindi speakers to linguistic, ethnic and cultural lines after a compensate them from perceived losses careful study of their ways and patterns of would not have worked as this would not thinking. This was famously referred to as addressed a wide variety of scenarios. the ‘Divide and rule’ strategy. Thus, it While Karl Marx may not have spoken would be very obvious from the very about such linguistic paradigms, they were outset, that Imperial language policies clearly Soviet-style communist constructs involved a fair amount of successful and antithetical to the very idea of India strategizing and deep thought. Even the and synonymous with a totalitarian and an Indus Valley Civilization elites showed an over-centralized approach. One can even implicit respect for the principles of ‘Unity provocatively argue that our ancient in Diversity’ or at least the principles that ancestors were endowed with more would have fostered communal harmony in practical common sense and that the failed a multi-ethnic and polyglot society like Rajbhasha policy, despite the success of theirs. In this case, the polyglot nature of Hindi in other spheres, was a blot on the the IVC as acknowledged by the society’s idea of a diverse and a multi-lingual India. architects. Thus, the non-linguistic The doctrine of insubordination comes into component of the logo-syllabic Indus script play when the speakers of a language or a and other non-linguistic cultural icons were group of languages accept the supremacy chosen as tools of national integration. of another language in spite of a historical Post-Independent India’s language policy track record of opposition to it. This may may have emphasized religious harmony be a bona fide exception to the Theory of over harmony among speakers of various Win-win propositions. While such an languages to prevent an impending equation may rarely lead to the partition of the nation, but this policy was extermination of the oppressed language clearly hijacked by people with vested group in the short term or a medium term, interests as well, who may not even have the speakers of the oppressed language ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) group accept the inevitable and may Likewise, although Hindi has lost the race grudgingly accept the supremacy of the to English, Hindi speakers are not on other language either on the basis on the uneven keel with other language speakers numerical strength of its users, its for jobs, and English has greatly benefitted widespread usage, or its cultural or Hindi elites too. Thus, the complete technical superiority. This however works subjugation of one linguistic group by the only in conjunction with other principles of other may be extremely rare, at least where language spread in multi-lingual societies. a change in status quo is involved, and a Examples of such cases include the slow time-consuming process as all parties acceptance of English in many circles in always try to make best use of any given France as the world’s leading lingua situation. For such a language policy to franca. The recent desire expressed by work the language in question or its many Tamil speakers to acquire at least a speakers must possess and enormous basic level of proficiency in Hindi, in amount of clout of goodwill, and no other addition to Tamil and English is another roadblocks or impediments must exist. As case in point. In case of the latter, English such, such cases are relatively rare in the is however a neutralizing factor, as the real world, and this explains why Hindi extent of linguistic domination by one failed to replace English. As a matter of group in a single country or a political fact, few scholars ever expected it would. entity may be far more severe as it is at a There may be a few exceptions here, such global level as there may be fewer checks as the co-existence and linguistic and balances here. We may invoke the subordination of Tulu and Konkani ‘Theory of Linguistic Osmosis here’. Even speakers in Karnataka, the reasons for so, most French speakers may have which have been laid bare in this paper, but climbed on to the English Bandwagon for this paper proposes a principle and self-benefit, or to make the best use of a recommends that exceptions be studied situation in which they have relatively less separately, as such an approach would leeway, and English is increasingly seen in always put an onus on those providing France as an indispensable tool of differing viewpoints to provide empirical internationalization. Tamil speakers, evidence and a logical justification. As likewise may learn Hindi for the limited Horton and Hunt have pointed out, purpose of entry-level inter-state assimilation and acculturation are always communication and for the very limited two-way processes involving some amount purpose of Central Government jobs. of give-and-take, and exceptions to this ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) principle may be relatively rare. However, India’s language policy. The third may be the Doctrine of Insubordination does imply the spread of Hindi-speakers outside non- that the subordinating language is not on Hindi states in pursuit of job opportunities. even keel with the subordinated languages, Thus, Hindi has begun to be used even by and as such it may take a greater effort to groups of non-Hindi speakers, none of break its stranglehold. Thus, the doctrine whose native language is Hindi to of Insubordination does imply a change in communicate with each other in specific the language hierarchy. In case of the contexts. Thus a Telugu speaker in Rajabhasha policy which would have led to Bangalore who does not know Kannada a win-lose proposition, by benefitting only and is indisposed to learning the local the speakers of one language. In the case, language and is not fluent in English, may they were many inconsistencies in policy speak to a Marathi speaker in Bangalore in between central and state governments as Hindi. This is because the usage of Hindi well. The policy not only failed but also at this level provides a win-win proposition encouraged English even more, by making to both the parties. Hence, after providing Hindi and other Indian languages a modicum of unity to compensate for the subservient to English. English also may be impracticality of English in specific based on a win-lose paradigm as it may contexts, Hindi may actually divide beyond benefit a small number of speakers fluent a point, and, obviously encourage English in English at the expense of the even more. Hindi may not provide a win- disempowered majority. This may win proposition at any other level, either. automatically restrict the use of English to Hence, as explained, as a written language, specific contexts and encourage another or as a language used exclusively in formal language or set of languages in other communication, it is well and truly defunct contexts. Here is another example: Hindi outside the Hindi belt, at least at this point has spread in recent years outside the Hindi in time. As a fallout of this paradigm, both speaking states. There may be many the parties mentioned above may lose reasons for this. One is the three language interest in Hindi altogether after acquiring formula followed in most of India; this fluency in English, and their increased policy familiarized a large number of fluency in English would curtail their usage Indians with the Hindi language and of Hindi. On the other hand, Hindi speakers provided them with a working knowledge may have had a false sense of of Hindi. The second is the rise of complacency, a kind of wishful thinking Bollywood which rode piggy-back on that did not ultimately work in their ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) interests , and resultantly, economies of would not have worked. In spite of the so- Non-Hindi states were poised for take-off called neutrality of the English language in the early years of liberalization, in spite from the standpoint of various Indian of the limited English proficiency of the linguistic groups, the language is obviously larger populations of Non-Hindi states. A heavily biased in favour of English parity across various states in the nation is speaking countries, and gives them a clear of course being achieved now. This is a key advantage in fields such as science and principle that needs to be borne in mind by technology, for example. Secondly, the while formulating language policies, and English language is at best known to small any violation of this principle may work groups of people outside native English against communal harmony. There may be speaking countries, and is heavily biased in exceptions to this rule- examples are the favour of urban and educated elites in all spread of Kannada in non-Kannada parts of India. Thirdly, native English speaking areas of Karnataka (This may speakers get away by leaning English alone have happened because Kannada was the which is their native language and rarely language through which widespread learn any other language. However, literacy was achieved throughout English learners in Non-English speaking Karnataka and the other languages in the countries must not only learn English as a state were only spoken ones lacking written foreign language, but must also learn one records or a literary tradition.) and the or two additional language as well. spread of English in non-English speaking Fourthly, it is doubtful if the elites in Non- areas of Britain. In both cases, the status English speaking countries can achieve the quo may have been achieved only after same level of proficiency in English as centuries, and other languages did not die native English speakers. In spite of all these out completely. In case of the latter, the factors and the fact that English is known spread of English into parts of Britain may only to a small number of people in India have been effected by that language’s when compared to Hindi, the forces of prestige as an international lingua franca as language spread in the region have booted well. The relative decline of French and the out Hindi in favour of English, despite the spread of English does not provide a win- latter’s lack of political patronage at any win proposition to French speakers; level, and knowledge only among the however, there is an inevitability to this, elites, allowing Hindi only to play second and the enforcement of such a scenario fiddle to it. The forces of language spread through political methods for example, in the region clearly took precedence over ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) the forces of language spread at an much of its luck here can be said to be international level here. Again the fortuitous. French colonies here are found principles of the Theory of Linguistic closer together, with allows for trade and Osmosis manifested themselves. In India, cultural contacts between those regions. In French, like Portuguese, disappeared after addition, a costly and a controversial French colonies won their independence Francophonie program run by France may and were merged into the Indian Union. have propped up the importance of the The reasons for this would be not too far to French language somewhat. The seek: French colonies in India were small availability of a large number of native and far apart like French colonies in Asia, tongues within each of the Francophonie and did not have the benefit of being able countries, besides the fact that most are not to interact with each other. This is yet written languages have helped the cause of another example of Linguistic Osmosis. French in the region. The absence of any The availability of more practical other lingua franca, the low levels of alternatives like English proved to be the literacy (which may have actually been a final nail in the coffin for French in India. blessing in disguise as it empowered a In the case of the European Union the small group of elites), the absence of a usage of English is far greater than French, political will to enforce major changes to and English undoubtedly established itself the language policies have also as the EU’s most important language far undoubtedly helped the cause of French in ahead of both French and German. In the region, and the rapid population growth Scandinavian countries and Holland, for in the region is perhaps the only icing on example, the use of English is well- the cake for a language that is seen to be entrenched, and is widely seen to be a steep and terminal decline around the second language. However, in the EU, the globe. This has not prevented the widespread usage of English does not pidginisation and creolisation of French appear to have been associated with the into mutually unintelligible forms, even domination of one group, as the usage of though a substantial proportion of the English as a useful lingua franca has population of some Francophone countries currency outside the EU as well. The claim a working knowledge of French, and political independence of constituent this may be an interesting manifestation of nations may have served to allay fears of policies involving the import of a language the linguistic domination of one group. that may not be the best-suited for the French has been far luckier in Africa, but region. In addition, the region has not been ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) immune to wider global forces, and technical repertoire of words and the English is making slow inroads into the deficiency of many other languages in this region as well. In Rwanda, English has regard. Its future is hard to predict, but the almost replaced French. This has impacted rapid spread of English may eventually neighbouring Burundi as well. Of late, stop and may level off by around 2050. countries such as Gabon, Morocco and Another factor that needs to be taken into Zaire have made progress in introducing consideration is the fact that the percentage English. In Algeria, English is already of native English speakers out of the total beginning to take over from French. In number of English speakers and the Senegal, a bastion of French culture in percentage of native English speakers as a Africa, Wolof is gnawing away at the percentage of the world population will hegemony of French despite alarm in some decline even as the total number of circles, and there are even indications that speakers and users of the English language that country wants to swap French for increase. Other factors such as the future of English in the longer term. In spite of all French may have a bearing on the future of this, French still remains strong in many English as a lingua franca, albeit parts of Africa and will remain entrenched marginally. More importantly and there for a long time to come. The interestingly, the future of English around unparalleled success of the English the world is also likely to have a bearing on language this far can be attributed to the its popularity in India, and vice versa. combination of the following factors (a) Net benefits approach Colonialization of all the ‘right’ places (b) The rise of the USA as a superpower (c) Its As per the Net Benefits approach, speakers presence in other important countries such of a language subconsciously evaluate the as South Africa and Australia (d) The benefits and demerits involved in using a absence of any other viable alternatives and role in a given role or context. This is a the demand for a global lingua franca. (e) purely subconscious process, but will result The spread of the internet and information in a certain outcome of decision. This technology industry (f) the onslaught of approach must again be applied in tandem globalization and the collapse of the USSR with the other principles laid out in this (g) the timing and the order of all the above paper. For example, speakers of Kumaoni events which played a key role in its and Garwhali languages, but of which are success (g) Its relative practicality vis-à-vis critically endangered languages, may not French and other languages (h) its large choose to speak it outside their native ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) context because they are too embarrassed the larger populations of the region. Even speaking it, not fluent in it or because they they may have unknowingly followed the do not wish to inconvenience third parties. tenets of this approach! We may represent This is in spite of the ethnic pride this as under, and also state the limitations associated with it, which is an intangible of this approach below. A speaker factor. Kumaoni and Garwhali speakers subconsciously evaluates the benefits and may eventually abandon their language if demerits of using Language A and the demerits such as lack of fluency, Language B (and possibly Language C and fluency in an alternative language such as Language D as well) in a specific role and Hindi, convenience, frequent intercourse context and then takes a decision. Other with composite groups, outweigh the factors will also need to be included in the merits such as ethnic pride. Speakers of assessment. These are Cultural factors, certain basilects of Telugu abandon the Social factors, ethno-biological factors, language sooner still because they are too relative fluency, linguistic distance, embarrassed to speak it in public. They relative ease of use, linguistic power and may continue to speak it with their elders prestige, other factors. (Refer Table No.7) for a generation and then abandon it Thus, this approach can also be used as an altogether. This will lead to the death of a aid to model the decline and eventual death language. This is critical because of languages. If the principles proposed in languages seldom die out because all their this paper are violated, several counter- speakers have died due to declining birth reactions can result. Other factors such as rates, a population implosion, epidemics or linguistic simplicity, practicality, some other reason. Languages die out eloquence and lucidity, productivity and because their speakers have abandoned creativity, clarity, emphaticness, them in stages. A language keeps losing the flexibility, grammatical and syntactical roles played by it in society one by one, and similarity or dissimilarity with other its functions one by one. It then dies. This languages in the region, phonetic is a very important point to note. It is also compatibility with other languages in the important to note that the benefits and region, lexical strength and attributes. demerits in this regard may be either Other factors such as level of education, tangible or intangible. Similarly, speakers infrastructure, penetration of technology of primitive proto-languages in the stone and other related factors must also be taken age would have abandoned their tongues at into account, and these will constitute the a certain point in time, and assimilated with ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) limitations of this approach. Per our predictable and non-predictable factors. prognosis, the spread and power of English Predictable factors for our purpose include will increase worldwide for the next two or those which can be incorporated into the three decades at least, and then level off. science of language dynamics and those After this English will continue to be the which assume no change in status quo; they world’s leading language. However, simply assume even if somewhat naively several key linguistic blocks will emerge, and fallaciously, that current trends will and a clutch of languages, say ten, will continue, that no cataclysmic political or dominate the world. Many other languages economic changes will take place and that will either become subservient to them, or no disruptive and game-changing try to compete with them. Role-based technologies will enter the fray. stratification will increase, and English will Unpredictable factors include those which continue to dominate in international cannot be incorporated into the science of communication, science and technology. language dynamics. Example of such However, the role played by other factors are political and economic factors. languages in this regard will increase Unpredictable factors may still be slowly. Languages will influence each expressed as scenarios. For example, other, more than ever before in the past. Scenario A may assume an increase in the This will be bi-directional but the world’s economic power of the USA, scenario B leading languages will influence less may assume no change in status quo while widely spoken languages to a greater scenario C may predict a decline. degree. There will be movements to Unpredictable factors will have a bearing empower other languages and make them on future assessments, more so in the long more internet and technology savvy. The term. It is sometimes said that the future is number of languages will continue to fall a set of possibilities; a list of such scenarios precipitously, but will then level off. The must therefore be made, to the extent total number of languages in the world will possible. In a nutshell, the reliability of level off at a figure greater than one predictions decreases with time, and thousand. We also strongly believe that the predictions are always fraught with risks use of languages will eventually align and uncertainties. themselves worldwide in a way that will A short-list of counter-reactions arising maximize human creativity and from the violation of these principles is productivity with but minor exceptions and given below (This list is purely indicative aberrations. We also categorize factors as ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) and demonstrative, and many other types Limitations of the theory of Linguistic of situations may occur): Osmosis

(a) Changes to the role played by a (a) Linguistic attributes of languages: language in a geographical, cultural We have discussed various and social context. measures of linguistic complexity (b) Linguistic decline in the elsewhere in the paper, and it would geographical context leading to be pointless to reiterate them here. possible death of the language in (b) Linguistic distance between two or some circumstances. more languages: We have (c) Promotion of an alternative discussed various metrics to language or languages. calculate linguistic distance (d) Breakup of the linguistic unit or elsewhere in the paper and it would country such as the disintegration be pointless to reiterate them here. of the USSR or Pakistan. (c) Cultural factors: Cultural factors (e) The manifestation of factors would unquestionably impact the leading to a breakup of a linguistic adoption of language. Popular unit or country, an example being surveys in India and other parts of Sri Lanka. the world have revealed that (f) Gross dissatisfaction among English is associated with Science, members of one or more linguistic Technology, the Internet, communities typically manifesting modernization and social mobility. itself in some form. On the other hand it is also (g) Lowered linguistic ability in one or associated with Imperialism, more languages among segments of materialism, Westernization, anti- the population or a wider populace. nationalism and cultural alienation (h) The emergence of pidgins which and rarely with national identity. will eventually lead to creolization. Thus, cultural preferences vary (i) The emergence of hybrid languages from region to region, and need to such as Hinglish. be taken into account in any (j) Innovation leading to borrowing of analysis. new words, or rapid changes to (d) Social factors: Social factors such language. as the quality of education, the caste system, the gender divide and ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) any other social evils would increased only after the fall of the undoubtedly hamper the spread of Iron curtain. languages, and would need to be (i) Lack of technology: In spite of taken into consideration while ambitious schemes like the Digital carrying out any analysis. India which aim to eventually (e) Role of the language: If the use of connect every village seamlessly the language is purely colloquial with high-speed digital and informal, it may be immune to connectivity through broadband the forces of linguistic osmosis. highways, digital literacy remains (f) Bi-Polarity and the presence of two very poor in India, and bandwidth or more rival languages: To abysmal. Unless such missions illustrate, the rivalry between meet their stated and avowed goals, English and French will logically the technical empowerment of diminish the ability of the English Indian languages will remain a to rule the world in vital areas such distant pipedream. as diplomacy and haute couture. (j) Presence or absence of education: (g) Absence if interactions between Although most Indian states have different regions of the world: A claimed universal enrolment or suitable example here would be the near universal enrolment in Cold War of the 1970’s which led schools, the dropout rate is very to the emergence of two political high, the school infrastructure poor, and economic blocs with wholly the teaching methods outdated, and incompatible political and the teachers badly trained. Among economic ideologies who refused the major Indian states, Kerala has to talk to each other, and were the highest literacy rate of 93.91% mutually antagonistic to and in 2011, while Bihar was at the hostile to each other. bottom of the heap at 63.82%. (h) Economic autarchy and Cultural Many African countries have fared isolation: Economic autarchy and much worse and countries like cultural isolation would hamper the Burkina Faso and the Central spread of languages. As a result, African Republic have literacy English has been able to make very rates of less than 40%. little headway in North Korea, and (k) Lack of infrastructure: Lack of demand for English in Russia infrastructure in India and ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) elsewhere continues to be a sore How will France’s attempts to push point. An estimated 200 million to English out of the European Union after 300 million Indians lack electricity Brexit affect the future of French in the as on 2015, and even as per EU? How will it affect the status of French government estimates, the rural globally? electrification program will not be To what extent will a hypothetical shift completed till 2022. Even if this from French to English in Francophonie date is achieved the regularity of Africa affect the status of French globally? power supply is expected to remain To what extent will it bolster the use of a concern. The Pradhan Mantri English? Gram Sadak Yojana or the rural roads program was launched with To what extent will high birth rates in great fanfare in 2000 but has been Francophonie Africa affect the status of saddled with delays and cost French globally? overruns. Most African countries How will an increase in literacy in fare much worse than India. Even Francophonie West Africa affect the status though there is a near universal of French worldwide? Will the medium of enrolment in schools in India, poor instruction (French versus indigenous infrastructure is likely to hamper languages wherever applicable, make a Digital India and other programs. difference?)

Annexure A What are the differences between India’s Case studies attempt to thrust Hindi on Non-Hindi The following are some case studies for speaking states and France’s attempt to evaluation, and an analysis can be block the use of English in the EU? Will attempted from our approach. A complete both of them work? What are the list of direct and indirect factors involved differences between both these situations? must be listed out. List out and evaluate as How will enforced multi-linguicism policy many scenarios as possible. Assumptions if of the Canadian government affect the any, must be stated clearly: future of French both positively and How will Brexit impact the usage of adversely in Canada? How will this in turn English in the EU? How will this impact affect the future of the French language the status of the English language worldwide? worldwide? ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) To what extent will Hindi be able to replace what extent will it affect the prospects of English in India in the long term? How English worldwide? long might such a process take? What are the prospects of the English Will Gambia’s attempts to push out language in the Twenty-first century? English succeed? What assumptions do you need to make in this regard? Will Burundi’s attempts to replace French with English succeed? What are the What are the prospects of the French differences between Rwanda and Burundi language in the Twenty-first century? in this regard? What assumptions do you need to make in this regard? Will changes to Vietnam’s language policy cause a ripple effect or a domino effect in What are the prospects of the Spanish the region? Will the situation be different if language in the Twenty-first century? the change first occurred in Laos instead of What assumptions do you need to make in Vietnam? this regard?

To what extent are the prospects of the How will China influence the dynamics of French language worldwide dependant on language spread in the Twenty-first the economic success of France? century? Will Chinese weaken the stranglehold of English? To what extent are the prospects of the English language worldwide dependant on How will India influence the dynamics of the economic success of the USA? language spread in the Twenty-first century? How will India influence the Telugu has more dialects and geographical spread of English worldwide? and social variation than Tamil. To what extent will this impact its spread and power outside the state than Tamil? Will it cause its speakers to abandon the language earlier as they spread to other states? What other factors must this be studied in conjunction with?

Did India’s language policy encourage the use of English in India? If so, why? To

ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) Annexure B other Indian languages. This survey must Role encroachment cover all languages in use in a region and Role encroachment may be studied as must analyse all the roles played by each follows: A formal survey may be carried language. This will be followed by a Root out in different geographical regions from Cause Analysis which will further be used time to time to understand the roles played to analyse patterns and underlying causes by different languages in society. For that will be applicable across regions. example, though the use of English is (Refer Table No.8) (Refer Annexure C, rapidly increasing in India, it has already D or E). ceded some of its soft power to Hindi and

ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

LIST OF TABLES:

Table No.1 Period Pre-historic Proto-historic Historic period Modern Pre- Age of period period globalized era globalization

Time The Stone Age The Neolithic The Late The Victorian The end of the frame (including the age and the Chalcolithic era to the end Twentieth Paleolithic age Early age, The Old of the century and the and the Chalcolithic age world, The Twentieth Twenty-first Mesolithic age) Iron age, The century Centuries and the Neolithic Ancient world, age The Medieval era, The Renaissance, The Age of discovery and The Georgian era

Compon ent

The idea Perhaps Spoken Spoken Spoken Spoken of autochthonous language pre- language pre- language pre- language pre- spoken with other inputs existed in this existed in this existed in this existed in this languag from neighboring epoch and hence epoch and epoch and epoch and hence e regions this is not hence this is hence this is this is not applicable not applicable not applicable applicable

Basic Perhaps Proto-language Proto- Proto- Proto-language spoken autochthonous; pre-dated this language pre- language pre- pre-dated this languag epoch and hence dated this dated this epoch and hence Theories such as e and this is not epoch and epoch and this is not Bow-wow theory, early applicable hence this is hence this is applicable Pooh-pooh Proto- (However, not applicable not applicable theory, Eureka languag words were (However, the theory and Uh-oh e) constantly over- standardization theory; ridden, and of languages Clan codification; language progressed standardized) during this Neural epoch) transmission of language from key nodes (Refer our explanations)

Basic Neural Neural Proto- Proto- Proto-language Proto- transmission of transmission of language pre- language pre- pre-dated this ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) languag language from language dated this dated this epoch and hence e (Late key nodes partly continuing into epoch and epoch and this is not Proto- over-riding this epoch over- hence this is hence this is applicable languag autochthonous riding not applicable not applicable e) development autochthonous development and levelling dialects and proto- languages)

Further Quasi-political Political Political Linguistic spread factors factors factors, Osmosis, and Science and Political factors, refinem Technology Science and ent of Technology Spoken languag e

Spread Historical factors Historical Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable of (Primarily) factors writing (Primarily) (Proto- writing)

Spread Not applicable Not applicable Historical Global and Global and local of factors local factors factors Writing (Primarily) (wherever (wherever (Logo- applicable) applicable) syllabic scripts)

Oral Autochthonous Autochthonous Autochthonou Not applicable Not applicable tradition with inputs with inputs s with inputs s borrowed as borrowed as borrowed as applicable applicable applicable; would have been strongly influenced by or subservient to written traditions

Literary Not applicable Not applicable Autochthonou Autochthonou Autochthonous tradition s and external s and external and external s influences influences influences driven by driven by Intellectual enlightenment Intellectual Intellectual enlightenment enlightenment and ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016) Universalization of education

Nature Limited Increased Cross- Cross- Cross- of borrowings from borrowing borrowing and borrowing and borrowing, Lexical key and including more literary literary literary borrowi subsidiary nodes complex influences due influences due influences and ngs gradually vocabulary; this to political and to political and permeation due increasing with epoch may have cultural factors cultural factors to global factors time; borrowings witnessed the still limited to introduction of basic vocabulary some abstract adding to or over- vocabulary; a riding vocabulary higher level of in lesser proto- standardization languages. including phonetic and phonological standardization, standardization in syntax and grammar.

Other Proto-language Increasing Increasing Increased use Further increase key standardization literary of scientific in scientific No characte of vocabulary, traditions; jargon; vocabulary; standardizations ristics of syntax and some societal accelerating languag No complex grammar, dichotomy changes due to decline in e grammar introduction of literary and near- number of abstractions common universalizatio languages; non- No abstractions usage; n of education; contact driven (Refer increasing some scenarios of explanatory standardization languages linguistic notes) but develop much change. geographical faster than the and social others. dialects continue.

Migratio Almost never Rarely Applicable on Applicable on High degree of n- applicable (There applicable a case to case a case to case linguistic churn induced may have been (There may basis basis due to human scenario case to case have been case migrations in s exceptions) to case the Post- exceptions) globalized world

ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

Table No.2

S.No Component Driven by 1 The capacity for speech Instinct and facilitated experimentation driven by Ontogenetic and other factors 2 Primitive speech and proto-language Instinct and facilitated experimentation driven by Ontogenetic and other factors Innovation and creativity Necessity and dire necessity Societal pressure, peer pressure and societal needs 3 Full-blown spoken and written language Societal pressure, peer pressure and societal needs Other higher order factors such as Intellectual enlightenment driven by societal needs and Innovation and creativity.

Table No.3

S. No Observation or hypothesis Attributed to 1 Infants babble (a) Instinct and facilitated experimentation (b) Innovation and creativity 2 Parental initiation and transmission of Societal pressure, peer pressure and societal language from generation to generation needs 3 Sound mimicry (Bow-wow) Innovation and creativity 4 Expression of emotions (Pooh-pooh) Instinct and facilitated experimentation 5 Eureka theory or invention theory Innovation and creativity 6 Warning of dangers (Uh-oh theory) Necessity and Dire necessity

Table No.4

S.No Phase Parts of speech 1 Phase One Basic interjections Onomatopoeia Basic concrete and non-abstract nouns (Common nouns and Proper nouns) Personal pronouns 2 Phase Two Basic verbs Basic adjectives Other pronouns 3 Phase Three Basic adverbs 4 Phase Four Basic propositions

ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

Table No.5

S.No Type of contact Common in Possible Impact and Additional notes 1 One-time contact This scenario would have had some This kind of contact may have led to the applicability in pre-historic and proto- borrowing of the idea of language from one historic scenarios where stone age tribes clan to the other and its adoption in sometimes came into contact with each different cultural contexts. It may also have other or warring or sparring clans, led to very limited word borrowings. tribes, proto-kings, kings or monarchs came into limited contact with each other. 2 Intermittent or sporadic This scenario would have had some Word borrowings to cover lexical gaps; contacts applicability in pre-historic and proto- earliest factors driving standardization of historic scenarios where stone age tribes language in a limited or wider geographical came into contact with each other at region. regular or irregular intervals. 3 Regular contacts Would have arisen due to cultural, Would have led to the elimination of (insignificant) technological (such as the spread of several proto-languages, isolates and (Cultural, Iron, writing, horse-trade), political dialects Technological, factors etc. Economic, Political factors etc.) 4 Regular contacts Would have arisen due to cultural, Would led to early standardization of (Deep-rooted) technological (such as the spread of language (Cultural, Iron, writing, horse-trade), political Technological, factors etc. Economic, Political factors etc.) 5 Language influences This type of language spread would be Would led to the introduction or secondary primarily through observed in conquests, invasions, large- or allied languages in non-native contexts, political, cultural scale migrations, annexations, and may in some cases marginalize or hegemony subjugations of other empires etc. supplant them 6 Language influences An example for this is the spread of Would led to the introduction or secondary primarily through English in North America, and the or allied languages in non-native contexts political, cultural spread of English and French in Asia despite limited frequent contact, and may hegemony (involving and Africa due to colonialism. These in some cases marginalize or supplant them limited or one time two scenarios bear some resemblance to and in other cases, co-existing or leading to contacts) one another, even though they are a linguistic sprachbund. unidentical, with differing drivers and principles. The spread of Hindi in India, and Urdu in Pakistan may also be categorized under this category. 7 Non-contact leading to This type of scenario would be most Would led to the introduction or secondary linguistic influences common in Post-Globalized situations. or allied languages in non-native contexts (Push, Pull, Refer our section on ‘Theory of despite limited frequent contact, and may Subconscious adoption, Linguistic Osmosis’ in some cases marginalize or supplant Push-Pull, Pull-Churn, them. In many or most cases, co-existence Pull-Churn-Feedback) would be common, 8 Non-contact leading to Cultural isolation An example of this would be the gradual linguistic autarchy changes to the North Korean language (The North Korean language borrowed very few English words, but some Russian words)

ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

Table No.6

6Scenarios Linguistic Group A Linguistic Linguistic Tabulation of Group B group C results, conclusions and inferences Name of Role or Geographical languag context of context e study Marathi speakers Hindi speakers Other language speakers (English- knowing and Non-English knowing) Marathi Marathi as Mumbai City, Primary Disad Prima Disad Prima Disad entry level Maharashtra and vanta ry vanta ry vanta lingua state, India secondary ges to and ges to and ges to franca benefits to the secon the secon the (Scenario the group group dary group dary group A) benefi benefi ts to ts to the the group group explanatio text for text for text n> for expla for expla for expla nation expla nation expla natio > natio > natio n> n> n> Hindi Hindi as Maharashtra Primary Disad Prima Disad Prima Disad entry-level state, India and vanta ry vanta ry vanta lingua secondary ges to and ges to and ges to franca benefits to the secon the secon the (Scenario B) the group group dary group dary group benefi benefi ts to ts to the the group group explanatio text for text for text n> for expla for expla for expla nation expla nation expla natio > natio > natio n> n> n> English Business Maharashtra Primary Disad Prima Disad Prima Disad and official state, India and vanta ry vanta ry vanta language secondary ges to and ges to and ges to (Scenario C) benefits to the secon the secon the the group group dary group dary group benefi benefi ts to ts to the the group group explanatio text for text for text n> for expla for expla for expla nation expla nation expla natio > natio > natio n> n> n> ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

Table No.7

Name of the Language: Role played by the language: Geographical context: Social Context (If applicable) Cultural Context (If applicable) Speaker Name: Language A Language B Remarks Serial No Tangible Demerits Tangible Demerits benefits (Tangible) benefits (Tangible)

Intangible Demerits Intangible Demerits benefits (Intangible) benefits (Intangible)

Other factors involved in assessment: (a) Cultural factors: (b) Social factors: (c) Ethno-biological factors (d) Relative fluency: (e) Linguistic distance: (f) Relative ease of use: (g) Linguistic power and prestige (h) Other factors

ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

Table No.8

Name of the Language: Language A Geographical location: XXX, Say, Bangalore, India

S.No Role played by the Period of Usage Period of Usage Root Cause language Evaluation A (Dominant/High/Medi Evaluation B (Dominant/High/ Analysis um/Low/Non-existent) Medium/Low/Non -existent) 1 Business or commercial usage 2 Administrative usage 3 Quotidian or daily usage 4 Literary usage 5 Lingual franca within the region 6 External communication 7 Language as a symbol of cultural power: Soft power enjoyed by the language 8 Liturgical, sacerdotal or religious usage 9 Peripheral or secondary usage Name of the Language: Language B Geographical location: XXX, Say, Bangalore, India

S.No Role played by the Period of Usage Period of Usage Root Cause language Evaluation A (Dominant/High/Medi Evaluation B (Dominant/High/ Analysis for um/Low/Non-existent) Medium/Low/Non change -existent) 1 Business or commercial usage 2 Administrative usage 3 Quotidian or daily usage 4 Literary usage 5 Lingual franca within the region 6 External communication 7 Language as a symbol of cultural power: Soft power enjoyed by the language 8 Liturgical, sacerdotal or religious usage 8 Peripheral or secondary usage

ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

LIST OF FIGURES: Fig.No.1

ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

Fig.No.2

In the very early days, it was quite likely that the development of spoken language was autochthonous to many different regions but key attributes of language eventually spread from key nodes, to lesser nodes, and then even smaller nodes, ultimately spreading to a given region in its entirety and replacing other minor proto- languages or endowing them with standardized features. Wherever, this process did not manifest itself to a significant degree, linguistic isolates would continue. This approach would explain the presence of language groups, languages, dialects and dialect continuums the way we know them today. This would be akin to the spread of cultural traits

ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

Fig.No.3

In an alternative scenario, spoken languages spoken in different influential nodes jointly known as a staging area, cross-influenced each other substantially before influencing proto-languages spoken in more isolated geographical regions and eventually levelling off differences to a significant degree. A combination of core nodes here would be known as a ‘Staging area’

ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

Fig.No.4

In yet another scenario, changes radiate or propagate from a core node to outlying regions concentrically until proto-languages or dialects in outlying regions are killed off. However, tempting this approach may be, scholars may be hard-pressed to demonstrate real-world examples.

ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

Fig.No.5

Examples of Vinca symbols which are believed to date to at least 6000 BC. We have every reason to believe, given the rather limited archaeological record at present, that the origin of proto-writing actually predates this. This can be used to draw inferences along with other fossil evidence, about the state of evolution of spoken language at that time.

Fig.No.6

Map showing anticipated dialect shifts in the English language (Source: Paul Kerswill, Lancaster University)

ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

LIST OF ANNEXURE: Annexure C Speaker Profiling

Name of the speaker: Additional details: Complete list of languages known: Name of the Spoken fluency Written fluency Role in which used Geographical Social and language context in which cultural context used (Provide in which used details) (Provide details)

Annexure D Fluctuation in the number of spoken languages as per the ‘Epochal Polygenesis approach’

This graph shows the number of proto-languages and languages as per the ‘Epochal Polygenesis’ approach. The number of proto-language must have rapidly increased in the stoneage and the pre-historic period due to an independent effort in the development of proto-languages. The number of proto-languages or languages would have begun declining towards the end of the Pre-historic era, and the rate of decline would have accelerated, accelerating in the modern Pre-globalized era and accelerating even further in the modern Post-globalized era. The rate of decrease in the number of languages spoken will however level off due to the limitations of ‘Linguistic Osmosis’ and other factors.

ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

Annexure E Non-Contact-Based Drivers In Different Epochs S.N Name of the epoch Prevalence of Non-contact driven Contributory factors (New and o scenarios additional technologies) 1 Pre-historic period Non-existent Boats (However, formal memory aids did not exist) 2 Proto-historic Extremely low, if at all as true literacy did Proto-writing period not exist and the impact of new inventions The invention of the wheel on the dynamics of language spread was Horse riding negligible Horse and cart Bullock cart 3 Historic period Moderately low. True literacy existed by True writing was limited to small sections of society. Trade contacts The impact of new inventions on the Cultural contacts dynamics of language spread was Political contacts negligible Chariot and Horse-carriage

4 Modern pre- Moderate Printing press from the Thirteenth globalized period Century Radio Television Steam locomotive Steam ships Automobile Aeroplane The age of exploration Colonialism Increase in literacy levels

5 Modern post- Very high Internet globalized Globalization scenarios (The role of non-contact based scenarios is likely to increase because the factors working in favour of globalization are expected to outweigh the factors working against it.) Near-universalization of literacy