RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN LOCAL COMMUNITIES AND PROTECTED AREAS IN KWAZULU-NATAL: DURING THE APARTHEID TO THE POST- APARTHEID ERA BY JOYCE MNESI MDINISO [REG: 897018] A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Arts in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Recreation and Tourism, at the University of Zululand KwaDlangezwa December 2017 APPROVAL SUPERVISOR:.................................................................. PROF. A. T. NZAMA Department of Recreation and Tourism University of Zululand EXTERNAL EXAMINER: ------------------------------------------- PROF J. STRICKLAND-MUNRO EXTERNAL EXAMINER: ------------------------------------ PROF PROF J. SAARINEN EXTERNAL EXAMINER: ------------------------------- PROF C. ROGERSON i DECLARATION I declare that this research study entitled: Relationships between Local Communities and Protected Areas in KwaZulu-Natal: During Apartheid and the Post-Apartheid Era, except were specifically indicated to the contrary in the text, is my own work both in conception and execution. All the theoretical information and related sources that have been used or quoted have been duly acknowledged by means of complete references. It is further declared that this research project is my own and has not previously been submitted to any institution for degree purposes. ii DEDICATION This document is dedicated to my husband Tyrone Mdiniso, who has been a pillar of strength in all my endeavours. To my dearest children Mandisa, Nontsikelelo, Mbulelo and Minenhle who have imbued in me a sense of maternal achievement. Finally, to all my adorable brothers and sisters, as well as to my mother who have offered emotional and familial support to our extended family. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would really like to express my gratitude to the following people who have made a significant contribution towards the completion of this thesis. It is evident that without their commitment, expertise and guidance on to this project, it would possibly not have reached its final stage. I am making reference to: My supervisor, Prof. A.T. Nzama in the Department of Recreation and Tourism, for the valuable role you played in the development of the entire research proposal and production of this dissertation. She mentored me throughout and ensuring that I completed my work. Her fundamentalist approach to research methodology contributed towards sharpening my research design skills. Prof. L.M. in the Department of Recreation and Tourism, for organising research related classes for postgraduate students, presentations and proof-reading of the thesis. Ms B. Ndimande lecturer in the Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, for assisting me with the refinement of the topic of this research study. Mr T. Mthembu from the Department of Geography for helping me in the analysis of data utilising the SPSS programme as well as presenting it in a more professional manner. Appreciation is also given for attending to me even at awkward times. Mr M. Brett lecturer within the Department of Recreation and Tourism, for proof- reading some chapters of this thesis as well as offering constructive comments on some aspects of the thesis. My fellow colleagues in the Department of Recreation and Tourism, who have supported and encouraged me during times when the research progress was becoming a serious challenge. The Almighty God, who afforded me good health and the strength to withstand all the physical and emotional challenges that I had to experience. iv ABSTRACT The beneficial and magnanimous relationship between protected areas and communities staying adjacent to these areas is one of the most important mechanisms at our disposal in shaping and sustainably managing the natural environment and resources. In some instances, the progress made in developing a sound environmental governance framework, in the KZN protected areas, relating to UKhahlamba Drakensberg Park and Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Game Park, have been hindered by the environmental issues. The need to strengthen the implementation of appropriate environmental laws and policies still require bringing environmental sustainability principles into the mainstream of all aspects of governance, planning, decision-making and operation, in the protected areas of KwaZulu-Natal. Aswani and Weiant (2004) have affirmed that when local communities are excluded from the management of protected areas, and their needs and aspirations ignored, then it becomes extremely difficult to implement conservation policies. This research inquiry is fundamentally aimed at revealing the existing relationships between local communities and protected areas in KwaZulu-Natal: focusing on tracking the achievements made from the apartheid to the post-apartheid periods. The spatial analysis of these relationships is determined in places such as UKhahlamba Drakensberg Park and Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Game Park. In other words, the study seeks to objectify and establish how local communities understand the meaning and importance of the concept of conservation in the study area. It also attempts to find out if there are any business developments or partnership/relationship between the authoritative agencies and local communities. The methodology pursued in this study includes the selection of the sample, use of the research instrument for data collection in two (2) KwaZulu-Natal protected areas, namely, UKhahlamba Drakensberg Park and Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Game Park. Other methodologies that were used included the Semantic Differential technique, used to analyse respondents' attitudes, awareness, understanding and beneficiation. In conclusion the study established that, on the whole, the respondents were fully aware and understood the meaning and importance of the role of relationships in the benefit and sustainable value of Protected Areas in the study area. v Also established by the study is that the exclusion of local communities tends to perpetuate hostile attitudes towards policies and the management of natural resources, thus leading to the practise of illegal activities. The findings of the study further indicated that the local communities do understand the meaning and importance of conservation services within the study area. Furthermore, the outcomes also indicated that there are limited to no tourism business ventures that have resulted for the community's beneficiation from the protected area. Eventually, it may be concluded that the respondents perceived that there were no business opportunities brought by the practice of tourism and conservation in the study area. It is an indictment on the authorities that the community indicated that there were no policies and strategies that they were aware of or successfully implemented in the study area. Finally, the idea that relationships and conservation appreciation was found to be inadequately contributing to community-based tourism and that its implementation was deficient, the study anticipated that designing a management model would facilitate its effectiveness. The success of such a model would stand as the ultimate contribution of this study to knowledge in the tourism discipline leading to better community beneficiation. vi TABLE OF CONTENT CHAPTER PAGE Approval i Declaration ii Dedication iii Acknowledgement iv Abstract v Acronyms & Abbreviations xiii List of figures xiv List of tables xv CHAPTER 1 ORIENTATION TO THE STUDY 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Background to the Problem 3 1.3 Statement of the Problem 5 1.4 Delimitation of the Study 6 1.4.1 Geographic Delimitation 6 1.4.2 Conceptual Delimitation 9 1.5 Aim and Objectives of the Study 9 1.5.1 Aims of the study 9 1.5.2 Objectives 10 1.6 Link to Research Question 10 1.7 Hypotheses of the Study 11 1.8 Research Methodology 13 1.9 Significance of the Study 13 1.10 Definition of Terms 15 1.10.1 Conservation 15 1.10.2 Conservation Agency 16 1.10.3 Protected Areas 16 1.10.4 Community 17 1.10.5 Community Tourism 19 1.10.6 Tourism 20 1.10.7 Natural Resource 21 1.10.8 African (Black) 21 vii 1.10.9 Relationship 21 1.10.10 Participation 22 1.10.11 Development 23 1.10 Structure of the Study 24 1.11 Conclusion 26 CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 Introduction 28 2.2 History of South African Conservation 29 2.2.1 Entrenchment of Homeland Policies And ‘Fortress Conservation’ 31 2.3 Original Purpose of Protected Areas in KwaZulu Natal 32 2.3.1 Poaching 36 2.4 Origin of Community-Conservation Partnerships 38 2.5 Origin of Community-Tourism Partnership 39 2.6 Relationship between Local Communities and Conservation Agencies 42 2.7 Effects of Proclamations on Rural Communities 44 2.8 The Future of Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) 45 2.9 Post-Apartheid and Land Reform Programme 46 2.10 Current and Future Challenges in Protected Areas 48 2.11 Protected Areas and Indigenous Rights/Policy Framework 49 2.12 Conclusion 51 CHAPTER 3 MODELS ASSOCIATED WITH RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMMUNITIES AND PROTECTED AREAS AND POLICY FRAMEWORK 3.1 Introduction 52 3.2 Tourism Systems and Models 53 3.2.1 Rural Development Model 55 3.2.2 Model Design for Land Restitution in Protected Areas 57 3.2.3 Small Medium Enterprise Development Model for BEE 62 3.2.4 Models of Integrative Tourism Development 65 3.2.5 The Livelihoods Analysis Approach 67 3.2.5.1 The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach 67 3.2.5.1.1 Vulnerability Context 69 viii 3.3 Tourism Policy Framework 73 3.3.1 Policy-Making and Community Response 75 3.4 Conclusion 77 CHAPTER 4 PHYSICAL SETTING OF THE STUDY AREA 4.1 Introduction 79 4.2