Vascular Plant Species Diversity and Ethnobotany in Yilmana Densa and Quarit Districts of West Gojjam Zone, Amhara Region, Ethiopia
Derebe Alemneh Tefera
Addis Ababa University
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
September, 2019
Vascular Plant Species Diversity and Ethnobotany in Yilmana Densa and Quarit Districts of West Gojjam Zone, Amhara Region, Ethiopia
Derebe Alemneh Tefera
A Thesis Submitted to
The Department of Plant Biology and Biodiversity Management
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
(Biology: Plant Biology and Biodiversity Management)
Addis Ababa University
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
September, 2019 ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY
GRADUATE PROGRAMMES
Approval sheet
This is to certify that the thesis prepared by Derebe Alemneh Tefera, entitled: “Vascular Plant
Species Diversity and Ethnobotany in Yilmana Densa and Quarit Districts of West Gojjam Zone,
Amhara Region, Ethiopia” and submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy (Biology: Plant Biology and Biodiversity Management) complies with the regulations of the University and meets the accepted standards with respect to originality and quality.
Signed by the Examining Board:
Name Signature Date
1. (Examiner) ______
2. (Examiner) ______
3. Prof. Zemede Asfaw (Advisor) ______
4. Prof. Sebsebe Demissew (Advisor) ______
______
Chair of Department or Graduate Programme Coordinator ABSTRACT Vascular Plant Species Diversity and Ethnobotany in Yilmana Densa and Quarit Districts of West Gojjam Zone, Amhara Region, Ethiopia Derebe Alemneh Tefera, PhD Dissertation Addis Ababa University, 2019 A study of vascular plant species diversity and ethnobotany was conducted in Yilmana Densa and Quarit districts of West Gojjam Zone, Amhara Region, Ethiopia. The purpose of the study was to record, document and analyze vascular plant species and to describe their diversity and interaction with the local people. Five patches of forests were taken and a total of 104 quadrats each measuring 20 m × 20 m were laid down at every 50 m intervals along five transect lines. For herbaceous species a 2 m x 2 m subquadrat were laid down. For ethnobotanical study, a total of 395 (267 males and 128 females) informants were selected from 19 sampled rural Kebeles of two districts (7 from Quarit and 12 from Yilmana Densa).These Kebeles and key informants were selected purposively. The data collection tools were semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, observation and market surveys. Two types of data analysis methods were conducted. The first was vegetation data analysis including community analysis, structural analysis, computing important indices and analysis of plant similarity, regeneration and species-area relationship. The second analysis method was ethnobotanical analysis and it included informant consensus, fidelity level, frequency index, cultural significance index, use diversity, direct matrix and preference ranking, descriptive and inferential statistics analyses. Vegetation data were analyzed via hierarchical cluster analysis using R version 3.5.1 software. SPSS version 20 and Microsoft excel spread sheet 2007 were used for the analysis of descriptive and inferential statistics. Following the analysis, 300 species were recorded and reported from the districts. Twenty four species were endemic while 10 species were exotic. Most of the species (249 species) were reserved in the five forest patches. The species of the patches were included in 81 families. Out of which, Asteraceae was represented with highest species (35 species) followed by Fabaceae (29 species). Majority of the species were herbs. Four community types namely Croton macrostachyus - Maytenus gracilipes community, Calpurnia aurea - Osyris quadripartita - Rosa abyssinica - Pterolobium stellatum community, Maesa lanceolata - Dodonea angustifolia - Otostegia integrifolia community and Acacia negrii-Rhus glutinosa- Clutia lanceolata community were identified. Community 1 and 4 had highest number of endemic, medicinal and wild edible species. The total individuals of woody species (DBH > 2.5 cm) were 15087. Dodonea angustifolia was recorded with highest individuals (5682). The total density was also about 3627 ha-1 whereas the total basal area was 29.8 m2 ha-1. Some representative woody species were recorded with 3 distribution patterns namely Inverted ‘J’ shaped, ‘Bell’ shaped and Upward ‘F’. Though most woody species were recorded with low frequencies, Croton macrostachyus was the most frequent species. The total plant diversity (H') of the two districts was 3.765. A total of 491.4 seedlings ha-1, 735.95ha-1 saplings and 2044.3ha-1 mature individuals were recorded from the patches. There was a significant mean percentage difference among these groups (P<0.05). Most species of the patches were reported to be used for environment protection and medicinal purposes. The majority of medicinal plant species of the two districts were claimed for the treatment of human diseases. Fabaceae was the first family in species number among the recorded human medicinal plant families. Sixty one disease types were reported to be treated by medicinal plants. Blood pressure and asthma were the most commonly reported human diseases. Leaves were the primary sources of remedy for diseases. Most remedy was prepared by boiling and it was administered orally. Miscellaneous, central nervous system and digestive system diseases were recorded with highest informant agreements. Dodonea angustifolia, Dovyalis abyssinica, Hagenia abyssinica, Nigella sativa and Urtica simensis were also recorded with highest healing potential for malaria, tapeworm, cough, stomach ulcer respectively. Phytolacca dodecandra had highest frequency value while Verbascum sinaiticum was the most preferred species for treatment of blood pressure. Trigonella foenum-graecum was recorded with highest use value while Carissa spinarum and Croton macrostachyus were also recorded with highest cultural values. There was a significant traditional medicinal plant knowledge difference (p<0.05) among informant groups. A total of 30 ethnoveterinary medicinal plant species were also reported to be used to treat 15 reported veterinary diseases. The plant species were under 30 genera and 22 families while most ethnoveterinary diseases belong to dermatological disease category. Leaves were the primary source of remedy and most of it was prepared from freshly harvest parts. Digestive tract diseases were treated by majority of these species. Stephania abyssinica and Cucumis ficifolius showed highest fidelity level value for gastro-intestinal disease category and high healing potential under the respiratory disease category respectively. Phytolacca dodecandra was the most preferred one for the treatment of abdominal bloating. A total of 32 wild edible plant species were also reported in the districts and fruits were the primary source of wild food. The majority of the species were herbs whereas Ficus sur and Mimusops kummel were the most preferred and marketable species. Generally, the two districts with almost similar agroclimatic zones were the sources of vast number of medicinal, wild edible and other useful plant species even if the majority were under several threats. Thus, there should be well designed and immediate conservation activities by giving priority for multipurpose wild, medicinal and other useful plants of the forest patches.
Keywords: Conservation, ethnoveterinary medicinal plants, medicinal plants, plant community, regeneration, threats, use diversity, vegetation structure, wild edible plants
IV
DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to my father, Alemneh Tefera, my mother Shitaye Abitew, and my elder brother, Meslogn Alemneh who were supportive of my education.
May God put their souls in paradise!
V
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I thank the Almighty God who provides me health, energy, peace and time, and generally for his help. My deepest thanks would also go to St. Mary, the Mother of our Lord
Jesus Christ, who is with me at all aspects of my life since my childhood.
I would like to pass heartfelt thanks to my supervisors Prof. Zemede Asfaw and Prof. Sebsebe
Demissew for their unreserved guidance, support, suggestions and effective follow up starting from the development of the proposal to the end of this research work.
My greater gratitude goes to my lecturers and staff members in the Department of Plant Biology and Biodiversity Managements who supported and encouraged me in various ways. Assosa
University is heartily acknowledged for sponsoring my PhD study.
I am indebted to the inhabitants of Yilmana Densa and Quarit districts, particularly the traditional medical practitioners who shared with me their knowledge on medicinal plants, and their generous hospitality throughout my stay in the study areas. The administrators of both districts who guided me through my study areas for clarifying the purpose of the research to their respective community for ensuring peaceful data collection practices should be truly acknowledged. I wish to express my gratitude to the agricultural and health offices‟ staff members who provided the agricultural and health information of the districts respectively.
I would like to extend my deepest gratitude to the staff members of the national herbarium
(ETH), for their cooperation with all aspects of the herbarium work. The national meteorological
VI services agency of Ethiopia is acknowledged for providing meteorological data of the two districts. Staff members of the Digital Libraries of AAU are also acknowledged for their kind library services.
I am very much grateful to my wife Kidist Gebeyaw and my son Eyasu Derebe for their support, encouragement and prayers throughout the study period. My mother Shitaye Abitew and my brothers and sisters are truly acknowledged for their kindest support at all phases of this study.
Lastly, I would like to pass heartfelt thanks to a number of friends, colleagues and people, whom I faced during the course and research work, and for whom I received their support at various aspects of this study.
VII
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ...... IV
DEDICATION ...... V
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... VI
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... VIII
LIST OF FIGURES ...... XVI
LIST OF TABLES ...... XVIII
LIST OF ACRONYMS ...... XXI
LIST OF APPENDICES ...... XXIII
CHAPTER ONE ...... 1
1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1
1.1 Background ...... 1
1.2 Statement of the problem ...... 4
1.3 Research questions, hypotheses and objectives ...... 4
1.3.1 Research questions ...... 4
1.3.2 Research hypotheses ...... 5
1.3.3 Study objectives ...... 6
1.3.3.1 General objective ...... 6
1.3.3.2 Specific objectives ...... 6
CHAPTER TWO ...... 7
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 7
2.1 Plant species diversity and influencing factors ...... 7
2.1.1 Spatial scales and measures for plant diversity study ...... 7
VIII
2.1.2 Plant communities and influencing factors ...... 8
2.2 Description of the main vegetation types ...... 9
2.2.1 Forests ...... 9
2.2.2 Woodlands ...... 10
2.3 The major vegetation types in Ethiopia...... 11
2.4 Ethnobotany and its aspects ...... 12
2.4.1 Medicinal plants and their application in Ethiopia ...... 13
2.4.1.1 Habits and usable parts ...... 15
2.4.2 Wild edible plants and their role ...... 16
2.4.2.2 Advantages of using wild edible plants ...... 17
2.4.2.3 Drawbacks of using wild edible plants ...... 17
2.4.3 Other useful plants of Ethiopia ...... 18
2.5 Threats on the vegetation in Ethiopia ...... 19
2.6 Plant conservation efforts in Ethiopia ...... 20
CHAPTER THREE ...... 22
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS ...... 22
3.1 Description of Yilmana Densa and Quarit districts ...... 22
3.1.1 Location ...... 22
3.1.2 Climate...... 23
3.1.3 Soil and topography ...... 24
3.1.4 Geology ...... 25
3.1.5 Vegetation ...... 25
3.1.6 Demographic features and livelihoods ...... 26
IX
3.1.7 The status of human and livestock health ...... 28
3.2 Ethical considerations ...... 29
3.3 Vegetation study ...... 29
3.3.1 Site selection and establishment of quadrats ...... 29
3.3.2 Vegetation data collection ...... 30
3.4 Ethnobotanical study ...... 32
3.4.1 Site selection and sampling method ...... 32
3.4.2 Ethnobotanical data collection ...... 34
3.5 Vegetation data analysis ...... 35
3.5.1 Community analysis ...... 35
3.5.2 Structural analysis...... 36
3.5.3 Computation of important indices ...... 37
3.5.4 Plant similarity, regeneration status and species area relationship ...... 38
3.6 Ethnobotanical data analysis ...... 39
3.6.1 Informant consensus factor and fidelity level...... 39
3.6.2 Frequency index of medicinal plant species ...... 41
3.6.3 Cultural significance index ...... 41
3.6.4 Preference ranking and direct matrix ranking ...... 42
3.6.5 Use diversity study of medicinal, wild edible and other useful plants ...... 44
3.6.6 Descriptive statistics and test of significance ...... 46
3.6.7 Market surveys ...... 46
CHAPTER 4 ...... 47
4. RESULTS ...... 47
X
4.1 Plant composition of the forest patches...... 47
4.2 Plant communities of the forest patches ...... 48
4.3 Vegetation structure of the forest patches ...... 53
4.3.1 Density of trees and shrubs ...... 53
4.3.2 Diameter at breast height ...... 53
4.3.3 Population structure ...... 54
4.3.4 Basal area of woody species ...... 57
4.3.5 Frequency of woody species...... 57
4.3.6 Importance values of woody species ...... 57
4.4 Regeneration of woody species ...... 58
4.5 Plant species - area relationship in the forest patches ...... 60
4.6 Plant diversity and similarity in the forest patches ...... 61
4.7 Plant use category in the forest patches ...... 62
4.7.1 Environmental and related uses ...... 63
4.7.2 Source of traditional medicine ...... 64
4.7.3 Fuel ...... 66
4.7.4 Social uses ...... 66
4.7.5 Fodder ...... 65
4.7.6 Source of food ...... 70
4.7.7 Poisonous plants ...... 71
4.8 Medicinal plants in Yilmana Densa and Quarit districts...... 71
4.8.1 Traditional medicinal plants used to treat human diseases ...... 72
4.8.1.1 Growth forms and sites of collection ...... 72
XI
4.8.1.2 Diagnosis and treatment methods of patients ...... 74
4.8.1.3 Plant parts used for remedy preparation ...... 75
4.8.1.4 Modes of remedy preparation and application ...... 76
4.8.1.5 Routes of administration ...... 76
4.8.1.6 Dosages and antidotes ...... 77
4.8.1.7 Marketability of medicinal plants ...... 77
4.8.1.8 Consensus of informants on medicinal plants ...... 79
4.8.1.9 Relative healing potential of medicinal plants ...... 80
4.8.1.10 Frequency of traditional medicinal plants...... 81
4.8.1.11Use preference of medicinal plants ...... 82
4.8.1.12 Use diversity of multipurpose medicinal plants...... 84
4.8.1.13 Use values ...... 85
4.8.1.14 Cultural role ...... 86
4.8.1.15 Use diversity ...... 87
4.8.1.16 Knowledge difference among informant groups ...... 92
4.8.1.17 Transfer and threats of traditional knowledge ...... 93
4.8.2 Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants ...... 94
4.8.2.1 Habits, cultivation status and parts used ...... 95
4.8.2.2 Traditional diagnosis and treatment methods of ethnoveterinary diseases ...... 95
4.8.2.3 Application of ethnoveterinary remedy ...... 96
XII
4.8.2.4 Mode of preparation, routes of administration and dosages ...... 97
4.8.2.5 Marketability ...... 98
4.8.2.6 Efficacy of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants ...... 98
4.8.2.7 Relative healing potential of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants ...... 99
4.8.2.8 Consensus of informants on ethnoveterinary medicinal plants ...... 99
4.8.2.9 Preference of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants ...... 100
4.8.2.10 Preference of multipurpose ethnoveterinary medicinal plants...... 100
4.8.2.11 Use categories ...... 101
4.9 Wild edible plants in Yilmana Densa and Quarit districts ...... 102
4.9.1 Edible parts ...... 102
4.9.2 Collection sites and collecting households ...... 103
4.9.3 Use preference ...... 105
4.9.4 Use diversity ...... 105
4.9.5 Traditional knowledge difference on wild edible plants ...... 107
4.9.6 Wild edible plant species similarity between two agroclimatic zones ...... 108
4.9.7 Market surveys on wild edible plants of the districts ...... 108
4.10 Threats and conservation efforts of plants in Yilmana Densa and Quarit districts ...... 109
CHAPTER FIVE ...... 111
5. DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 111
5.1 Discussions ...... 111
5.1.1 Plant composition ...... 111
5.1.2 Plant communities ...... 114
XIII
5.1.3 Vegetation structure ...... 114
5.1.3.1 Density of trees and shrubs ...... 114
5.1.3.2 DBH and Basal area of woody species ...... 115
5.1.4 Population structure ...... 116
5.1.4.1 Percentage frequency of woody species ...... 117
5.1.4.2 Importance values of woody species ...... 118
5.1.5 Plant similarity ...... 118
5.1.6 Diversity of plant species in the districts ...... 119
5.1.7 Species - area relationship ...... 119
5.1.8 Regeneration of woody species of the forest patches ...... 120
5.1.9 Use categories of plant species ...... 120
5.1.10 Traditional medicinal plants of the districts ...... 122
5.1.10.1 Reported medicinal plants used for human diseases...... 122
5.1.10.2 Types of human diseases treated by medicinal plants ...... 124
5.1.10.3 Agreements of informants on medicinal plants ...... 125
5.1.10.4 Healing potential of medicinal plants ...... 126
5.1.10.5 Use value of medicinal plants ...... 126
5.1.10.6 Cultural role of medicinal plants...... 127
5.1.10.7 Frequency of medicinal plants ...... 127
5.1.10.8 Use preference of selected medicinal plants ...... 127
5.1.10.9 Use diversity of medicinal plants ...... 128
XIV
5.1.10.10 Traditional knowledge difference and transfer between informant groups ..... 128
5.1.11 Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants of the districts ...... 130
5.1.11.1 Growth forms, usable parts and mode of preparation ...... 131
5.1.11.2 Percentage distribution of species used to treat diseases ...... 132
5.1.11.3 Diagnosis methods, routes of administration and dosages ...... 133
5.1.11.4 Healing potential and use citation of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants ...... 133
5.1.12 Wild edible plants of Yilmana Densa and Quarit districts ...... 133
5.1.12.1 Habits of wild edible plants ...... 134
5.1.12.2 Edible parts of wild edible plants...... 135
5.1.12.3 Collection sites, collecting households and marketability ...... 135
5.1.12.4 Use preference of wild edible plants ...... 137
5.1.12.5 Use diversity of wild edible plants...... 137
5.1.13Threats and conservation of plant species of the districts ...... 138
5.1.13.1 Threats...... 138
5.1.13.2 Conservation status of plants ...... 141
5.2 Conclusion ...... 143
5.3 Recommendations ...... 148
REFERENCES ...... 150
APPENDICES ...... 183
XV
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Map of the study districts and Kebeles of west Gojjam zone of Amhara region, Ethiopia
...... 22
Figure 2 Climate diagram of Adet ...... 24
Figure 3 Partial overview of Gebeze Mariam forest patche in Quarit district ...... 30
Figure 4 Photo of the researcher and field assistant during data collection in Dabal and Senqegna
Kebeles ...... 32
Figure 5 Percent of plant families with range of representative species ...... 48
Figure 6 Dendrogram showing plant community types of the study areas...... 50
Figure 7 DBH classes of woody species of the two districts ...... 54
Figure 8 Representative patterns of trees and shrubs ...... 56
Figure 9 Top 13 woody species with highest number of individuals ...... 59
Figure 10 Number of seedlings and basal area of woody species per hectare ...... 60
Figure 11 Plant use category ...... 63
Figure 12 Photos of some medicinal plants of the districts ...... 74
Figure 13 Habitat types where medicinal plants were collected...... 74
Figure 14 Percentage distribution of medicinal plant parts used for remedy preparation ...... 75
Figure 15 Mode of preparations and applications ...... 76
Figure 16 Percent of mode of administration ...... 77
Figure 17 Medicinal plants observed in Adet market ...... 79
Figure 18 Proportion of medicinal plants over different use categories ...... 88
Figure 19 Percentage of the representative species of plant families ...... 89
Figure 20 Percent of social uses of medicinal plants ...... 91
XVI
Figure 21 Plant families and percent of their representative species used environmentally ...... 92
Figure 22 Photo of some medicinal plants inYilmana Densa district ...... 94
Figure 23 Percentage distributions of the parts of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants ...... 95
Figure 24 Percentage distribution of plant species used to treat various animal groups...... 96
Figure 25 Percent of ethnoveterinary remedy administered through four routes ...... 97
Figure 26 Percentage of medicinal plants used to treat each disease category ...... 98
Figure 27 Percentage distributions of habit classes ...... 102
Figure 28 Number and percentage of edible plant parts ...... 103
Figure 29 Photo of some wild edible plants found in Yilmana Densa and Quarit ...... 104
Figure 30 Percentage distributions of wild edible plants on different use categories ...... 106
Figure 31 Fruits of Mimusops kummel in Adet market presented for sell ...... 109
Figure 32 Degradation of Gebeze Mariam forest patche in Quarit district ...... 110
XVII
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Disease types treated by traditional medicinal plants in other parts of Ethiopia ...... 14
Table 2 Types of human diseases and their category ...... 40
Table 3 Types of domestic animal diseases and their category ...... 40
Table 4 Community (C) and the number of quadrats (Q) that belong to each community ...... 51
Table 5 Synoptic table of species reaching a value of > 0.1 in at least one community type...... 52
Table 6 Woody species with density > = 0.01 ...... 53
Table 7 Woody species with basal area > 1 m2 h-1 ...... 57
Table 8 Nine woody species with IVI > 6 ...... 58
Table 9 Test of mean percentage difference of seedlings and mature woody species ...... 59
Table 10 Test of mean percentage difference of seedlings and saplings ...... 59
Table 11 Regression (R) square value ...... 60
Table 12 ANOVA table for species richness and areas of the forest patches ...... 60
Table 13 Shannon and Simpson diversity, and evenness of the districts ...... 61
Table 14 Number of unique species in each forest patch ...... 61
Table 15 Jacard‟s and Sorensen‟s similarity coefficient in the five forest patches ...... 62
Table 16 List of plant families with number of medicinal plant species ...... 65
Table 17 Preference ranking of six woody species by 15 key informants based on degree of preference for firewood ...... 66
Table 18 Preference ranking of 4 forage families by 15 key informants ...... 69
Table 19 List of poisonous plants with their toxic parts ...... 71
Table 20 Consensus of informants for different use categories ...... 80
Table 21 Fidelity levels (FL) of 14 most cited traditional medicinal plant species ...... 81
XVIII
Table 22 Frequency index of 31 traditional medicinal plants ...... 82
Table 23 Preference ranking exercise of 7 species reported to treat blood pressure ...... 83
Table 24 Preference ranking of 4 medicinal plants reported to treat asthma ...... 83
Table 25 Preference ranking of 6 medicinal plants reported to treat common cold ...... 84
Table 26 Average DMR score of six key informants for 5 medicinal plants with additional uses
...... 85
Table 27 Use values of most cited medicinal plants ...... 86
Table 28 Cultural significance index of 6 traditional medicinal plants ...... 87
Table 29 Use values of medicinal plants ...... 88
Table 30 Mean and std.deviation difference of medicinal plant knwoledge of informants ...... 92
Table 31 ANOVA table and test of significance on medicinal plant knwoledge difference between informant groups...... 93
Table 32 Ranking of the causes for the decrease of traditional knowledge of the areas ...... 94
Table 33 Fidelity level of 5 ethnoveterinary medicinal plants ...... 99
Table 34 Informants‟ agreements on 6 livestock disease categories ...... 99
Table 35 Preference ranking of 9 medicinal plants reported to treat abdominal bloating/impel 100
Table 36 Average DMR score of six key informants for 7 species with additional uses ...... 101
Table 37 Preference ranking of 8 wild edible plants based on their taste of preference ...... 105
Table 38 Direct matrix ranking of 5 WEPs based on 5 use criteria by 4 key informants ...... 107
Table 39 ANOVA table for age groups ...... 108
Table 40 Jacard‟s and Sorensen‟s similarity coefficient of the two agroclimatic zones ...... 108
Table 41 Ranking of vegetation threats of the study areas by 15 key informants ...... 110
Table 42 Ranking of the threats of wild edible plants by 15 key informants ...... 110
XIX
Table 43 Comparison of some forests in their species number ...... 113
Table 44 Total densities of woody species in some areas of Ethiopia ...... 115
Table 45 Number of recorded WEPs in some parts of Ethiopia ...... 134
XX
LIST OF ACRONYMS
ANOVA Analysis of Variance
AODs Agricultural Office of the Districts
BIDNTF Biodiversity Indicators Development National Task Force
BoA Bureau of Agriculture
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
CSA Central Statistical Agency c. Circa cm Centimetre
DMR Direct Matrix Ranking
EFAP Ethiopian Forestry Action Program
EPA Environment Protection Authority
EPCC Ethiopian Panel on Climate Change
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FGD Focus Group Discussion
FRA Forest Resources Assessment g Gram
GOFC-GOLD Global Observation of Forest Cover and Land Dynamics
GPS Geographical Positioning System ha Hectare
IBC Institute of Biodiversity Conservation
IK Indigenous knowledge
IEC Information, Education and Communication Material
XXI
ILU Indigenous Land Units
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources m Metre masl Meter above sea level mbsl Meter below sea level mg Milligram mm Millimetre
MoARD Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
Mt Mount
OPD Out Patient Department of a hospital
PFM Participatory Forest Management
SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
SNNPR Southern Nations Nationalities and People Region
TB Tuberculosis
TK Traditional Knowledge
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
UN United Nations
USAID The United States Agency for International Development
VCT Voluntary counseling and testing
WBISPP Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning Project
WEPs Wild Edible Plants
XXII
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1 Semi-structured interview questions that were employed for ethnobotanical data collection in Yilmana Densa and Quarit districts...... 183
Appendix 2 Family, local name, status and use diversity of plant species of the forest patches in
Yilmana Densa and Quarit districts ...... 186
Appendix 3 Density and relative density of woody species ...... 194
Appendix 4 Basal area and dominance of woody species ...... 196
Appendix 5 Percentage frequency of most frequent woody species ...... 198
Appendix 6 Importance values of woody species ...... 199
Appendix 7 Medicinal plants used for traditional treatment of human diseases/ailments ...... 200
Appendix 8 Medicinal plants used for traditional treatment of domestic animal diseases ...... 217
Appendix 9 Use diversity and habitats of medicinal plants used for human diseases ...... 220
Appendix 10 Cultivation status and use diversity of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants ...... 223
Appendix 11 Use diversity, mode of preparation and consumption of wild edible plants...... 224
XXIII
CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Cotton (1996) re-affirmed that vascular plants are the dominant groups in number among plant groups of the world. Willis and Bachman (2016) estimated that 391,000 vascular plant species are found globally. Out of which, 369,000 (c.94%) species belong to angiosperms. Thus, in comparison angiosperms occupy the majority of terrestrial space on earth. Moreover, they are the major components of the world‟s vegetation (Hartung et al., 1998). The distribution of vascular plants is mainly influenced by topography (altitude, slope, north - south orientation), climate
(precipitation, temperature, evaporation), soil conditions (chemical composition, texture, drainage, pH and salinity), and geology of the rock (parent material of the soil) (Spies and
Turnier, 1999; Kier et al., 2005; Misir et al., 2007; Ucler et al., 2007; Friis et al., 2010).
Ethiopia has the four influential factors of plants, especially with great variation of topography and climate (Tewolde Berhan Gebre Egziabher, 1988). According to Sebsebe Demissew and
Nordal (2010), the altitudes of Ethiopia varied dramatically and range from about 4620 masl at
Ras Dashen (Dejen) in the Semien mountains of Amhara region to 115 mbsl at Kobar sink
(Dallol depression of Afar region) in the Danikil desert. As Friis et al. (2010) described more of the land of Ethiopia is above 2000 m altitude than any other country in Africa even if its mountains are not as high as the highest peaks in Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda and the
Democratic Republic of Congo. Hurni et al. (2010) also considered nearly 50% of the land of
Ethiopia as mountainous. According to EPCC (2015), most of high peak mountains are found in
1 the floristic regions of Gonder, Gojjam, Wello and Shewa (Amhara region), Bale and Arsi
(Oromia region), Gamo Gofa and Sidamo (southern region) and Tigray (Tigray region).
Thus, Ethiopia is one of the richest assemblages of plants in the African continent due to its mountainous and geologically active territory and Afromontane habitats (Vivero et al., 2005). It is also a rich source of endemics (Menassie Gashaw and Masresha Fetene, 1996). Ethiopia is among the list of biodiversity rich countries of the world; especially it is one of the 12 Vavilov centres of crop genetic diversity (Vavilov, 1951; Andersen, 2001; EPA, 2003). It houses about
6,027 vascular plant species (including subspecies) with about 10% are endemic (Ensermu
Kelbessa and Sebsebe Demissew, 2014). According to Sebsebe Demissew and Nordal (2010), there are c. 1322 species of monocots (grasses accounting to 612 species and the remaining monocots including orchids cover c. 710 species). Woody species constitute about 1000 species out of which 300 are trees (Hedberg et al., 2009).
Plant resources of Ethiopia have an emphasized diversity of uses to the local communities of the country (Mander et al., 2006). Especially, medicinal plants play a great role in treating various human and domestic animal diseases. According to Yadav (2013), approximately 80% of the populations of Ethiopia depend on traditional medicinal plants as their primary health care needs.
In addition, about 90% of the livestock population of the country is treated by traditional medicines (MPGRD, 2008). Literatures done on ethnoveterinary medicinal plants showed high dependency of the community on medicinal plants for treatment of various livestock diseases
(Mirutse Giday and Gobena Ameni, 2003; Teshale Sori et al., 2004; Haile Yineger et al., 2007;
2
Berhanemeskel Weldegerima et al., 2008). Wild edible plants also play a crucial role in food security (Ermias Lulekal et al., 2011; Getachew Addis et al., 2013b).
Plant resources are the source of fodder for livestock (Getu Alemayehu et al., 2015). They are the source of construction materials and agricultural tools (Tinsae Bahru et al., 2012). They are also the source of fuel (firewood and charcoal) (Mekdes Ourge et al., 2018) and timber (Getu
Alemayehu et al., 2015). Plants have a great role to generate income (IBC, 2005). According to
Amare Getahun (1976), plants have cultural significance; especially they have a great contribution in preparing and avoiding harmful spiritual (magical) practices done by magical man/woman. Moreover, they are the source of traditional knowledge systems such as knowledge of collection and preparation of medicinal and WEPs, and quantifying the doses of traditional remedy. In addition, they are the basis for the knowledge of preparation of tools, traditional household utensils and construction materials (Dawit Abebe and Ahadu Ayehu, 1993).
Nowadays plant resources are under several threats (EFAP, 1994; WBISPP, 2005). The primary threat is population growth, which leads to an increase in the demand for crop and grazing land and to an increase in the demand for fuel wood (Hurni, 1986; Reusing, 2000; Derege Tsegaye et al., 2003; IBC, 2005). The second main threat is low agricultural productivity (Lakew Desta et al., 2000; Girma Adugna, 2005). A decline in population growth, would help to reduce the demand for crop and grazing land, so would productivity increases. Finally, the third main threat is Ethiopia's high dependence on fuel wood as a source of household energy (Getachew Deriba,
1993).
3
Thus, plant species in Yilmana Densa and Quarit districts and the associated indigenous knowledge of the local community are subjected to loss due to such anthropogenic activities without being scientifically documented. Therefore, the current study aims at providing a comprehensive documentation and analysis of plant diversity along with the ethnobotanical knowledge associated with medicinal, wild edible and other useful plants used by the local people in Yilmana Densa and Quarit districts in order to conserve the declining plant resources and the associated traditional plant knowledge.
1.2 Statement of the problem
Yilmana Densa and Quarit districts are agroclimatically and topographically diverse that resulted in high plant diversity. The two districts are also a rich source of traditional knowledge of plants.
However, the surrounding vegetation and the associated plant knowledge are dwindling from time to time due to several threats. Thus, immediate research is crucial to document and analyze the surrounding plant resources and the associated traditional plant knowledge before it completely vanishes from the areas. Moreover, exploring each part of Ethiopia is essential to provide important solutions for the existing threats of plant species.
1.3 Research questions, hypotheses and objectives
1.3.1 Research questions
What are the plant community types that in exist the forest patches in Yilmana Densa
and Quarit districts?
Is there any vascular plant species similarity in the two districts?
For what purposes are wild plants used by the local people?
What types of traditional medicinal and wild edible plant species are found in the two
districts?
4
Which parts of traditional medicinal and wild edible plants are used as a source of
medicine and food respectively?
How are traditional medicinal plants prepared, administered, and how are the
traditional herbal medicines quantified?
What are the other uses of both traditional medicinal and wild edible plants?
Are there any traditional knowledge differences in medicinal and wild edible plants
based on gender, age, and literacy level and experience differences among the local
people?
What are the main threats to the natural vegetation?
What are the conservation measures taken by the local people in the two districts?
1.3.2 Research hypotheses
The natural forest patches in Yilmana Densa and Quarit districts have high plant
species diversity and encompass many community types.
The natural forest patches in the two districts are the main sources of useful plants
(medicinal, wild edible and other useful plants).
There is no mean percentage difference among seedlings, saplings and mature woody
species.
There is a significant relationship between vascular plants and the sampled area
where they are recorded.
There is no difference in the use of traditional medicinal plants among different
informant categories, age groups, gender and level of education.
There is no wild edible plant knowledge difference between adults and elders.
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1.3.3 Study objectives
1.3.3.1 General objective
The general objective of this study was to document vascular plant species and their diversity; interaction with the local people, and to contribute to efforts towards enhancement of conservation in Yilmana Densa and Quarit districts of West Gojjam Zone, Amhara Region,
Ethiopia.
1.3.3.2 Specific objectives
The specific objectives were the following:
To record vascular plant species found in the forest patches of Yilmana Densa and
Quarit districts.
To measure the species richness, evenness and abundance of the forest patches.
To compare plant species diversity between the two districts.
To classify the vegetation into community types, and describe and analyze it.
To compile a checklist of medicinal, wild edible and other useful plant species of the
two districts along with their use diversity.
To identify the parts of medicinal plants used to treat human and livestock diseases
with modes of remedy preparation, routes of remedy administration and dosages.
To identify the parts of wild edible plants used as a source of food with the mode of
preparation.
To record the presence of medicinal and wild edible plant knowledge differences of
the local people based on gender, age, literacy level and experience differences.
To identify and analyze the main threats of the natural vegetation of the two districts
and to record any conservation measures.
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CHAPTER TWO
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Plant species diversity and influencing factors
The term species diversity is defined as the variability among living organisms (CBD, 2009) and it refers to a measure of how many species are present in a community or in a vegetation formation and their relative abundances (Heywood and Baste, 1995). Sometimes it also refers to higher levels of classification (genera, families, orders) (Magurran, 2004). Species diversity is expressed (constituted) by species richness and species evenness (Heip, 1974). The first one refers to the number of species of a particular taxon, and habit type which characterizes a particular biological community, habitat and ecosystem type (Chiarucci, 2012). The second one also refers to the distribution of individuals over species (Heip, 1974).
2.1.1 Spatial scales and measures for plant diversity study
Different authors recognized three spatial scales of diversity. These are alpha (α) (local diversity), beta diversity (β) (differentiation) and gamma (γ) (regional diversity). According to
Loreau (2000), alpha diversity refers to the diversity within a single stand or community sample.
Koleff et al. (2003) also defined beta diversity as the diversity of species between community samples. It further refers to the spatial turnover of the identities of species which is a measure of the difference in species composition either between two or more local assemblages or between local and regional assemblages. Gamma diversity also refers to the diversity of species at the regional level (scale) and it combines alpha and beta diversity (Whittaker, 1972).
Moreover, three types of biodiversity measures were coined by different authors. These are species diversity, taxonomic diversity and functional diversity. According to Heywood and Baste
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(1995), the first one is a measure of the species of an area and it regulates both sampling effects and species abundance. Taxonomic diversity is also a measure of a taxonomic dispersion of a species and it emphasizes an isolated evolutionary species (Ellison, 2010). The basic concept of this measure is that biodiversity may be better measured at higher taxonomic levels (Magurran and McGill, 2011). The third biodiversity measure (functional diversity) is used to evaluate the richness of the functional features such as plant functional groups (fast growing and slow growing plant species) and interrelations of an area (Whittaker, 1972; Smith and Wilson, 1996;
Hooper et al., 2002).
However, a standardized measure of diversity is important to compare the different communities or different regions. The information contained in a list of species (s) and their abundances can be summarized by diversity index. The most commonly used diversity indices in ecology are
Shannon (H') and Simpson (D) diversity indices (Magurran, 1988). Both diversity indices increase as richness increases, for a given pattern of evenness, and increase as evenness increases, for a given richness, but they do not always rank communities in the same order
(Colwell, 2012).
2.1.2 Plant communities and influencing factors
Classifying groups of species into different clusters have an advantage to obtain groups of objects (samples, species) that are internally homogeneous and distinct from other groups‟ (Lep
ˇs and Smilauer, 2003). It has also an advantage to reduce the dimensionality of data, and hierarchy that defines similarity relationship between groups that permits to change the number of resulting groups by altering the hierarchical level. Agglomerative clustering generates a
8 hierarchy, which is usually displayed in the form of dendrograms; that is, resemblance trees depicting the similarity of individuals and groups (Wildi, 2010).
According to Kent and Coker (1992), a plant community is a clearly recognizable and definable entity that repeats itself with regularity over a given region of the earth‟s surface. The diversity of plant communities is influenced by a number of factors such as altitude, latitude (Heyward,
1995; Heywood and Baste, 1995), the amount of disturbance of a habitat, the relative isolation of a habitat and the vertical structure of community (Desrochers and Anand, 2004).
2.2 Description of the main vegetation types
2.2.1 Forests
Forest is a continuous stand of trees which are interlocked with lianas. The canopy of individual trees varies from 10 to 50 m or more in height. It consists of several layers (storey) and the shrub layer may be denser in those types of forests with more open canopy (White, 1983). Closed forest is defined as an area where tree cover exceeds 40% while open forest refers to areas where tree cover is between 10 and 40% (FAO, 2001). Furthermore, FAO (2001, 2010) defined forest as the land having 0.5 ha area and covered by trees having more than 5 m height and a canopy cover of more than 10%. Based on this definition, the vegetations of roadsides, protected areas such as national parks, nature reserves, and windbreaks, shelterbelts and corridors of trees in an area of more than 0.5 ha are recognized as forests.
According to FAO (2010) and FRA (2010) also abandoned shifting cultivation land with a regeneration of trees that having a canopy cover of 10% and tree height of 5 m are included under forests. However, the forest definition by FAO (2010) does not include tree stands of
9 agricultural production systems, such as fruit tree plantations, oil palm plantations and agroforestry systems when crops are grown under tree cover. However, in contradiction to this, remote sensing techniques for assessing forest areas may include agricultural or urban development areas in over all calculations of forest area. UNFCCC (2011) also defined forest as a land with a minimum area of 0.01-1.0 ha and trees with 2-5 m height and 10-30% of crown cover.
The forests of an area may comprise many unique properties such as biological structures which build up in vertical and horizontal layers of life and dead plants, the ability of self renewal during steady small and large disturbances. They further possess co-evolved plant - animal and plant - plant interactions. Especially, closed canopy tropical forests are influenced by micro and regional climates. These properties are correlated with their high rates of primary productivity and biodiversity (Thompson et al., 2009).
2.2.2 Woodlands
White (1983) defined woodland as the land with an open stand of trees with a height of 8 to 20 m or more and a canopy cover of at least 40% of the surface. However, the crowns of adjacent trees are often not densely interlocking. They rather frequently more widely spaced and may be up to
1 crown diameter apart. Woodland may be either scrub woodland or true woodland. The first one is intermediate between true woodland and bushland and dominated by stunted trees, sometimes not more than 3 m higher. However, bushes and shrubs species may be frequently abundant.
The woodland of Ethiopia divided into two i. e. high woodland and low woodland (FAO, 2010).
According to FRA (2010) high woodland includes Combretum - Terminalia woodland with trees
10 greater than 5 m and tree crown cover of greater than 20%. It is located in some parts of Ethiopia including some parts of Oromia region (in east and west Welega zones, Jimma and Illubabor zones), Gambella region (in zone 2), Benishangul Gumuz region (includes all parts) and Amhara region (including west Gojjam, Awi and north Gonder zone). It is also found in other areas of
Ethiopia lying above 1250 m above sea level. This woodland type does not include shrubs and bushes.
According to White (1983), bushland is a land of which 40% or more are covered by bushes. A bush is defined as a woody species intermediate in habit between a shrub and a tree. Bushes are usually between 3 and 7 m tall, but can be smaller or larger. They are usually multiple stemmed and the main axes are frequently 10 cm or more in diameter at the base. Bushy trees are also frequently present in bushland. They are normally less than 7 m tall. Taller trees sometimes occur as emergents but they are either localized in groups or are widely scattered (EPCC, 2015).
Among the vegetation ecosystems of Ethiopia, the two most dominant vegetation types are woodlands (both Combretum - Terminalia broadleaved deciduous and Acacia - Commiphora small leaved deciduous) and scrublands (WBISPP, 2004).
2.3 The major vegetation types in Ethiopia
According to Friis et al. (2010), there are 12 major vegetation types in Ethiopia and they have been further divided into a number of subtypes. The types and subtypes are: (1) Desert and semi- desert scrubland. (2) Acacia - Commiphora woodland and bushland (with the subtypes (2a)
Acacia - Commiphora woodland and bushland proper and (2b) Acacia wooded grassland of the rift valley). (3) Wooded grassland of the western Gambela region. (4) Combretum - Terminalia woodland and wooded grassland. (5) Dry evergreen Afromontane forest and grassland complex
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(with the subtypes (5a) Undifferentiated Afromontane forest, (5b) Dry single dominant
Afromontane forest of the Ethiopian highlands, (5c) Afromontane woodland, wooded grassland and grassland, (5d) Transition between Afromontane vegetation and Acacia - Commiphora bushland on the eastern escarpment). (6) Moist evergreen Afromontane forest (with the subtypes
(6a) Primary or mature secondary moist evergreen Afromontane forest, and (6b) Edges of moist evergreen Afromontane forest, bushland, woodland and wooded grassland. (7) Transitional rainforest. (8) Ericaceous belt. (9) Afroalpine belt. (10) Riverine vegetation. (11) Fresh water lakes (with the subtypes (11a) Fresh water lake vegetation (open water) and (11b) Fresh water marshes and swamps, floodplains and lake shore vegetation). (12) Salt lakes (with the subtypes
(12a) Salt lake vegetation (open water) and (12b) Saltpans, saline/brackish and intermittent wetlands and salt lake shore vegetation).
Dry evergreen montane forest and grassland complex ecosystem represent a complex system of successions involving extensive grasslands rich in legumes, shrubs and small to large sized trees to closed forest with a canopy of several strata occurring between (1600-) 1900-3300 m. The areas with dry evergreen Afromontane forest have canopies usually dominated by Juniperus procera as a dominant species followed by Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata. This ecosystem covers much of the highland areas of Ethiopia in Amhara region (Gojjam, Wello and Gonder) and many other parts of Ethiopia (IBC, 2005).
2.4 Ethnobotany and its aspects
Ethnobotany is a branch of ethnobiology and it studies the interaction between people and plants.
Even if ethnobiology is a broad science which encompasses huge areas of study it gives a greater importance of plants for animals than most human societies (Martin, 1995; Hamilton et al., 2003;
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Stepp, 2005). This broader science consists of three components, namely economic (how people use plants and animals), cognitive (how people know and conceptualize plants and animals), and ecological (how people interact with plants and animals) (Martin, 1995; Stepp, 2005).
Ethnobotany has several aspects such as the ways that people name and classify plants, their uses and their management. It can also be applied in forestry, cultural conservation, education and the development of health food and herbal medicine industries. Furthermore, it may help in protecting the knowledge of traditional people. It also points out traditional people to profit from any commercial discoveries made from their traditional knowledge (IUCN et al., 1993; Martin,
1995; Hamilton et al., 2003).
2.4.1 Medicinal plants and their application in Ethiopia
Maiti and Geetha (2007) defined medicinal plants as plants used in various official and traditional systems of medicines throughout the world and provide people with medicines for prevention of disease and maintain health. They can be wild or cultivated plants. According to
Németh (2012), any plant can be a medicinal herb. Medicinal plants have an essential role for traditional treatment of various human and animal diseases in Ethiopia (Table 1). According to
Edwards (2001), c. 1000 medicinal plants are used for traditional treatment of several human and domestic animal diseases in Ethiopia. Especially, a privileged concentration of medicinal plant knowledge is found in the south and southwestern parts of Ethiopia due to high cultural diversity following high ethnic diversity.
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Table 1 Disease types treated by traditional medicinal plants in other parts of Ethiopia
Disease types and categories Researchers Dermatological diseases Mirutse Giday et al. (2007); Ermias Lulekal et al. (2013) Gastrointestinal complaints Mirutse Giday et al. (2007); Ermias Lulekal et al. (2013) Malaria Dawit Dikasso et al. (2006); Mirutse Giday et al. (2007); Anteneh Belayneh et al. (2012) Rabies Haile Yineger et al. (2008b); Petros Admasu and Yalemtsehay Mekonnen (2014) Tropical ulcer, gallstone, eye diseases Anteneh Belayneh et al. (2012) Snake bite Tesfaye Seifu (2004); Anteneh Belayneh et al. (2012) Haemorrhoids Haile Yineger et al. (2008b); Mesfin Tadesse and Brook Mesfin (2010) Leprosy Mesfin Tadesse and Brook Mesfin (2010) Eczema, rheumatism, earache and Haile Yineger et al. (2008a) gonorrhoea Fever and headache Fisseha Mesfin et al. (2009) *Trypanosomiasis, *anthrax, *leech Berhanemeskel Weldegerima et al. (2008) infestation (removal of leech from alimentary tract) *Rabies, *abdominal bloat, *sun stroke Berhanemeskel Weldegerima et al. (2008) fever *Black leg, *mastitis Fekadu Fullas (2010) Note:* Domestic animal diseases It is estimated that about 56,000 tons of medicinal plants of Ethiopia were harvested only in a year and most of these were harvested largely from non-cultivated medicinal plant species
(WBISSP, 2004). This harvested amount of traditional medicinal plants was estimated to become a source of 2 billion Ethiopian Birr (Mander et al., 2006). Many herbal substances that are used
14 in Ethiopian traditional medicine are also used as ingredients and spices in Ethiopian food
(Zuberi et al., 2014). However, consumption of these herbs and spices as part of a normal diet is likely to cause adverse interactions with modern medicines (Jackson, 2008).
2.4.1.1 Habits and usable parts
Medicinal plants may be herbs, trees, shrubs and climbers (Fisseha Mesfin et al., 2009; Anteneh
Belayneh et al., 2012) and root parasites (Anteneh Belayneh et al., 2012). Based on culture differences among the communities of Ethiopia, herbs may be frequently used as a source of traditional medicine in some parts of the country or shrubs or trees may be frequently used in some others. Several research findings agreed with this fact (Fisseha Mesfin et al., 2009; Mirutse
Giday et al., 2009; Abraha Teklay et al., 2013; Fisseha Mesfin et al., 2014; Genene Bekele and
Reddy, 2015). Most of the traditional medicinal plants of the country are wild, but sometimes they may be cultivated (Haile Yineger and Delenasaw Yewhalaw, 2007; Abraha Teklay et al.,
2013).
Due to knowledge and culture difference, the local community of Ethiopia used several parts of plants to prepare the remedy. These parts include roots, leaves, fruits, flower (including seeds), stems (including bark), latex, resin, gum, rhizomes, and young shoot. However, the whole plant may be rarely used (Dawit Abebe and Ahadu Ayehu, 1993). Moreover, among these parts, leaves and roots are most frequently used in many parts of the country. This fact was confirmed via several research findings (Mirutse Giday et al., 2009; Abraha Teklay et al., 2013; Fisseha Mesfin et al., 2014; Genene Bekele and Reddy, 2015).
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The traditional medicine is prepared by using various methods and techniques. These include grinding and crushing (Anteneh Belayneh et al., 2012). However, most of the remedy involves the use of traditional plant extracts (their active principles). The extraction process is done using various traditional methods such as boiling, pounding, soaking in water and chewing (Kitula,
2007). In addition, the crushed fresh part is rarely applied as a lotion on the lesions of patients
(Haile Yineger and Delenasaw Yewhalaw, 2007).
2.4.2 Wild edible plants and their role
WEPs are plants that are not cultivated by a given community rather they are collected from wild habitats (Termote et al., 2011). WEPs are all plant resources outside of agricultural areas that are collected for the purpose of human consumption in forests or in any other habitats (Bell, 1995).
They are herbs, shrubs, trees or climbers. They are one of the main non-timber forest products and possess up to 96% of the value of forests as UN estimates (FAO, 1995). An estimated 1 billion people of the world use WEPs to complement their nutrients in their diet to improve the deliciousness of staple foods (Burlingame, 2000). WEPs play a great role to diversify foods and alleviate malnutrition, especially, at times of food shortages in relation to catastrophes like drought, market fluctuation, political unrest and military conflict (Gordon and Enfors, 2008;
Fentahun Mengistu and Hager, 2009).
WEPs are good promising alternatives of many cultivated fruits to supplement nutrients
(Deshmukh and Rathod, 2013; Nayak and Basak, 2015).They are the source of essential micronutrients (Singh, 2011), proteins, fats (Aberoumand and Deokule, 2009), phenols, carotenoids, and vitamins such as vitamin E and C (Bouba et al., 2012). Sometimes WEPs possess higher nutritional contents than those of cultivated fruits (Nayak and Basak, 2015). Thus,
16 they provide crucial nutrients to the members of a given community, especially, to children, pregnant and breastfeeding females (FAO, 1995). Moreover, WEPs are the crucial source of wild foods for pastoralists, shifting cultivators, continuous croppers and hunter gatherers in rural areas
(Bell, 1995).
2.4.2.2 Advantages of using wild edible plants
The people of Ethiopia, especially the rural people, have a good knowledge on the use of WEPs due to the presence of a common consumption practice in the country (Dawit Abebe and Ahadu
Ayehu, 1993). This common consumption practice is also due to the fact that these plants require low investment practices since they can be collected freely from wild habitats. This is the greatest advantage of WEPs (FAO, 1995). Moreover, they have a great fit to be collected by females and children. They have also a great potential to supplement staple foods when shortage of food is happening due to drought or poverty (McGarry and Shackleton, 2009). This in turn can help the people of the country to cope with severe food shortages (Mathys, 2000). The people of
Konso in Ethiopia still possess a well developed knowledge whether which WEPs can best provide a dietary supplement during famine (Dechasa Lemessa, 1999). The other benefit of
WEPs is that they generate income due to the fact that the local community of the country may get money from the sale of WEPs (Neudeck et al., 2012).
2.4.2.3 Drawbacks of using wild edible plants
According to FAO (1995), WEPs take time and consume energy to be collected for household use and sale. Especially, the process of collection may be difficult if there are no local management systems and national policies that ensure their sustainable availability in their wild habitats. This is due to overharvesting may prevail without such systems and policies (Fentahun
Mengistu and Hager, 2009). The other drawbacks of using WEPs is that excess consumption of
17 wild edibles may lead to nutritional and health impairment unless traditional processing methods lower most of the anti-nutritional and their respective risks (Getachew Addis et al., 2013b).
2.4.3 Other useful plants of Ethiopia
Apart from their medicinal and edible role, plants have a wide variety of uses in Ethiopia. The local communities of Ethiopia highly depend on plants for several purposes. Plants are the source of construction materials (roof thatching and wall construction) (Tinsae Bahru et al., 2012).
Moreover, they are the source of household utensils, fence (dry and live fence) (Tinsae Bahru et al., 2012; Seada Yassin et al., 2015), cosmetics (beauty) and forage (bee and livestock fodder)
(Kindu Mekonnen et al., 2009; Shinkutie Belete et al., 2012).
Plants play a great role in soil conservation. They further provide shelter for wildlife and thus help to conserve it (Getachew Deriba, 1993). They provide diverse cultural services that are related to spiritual services, knowledge systems, maintenance of social relations and cultural heritages (Chidumayo and Gumbo, 2010). Some typical cultural services of plants, specifically those related to religion and ritual use values are observed among diverse ethnic and social groups in Ethiopia. Plants that are often recognized around churches, monasteries, mosques and burial grounds that are recognized by the followers as „sacred sites‟ are mentioned as examples (Teshome Sormessa et al., 2004).
They play a great role in income generation. Boswellia papyrifera, which is resin (frankincense) producing tree species, may be mentioned as an example (Kindeya G/Hiwot et al., 2002).
Moreover, different Acacia and Commiphora species, which produce Arabic gum and myrrh respectively, are the other income generating species (Tadesse W/Mariam et al., 2007; WBISP,
18
2004). Charcoal is the other source of income, especially for the rural people (Getachew Deriba,
1993). Timber and wood products are locally used to generate income. Timber products constitute the base for small scale industries in many communities, including those centred on woodcrafts, canoe making and the manufacturing of a variety of household tools and utensils
(IBC, 2005, 2009; Chidumayo and Gumbo, 2010). These industries enable communities to generate social and economic benefits. Apart from the direct involvement of communities in the timber business, sustainable forest management creates possibilities for the timber industry to share benefits from logging operations with local communities (Whiteman and Lebedys, 2006;
Wegene Getachew and Feleke Woldeyes, 2015).
2.5 Threats on the vegetation in Ethiopia
The plant resources of Ethiopia are facing several threats of extinction. Among several threats, overexploitation, overgrazing and deforestation may be mentioned as the major ones (IBC, 2009;
Wegene Getachew and Feleke Woldeyes, 2015). Deforestation includes conversion of forests to annual cropland, shifting cultivation lands and urban lands or other human infrastructure areas
(EFAP, 1994; GOFC-GOLD, 2009; EPCC, 2015). Deforestation process will also continue until realistic and acceptable alternatives can be found (Bongers and Tennigkeit, 2010).
The tropical dry Afromontane forests of Ethiopia are under continuous threats of deforestation.
The annual rate of deforestation in this tropical dry Afromontane forest is estimated to be between 163,000 and 200,000 ha (EFAP, 1994). This figure showed a reduction compared to the
World Bank (2005) report that estimated the annual loss of high forests of Ethiopia to be
150,000-200,000 ha. According to McKee (2007), the rates of deforestation of the country were estimated to be 146,000 ha/year. This shows a little bit decrease of forest loss in several years.
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The major threats in Amhara region are cutting trees for firewood, logging and construction purposes. Particularly, trees are being cut in large numbers for firewood (BoA, 1997). For instance, the forests of Zegie peninsula have supplied an estimated 90% firewood based energy in Bahir Dar (Getachew Deriba, 1993). Since firewood is an alternative option for getting income, the majority of forests have been lost for this purpose (Alemayehu Wassie et al., 2010).
Charcoal production and timber are the other direct causes for the loss of plants (USAID, 2008).
Weak management capacity and population pressure (USAID, 2008) are the other causes for continuous loss of plants (USAID, 2008; Wegene Getachew and Feleke Woldeyes, 2015).
2.6 Plant conservation efforts in Ethiopia
There has been a global concern about the long term capacity of forests to maintain their biodiversity and associated rates of supply of goods and services (including food, clean water, and recreation) (FAO, 2011). Thus, there are symptoms of declines in deforestation worldwide, even if there is still a widespread deforestation in various parts of the world (Chidumayo and
Gumbo, 2010).
Ethiopia has made efforts since long time ago by enacting laws to reduce human impacts on forests. Among the ancient laws, Menelik‟s decree that prohibits the cutting of Hagenia abyssinica, (Koso tree) is mainly mentioning. The Ethiopian forest laws (federal and regional) and the forest policy of Ethiopia in their preambles state that the degradation of the country‟s forests has caused soil erosion, expansion of desertification, disturbance of ecological balance, depletion of biodiversity and reduction of agricultural production. Though these forest laws of
Ethiopia have a dominant approach of commanding and controlling method, they have contributed little in controlling forest degradation all over the country (FAO, 1995).
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One of the reasons for the failure of the laws was that the laws mainly focused on prohibitive rules which denied the customary access of local people than accommodating these access rights of the local people and engaging them in the protection of forests (FAO, 2001). These laws had the effect of eroding the age old customary practices which have maintained forest resources and they developed a feeling of hostility by the local people toward forests. Besides, the forest laws were not strengthened by institutions or machineries that could „guard‟ forests from various illegal activities, if that was a possible cause. As the result of these, forests seemed to have remained without an owner and open access was a rule rather than an exception (FAO, 2010).
Beginning from the last decade, legal rules which mainly focused on protective approaches are being changed into more of participatory and sustainable use approaches worldwide. PFM is one of these participatory and sustainable use approaches which have demonstrated magnificent results in protecting forest resources and contributing to the livelihood means of the local people (World Bank, 2013). The recent Ethiopian forest policy and strategy document recognizes and encourages PFM as a mechanism of forest protection and sustainable utilization by applying customary knowledge (supported by science) and by public participation. Nowadays, forests have become one of the main concerns of all concerned organs
(state, non-state and the public at large) (IBC, 2012).
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CHAPTER THREE
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Description of Yilmana Densa and Quarit districts
3.1.1 Location
,E in west Gojjam zone ׳N and 37o 20 ׳Yilmana Densa district (woreda) is located at 11o 30
Amhara regional state, northwest Ethiopia. It is bordered by Kuarit district on the south, by
Sekela on the southwest, Mecha on the west, by Bahir Dar Zuria on the north, Abay river on the east by which separates it from the south Gonder zone, and by Gonji Kolela district on the southeast. The major town of this district is Adet.
Figure 1 Map of the study districts and Kebeles of west Gojjam zone of Amhara region, Ethiopia
(Drawn by using Arc GIS ver. 10.5)
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E and it is one of the districts in west Gojjam ׳N and 37o 15 ׳Quarit district is located at 11o 10 zone. It is bordered in the southwest by Jabi Tehnan, on the west by Sekela, on the north by Yilmana Densa, on the east by east Gojjam zone, and on the southeast by Dega Damot districts respectively. The major town is Gebeze Mariam (Figure 1).
3.1.2 Climate
Both two districts have two agroclimatic zones namely Weyna Dega and Dega zones. Weyna
Dega ranges from 1500 m to 2300 m above sea level and Dega ranges from 2300 m to 3200 m above sea level. Weyna Dega agroclimatic zone has three subdivisions: Dry Weyna Dega,
Moist Weyna Dega and Wet Weyna Dega. The amount of annual rainfall in Dry Weyna Dega is less than 900 mm, in Moist Weyna Dega it ranges from 900 mm to 1400 mm whereas in Wet
Weyna Dega, is above 1400 mm. The Dega agroclimatic zone is subdivided into two:
Moist Dega and Wet Dega. Moist Dega ranges in annual rainfall amount from 900 mm to 1400 mm and the amount of annual rainfall in Wet Dega is above 1400 mm (Hurni, 1998). Total annual rainfall is comparatively very high with a long term mean of 1366 mm per annum. The rainy season (Kremt) is relatively long and lasts from May to October (Figure 2).
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Figure 2 Climate diagram of Adet
3.1.3 Soil and topography
Both districts have plains, mountains, valleys and undulating areas. Most of the districts areas are covered by undulating areas and mountains respectively. The soils are traditionally classified into black soil, red soil and brown soil that consist of 20, 65 and 15% of the soil of the districts respectively (Asaminew Tassew et al., 2011; AODs, 2016). Scientifically, the major soil types of the districts are eutric vertisols which are the subdivisions of vertisols. Vertisols are deep to very deep, imperfectly drained soils formed on flat to almost flat topography. They have surface mulch and mostly well developed slicken sides in the lower part of their horizon. The heavy clay throughout the profile and the proportion of clay fraction is mostly greater than 60%. They are very hard to extremely hard when dry, and very sticky and plastic when wet, which is reflected in their poor work ability. They are one of the soil categories found in west Gojjam zone
(Tilahun Gebey and Zeleke Mekuriaw, 2013).
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3.1.4 Geology
According to Kazmin (1975) and Mohr (1962) the basement complex of the higher lying areas of
Amhara region fundamentally composed of various grades and types of schist and gneiss as well as almost unaltered sedimentary rocks and igneous intrusions. They underlay the whole of the region, forming an intensively folded and foliated metamorphic basement. The direction of folding and schistosity generally tend north - south or east - southwest. They are tentatively divided by an unconformity into an older, more metamorphosed group and a younger weakly metamorphosed group. This is the Precambrian basement rock underlying Mesozoic marine sediments and Tertiary flood basalt type to which the present study of the research falls under this type of geology. The Cenozoic volcanic rocks following the Mesozoic period, thick flood basalts called trap series and shield volcanic activities occurred in the high plateaus lying towards the northeastern part of the Amhara region.
3.1.5 Vegetation
The mainland covers in the study areas are settlements surrounded by Eucalyptus trees, cultivated land, grassland, woodland and shrub/bushland. It also includes evergreen and semi- evergreen, small trees and occasionally larger trees. Besides, there are a few scattered trees such as Acacia spp., Cordia africana and Croton macrostachyus in the farm lands whereas Eucalyptus camaldulensis is grown around the homestead (ALP, 2005). In Quarit district, man-made forests were established at Dergue regime to meet ever increasing demand of construction material and firewood of the local community. Forests were established with full participation of local people from planning up to benefit sharing. The community forestry was governed by the following rules: 1. At a time of forest product sales, priority should be given to the local community; 2. The
80% of forest product sales must be used for development of social services like schools, clinics,
25 water supply and others; 3. The remaining 20% would be utilized for coppice management and guarding the plantation (Asaminew Tassew et al., 2011).
3.1.6 Demographic features and livelihoods
According to CSA (2007), Yilmana Densa district has a total population of 214,852, of whom
107,010 are males and 107,842 females whereas Quarit district has a total population of 114,771, of whom 56,767 are males and 58,004 are females respectively. The majority (98.19%) of the inhabitants of Yilmana Densa district practiced Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity. The majority of the population resides in rural areas whereas the least number are urban inhabitants. The districts are inhabited by 99.9% of Amhara people and Amharic was spoken as a first language by
99.96% (CSA, 1994).
The populations of the districts have several livelihoods. The first one is traditional farming by using oxen rarely by using heifers, cows, horses and mules (Personal observation). Crop production is entirely rain fed, except in a small number of Kebeles where small scale water harvesting practices have been recently introduced by the office of agriculture and rural development. There is only one rainy season • Summer (Kremt) and it is important for the cultivation of both long and short cycle crops (ALP, 2005). The main crop types of the districts are cereal crops, oil crops, pulses, vegetables and spices. Cereal crops include barley
(Hordeum vulgare), wheat (Triticum sp.), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), teff (Eragrostis tef), finger millet (Eleusine coracana), oats (Avena sativa), rice (Oryza sativa) and maize (Zea mays).
Oil crops include Ethiopian kale (Brassica carinata), Niger seed (Guizotia abyssinica), linseed
(Linum usitatissimum), sesame (Sesamum indicum) and safflower (Carthamus tinctorius). Pulses
26 include faba bean (Vicia faba), field pea (Pisum sativum), chickpea (Cicer arietinum), lentil
(Lens culinaris), grass pea (Lathyrus sativus) and white lupin (Lupinus albus).
Vegetables include cabbage (Brassica oleracea), carrot (Daucus carota), potatoes (Solanum tuberosum), garlic (Allium sativum) and onion (Allium cepa). Potatoes are the main traded tuber crop (Tilahun Gebey and Zeleke Mekuriaw, 2013). Stimulant and industrial crops include coffee
(Coffea arabica), khat (Catha edulis), cotton (Gossypium barbadense), castor bean (Ricinus communis) and dogwood (Rhamnus prinoides). The other groups of crops are spices that include coriander (Coriandrum sativum), black cumin (Nigella sativa), bell pepper (Capsicum annuum) and hoary basil (Ocimum americanum) (AODs, 2016).
The other alternative sources of livelihood include off-farm and non-farm activities. Non-farm activities are practiced as a result of shortage of agricultural land. Cultivated land per household is getting smaller and smaller, mainly due to high population pressure. Land and livestock productivity are declining as a result of natural resource depletion. The newly established houses do not have access to farm land. Thus, the communities are engaged in non-farm activities such as pottery, metalwork, weaving, carpentry and basket making even if their number is insignificant (BoFED, 2006). Off-farm activities (micro and small enterprises) are used as the second poverty reduction and include animal husbandry, poultry, honey production and construction (BoFED, 2004). According to Tilahun Gebey and Zeleke Mekuriaw (2013), livestock is the most valuable resource for the livelihood of the rural people. Especially, cattle are the best source of income (ALP, 2005). Thus, an average annual income of 12,087,131.00
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Birr has been generated from livestock production. On the other hand, the aggregate annual income generated from crop production is estimated c. 19,725,688 Birr (ILU, 2007).
3.1.7 The status of human and livestock health
The main human diseases of the two districts are malaria, tuberculosis, lung diseases, intestinal parasites, diarrheal diseases, gastritis and duodenitis, eye diseases, skin wounds (infections) and epilepsy. The transmission of malaria increases between September and November which are the major transmission seasons of it (ALP, 2005). The seasons are associated with the amount of rainfall and relative humidity. The average monthly rainfall for malaria transmission was recorded to be 86.6-316.3 mm and that of average monthly relative humidity was 50-78%.
The other major disease type is tuberculosis whose consequences are particularly serious and potentially weakens patients and their families. Like brucellosis it can be transmitted by drinking infected milk (Yirdaw Emiru, 2015). In connection to this, poor road network and absence of public transport services are the other major problems that exacerbate the situation of patients that are in need of referral services. There is also lack of multiple health services such as delivery, injection, VCT and OPD, and essential drugs, IEC materials and consumable commodities.
The districts have also several economically important livestock diseases which are mentioned as the main problem for livestock rearing. The major livestock diseases of the districts are anthrax
(which infects cattle and goat), goat pox, black leg, and internal and external parasites (infects both cattle and goats), skin disease, pasteurellosis, trypanosomiasis and fasciolosis. Morbidity rates in indigenous sheep breeds of the district can be 70 to 90% and mortality can be from 5 to
10%. Both morbidity and mortality highly influence productivity and they reduce commercial
28 value (ESGPIP, 2009). Fasciolosis is one of the major parasites of domestic animals of the district. It imposes direct and indirect economic impact on ruminants (cattle and sheep) which are the natural hosts for Fasciola (liver flukes) infestation (Urquhart et al., 1996).
Besides, the districts have a chronic shortage of veterinary facilities to provide proper livestock health care for existing stocks that result a great rate of animal mortality and morbidity as well as poor quality of livestock outputs. Although the district counts with some veterinary centres, the facilities are poorly and poorly maintained. Lack of adequate personnel, materials and drugs, poor organization and poor hygiene makes clinics more contaminated centre for livestock health
(Asaminew Tassew et al., 2011).
3.2 Ethical considerations
The study engaged local communities and the administrators to get the ideas and views on plant species diversity, the plants used by the community including medicinal and wild edible plants, threats and conservation and other related issues. To perform semi-structured interview based survey all necessary measures were taken to ensure that the ethical aspects of the local communities and the districts‟ administrators were guaranteed. However, before the interviews and group discussions the study objectives and possible outcomes were described to the respective respondents. The values or religions of the local community were respected. Digital camera was used after consent of the infomants.
3.3 Vegetation study
3.3.1 Site selection and establishment of quadrats
A reconnaissance survey of Yilmana Densa and Quarit districts was conducted from September to November, 2015 and February to June, 2016, and five patches of forests were considered from
29 the two districts. The four patches namely Chinehilgn, Gebsh, Gelawolde and Avola were found in Danbash, Gebsh, Konch Gosheye, and Senqegna Kebeles of Yilmana Densa district respectively. The other 5th forest patch, Gebeze Mariam forest patch, was found in Gebeze
Mariam Kebele of Quarit district (Figure 1). Five transects, 50 m apart from each other were established along an altitudinal gradient, from the bottom to the ridge top of the mountain where human interference is relatively low as described by Kent (2011). A total of 104 quadrats each measuring 20 m × 20 m were laid down at every 50 m intervals along five parallel transect lines as indicated by Neelo et al. (2013). Woody species were sampled in 20 m × 20 m (400 m2) sample quadrat while herbaceous species were measured using 2 m × 2 m (4 m2) subquadrat within the main quadrat by using the method of Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg (1974).
A
Figure 3 Partial overview of Gebeze Mariam forest patche (A, B) in Quarit district (Photo by the researcher)
3.3.2 Vegetation data collection
Plant data were collected starting from September - December, 2016 and March - June, 2017,
September - October, 2017 in April - June, 2018. The data were collected in different seasons over different years with the objective of including seasonal plants and all parts of vascular plants (Figure 4). In each quadrat, the total numbers of individuals of each vascular plant species were counted and their cover abundance estimated following the Braun-Blanquet scale as
30 modified by van der Maarel (1979). Moreover, the diameter at breast height (DBH) of each woody species with DBH > 2.5 cm was measured. The criterion used to select the individual woody species is usually measurement of the diameter of the trunk at a height of 1.3-1.5 m above ground level (this is referred to as diameter at breast height or DBH). This was done with a meter that gives an indirect measurement of diameter when wrapped around the trunk of woody species. Then it was converted to DBH by dividing the circumference by Π (3.14).
The measurement of woody species branched at 1.3 m above the ground was done by placing the meter around the trunk at 10 cm lower than the usual height. For those woody species which begin to branch very low to the ground, the measurement was done by measuring the individual branches and finally by adding the results together (Martin, 1995). In addition, the saplings
(height between 1 m and 3 m) and the seedlings (height < 1 m) of woody species were counted and recorded as stated by Gates (1949). Besides, the altitudes, latitudes and longitudes of each quadrat were documented using GPS (Garmin etrex 30) at the centre of each quadrat. Growth form of plants with their use diversity was listed and voucher specimens were collected with the help of local field assistants. Specimens were dried, numbered, labeled, pressed, identified and deposited at the national herbarium (ETH) in Addis Ababa University. Identification of specimens was performed both in the field and by using Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea and scientific names were based on Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea volume 8. Plant specimen collection and preparation were made using the methods of Alexiades (1996).
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A B Figure 4 Photo of the researcher (A) (Photo by field assistant) and field assistant (B) (Photo by the researcher) during data collection in Dabal (A) and Senqegna (B) Kebeles
3.4 Ethnobotanical study
3.4.1 Site selection and sampling method
The sites were selected during reconnaissance survey by discussing with the districts‟ administrators, different individuals who had different background about many Kebeles and their residence, agricultural professionals, rural teachers, and by observation. Following the discussion twelve rural Kebeles (Gebsh, Ageta, Senkengna, Adet Zuria, Dewaro, Aybar, Konch Gosheye,
Dabal, Danbash, Seqela, Kudad and Debre Mewi) from Yilmana Densa district and seven rural
Kebeles (Fenigeta, Zamibit Ziguda, Enanigiya Shime, Dinja Tsiyon, Asheti Leba Gedel, Gebeze
Mariam and Areg Mahat) from Quarit district were selected (Figure 1).
The sample Kebeles of each district and key informants were selected purposively whereas the general informants were selected using a systematic random sampling method. The 19 rural
Kebeles were selected based on the presence of relatively dominant vegetation covers. For determination of the sample size of the two districts, the following formula was applied:
32 n = N
1+N (e)2
Where n is the sample size, N is the population size (total number of households of the two districts), and e (e = 0.05) is the level of precision. This formula is a simplified way used to calculate the sample sizes at the 95% confidence level and P = 0 (Taro Yamane, 1967; as cited by Israel, 1992). The calculation gave 395 required representative general informants for this study. After determining the amount of informants for the study, representative general and key informants of the districts were selected using systematic random and purposive sampling (based on their relative better knowledge) approaches respectively as described by Martin (1995) and
Albuquerque et al. (2014).
Therefore, the total number of general informants involved in ethnobotanical survey of wild edible, medicinal and other useful plants of the districts having two agroclimatic zones was 268 males and 127 females, separately 102 males and 45 females from Quarit district, and 165 males and 83 females informants from Yilmana Densa district respectively. Peer recommendations from community members, elderly people and knowledgeable inhabitants helped in nominating
95 key informants (68 males and 27 females). Separately, 35 (25 males and 10 females) were from Quarit district and 60 (43 males and 17 females) were from Yilmana Densa district. The age of the general informants ranged from 20-81 years (139 were from 20-40 whereas 256 were
> 40 years old). Informed consent was obtained from each informant who participated in this study after explaining the purpose of the study and assuring him/her of the most responsible legal use of information before the start of interviews.
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3.4.2 Ethnobotanical data collection
Ethnobotanical data were collected at the same seasons with that of vegetation data. Market surveys were conducted starting from December, 2016 to May, 2018. Semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, participant observation, field observation and market survey were used to collect ethnobotanical data in the manner recommended by Martin (1995).
A semi-structured interview and FGD were by using a checklist of questions prepared before hand in English, and presented by translating into Amharic which is the common language of the local community. Informants were interviewed individually in the local Amharic language.
Semi-structured interviews addressed questions regarding name, age, gender, level of education, occupation, religion, nationality, district, Kebele and peasant association of each informant
(Appendix 1). All semi-structured interviews were followed by independent walk-in-the-woods exercises to pave a way for a detailed discussion with the informant and the practical identification of traditionally used medicinal, wild edible and other useful plants in the natural environment.
Field observations were performed with the help of local guides, as well as some respondents of the local community. In addition, one FGD (consisting of 7 participants) per Kebele was undertaken to gain detailed information on medicinal, wild edible and other useful plant knowledge at the community level and to supplement the information collected through semi- structured interviews as indicated by Martin (1995). The informants were asked about local names, habitats, use diversity, parts used, collecting households, condition of plant part used
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(fresh/dried), ingredients used, mode of preparation, the threats and traditional conservation practices (if any) of medicinal, wild edible and other useful plants (Alexiades, 1996).
The informants were also asked about overall use values, diseases treated, methods of remedy preparation, dosage prescriptions and routes of remedy administration, other ingredients or additives (if any), taboos/beliefs related to the collection and use of plants, sources of knowledge about medicinal plants and method of indigenous knowledge transfer as stated by
Cotton (1996). Moreover, all relevant data including past and current status regarding their abundance, distance of collection site, season of collection and consumption, the role of edible plants to secure food scarcity, the preservation of indigenous knowledge on wild edible plants were recorded by conducting guided field interviews with informants (Martin, 1995).
3.5 Vegetation data analysis
3.5.1 Community analysis
In this study the plant species of 104 releve‟s were classified into 4 community types by using
Agglomerative hierarchical classification, Euclidean distance and ward methods using R version
3.5.1 software. Quadrats were grouped into clusters based on plant similarity and species abundance in order to define distinct plant community types. Identified communities were further refined in a synoptic table where species occurrences were summarized as synoptic cover abundance values (van der Maarel et al., 1987).
Synoptic values were calculated as the product of average cover abundance values of species and their frequency in a specific community type following van der Maarel et al. (1987). Community types were named after one or more dominating and/or characteristic species per community.
35
The percent cover abundance value was estimated visually for each species within the sample quadrat and recorded. These were later used for the estimation of cover/abundance values and converted to the Braun-Blanquet 1-9 scale as modified by van der Maarel (1979) as follows: 1 = rare generally one individual, 2 = occasional < 5% cover, 3 = abundant < 5% cover, 4 = very abundant < 5% cover, 5 = cover values between 5-12%, 6 = cover values between 12-25%, 7
= 25-50% cover; 8 = 50-75% cover and 9 = 75-100% cover of the total quadrat area.
3.5.2 Structural analysis
Structural analysis of the forests was performed based on frequency, density, DBH and basal area (BA) per hectare following Tamrat Bekele (1993). Density (D) is the average number of individuals of a species per unit area and it was calculated as follows:
D = Number of individuals in the sample
Total area of the sample (m2)
Relative density (RD) is the density of one species relative to all species in the sample and it was calculated as follows:
RD = Number of individuals of a species in the sample × 100
Total number of individuals of all species in the sample
DBH values were classified into seven classes in the manner used by Tamrat Bekele (1993) and density distribution of each woody species was then computed per DBH class (Kent and Coker,
1992). The ratio of density of individuals with DBH > 10 cm and DBH > 20 cm was computed to measure the size class distribution of species in the forest following Grubb et al. (1963). Basal area (in m2 per hectare) of woody species was computed as follows: BA = (DBH/2)2 × Π. Where
BA = Basal area, DBH = Diameter at breast height, Pie (Π) = Pie is a mathematical constant which is equal to 3.142. Basal area is used to measure dominance (degree of coverage of a
36 species as an expression of the space it occupies) (Barbour et al., 1987). Dominance is the area of a species occupies in a stand (basal area) per unit area (ha) (Magurran, 1988) and the dominance value of the woody species was calculated as follows:
Dominance = Basal area of individual species in the sample (m2)
Total area of the sample (m2)
Relative dominance is the area of a species occupies in a stand (basal area is used for woody species) as a percentage of the total area occupied by all species and it was calculated as follows:
RD = Basal area of a species (m2) × 100
Total basal area of all species (m2)
Percentage frequency (F) is the distribution of a species through a stand (the percentage of quadrats in the sample area in which a given species occur). A high frequency value means that the plant is widely distributed through the study area. The higher the frequency, the more important the plant is in the community (Barker, 2001) and it was computed as:
F = Number of quadrats in which a species occurs × 100
Total number of quadrats in the sample
A relative frequency of a species is used to obtain a better idea of the importance of a species with the frequency by comparing the frequency of occurrences of all of the tree species present and it was computed as follows:
RF = Frequency of a species × 100
Total frequency of all species
3.5.3 Computation of important indices
Importance value indices (IVI) of woody species were computed by adding relative density, relative frequency and relative dominance of the respective species, following Mueller-Dombois
37 and Ellenberg (1974). Shannon-Wiener diversity index was calculated to measure species diversity of the identifying plant communities (Kent and Coker, 1992) in forests. The Shannon diversity (H') and evenness (J) indices were calculated as a measure to incorporate both species richness and species evenness. The quantity Pi is the proportion of individuals found in the ith species. In a sample the true value of Pi is unknown, but is estimated as n/N (the maximum likelihood estimator). The index also assumes that all species are represented in the sample. It
S was calculated from the equation: H' = -Σ i = 1 (Pi × lnPi), where n = Number of individuals of each species (the ith species) and N = Total number of individuals of all species for the site, and ln = the natural log of the number, S = The total number of species (Magurran, 1988). The value of the Shannon diversity index is usually found to fall between 1.5 and 3.5 and only rarely surpasses 4.5 (Margalef, 1972).
The maximum diversity (Hmax) which could possibly occur would be found in a situation where all species were equally abundant, in other words if H' = Hmax = lnS. The ratio of the observed diversity to maximum diversity can therefore be taken as a measure of evenness (J). J is constrained between 0 and 1.0 with 1.0 representing a situation in which all species are equally abundant and computed as follows: J = H'/Hmax = H'/lnS.
3.5.4 Plant similarity, regeneration status and species area relationship
Plant similarity analysis was conducted to measure the pattern of species similarity among the sampled five forest patches and it was computed using Sorensen‟s similarity coefficient (Ss) and
Jacard‟s similarity coefficient (Sj), Sj = a/ (a+b+c); Ss = 2a/ (2a+b+c), where, a = number of species common to both forests compared; b = number of species in one forest; and c = number of species in the other forest (Kent and Coker, 1992). The regeneration status of woody species
38 was analyzed as indicated by Neelo et al. (2015). One sample t test was conducted to test the presence of significant mean percentage difference between seedlings and saplings, and those of seedlings and mature woody species. A significant species area relationship was done using
SPSS version 20.
3.6 Ethnobotanical data analysis
3.6.1 Informant consensus factor and fidelity level
Informant consensus factor and fidelity level were used to analyze different disease categories.
The reported diseases were grouped into 11 categories for humans (Table 2) and 6 categories for domestic animals (Table 3) by using the method of Dawit Abebe and Ahadu Ayehu (1993).
Informant consensus factor (ICF) was computed to measure the level of homogeneity of the information collected and degree of overall agreement on the treatment of specific disease category and to identify potentially effective medicinal plants used for the traditional treatment of human and domestic animal disease categories in two districts by using the method of Trotter and Logan (1986).
During information gathering the informants were contacted three times for the same ideas to find out the reliability of information recorded during the first interview so that the information that was repeated in the same manner by the informants at three contact times was recorded using the method of Alexiades (1996). ICF was computed as: ICF = Nur – Nt / (Nur – 1), where,
Nur = Number of use reports from informants for a particular plant use category; Nt = Number of species that are used for that plant use category for all informants. The values of ICF range between 0 and 1, where „1‟ indicates the highest level of informant consent. The relative healing potential of each reported medicinal plant used against human and domestic animal disease was
39 also assessed using an index of fidelity level (FL) and it was calculated as: FL (%) = (Ip/Iu) ×
100, where Ip is the number of informants who independently cited the importance of a species for treating a particular disease and Iu the total number of informants who reported the plant for any given disease (Trotter and Logan, 1986).
Table 2 Types of human diseases and their category
Disease types Category Eczema, dandruff, gland removal, scabies, skin peeling, swelling, TB (head wound), tinea1. Dermatological/ capitis, tinea corporis, tinea nigra, warts, wound Integumentary Asthma, common cold, coughs, lung disease 2. Respiratory Backache, rheumatism, stabbing pain 3. Musculo-skeletal Febrile illness, snake bite, spider bite, swelling 4. Miscellaneous diseases Evil eye, headache, impotency, madness/mental disease, migraine, nightmare 5. Central nervous Deafness, earache, ear pest, epistaxis, eye disease, night blindness, trachoma, tongue disease 6. Sensorial Abdominal bloating, gastritis and knocking, abdominal pain /colic, abdominal swelling, ascaris,7. Gastrointestinal/ constipation, diarrhoea, haemorrhoids, intestinal disease, leech, liver disease, poisoning, Digestive tapeworm, throat disease, tongue disease, tonsillitis, toothache, vomiting
Blood pressure 8. Circulatory Diabetes 9. Metabolism Malaria, rabies Infective Breast swelling, frequent miscarriage/neo-natal death, gonorrhoea, penis swelling, syphilis, Reproductive urinary retention
Table 3 Types of domestic animal diseases and their category
Disease types Category Back bleeding, hair disease, lice, rashes, swelling 1. Dermatological/ Integumentary Cough, sneezing 2. Respiratory Chicken disease, emaciation, febrile illness 3. Miscellaneous Eye disease 4. Sensorial Abdominal bloating, leech, weight loss 5. Digestive /Gastrointestinal Rabies 6. Infective
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3.6.2 Frequency index of medicinal plant species
Frequency index was calculated to determine the percentage frequency of single medicinal plant mentioned by informants. The following formula was used to calculate frequency index: FI = FC
/ N × 100, where FC is the number of informants who mentioned the use of the species, and N is a total number of informants (Madikizela et al., 2012). The frequency index is high when there are many informants who mention a particular plant and low when there are few reports.
3.6.3 Cultural significance index
The cultural significance index (CSI) was used to record or to indicate the importance or role of a species that plays in a culture by using the method of da Silva et al. (2006). This index was modified by Silva et al. (2006) in the following way: CSI = ∑ (i. e. c). CF, where CSI = cultural significance index, i = management of the species, e = preference of use, c = frequency of use,
CF = correction factor. The values of the variables “i,” “e,” and “c” are either 2 or 1 and are determined by each citation of use. i = species management (non-managed (1) or managed (2)); species management considers the plant‟s impact on the community‟s daily life (Turner, 1988).
The value of 2 is given for species that are cultivated, managed, or manipulated in any way, even if in an initial manner; the value of 1 is given for species found in the area yet free from any kind of management or conservation practices. e = Use preference (not preferred (1) or preferred (2)); this represents the preference given to the use of one species in relation to another for any given purpose. The numerical value of 2 is suggested for a species preferentially used for a given purpose, and value 1 is suggested for other available species not chosen preferentially for that purpose. c = Use frequency (rarely used (1) or used frequently (2)); this considers plants effectively used. In accordance with the values designated by Stoffle et al. (1990), a value of 2 is
41 attributed to plants effectively known and used, and 1 is attributed to plants rarely cited. CF =
Correction factor (number of citations for a given species divided by the number of citations for the most mentioned species).
3.6.4 Preference ranking and direct matrix ranking
Three preference ranking was exercised for three disease types (blood pressure, asthma and common cold). Sixteen key informants were selected for the preference ranking of 7 medicinal plants (Croton macrostachyus, Dovyalis abyssinica, Lupinus albus, Phragmanthera regularis,
Rosa abyssinica, Thymus schimperi and Verbascum sinaiticum) used to treat blood pressure. The same numbers of key informants were also asked to rank 4 medicinal plants (Verbascum sinaiticum, Rubia cordifolia, Dovyalis abyssinica and Catha edulis) used to treat asthma.
Moreover, 6 medicinal plants (Echinops kebericho, Eucalyptus globulus, Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata, Otostegia integrifolia, Ocimum urticifolium and Rumex nervosus) used to treat common cold were also ranked by the same number of key informants.
Similarly, the same informants were involved in preference ranking exercise of 9 ethnoveterinary medicinal plants (Arisaema schimperianum, Brucea antidysenterica, Crinum abyssinicum,
Croton macrostachyus, Cucumis ficifolius, Justicia schimperiana, Phytolacca dodecandra,
Rumex nepalensis and Stephania abyssinica) used to treat abdominal bloating and the scores were provided by informants based on their preference. In these exercises, the medicinal plant which participants thought to be most effective in treating the reported diseases got the highest value (4, 6, 7, 9) whereas the least effective ones got the lowest value (1) (Martin, 1995). Based on the total score of each species, the rank was determined. This helped to determine the most effective plant used by the community to treat most commonly reported diseases.
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Data on use diversity of five multipurpose medicinal plants was evaluated by direct matrix ranking exercise as described by Cotton (1996). This involved six (four males and two females) key informants. The participants for this exercise were selected based on their long years of experience as traditional herbal medicine practitioners (Alexiades, 1996) in the districts. The purpose of the direct matrix ranking exercise was to identify which of the multipurpose plants is most under pressure in the area and to evidence the corresponding factors that threaten the plants.
Besides, direct matrix ranking (DMR) exercise was done for 7 multipurpose ethnoveterinary medicinal plants (Calpurnia aurea, Croton macrostachyus, Erythrina brucei, Justicia schimperiana, Olinia rochetiana, Phytolacca dodecandra and Vernonia amygdalina) to identify which species were most under pressure.
Data on use diversity of five multipurpose wild edible plants was evaluated by direct matrix ranking exercise as described by Cotton (1996). This involved six (four males and two females) key informants selected from both districts as stated by Alexiades (1996). The purpose of this exercise was to identify which of the multipurpose plants is most under pressure in the area and to evidence the corresponding factors that threaten plants. Participants were asked to assign values to different uses of wild edible plant species as firewood, construction, agricultural tool, medicine, charcoal, timber, food and fence, and based on the degree of uses (i. e. 5 = Best; 4 =
Very good; 3 = Good; 2 = Less used; 1 = Least used and 0 = No value). By adding the scores, it was possible to compare the multipurpose medicinal plants to identify the main factor contributing to overharvesting of the respective species (Cotton, 1996).
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Sixteen key informants from two districts were also involved to rank 8 wild edible plants
(Dovyalis abyssinica, Rubus apetalus, Ficus sur, Cordia africana, Carissa spinarium, Rosa abyssinica, Ficus vasta and Rhus glutinosa) regarding their taste, quality and income generation based on personal preference or perceptions of the key informants following the procedure elucidated by Martin (1995) and Cotton (1996). Each rank was given a value of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8. The most effective plant is stated by highest value 8 while the least important is stated by a value of 1. An overall rank for the species was given by adding up these values for the key informants.
Similar exercise for 15 key informants from two districts was also involved to rank five most important threats (agricultural land expansion, material uses, firewood, overgrazing and replacement of natural vegetation by Eucalyptus species) of wild edible plants of the districts.
Each rank was given a value of 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 based on the level of the threat. The most threat for wild edible plants is stated by highest value 5 while the least threat is stated by a value of 1.
An overall rank for the threat was given by adding up the values provided by key informants.
The procedure was elucidated by Martin (1995) and Cotton (1996).
3.6.5 Use diversity study of medicinal, wild edible and other useful plants
Ethnobotanical data obtained using various ethnobotanical data collection methods were all documented to assess overall use values and use diversity of the species following Phillips
(1996) and Byg and Balslev (2001). All informants of the study were interviewed at the same time for their knowledge of the additional local use or use diversity of plants cited for one or more uses of medicinal and other useful plants following the method of Martin (1995) and
44
Cotton (1996). The medicinal and other useful plants cited were categorized into the following 7 categories.
These were: 1. Medicines: human and veterinary medicine; 2. Food: food for humans including beverages and spices; 3. Fodder: feed for livestock; 4. Fuel: firewood and charcoal; 5. Poison: toxic to human, livestock and other animals; 6. Social uses: including stimulants, fumigation, cosmetics, walking stick, baking materials, agricultural tools, house construction, dyes, pillow, toothbrush, rope, mat, timber (preparation of beds, tables and other household utensils); 7.
Environmental uses: live fence, dry fence, shade, shelter, erosion control, ornamental and soil improvement.
The local importance of some representative medicinal plant species cited was calculated by using use value technique (UV). The use value was calculated using the formula, UV = ∑Ui/n
(Albuquerque et al., 2014), where: Ui = the number of uses mentioned by each informant for a given species, n = the total number of informants. Six key informants were also involved for direct matrix ranking exercise of five wild edible plant species (Acacia abyssinica, Carissa spinarum, Cordia africana, Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata and Rosa abyssincia) with additional uses (environmental use, forage, fuel, medicine and social use). These species were ranked based on five use criteria (5 = Best; 4 = Very good; 3 = Good; 2 = Less used; 1 = Least used and 0 = No value). In exercise of direct matrix ranking, FGD was conducted to identify the degree of preference based on multipurpose criteria on the plants.
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3.6.6 Descriptive statistics and test of significance
The method of descriptive statistics was applied to identify the number and percentage of species, genera and families of medicinal, wild edible and other useful plants used, their growth forms, proportions of parts harvested, modes of remedy preparation and routes of administration
(Alexiades, 1996). The significance of traditional knowledge difference (on the types of medicinal plants and the disease treated) between general and key informants, adults (< = 50 years) and elders (> 50 years), female and male, and illiterate (including church and elementary education) and literate was compared using statistical test and one way ANOVA at 95% confidence level by using SPSS version 20 following the method of Alexiades (1996). The statistical test was also conducted to test the null hypothesis that states, "There is no wild edible plant knowledge difference between two age groups (adults and elders)".
3.6.7 Market surveys
Market surveys were conducted at three market places, namely Adet and Dabi whose market dates were on Saturday and Wednesday, and Bir Gebeya whose market date was on Friday. The purpose of market survey was to record, document and analyze the availability, price and unit of measurement, extent of use and income generating potential of medicinal, wild edible and other useful plants found in the markets following the method of Alexiades (1996).
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CHAPTER 4
4. RESULTS
A total of 300 vascular plants were recorded and reported in Yilmana Densa and Quarit districts.
Out of which, 122 plants were reported to be used as a source of traditional medicine whereas 32 were reported to be used as a source wild food.
4.1 Plant composition of the forest patches
A total of 249 vascular plant species were recorded from the five forest patches of the districts.
These species were grouped into 194 genera and 81 families. Twenty four (9.6%) species were endemic to Ethiopia whereas 10 (4%) species were exotic. Asteraceae was the dominant family in species number (35 species, 14%) followed by Fabaceae (29 species, 11.6%) and Poaceae (24 species, 9.6%) (Appendix 2). Majority of families (91.4%) were represented by least number of species ranging from 1-5 species whereas the least number of families were represented by most number of species (Figure 5). The recorded vascular plants had five habit classes (climbers, epiphytes, herbs, shrubs and trees). More than 50% species (129 species) were herbs followed by shrubs (73 species, 29.7%) and trees (33 species, 13.3%). Nine species were climbers including woody climbers (8 species, 2.8%) and herbaceous climbers (3 species, 0.8%) whereas epiphytes were the least in number (3 species, 1.2%).
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Figure 5 Percent of plant families with range of representative species
4.2 Plant communities of the forest patches
Plant species were classified into 4 community types (Figure 6) by using Agglomerative hierarchical classification, and Euclidean distance and ward methods. These were the following:
Community 1 Croton macrostachyus - Maytenus gracilipes community type
The community had two indicator species (Croton macrostachyus - Maytenus gracilipes) with significant indicator values. This community was represented by 28 quadrats (Table 4) and the altitudinal range of this community was from 2527-3066 masl. Woody species with indicator values > 0.1 and associated with this community were Buddleja polystachya, Calotropis procera,
Dichrostachys cinerea, Dodonea angustifolia, Euclea racemosa, Euphorbia tirucalli, Jasminum grandiflorum, Senna singueana, Sida schimperiana and Vernonia auriculifera. The herbaceous species dominating this community were also Rumex nervosus, Cucumis ficifolius, Hyparrhenia dregeana and Pennisetum thunbergii (Table 5).
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Community 2 Calpurnia aurea - Osyris quadripartita - Rosa abyssinica - Pterolobium stellatum community type
The community had four indicator species (Calpurnia aurea, Osyris quadripartita, Rosa abyssinica and Pterolobium stellatum) with significant indicator values. This community was represented by 21 quadrats (Table 4) and the altitudinal range of this community was from 2116-
2430 masl. Woody species with indicator values > 0.1 and associated with this community were
Acacia abyssinica, Croton macrostachyus, Jasminum grandiflorum, Maytenus gracilipes,
Maytenus senegalensis, Albizia gummifera, Buddleja polystachya, Grewia ferruginea,
Sideroxylon oxyacanthum, Vernonia leopoldi and V. auriculifera. The herbaceous species dominating this community were Verbascum sinaiticum and Torilis arvensis (Table 5).
Community 3 Maesa lanceolata - Dodonea angustifolia - Otostegia integrifolia community type
The community had three indicator species (Maesa lanceolata, Dodonea angustifolia and
Otostegia integrifolia) with significant indicator values. This community was represented by 24 quadrats (Table 4) and the altitudinal range of this community was from 2228-3004 masl.
Woody species with indicator values > 0.1 and associated with this community were Albizia gummifera, Clutia lanceolata, Lippia adoensis, Otostegia integrifolia, Rosa abyssinica, Rhus glutinosa subsp. glutinosa and Vernonia auriculifera. The herbaceous species dominating this community were Kalanchoe petitiana, Echinops macrochaetus and Bidens prestinaria (Table 5).
Community 4 Acacia negrii - Rhus glutinosa - Clutia lanceolata community type
The community had three indicator species (Acacia negrii, Rhus glutinosa subsp. glutinosa and
Clutia lanceolata) with significant indicator values. This community was represented by 30 quadrats (Table 4) and the altitudinal range of this community was from 2364-2931 masl.
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Woody species with indicator values > 0.1 and associated with this community were Acacia abyssinica, Dodonea angustifolia, Lippia adoensis var. koseret, Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata,
Otostegia integrifolia and Rosa abyssinica. The herbaceous species dominating this community were Verbascum sinaiticum and Bidens prestinaria (Table 5).
Figure 6 Dendrogram showing plant community types of the study areas
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Table 4 Community (C) and the number of quadrats (Q) that belong to each community Community (C) Quadrats Number of plant species T E WEPs MP C1 100 39 31 68 101 21 58 98 40 42 44 35 93 8 9 47 45 43 48 47 32 33 34 26 36 38 28 37 25 27 29 30 C2 4 1 2 9 7 3 8 13 12 5 10 6 11 77 4 8 37 20 24 99 22 23 16 14 15 C3 70 73 74 104 64 71 57 65 17 18 19 81 7 7 39 103 67 69 75 59 60 61 63 78 46 81 66 72 C4 90 84 91 77 76 83 87 86 88 102 96 101 13 9 50 95 92 94 79 89 93 62 85 80 82 56 55 97 53 54 50 52 49 51 Note: T = Total species; E = Endemics; WEPs = Wild edible plants; MP = Medicinal plants
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Table 5 Synoptic table of species reaching a value of > 0.1 in at least one community type. Cluster number 1 2 3 4 Number of quadrats 28 21 24 30 Acacia abyssinica 0.003 0.4000 0.0200 0.0300 Acacia negrii 0.050 0.1000 0.0100 0.1000 Albizia gummifera 0.003 0.2000 0.1400 0.0100 Bersama abyssinica 0.030 0.5000 0.0200 0.0300 Bidens prestinaria 0.000 0.0000 0.2000 0.1000 Buddleja polystachya 0.120 0.1000 0.0100 0.0100 Calotropis procera 0.200 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 Calpurnia aurea 0.002 0.8000 0.0002 0.0300 Clutia lanceolata 0.010 0.1000 0.1400 0.3000 Croton macrostachyus 0.370 0.3260 0.0436 0.0580 Cucumis ficifolius 0.200 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 Dichrostachys cinerea 0.130 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 Dodonea angustifolia 0.350 0.003 0.2000 0.1000 Echinops macrochaetus 0.100 0.0000 0.2000 0.0000 Euclea racemosa 0.250 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 Euphorbia tirucalli 0.250 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 Grewia ferruginea 0.010 0.2000 0.0400 0.0100 Hyparrhenia dregeana 0.200 0.0000 0.0200 0.0010 Jasminum grandiflorum 0.100 0.4000 0.0000 0.0000 Kalanchoe petitiana 0.020 0.0300 0.2000 0.0200 Lippia adoensis 0.020 0.0000 0.2000 0.1000 Maesa lanceolata 0.020 0.0300 0.2000 0.0200 Maytenus gracilipes 0.480 0.2000 0.0100 0.0050 Maytenus senegalensis 0 .000 0.4000 0.0010 0.0000 Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata 0.000 0.0000 0.0000 0.1200 Osyris quadripartita 0.070 0.5000 0.0500 0.0600 Otostegia integrifolia 0.060 0.0100 0.2000 0.2000 Pennisetum thunbergii 0.200 0.0000 0.0010 0.0050 Pterolobium stellatum 0.020 0.5000 0.005 0.0200 Rosa abyssinica 0.001 0.5000 0.2000 0.1000 Rumex nervosus 0.400 0.0007 0.0300 0.0040 Senna singuena 0.250 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 Sida schimperiana 0.200 0.0400 0.0200 0.0010 Sideroxylon oxyacantum 0.070 0.2000 0.0200 0.0300 Rhus glutinosa 0.001 0.1000 0.1000 0.2000 Torilis arvensis 0.020 0.2000 0.0100 0.0100 Verbascum sinaiticum 0.002 0.2000 0.0100 0.1000 Vernonia leopoldi 0.000 0.3000 0.0000 0.0000 Vernonia auriculifera 0.200 0.2000 0.1000 0.0800
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4.3 Vegetation structure of the forest patches
4.3.1 Density of trees and shrubs
The total number of individuals of trees and shrubs in the five forest patches was 15087 whereas
the total density was 3627 ha-1. Dodonea angustifolia had highest contribution for the total
number of individuals (Table 6, Appendix 3).
Table 6 Woody species with density > = 0.01 Scientific name of species Density (m2) Relative density (m2) Acacia negrii Pic.Sermi. 0.02 5.3 Calpurnia aurea (Ait.) Benth. 0.01 2.7 Carissa spinarum L. 0.02 4.8 Croton macrostachyus Del. 0.02 6.8 Dodonea angustifolia L. 0.1 37.7 Olea europaea L. subsp. cuspidata (Wall. ex G. Don) Cif. 0.02 5.7 Osyris quadripartita Decn. 0.02 4.9 Vernonia auriculifera Hiern. 0.02 4.6
4.3.2 Diameter at breast height
The percentage distribution of woody species in the five forest patches of the two districts across
six DBH classes indicated a relatively high proportion of individuals in DBH class 1-10 cm (38
species, 70.4%) and DBH class 10-20 cm (8 species, 14.8%), 30-40 cm (5 species, 9.3%). The
lowest proportion of individuals was recorded for DBH class 60-70 cm, 220-230 cm and 310-
320 cm (1 species, 1.9% for each). The highest DBH value was recorded for Juniperus procera
(DBH > 318 cm) and Hagenia abyssinica (DBH > 220.2 cm) respectively (Figure 7). These
species were the two large sized trees found in the forest patches of Yilmana Densa district.
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Figure 7 DBH classes of woody species of the two districts
4.3.3 Population structure
The population structures of some woody species having relatively great variation in the forest patches were analyzed and three representative patterns were identified (Figure 8A - J).
Inverted ‘J’ shaped: In this distribution pattern most of the individuals were in the lower diameter classes and the number was subsequently decreased so that the higher classes were with very few individuals. The examples in this distribution were Acacia abyssinica, Albizia gummifera, Bersama abyssinica, Calpurnia aurea, Croton macrostachyus and Dodonea angustifolia. As indicated in Figure 8A, 8B, 8C, 8F, 8G, 8H and 8J, the number of individuals in the first diameter class was high in the two species then it decreased dramatically at the second class and then afterwards the number decreased subsequently.
‘Bell’ shaped: This kind of frequency distribution was formed when a higher number of individuals were concentrated on the intermediate diameter class. The other side of the
54 intermediate diameter classes was with few numbers of individuals, e.g. Prunus africana and
Olea europaea subsp.cuspidata (Figure 8).
Upward ‘F’: This type of frequency distribution pattern was formed when individuals were concentrated in the first (lower) and intermediate (third or fourth) diameter class. The rest of the classes were with an almost equally few number of individuals, e.g. Osyris quadripartita
(Figure 8I).
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Figure 8 Representative patterns of trees and shrubs (8A-J)
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4.3.4 Basal area of woody species
The total basal area of woody species in the five forest patches was 29.8 m2 ha-1. Out of which,
71.8% was contributed by 7 woody species, Apodytes dimidiata, Ekebergia capensis, Erica
arborea, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Eucalyptus globulus, Ficus vasta, Juniperus procera and
Prunus africana. The remaining 28.2% was contributed by 49 woody species. Woody species
with such highest basal area had highest dominance and relative dominance values (Table 7,
Appendix 4).
Table 7 Woody species with basal area > 1 m2 h-1 Scientific name of plant species Basal area Basal area Dominance Relative (m2) (m2/ha) dominance Apodytes dimidiata E. Mey. ex Arn. 9.1 2.2 0.00020 7.10 Ekebergia capensis Sparrm. 5.7 1.4 0.00010 3.50 Erica arborea L. 7.1 1.7 0.00004 1.40 Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. 7.5 1.8 0.00020 7.10 Eucalyptus globulus Labill. 10.7 2.6 0.00030 3.50 Ficus vasta Forssk. 4.8 1.2 0.00010 3.50 Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkm. 31.2 7.5 0.00100 35.30
4.3.5 Frequency of woody species Based on the method of Lamprecht (1989), 29 most frequent woody species were grouped into
five frequency classes: A = 81-100%; B = 61•80%; C = 41•60%; D = 21•40%; E = 0•20%.
There was no recorded species in frequency class A. Only two species, Croton macrostachyus
and Vernonia auriculifera were recorded in frequency class B. The next most frequent species
belonging to frequency class C were Dodonea angustifolia, Rosa abyssinica, Osyris
quadripartita, Otostegia integrifolia, Maytenus gracilipes and Clutia lanceolata (Appendix 5).
4.3.6 Importance values of woody species
About 52% of the IVI of woody species of the forest patches was contributed by 6 woody
species, Dodonea angustifolia, Croton macrostachyus, Vernonia auriculifera, Osyris
57 quadripartita, Carissa spinarum and Acacia negrii. The remaining percentages were shared among other 23 species (Table 8, Appendix 6).
Table 8 Nine woody species with IVI > 6 Scientific name of woody species Relative Relative Relative IVI density dominance frequency Acacia abyssinica Hochst. ex Benth. 0.6 3.50 2.4 6.5 Acacia negrii Pic.Serm. 5.3 0.10 2.1 7.5 Carissa spinarum L. 4.8 0.01 4.0 8.8 Clutia lanceolata Forssk. 2.3 0.10 4.2 6.6 Croton macrostachyus Del. 6.8 0.04 6.8 13.6 Dodonea angustifolia L.f. 37.7 0.20 5.9 43.8 Osyris quadripartita Decn. 4.9 0.10 5.4 10.4 Otostegia integrifolia Benth. 1.2 0.10 4.9 6.2 Vernonia auriculifera Hiern. 4.6 0.10 6.5 11.2
4.4 Regeneration of woody species
A total of 2063 seedlings (491.4 ha-1), 2783 saplings (735.9 ha-1) and 8586 mature wood species
(2063.9 ha-1) in 27 genera and 22 families were recorded in the five forest patches along 104 sampled quadrats (total area of 4.16 ha). The ratio between number of individuals of seedlings and saplings, and seedlings and mature individuals were 0.74 and 0.24 respectively. Five woody species, Dodonea angustifolia, Acacia negrii, Vernonia auriculifera, Calpurnia aurea and Clutia lanceolata had highest number of seedlings compared to the remaining 51 woody species (Figure
9). However, the number of seedlings of all the recorded woody species was lower than those of mature woody species (Appendix 3). It was also observed that the number of seedlings of woody species in the forest patches had no relationship with their basal areas (Figure 10)
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Figure 9 Top 13 woody species with highest number of individuals
Test of significance One sample t test confirmed that there was a significant mean percentage difference (Tcal <
Ttab, P < 0.05) between the respective groups of individuals (Table 9 and 10).
Table 9 Test of mean percentage difference of seedlings and mature woody species
t df Sig. Mean 95% confidence interval of the difference (2-tailed) Difference Percentage 0.192 Lower Upper 1 0.879 4.65000 -303.4755 312.7755 Table 10 Test of mean percentage difference of seedlings and saplings
t df Sig. (2 tailed) Mean 95% Confidence interval of the difference Difference Percentage 0.019 1 0.988 .05000 Lower Upper -33.6214 33.7214
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Figure 10 Number of seedlings and basal area of woody species per hectare (m2)
4.5 Plant species - area relationship in the forest patches
There was a significant relationship (p < 0.05) between species richness and areas (m2) of the forest patches (Table 11 and 12).
Table 11 Regression (R) square value
Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate
1 .838a .703 .629 8987.28663
a. Predictors: (Constant), area
Table 12 ANOVAa table for species richness and areas of the forest patches
Model Sum of squares df Mean Square F Sig.
1 Regression 764488049.599 1 764488049.599 9.465 .037b
Residual 323085283.734 4 80771320.934
Total 1087573333.333 5
a. Dependent variable: Number; b. Predictors: (Constant), area
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4.6 Plant diversity and similarity in the forest patches
The total plant diversity (H') of the two districts was 3.765. Separately, Yilmana Densa district
had higher plant diversity than Quarit district (Table 13).
Table 13 Shannon and Simpson diversity, and evenness of the districts
Diversity indices/measures Formulae Districts Yilmana Densa district Quarit district
Shannon (H') H' = -∑pi ln pi 4.2300 3.9730 2 Simpson (D) D = ∑P i 0.9697 0.9668
Evenness (J) J = H' /Hmax = H' /lnS 0.9400 0.8800 Note: S = Number of species; Pi = Number of individuals in the ith species
Species similarity
Two hundred common species were recorded from the five forest patches of the two districts at
the altitudinal range of 2116-3060 masl (Table 14). The calculation of Jacard‟s and Sorensen‟s
similarity coefficient of the five forest patches also showed that the two districts were inhabited
by almost similar plant species. However, there was a significant difference (p < 0.05) between
the two coefficients (Table 15).
Table 14 Number of unique species in each forest patch Districts Forest patches No of plant species No. of Quadrats Altitudinal range Yilmana Densa Gebsh Total 210 14 2116-2218 m Unique 10 Gelawolde Total 211 22 2207-2455 m Unique 11 Chinehilgn Total 220 8 2858-3066 m Unique 20 Avola Total 202 12 2326-2527 m Unique 2 Quarit Gebeze Mariam Total 209 48 2181-2521 m Unique 9 Note: * Sj = a/ (a+b+c); ** Ss = 2a/ (2a+b+c); where Sj = Jacard‟s similarity coefficient; Ss =
Sorensen‟s similarity coefficient; a = Number of species with simultaneous occurrence in forest
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patches 1 and 2; b = Number of species that occur only in forest patch 2; c = Number of species
that occur only in forest patch 1.
Table 15 Jacard‟s and Sorensen‟s similarity coefficient in the five forest patches Similarity between forest patches Sj* = Jacard‟s Ss** = Sorensen‟s Test of significance similarity coefficient similarity coefficient Gebsh and Avola 0.943 0.971 Tcal < T tab (p < 0.05) Gebsh and Gelawolde 0.948 0.950 - Gebsh and Chinehilgn 0.870 0.930 Tcal < T tab (p < 0.05) Gebsh and Gebeze Mariam 0.913 0.955 Tcal < T tab (p < 0.05) Avola and Gelawolde 0.939 0.969 Tcal < T tab (p < 0.05) Avola and Chinehilgn 0.900 0.948 Tcal < T tab (p < 0.05) Avola and Gebeze Mariam 0.948 0.973 Tcal < T tab (p< 0.05) Gelawolde and Chinehilgn 0.866 0.928 Tcal < T tab (p < 0.05) Gelawolde and Gebeze Mariam 0.909 0.952 Tcal < T tab (p < 0.05) Chinehilgn and Gebeze Mariam 0.873 0.932 Tcal < T tab (p < 0.05)
4.7 Plant use category in the forest patches
The recorded plants in the forest patches were reported with several uses that were classified into
seven use category. Out of which, 30% of plant species had environmental uses whereas the
second share had medicinal role. In contrast, wild edible and poisonous plants were the least in
number (14 species, 4.2% each) (Figure 11).
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Figure 11 Plant use category
4.7.1 Environmental and related uses
It was reported that 100 plant species of the foest patches had environmental and other related uses. Most of the species (71.6%) were herbs followed by shrubs (19.4%) and trees (9%). The spiny species, Carissa spinarum, Pterolobium stellatum, Acacia abyssinica, Acanthus polystachus, Rosa abyssinica and Rubus apetalus were the primary woody species for fence (dry and live fence). Grevillea robusta, Maytenus gracilipes, Maytenus senegalensis and Vernonia auriculifera were also the second woody species for this purpose. Grass species, Andropogon amethystinus, Hyparrhenia dregeana, Panicum hochstetteri, Pennisetum clandestinum, P. thunbergii, Sporobolus africanus, S. discosporus, S. festivus were primarily used for soil conservation. The other reported species for the same purpose were Kniphofia foliosa,
Leptothrium species, Verbascum sinaiticum and Cyperus rigidifolius. The reported leguminous
63 species for soil improvement were Trifolium species. The broad leaved deciduous species,
Croton macrostachyus, was also concomitantly used for soil improvement.
4.7.2 Source of traditional medicine
It was reported that 82 species that grouped into 70 genera and 47 families had medicinal role.
Out of which, 9 species were endemic to Ethiopia. Solanaceae was represented by more number of species (Table 16). The species had five habit classes. Most of the species were herbs (38 species, 46.3%) followed by shrubs (29 species, 35.4%). Trees were the third in number (9 species, 11%) followed by climbers (4 species, 4.9%) and epiphytes (2 species, 2.4% each).
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Table 16 List of plant families with number of medicinal plant species Family Total number of species Percent of species Uses Solanaceae 6 7.8 For humans and livestocks Asteraceae 5 6.5 For humans and livestocks Fabaceae 5 6.5 For humans and livestocks Lamiaceae 4 5.2 For humans Euphorbiaceae 4 5.2 For humans and livestocks Asclepiadaceae 3 3.9 For humans and livestocks Cucurbitaceae 3 3.9 For humans and livestocks Loranthaceae 3 3.9 For humans Rubiaceae 3 3.9 For humans Scrophulariaceae 2 2.6 For humans and livestocks Aloaceae 2 2.6 For livestocks Malvaceae 2 2.6 For humans Po1ygonaceae 2 2.6 For humans and livestocks Ranunculaceae 2 2.6 For humans and livestocks Rosaceae 2 2.6 For humans Urticaceae 2 2.6 For humans and livestocks Amaranthaceae 1 1.3 For humans Amaryllidaceae 1 1.3 For humans and livestocks Apocynaceae 1 1.3 For humans Araceae 1 1.3 For livestocks Araliaceae 1 1.3 For humans Asparagaceae 1 1.3 For humans Boraginaceae 1 1.3 For humans Capparidaceae 1 1.3 For humans Crassulaceae 1 1.3 For humans Cyperaceae 1 1.3 For humans Ebenaceae 1 1.3 For humans Iridaceae 1 1.3 For humans Meliaceae 1 1.3 For humans Menispermaceae 1 1.3 For humans and livestocks Moraceae 1 1.3 For humans Oleaceae 1 1.3 For humans Oliniaceae 1 1.3 For humans and livestocks Papaveraceae 1 1.3 For humans Plantaginaceae 1 1.3 For humans Rutaceae 1 1.3 For humans and livestocks Sapindaceae 1 1.3 For humans Simaroubaceae 1 1.3 For humans Verbenaceae 1 1.3 For humans Vitaceae 1 1.3 For humans
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4.7.3 Fuel
It was reported that 17% of plants were used for fuel (firewood and charcoal production).
Eucalyptus species, Eucalyptus camaldulensis and E. globulus were the primary source for firewood (Table 17). Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Acacia abyssinica were also the primary source for charcoal. The other species used for firewood were Acacia abyssinica, Albizia gummifera, Erythrina brucei, Ficus sur and Prunus africana.
Table 17 Preference ranking of six woody species by 15 key informants based on degree of preference for firewood Preference based on their Informants Score Rank importance for firewood A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O Acacia abyssinica 4 5 3 6 1 4 6 3 5 2 4 3 5 2 5 58 3rd Albizia gummifera 2 2 1 4 4 1 3 1 3 1 2 2 1 1 4 32 6th Eucalyptus camaldulensis 6 4 4 5 6 5 5 4 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 81 1st Eucalyptus globulus 5 6 6 3 5 6 3 5 2 5 5 5 4 5 3 68 2nd Ficus sur 1 1 2 2 3 3 2 2 4 4 1 4 2 3 2 36 5th Prunus africana 3 3 5 1 2 2 1 6 1 3 3 1 3 4 1 39 4th Note: Highest number (6) was given for woody species which informants thought most preferred for firewood and the lowest number (1) for the least preferred.
4.7.4 Social uses
It was reported that an approximately 12% of plants were reported to be used for social uses.
Fumigation: Three woody species, Acacia negrii, Rosa abyssinica and Terminalia schimperiana were reported to be used to fumigate milk utensils in need of good odor of the utensils. Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata was also used to fumigate other utensils that used for keeping alcoholic drinks (Tella (ale) = local beer, Katikala = local brandy/liquor). Similarly, Otostegia integrifolia was used to fumigate traditional houses to avoid houseflies from entering into them.
It was also used to fumigate clothes in need of good odor (especially the clothes of breast feeding
66 mothers). The other woody species needed for fumigation was Jasminum grandiflorum whose young branches were used to fumigate hives.
Cosmetics: Impatiens ethiopica was reported to be used as source of cosmetics. Especially, during epiphany young girls cook the root of this plant and paint their hands as cosmetics.
Walking sticks: Dodonea angustifolia, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Rhus glutinosa subsp. glutinosa and Rosa abyssinica were reported to be used as the primary source of walking sticks.
Clausena anisata, Eucalyptus globulus, Grewia ferruginea and Olinia rochetiana were also the other alternatives for sticks.
Baking and malting purposes: The leaves of Ficus sur and Maesa lanceolata were primarily used for baking bread. The leaves of Bersama abyssinica were also used for putting injera
(Traditional Ethiopian food made of Eragrostis tef) due to their roughness allowing aeration.
Such types of leaves were therefore reported to be the most preferred in avoiding the spoilage of injera. It was also reported that the smooth leaves of Croton macrostachyus were used for malting.
Detergents and toothbrushes: It was reported that the peels of Grewia ferruginea and the inflorescence of Buddleja polystachya were used as detergents for washing head hairs and clothes respectively. The stems of clausena anisata were also used as toothbrushes.
Agricultural tools: The stems of Croton macrostachyus were used to make yoke. This was due to its stems had light weight. Wings (the parts of traditional agricultural tools) were made of
Acacia abyssinica whose stems were with good strength. The beam and handle were made up of the stems of Eucalyptus camaldulensis and E. globulus. Moreover, the beam was made up of the stems of Prunus africana. The pulling forces (used to pull the yoke) were made up of Calpurnia aurea whose stems were with good strength. It was also reported that agricultural
67 fork/winnowing fork were made up of the stems of Olea europiea subsp. cuspidata and
Calpurnia aurea whose stems had good strength. Agricultural ventilators were made up of the cracked stems of Arundinaria alpina.
Brooms: It was reported that traditional brooms were made up of Sida schimperiana and
Sporobolus africanus. Traditional brooms were used to clean the threshing ground floor of crops and the floors of traditional houses.
House construction and rope: It was reported that both woody and herbaceous species were used for such purposes. Plants were used for wall and roof constructions (thatching and tying).
Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Juniperus procera were the primary sources of wallwood. This was because these species had high ability to resist termites. The peels of Acacia abyssinica, A. negrii, Eucalyptus globulus, Hibiscus micranthus and Sida rhombifolia were used to prepare traditional ropes for tying the traditional walls and roofs of traditional houses. In addition, the leaves of Pennisetum thunbergii were used for such purpose. The climber stems of Clematis simensis was also reported to be used as ropes. Hyparrhenia dregeana was the primary herbaceous species for thatching of roofs.
Timber: It was reported that the primary source of timber in the study areas was Cordia africana. The other reported alteratives were Acacia abyssinica, Prunus africana, Cupressus lusitanica and Eucalyptus globulus. These species were reported to be used to prepare beds, benches, tables and mortars.
Food handling utensils: It was reported that Pennisetum thunbergii, Cyperus fischerianus and
Eleusine jaegeri were the only species used to prepare such types of traditional utensils.
Traditional sieves, trays, dishes and dinner services were reported to be made up of these species.
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4.7.5 Fodder
It was reported that 51 species (13.3%) of plants were used as source of forage for livestock and bees. The species were included in 40 genera and 15 families. Poaceae had more recorded species (21 species) followed by Asteraceae (9 species), Fabaceae (6 species). Acanthaceae consists of 2 species similar to commelinaceae. Amaranthaceae, Apocynaceae, Cyperaceae,
Juncaceae, Oleaceae, Plantaginaceae, Polygonaceae, Rosaceae and Solanaceae had single species. The species were also grouped into 4 based on their habits, trees (2 species), shrubs (4 species), herbs (44 species) and climbers (1 species).
Most of the species which were reported to be used as the primary sources of forage were included in Poaceae and Fabaceae (Table 18). However, it was reported that Hyparrhenia dregeana, Pennisetum clandestinum, P. thunbergii were hard to chew by the cattle‟s tooth (might break the livestock tooth). In addition, the unopened flower buds of Trifolium steudneri were reported to be toxic for cattle (highly inflate the stomach of the cattle and it was lethal unless its stomach was operated). Thus, the community cut down the mature unopened Trifolium steudneri by sickle and then dries it before feeding the cattle. The other alternative was keeping it until it opens its flowers.
Table 18 Preference ranking of 4 forage families by 15 key informants
Plant families Informants Score Rank A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O Asteraceae species 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 30 3rd Fabaceae species 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 45 2nd Poaceae species 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 60 1st Polygonaceae species 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 15 4th Note: Scores in the table indicated ranks given to forage plants based on their uses. Highest number (4) was given for the forage plant which informants thought most preferred for fodder and the lowest number (1) for the least preferred.
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4.7.6 Source of food
Fourteen plants, Acacia abyssinica, Carissa spinarum, Cyprus rigidifolius, Datura stramonium,
Dovyalis abyssinica, Ficus sur, Ficus vasta, Ocimum urticifolium, Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata, Rosa abyssinica, Rubus apetalus, Rumex abyssinicus, Rumex nervosus and Solanum nigrum were used as a source of wild food. The species were grouped into 12 genera and 9 families. They were also grouped into 4 classes based on their habit: herbs (5 species), shrubs (5 species) and trees (4 species). Gum, fruit, nectar, locule/fig, inflorescence, leaf and root were the edible parts. Out of which, fruits were the primary source of wild food (43.8%) whereas Ficus sur, Rubus apetalus and Rosa abyssinica were the most preferred species. Ficus sur was the first marketable WEPs. Rumex abyssinicus was also the only wild edible plant reported as spice. The dried and pounded roots of Rumex abyssinicus were added to the melted butter in need of color.
However, it was reported that it was progressively declining due to the expansion of agricultural land in the areas.
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4.7.7 Poisonous plants Fourteen plant species were reported to be poisonous for humans and livestocks (Table 19).
Table 19 List of poisonous plants with their toxic parts Scientific name Hab Family Toxic When they were toxic? parts Arisaema schimperianum Schott H Araceae Fruit, When the stems or fruits were eaten by stem infants Argemone mexicana L. H Papaveraceae Latex When the latex was entered into human eye or mouth Crinum abyssinicum Hochst H Amarylidaceae Corm When the corms were eaten Cyphostemma cyphopetalum H Vitaceae Fruit When the stems or fruits were eaten Datura stramonium L. Solanaceae Seed When the seeds were eaten Eucalyptus globulus Labill. T Myrtaceae Leaf When the leaves were there in excess the ants would leave the surrounding Euphorbia abyssinica Gmel. T Euphorbiaceae Latex When the latex was given in excess to humans Euphorbia platyphyllos L. H Euphorbiaceae Latex When the latex was put on penis in need of circumcision it highly wounded it
Gladiolus abyssinicus (Brongn. ex H Iridaceae Corm When its corm was eaten by a sheep, Lemaire) Goldblatt & de Vos its mouth developed a wound Solanum anguivi Lam. S Solanaceae Fruit When the fruit juices were entered into the mouth of humans Solanum dasyphyllum Schumach. H Solanaceae Fruit When the fruit juices were entered into the mouth of humans Solanum incanum L. S Solanaceae Fruit When the fruit juices were entered into the mouth of humans Solanum marginatum L. f. S Solanaceae Fruit When the fruit juices were entered into the mouth of humans Trifolium steudneri Schweinf. H Fabaceae Flowers When its unopened flower buds were eaten by cattle Note: Hab = Habit; H = Herb, S = Shrub; T = Tree
4.8 Medicinal plants in Yilmana Densa and Quarit districts
A total of 122 species of traditional medicinal plants were reported from the two districts. The
highest number of traditional medicinal plants (92 species, 75.4%) was reported to be used for
traditional treatment of human diseases whereas the least number of species (10 species, 8.2%)
was reported to be used for the traditional treatment of ethnoveterinary diseases. Moreover, there
were 20 (16.4%) species of medicinal plants reported to be used for traditional treatment of both
human and ethnoveterinary diseases (Appendix 7, 8).
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4.8.1 Traditional medicinal plants used to treat human diseases
Traditional medicinal plants that were reported to be used for the traditional treatment of human diseases were recorded to be grouped into 101 genera and 62 families of angiosperms. Out of the reported species, 8 species were endemic to Ethiopia while 19 species were exotic. Fabaceae was represented with highest species in number (8 species, 7.5%) followed by Lamiaceae and
Cucurbitaceae (6 species, 5.4% each), Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae and Solanaceae (5 species,
4.5% each). Polygonaceae and Rosaceae (4 species, 3.6% each), Rubiaceae and Rutaceae (3 species, 2.7% each) were recorded with more than 3 species representation while 11 families namely Acanthaceae, Alliaceae, Amaranthaceae, Apocynaceae, Brassicaceae, Loranthaceae,
Malvaceae, Myrtaceae, Oleaceae, Poaceae and Ranunculaceae were recorded with 2 species
(1.8% each) representation. Each of the remaining 41 families (66.1%) had single species representation.
4.8.1.1 Growth forms and sites of collection
Traditional medicinal plants were recorded with several growth forms. Most of the species were herbs (51 species, 45.5%) followed by shrubs (40 species, 35.7% each), trees (13 species,
11.6%), climbers (including woody and herbaceous climbers) (6 species, 5.4%) and parasitic epiphytes (2 species, 1.8%). Human medicinal plants were reported to be collected from bare lands, farm lands, forests, homegardens, irrigation lands, pasture lands and roadsides. However, forests were the major sites of collection (Figure 12, 13).
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A. Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata from
Gebeze Mariam forest patche B. Carissa spinarum in Gelawoldie forest patche
C. Otostegia integrifolia (Grey color plant) from D. Embelia schimperi collected from Gebeze Mariam forest patche homegarden in Konch Gosheye Kebele
E. Capparis tomentosa from Senkegna forest F. Euphorbia abyssinica on roadside from patche Sekela Kebele
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G. Scadoxus multiflorus in Asheti Leba H. Ocimum urticifolium on bare land from Adet Gedel Kebele on bare land Zuria Kebele Figure 12 Photos of some medicinal plants of the districts (A-H) (Photos by the researcher and field assistant)
Figure 13 Habitat types where medicinal plants were collected
4.8.1.2 Diagnosis and treatment methods of patients
Sixty one human disease types were reported by the local community of the two districts. Out of these, blood pressure and asthma were the most prevalent disease/ailment types. Visual inspection and interviews were also the commonly diagnosis methods before the prescription of the remedy. Depending on the types of diseases / ailments reported, first the healers interview the patient for symptoms then inspect the patient‟s eyes, skin color, tongue, throat and status of sores or bleeding visually. The healers further sense the body temperature of the patients with their
74 bare hands. Patients with swellings on body parts were treated by rubbing and pasting the herbal remedy. Those with visible wounds were also treated by dropping squeezed liquid onto the wound or by tying with piece of cloth. Moreover, patients with tonsillitis or throat wound or abdominal illness were ordered to chew the parts of medicinal plants.
4.8.1.3 Plant parts used for remedy preparation
Generally, twelve parts of medicinal plants were reported to be used for remedy preparation of human diseases. These include bark, bud, bulb, fruit, latex, leaf, resin, rhizome, root, seed, stem and flower. However, more of the remedy was reported to be prepared solely from leaf parts followed by roots (22.8%) and fruits (11.7% each). This showed that about 80% of the remedy was prepared from these mentioned parts. The remaining 20% was prepared from stem (4.1%), bud (4.1%), bark (3.4%), latex (2.8%), flower (2.1%), bulb (1.4%), rhizome (1.4%) and resin
(0.7%). Moreover, most of the remedy (87.6%) was prepared from freshly harvested medicinal plant parts. The remaining (12.4%) were prepared from dried parts (Figure 14).
Figure 14 Percentage distribution of medicinal plant parts used for remedy preparation
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4.8.1.4 Modes of remedy preparation and application
The traditional remedy was reported to be prepared in various ways based on the type of diseases
/ailments, and the type of the medicinal plant and its parts. Thus, most of the remedy was reported to be prepared by boiling (distillation) (20.7%) followed by squeezing (8.6%). The remaining remedy was prepared by burning including fumigating and smoking (5.2%), cooking
(3.4%), crushing (29.3%), heating (0.9%), melting (0.9%), pounding including splicing (30.2%) and roasting (0.9%) (Figure 15A). In connection to this, dried plant parts were prepared by pounding while the fresh ones were prepared by crushing. After the remedy was prepared, it was applied to patients by painting (18.7%), dropping (4.7%), tying (1.9%), washing (0.9%), rubbing
(0.9%), inserting (2.8%). It was also taken by patients by drinking (44.9%), inhaling (9.3%), chewing (5.6%), eating (9.3%) and rinsing (0.9%) (Figure 15B).
B A
Figure 15 Mode of preparations (A) and applications (B)
4.8.1.5 Routes of administration
The prepared traditional medicine was reported to be administered through various routes. Most of the remedy (59.6%) was reported to be administered through oral routes followed by dermal
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(24.8%) and nasal (10.1%). The remaining was also administered through auricular and optical routes (2.8% each) depending on the type of diseases (Figure 16).
Figure 16 Percent of mode of administration 4.8.1.6 Dosages and antidotes
The remedy was reported to be given to patients by measuring it by using traditional standards such as amount in a cup (at the depth of a joint of a finger), a spoonful and a glass of tea (if it was in liquid form). However, as it was reported, the amount of remedy was also determined by age, pregnancy status and physical appearance of the patient. Sulphur, eye cosmetics, salt, honey, malt, water, butter, milk, buttermilk, stew, myrrh, and Katicala and Tella (local alcohols) were the commonly reported antidotes for herbal preparations with adverse side effects.
4.8.1.7 Marketability of medicinal plants
Twenty three species of medicinal plants were reported to be sold in Adet and Dabi local markets as well as in other small markets of the two districts. These species were grouped into 18 families. Asteraceae was represented by three species (Helianthus annuus, Guizotia abyssinica and Echinops kebericho). Fabaceae was represented by Lupinus albus and Trigonella foenum- graecum. Alliaceae was represented by Allium cepa and A. sativum while Rutaceae by Citrus
77 aurantiifolia and Ruta chalepensis. Each of the other 14 families was represented by single species. The species were Amaranthus caudatus, Brassica carinata, Carica papaya, Catha edulis, Coffea arabica, Hordeum vulgare, Laggera siceraria, Linum usitatissimum, Myrtus communis, Nigella sativa, Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata, Otostegia integrifolia, Securidaca longepedunculata and Zingiber officinale.
Echinops kebericho, Myrtus communis, Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata, Otostegia integrifolia and Securidaca longepedunculata were observed to be sold and purchased entirely for the purpose of their medicinal applications. Approximately, 7 cm root of Echinops kebericho was six
Birr (Ethiopian money) while a handful leaves of Myrtus communis was three Birr. Similarly, a bunch of Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata and Otostegia integrifolia was three Birr. A small dried stem piece of Securidaca longepedunculata was six Birr. The remaining reported medicinal plants were mainly sold in bulk for their nonmedicinal uses though they were rarely applied as a source of traditional medicine when they were needed (Figure 17).
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A B C D
E F G H
Figure 17 Medicinal plants observed in Adet market (The roots of Echinops kebericho (A);
Branches of Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata (B) and Otostegia integrifolia (C); leaves of Myrtus communis (D); branches of Ruta chalepensis (E); rhizomes of Zingiber officinale (F); seeds of
Nigella sativa (G) and Amaranthus caudatus (H)) (Photo by field assistant and researcher).
4.8.1.8 Consensus of informants on medicinal plants
Central nervous system and digestive system diseases were recorded with highest informant consensus values (0.9 each) followed by dermatological and infective diseases (0.8). Moreover, more species of medicinal plants were cited for the later two disease categories (Table 20).
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Table 20 Consensus of informants for different use categories Disease categories Nur Nt ICF 1. Central nervous system diseases (migraine, headache, madness/ mental 298 19 0.9 disease, evil eye, nightmare, impotency) 2. Digestive system diseases (tongue disease, throat (oesophagus) disease, 365 41 0.9 tonsillitis, abdominal illness (vomiting, abdominal impelling/bloating), tapeworm, constipation, toothache, ascaris, intestinal diseases, liver disease /jaundice, haemorrhoids, diarrhoea, abdominal burning /gastritis, poisonings) 3. Miscellaneous diseases (snake bite, febrile illness, spider bites, swelling) 197 19 0.9 4. Dermatological system diseases (wound, eczema, Tinea capitis, Tinea corporis, Tinea 225 41 0.8 nigra, scabies / rashes, dandruff, skin peeling, TB (wound), swelling, warts, gland removal) 5. Infective diseases (malaria, rabies) 33 6 0.8
6. Musculo-skeletal system diseases (rheumatism, backache, stabbing pain) 19 6 0.7 7. Sensorial diseases (eye disease, night blindness, deafness, trachoma, ear 48 14 0.7 pest, tongue disease, epistaxis, earache) 8. Circulatory system diseases (blood pressure) 9 6 0.4 9. Metabolism diseases (diabetes) 4 3 0.3 10. Respiratory system diseases (coughs, asthma, common cold, lung disease) 19 15 0.2 11. Reproductive system diseases (syphilis, gonorrhoea, neo-natal death, 8 7 0.1 breast swelling, penis swelling, urinary retention) Note: ICF = Informant consensus factor; Nur = Number of use reports; Nt = Number of species
4.8.1.9 Relative healing potential of medicinal plants
Dodonea angustifolia, Dovyalis abyssinica, Hagenia abyssinica, Nigella sativa and Urtica simensis were recorded with highest healing potential value for malaria, asthma, tapeworm, cough and stomach ulcer respectively (FL = 100) (Table 21).
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Table 21 Fidelity levels (FL) of 14 most cited traditional medicinal plant species Plant species Family Therapeutic Ip Iu (FL) uses (%) Dodonea angustifolia L. Sapindaceae Malaria 3 3 100 Dovyalis abyssinica (A. Rich.) Flacourtiaceae Asthma 4 4 100 Warb. Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J.F. Rosaceae Tapeworm 53 53 100 Gmelin Nigella sativa L. Ranunculaceae Cough 3 3 100 Urtica simensis Steudel Urticaceae Stomach ulcer 2 2 100 Rumex abyssinicus Jacq. Polygonaceae Diabetes 3 4 75 Blood Croton macrostachyus Del. Euphorbiaceae 6 9 66.7 pressure Rumex nervosus Vahl Polygonaceae Common cold 4 8 50 Calpurnia aurea (Ait.) Benth. Fabaceae Snake bite 4 13 30.8 Euphorbia abyssinica Gmel. Euphorbiaceae Rabies 3 30 30 Kanahia laniflora (Forssk.) R. Br. Asclepiadaceae Scabies 5 27 18.5 Osyris quadripartita Decn. Santalaceae Trachoma 2 21 9.5 Verbena officinalis L. Verbenaceae Diarrhoea 2 26 7.7 Millettia ferruginea (Hochst.) Bak. Fabaceae Tinea corporis 2 91 2.2 Note: Ip = Number of informants who mentioned the plant for particular use; Iu = Number of informants who mentioned the plant for any other use
4.8.1.10 Frequency of traditional medicinal plants
Phytolacca dodecandra (FI = 99.2), Embelia schimperi (FI = 98.7) and Otostegia integrifolia (FI
= 98.5) were recorded with highest FI values (Table 22).
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Table 22 Frequency index of 31 traditional medicinal plants Species Families FC N FI Phytolacca dodecandra L‟Her. Phytolaccaceae 392 395 99.20 Embelia schimperi Vatke Myrsinaceae 390 395 98.70 Otostegia integrifolia Benth. Lamiaceae 389 395 98.50 Zehneria scabra (Linn. f.) Sond. Cucurbitaceae 387 395 98.00 Cucumis ficifolius A. Rich. Cucurbitaceae 385 395 97.50 Croton macrostachyus Del. Euphorbiaceae 381 395 96.50 Allium sativum L. Alliaceae 375 395 94.90 Stephania abyssinica (Dillon & A. Rich.) Walp. Menispermaceae 368 395 93.20 Linum usitatissimum L. Linaceae 351 395 88.90 Cynoglossum coeruleum Hochst. ex A.DC. Boraginaceae 350 395 88.60 Coffea arabica L. Rubiaceae 345 395 87.30 Eucalyptus globulus Labill. Myrtaceae 326 395 82.50 Solanum nigrum L. Solanaceae 327 395 82.80 Verbascum sinaiticum Benth. Scrophulariaceae 316 395 80.00 Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J.F.Gmelin Rosaceae 298 395 75.40 Ficus palmata Forssk. Moraceae 285 395 72.20 Echinops kebericho Mesfin Asteraceae 253 395 64.10 Lupinus albus L. Fabaceae 240 395 60.80 Lepidium sativum L. Brassicaceae 189 395 47.80 Verbena officinalis L. Verbenaceae 172 395 43.50 Myrtus communis L. Myrtaceae 155 395 39.20 Ocimum urticifolium Roth Lamiaceae 155 395 39.20 Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae 154 395 39.00 Solanum incanum L. Solanaceae 146 395 37.00 Datura stramonium L. Solanaceae 140 395 35.40 Kalanchoe petitiana A. Rich. Crassulaceae 120 395 30.40 Clausena anisata (Willd.) Benth. Rutaceae 115 395 29.10 Euphorbia abyssinica Gmel. Euphorbiaceae 94 395 23.80 Urtica simensis Steudel Urticaceae 94 395 23.80 Justicia schimperiana (Hochst. ex Nees) T. Anders. Acanthaceae 76 395 19.20 Carissa spinarum L. Apocynaceae 75 395 19.00
Note: FI = Frequency index; FC = Number of informants who mentioned the use of the species;
N = Total number of informants
4.8.1.11Use preference of medicinal plants
Verbascum sinaiticum was recorded with highest total score (TS = 74) for traditional treatment of blood pressure followed by Thymus schimperi with total score of 70 for blood pressure (Table
23). Verbascum sinaiticum was further recorded as the most preferred species for treatment of
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asthma (TS = 45) followed by Catha edulis (TS = 44) (Table 24) whereas Otostegia integrifolia
was the most preferred species to treat common cold (TS = 64) followed by Echinops kebericho
(TS = 62) (Table 25).
Table 23 Preference ranking exercise of 7 species reported to treat blood pressure
Medicinal plants for blood pressure Informants labeled A to P TS R A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Croton macrostachyus Del. 6 7 4 5 6 1 1 4 6 2 4 7 2 2 3 60 5th Dovyalis abyssinica (A. Rich.) Warb. 1 1 5 6 3 1 5 5 3 1 4 6 6 4 1 4 56 6th Lupinus albus L. 5 5 6 1 7 5 6 3 5 5 3 1 1 7 5 1 66 3rd Phragmanthera regularis (Sprague) M. Gilbert 3 3 2 5 4 4 2 2 6 3 6 5 5 6 3 5 64 4th Rosa abyssinica Lindley 2 2 7 3 2 7 3 4 2 2 1 2 3 1 4 2 47 7th Thymus schimperi Ron. 4 4 2 6 3 4 7 7 4 5 3 2 5 7 7 70 2nd Verbascum sinaiticum Benth. 7 6 4 1 2 7 6 1 7 7 7 4 3 6 6 74 1st Note: Scores in the table indicated that the ranks (R) were given to medicinal plants based on
their efficacy. Highest number (7) was given for the medicinal plant which informants thought
most effective in treating blood pressure and the lowest number (1) for the least effective plant.
TS = Total score; R = Rank.
Table 24 Preference ranking of 4 medicinal plants reported to treat asthma
Medicinal plants for asthma Informants labeled A to P A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Total score Rank Verbascum sinaiticum Benth. 4 4 1 4 2 3 1 1 4 3 3 4 4 2 2 3 45 1st Rubia cordifolia L. 1 1 4 2 1 1 3 4 1 1 4 3 2 3 1 4 36 3rd Dovyalis abyssinica (A. Rich.) Warb. 2 2 3 1 4 2 4 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 4 1 35 4th Catha edulis (Vahl) Forssk. ex Endl. 3 3 2 3 3 4 2 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 3 2 44 2nd Note: Scores in the table indicated that the ranks were given to medicinal plants based on their
efficacy. Highest number (4) were given for the medicinal plant which informants thought most
effective in treating asthma and the lowest number (1) for the least effective plant.
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Table 25 Preference ranking of 6 medicinal plants reported to treat common cold
Medicinal plants for common cold Informants labeled A to P A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P TS Rank Echinops kebericho Mesfin 6 6 3 4 5 6 1 1 4 6 2 4 4 2 2 6 62 2nd Eucalyptus globulus Labill. 1 1 5 6 3 1 5 5 3 1 4 6 6 4 6 4 61 3rd Olea europaea L. subsp. cuspidata 5 5 4 1 1 5 6 3 5 5 3 1 1 3 5 1 54 4th (Wall. ex G.Don) Cif. Otostegia integrifolia Benth. 3 3 2 5 4 4 2 2 6 3 6 5 5 6 3 5 64 1st Ocimum urticifolium Roth. 2 2 6 3 2 2 3 4 2 2 1 2 3 1 4 3 42 6th Rumex nervosus Vahl. 4 4 1 2 6 3 4 6 1 4 5 3 2 5 1 2 53 5th Note: Scores in the table indicated that ranks were given to medicinal plants based on their
efficacy. Highest number (6) was given for the medicinal plant which informants thought most
effective in treating common cold and the lowest number (1) for the least effective
4.8.1.12 Use diversity of multipurpose medicinal plants
The output of DMR exercise based on use criteria (5 = Best; 4 = Very good; 3 = Good; 2 = Less
used; 1 = Least used and 0 = No value) on seven multipurpose medicinal plants used for treating
human ailments enabled to identify which of the multipurpose plant was most under pressure in
the areas and the respective factors that threaten the plant. Accordingly, Olea europaea subsp.
cuspidata was ranked first (most threatened) (Table 26).
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Table 26 Average DMR score of six key informants for 5 medicinal plants with additional uses Traditional medicinal plants TS R Croton Dovyalis Olea europaea Carissa spinarum Rosa abyssinica UD macrostachyus abyssinica subsp. cuspidata Informant (I)(1- 6) I I I I 4th AT 2 1 2 1 0 3 4 5 5 4 4 5 2 1 0 0 1 0 3 2 2 3 2 2 0 1 1 1 2 1 60 2nd FW 3 2 1 3 4 5 3 1 4 1 3 1 3 4 3 5 2 1 4 5 2 3 4 4 2 4 5 3 2 4 91
F 5 4 3 5 5 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 3 2 2 4 2 2 1 2 3 1 2 5 5 4 3 2 2 73 5th 1st M 5 5 5 5 4 4 3 3 2 1 4 5 1 2 3 3 4 1 5 4 3 3 4 2 2 3 4 4 5 3 102 3rd CO 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 3 2 1 2 5 4 5 4 4 5 2 1 0 1 2 2 65 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 IT 6 3 1 5 4 5 1 0 3 9 5 4 2 1 1 2 2 6 9 6 4 6 5 5 1 4 4 2 3 2
GT 84 72 64 95 76 R 2nd 4th 5th 1st 3rd Abbreviations: UD = Use diversity; AT = Agricultural tools; FW = Firewood; F = Food;
M=Medicine; CO = Construction; IT = Informant total; GT = Grand total; R=Rank; TS = Total
score.
4.8.1.13 Use values
Trigonella foenum-graecum was recorded with highest use value (UV = 6.8) followed by
Carissa spinarum (UV = 4.7) (Table 27).
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Table 27 Use values of most cited medicinal plants Medicinal plants Number of Uses (Ui) listed by key informants (I1-I16) ∑Ui n UV I1 I I I4 I I I7 I I I10 I11 I12 I13 I14 I15 I16 2 3 5 6 8 9 Allium sativum L. 5 2 6 3 4 1 4 6 5 4 3 5 2 1 3 6 60 16 3.8 Carissa spinarum L. 3 7 8 5 4 2 5 3 3 4 4 3 8 2 7 7 75 16 4.7 Catha edulis 3 4 3 4 1 4 4 2 1 3 2 4 3 4 4 4 50 16 3.1 Croton macrostachyus 7 2 5 3 3 7 3 3 4 4 7 3 4 7 5 3 70 16 4.4 Cucumis ficifolius 5 3 4 1 4 4 3 4 5 3 4 3 5 3 5 5 61 16 3.8 Cynoglossum coeruleum 3 4 3 3 4 3 4 3 4 1 4 4 4 2 4 3 53 16 3.3 Echinops kebericho 5 6 2 5 3 3 6 2 5 3 6 6 3 6 3 5 69 16 4.3 Embelia schimperi 4 5 4 2 5 3 5 4 2 5 3 5 4 2 5 2 60 16 3.8 Justicia schimperiana 3 4 4 4 2 1 4 3 2 4 3 2 4 4 3 4 51 16 3.2 Kanahia laniflora 3 3 4 4 4 2 1 4 3 2 4 3 2 4 4 3 50 16 3.1 Lepidium sativum 3 4 4 4 2 2 3 3 4 2 4 3 4 4 2 4 52 16 3.3 Millettia ferruginea 4 5 2 6 3 4 1 4 6 5 4 3 5 2 1 3 58 16 3.6 Ocimum americanum 3 4 4 4 2 3 3 4 4 2 5 3 3 4 2 3 53 16 3.3 Ocimum urticifolium 3 4 4 4 2 3 3 4 4 2 5 3 3 4 2 3 53 16 3.3 Phytolacca dodecandra 4 5 5 1 2 2 2 2 5 5 5 3 4 4 3 3 55 16 3.4 Ricinus communis 3 4 2 3 3 4 4 2 2 3 3 4 4 2 3 4 50 16 3.1 Rumex nepalensis 6 4 5 2 6 3 4 1 4 6 5 4 3 6 5 4 68 16 4.3 Rumex nervosus 3 4 4 4 2 3 3 4 4 2 4 3 3 4 2 3 52 16 3.3 Ruta chalepensis 4 5 5 1 2 2 2 4 5 5 5 3 4 4 3 3 57 16 3.6 Scadoxus multiflorus 3 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 3 3 2 3 4 4 3 37 16 2.3 Trigonella foenum-graecum 10 6 4 10 4 2 10 6 4 10 3 10 5 10 4 10 108 16 6.8 Verbascum sinaiticum 5 4 5 4 2 5 3 5 4 2 5 3 3 2 3 4 59 16 3.7 Verbena officinalis 6 5 4 5 4 2 5 3 5 4 6 5 3 3 4 6 70 16 4.4 Zehneria scabra 3 3 2 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 2 3 4 4 3 1 41 16 2.6
4.8.1.14 Cultural role
Out of the total 6 traditional medicinal plants selected for the calculation of their cultural values,
Carissa spinarum and Croton macrostachyus were recorded with highest values (each species
had a CSI value of 17.1) followed by Rosa abyssinica (CSI = 14). Dodonea angustifolia was
recorded with least cultural significance value (CSI = 6.3) (Table 28).
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Table 28 Cultural significance index of 6 traditional medicinal plants Species IC M FW Fc AT ∑ (i. e. c) CF CSI Carissa spinarum L. 6 Management (i) 2 2 2 2 Preference (e) 2 1 2 1 Frequency (c) 2 1 2 1 (i*e*c) 8 2 8 2 20 0.86 17.1 Calpurnia aurea (Ait.) Benth. 4 Management (i) 2 2 2 2 Preference (e) 1 1 2 2 Frequency (c) 1 1 2 2 (i*e*c) 2 2 8 8 20 0.57 11.4 Croton macrostachyus Del. 6 Management (i) 2 2 2 2 Preference (e) 2 2 1 1 Frequency (c) 2 2 1 1 (i*e*c) 8 8 2 2 20 0.86 17.1 Dodonea angustifolia L. 4 Management (i) 2 2 2 2 Preference (e) 2 1 1 1 Frequency (c) 2 1 1 1 (i*e*c) 8 1 1 1 11 0.57 6.3 Millettia ferruginea (Hochst.) Bak. 5 Management (i) 2 2 2 2 Preference (e) 1 2 1 1 Frequency (c) 1 1 1 1 (i*e*c) 2 4 2 2 10 0.7 7 Rosa abyssinica Lindley 7 Management (i) 2 2 2 2 Preference (e) 1 1 2 1 Frequency (c) 1 1 2 1 (i*e*c) 2 2 8 2 14 1 14 Note: Informant consensus; CSI = Cultural Significance Index; M = Medicine; FW = Firewood; Fc = Fence; AT = Agricultural Tools 4.8.1.15 Use diversity Fifteen medicinal plants (8.5%) were reported to be used as a source of traditional medicine whereas majority (97 species, 86.5%) were cited for one or more uses other than their medicinal role (Figure 18).
Traditional medicinal uses
Cucumis ficifolius was a highly cited species (cited by 135 informants) followed by Zehneria scabra (cited by 22 informants). Rumex nepalensis (3.5) was also recorded with highest medicinal use values (UVmed) (Table 29).
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Figure 18 Proportion of medicinal plants over different use categories
Table 29 Use values of medicinal plants Scientific name Number of A number of medicinal Total number of UVmed informants citing the uses for diseases in remedial uses species Human Livestock Rumex nepalensis 2 7 0 7 3.5 Lepidium sativum 4 3 2 4 1 Kanahia laniflora 5 3 0 3 0.6 Securidaca longepedunculata 2 1 0 1 0.5 Nicotiana tabacum 7 0 1 1 0.1 Zehneria scabra 22 3 0 3 0.1 Kalanchoe petitiana 15 1 0 1 0.07 Cucumis ficifolius 135 6 4 8 0.06
Medicinal plants used as source of food
A total of 32 (18.2%) medicinal plants were reported to be used as source of food (including
spices) for humans. These species were grouped into 28 genera and 25 families. Lamiaceae was
represented by 3 species (9.4%) followed by Rosaceae, Polygonaceae, Asteraceae, Apiaceae and
Alliaceae which were individually represented by 2 species (6.3% each). The remaining families
were represented by the least number of species (1 species, 3.1% each) (Figure 19).
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Zingiberaceae 3.10% 3.10% Solanaceae 3.10% 3.10% Rubiaceae 3.10% 6.30% Ranunculaceae 3.10% 3.10% Polygonaceae 6.30% 3.10% Piperaceae 3.10% Percentage 3.10% Myrsinaceae 3.10% 3.10% Lauraceae 3.10% 9.40% Flacourtiaceae 3.10% 3.10% Cucurbitaceae 3.10% 3.10% Brassicaceae 3.10% 6.30% Apiaceae 6.30% 3.10% Alliaceae 6.30%
0.00% 2.00% 4.00% 6.00% 8.00% 10.00% Figure 19 Percentage of the representative species of plant families
Forage plants: Thirteen species (7.4%) of medicinal plants were reported to be used as fodder for livestock and bees. These species were grouped into 13 genera and 9 families. Asteraceae had
3 representing species (23%) followed by Fabaceae and Poaceae with 2 species species representations (15.4% each). The remaining 10 families were represented by single species
(7.7% each). The species under this category were recorded with 3 habit types namely trees (4 species, 30.8%), shrubs (1 species, 7.7%) and herbs (8 species, 61.5%).
Fuel: Forty five (25.6%) species of medicinal plants were reported to be used for firewood. The seeds of Ricinus communis were reported to be used as traditional bulb. The species were grouped into 44 genera and 27 families. Fabaceae had highest species representation (6 species,
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13.3%) followed by Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae and Lamiaceae (3 species, 6.7% each).
Individually, Apocynaceae, Myrtaceae, Oleaceae, Polygonaceae, Rutaceae and Rosaceae had 2 species (4.4%) representations. The remaining 17 families had single species (2.2% each) representations. Majority of the species (82.2%) were woody species whereas the remaining
17.8% of the total species were herbs.
Poisonous medicinal plants
Thirteen species (7.4%) were reported to be poisonous in contact with body. These species were toxic for human, livestock and other animals, insecticide and insect repellents. The latex of
Acokanthera schimperi, Argemone mexicana, Euphorbia abyssinica and Euphorbia platyphyllos were reported to be toxic for humans. Moreover, the fruit of Solanum anguivi, S. incanum, S. marginatum, Arisaema schimperianum and Cyphostemma cyphopetalum were reported to be toxic. The other reported toxic parts of plants were the leaves of Eucalyptus globulus and the seed of Ricinus communis. These parts were reported to be toxic when they were entered in excess into the mouth of humans.
Social uses
Thirty nine (22.2%) species were reported to be used as source of stimulants, fumigation, cosmetics, walking stick, baking materials, agricultural tools, house construction, dyes, pillow, mattress, toothbrush, rope, ornamental, mat, cultural uses, detergents and timber (preparation of beds, tables and other household utensils). These species were grouped into 37 genera and 24 families. Euphorbiaceae and Fabaceae had highest species representations (4 species, 10.3% each) followed by Asteraceae and Lamiaceae (3 species, 7.7% each). Malvaceae, Myrtaceae,
Poaceae, Rosaceae and Rutaceae were represented by 2 species (5.1% each). The remaining 30 families were individually represented by single species (2.6% each). Most of the total species
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(13%) were reported to be used for agricultural tools followed by those that used for house construction (Figure 20).
Figure 20 Percent of social uses of medicinal plants
Environmental uses
A total of 33 (10.8%) of medicinal plant species were reported for environmental uses (live fence, dry fence, shades, and erosion control and soil improvement). These were distributed in 31 genera and 22 families. Fabaceae had highest species representation (5 species, 15.2%) followed by Asteraceae and Solanaceae (3 species, 9% each). Acanthaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Poaceae were ranked third in species representation (2 species, 6% each). The remaining 16 families were represented by single species (1 species, 3% each) (Figure 21). Most of the species were recorded to be herbs and shrubs (15 species, 44.1% each). On the other hand, trees were recorded with least number of species (4 species, 11.8%). Out of the total species of the group, 20 species
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(64.7%) were reported to be used as an erosion control and soil improvement. The remaining 14
(35.3%) species were reported to be used for fence (live fence, dry fence) and shades.
Figure 21 Plant families and percent of their representative species used environmentally 4.8.1.16 Knowledge difference among informant groups
Table 30 Mean and std.deviation difference of medicinal plant knwoledge of informants Parameters Informant groups N Mean Std. Deviation Age groups Adults (< = 50 years) 207 5.0242 4.05956 Elders (> 50 years) 188 6.2606 5.12738 Gender Female 129 3.9070 2.91398 Male 266 5.7970 4.76031 Informant categories General informants 299 4.8087 3.84817 Key informants 96 8.0825 5.84464 Level of education Illiterate 290 5.3241 4.46731 Literate 105 6.4095 5.00326 Note: N = Number of respondents, Std. = Standard
One way ANOVA and F test on the variance of medicinal plant knwowledge difference between and among informant categories was done. Following the analysis, there was a significant
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knowledge difference (p < 0.05) between general and key informants, adults and elders, illiterate
and literate, and between males and females (Table 30, 31).
Table 31 ANOVA table and test of significance on medicinal plant knwoledge difference
between informant groups
Informant groups Comparison Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. based on Age Between groups 150.629 1 150.629 7.123 .008 (Combined) Within groups 8311.108 393 21.148 Total 8461.737 394 Gender Between groups 310.317 1 310.317 17.196 .000 (Combined) Within groups 7091.921 393 18.046 Total 7402.238 394 Informant Between groups 784.299 1 784.299 40.147 .000 categories (Combined) Within groups 7677.438 393 19.535 Total 8461.737 394 Level of education Between groups 90.815 1 90.815 4.264 .040 (Combined) Within groups 8370.922 393 21.300 Total 8461.737 394 Note: df = degree of freedom, F = F test, Sig. = Level of significance and P values (< 0.05) 4.8.1.17 Transfer and threats of traditional knowledge
Traditional knowledge was reported to be transferred from church teachers to church students
and from parents to children rarely it was reported to be gained from friends. The majority of
informants (359 informants, 90.9%) gained their knowledge from their parents whereas the TK
of some informants was reported to be gained from church teachers. Five major threats were
reported for the traditional knowledge of the local people. These were: 1. Decrease in number of
church students; 2. The expansion of modern pharmacies led the customers of the healers to
ignore the traditional medicine; 3. The expansion of modern education which led youngsters to
ignore the traditional knowledge; 4. The migration of healers to towns or city; 5. Scarcity or
degradation of traditional medicinal plants in the surrounding areas (Table 32).
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Table 32 Ranking of the causes for the decrease of traditional knowledge of the areas Causes for the decrease of traditional knowledge Informants labeled A to O TS R A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O Decrease in number of church students 3 1 2 3 2 3 4 1 2 3 1 4 2 3 2 36 3rd Expansion of modern pharmacies 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 75 1st The expansion of modern education 4 2 4 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 4 3 3 4 4 53 2nd Migration of traditional healers to towns or city 2 3 3 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 4 1 1 27 5th Scarcity of traditional medicinal plants 1 4 1 1 4 2 2 3 4 2 3 1 1 2 3 34 4th The highest value was 5 while the least value was 1. The highest value (5) was given by
informants for the causes that had great effect in the decrease of traditional knowledge. TS =
Total score; R = Rank
4.8.2 Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants
A total of 30 species into 30 genera and 22 families were recorded in the two districts. Out of
which 4 species (13.3%) were endemic to Ethiopia while the other 3 species were exotic. Highest
number of species was recorded for Asteraceae and Euphorbiaceae (3 species, 10% each)
followed by Cucurbitaceae, Ranunculaceae, Solanaceae and Fabaceae (2 species, 6.7% each).
The remaining sixteen (53.3%) families were represented by a single species (1 species, 3.3%
each) (Appendix 8). Two ethnoveterinary medicinal plants of Yilmana Densa district were
observed in Figure 22.
A. Nicotiana tabacum from Adet Zuria B. Aloe pulcherrima from Chinehilgn Kebele on bare lands forest patche in Dabal Kebele Figure 22 Photo of some medicinal plants inYilmana Densa district (Photo by the researcher)
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4.8.2.1 Habits, cultivation status and parts used
More plant species (12 species, 40%) of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants were recorded to be herbs followed by shrubs (8, 26.7%). The remaining two groups of species namely trees and climbers were recorded with least number of species (5, 16.7% each). Moreover, the majority of the recorded species (23 species, 76.7%) were reported to be harvested from their wild habitats while least number of species (7 species, 23.3%) was reported to be cultivated for various purposes. Ten parts were reported to be used for remedy preparation. Out of these, leaves were reported to be the primary source of remedy (Figure 23).
Figure 23 Percentage distributions of the parts of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants
4.8.2.2 Traditional diagnosis and treatment methods of ethnoveterinary diseases
It was reported that domestic animal diseases were diagnosed based on the observation of the diseased animals. Moreover, it was reported that they were diagnosed based on the information
95 obtained from the owner of the animal by interviewing about major symptoms shown by the animals. It was also reported that ethnoveterinary herbal remedy was commonly prescribed only after the animal was visually examined by a traditional healer for any symptom on its mouth or foot parts, throat, eyes, nose and ear as well as through the occurrence and status of wounds on its skin. Rubbing and pasting of the herbal preparations were the commonly reported treatment methods for handling dermatological diseases whereas oral administration of homogenized herbal preparations was reported as the main treatment method for internal diseases.
4.8.2.3 Application of ethnoveterinary remedy
The majority (21 species, 70%) of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants were reported to be used for the treatment of a single disease type whereas least number of species (9 species, 30%) was reported to be used for the treatment of more than one disease types (Appendix 8). Moreover, the majority species (63.6%) were reported to be used for the treatment of cattle diseases. On the other hand, relatively least number of species (1 species, 2.3%) was reported to be used for the treatment of chicken diseases (Figure 24).
70 63.6 60
50
40
30 Percent of plants used to treat domestic animals 20 11.4 9 9 10 4.5 2.3 0 Cattle Chicken Equine Dogs Sheep Goats
Figure 24 Percentage distribution of plant species used to treat various animal groups 96
4.8.2.4 Mode of preparation, routes of administration and dosages
It was reported that most of the remedy (94.3%) was prepared from freshly harvested plant parts whereas the remaining least percentage was prepared from the dried parts of plants. It was also reported that the majority of the preparation was done by crushing. The other reported methods were by chewing (the owner of the cattle first chew the plant part by his mouth then paint the infected part), pounding and cutting. It was also reported that seeds were the dried parts to be used as a source of ethnoveterinary remedy. Most of the remedy was reported to be prepared from medicinal plants without a need of plant ingredients or mixtures. Thus, 70% of the remedy was reported to comprise remedial parts of a single medicinal plant. However, 30% of the remedy was formulated by using two or more species (Appendix 8).
As it was reported, the prepared remedy was administered through four routes of administration
(dermal, optical, nasal and oral) even if the majority of the remedy (80%) was provided through oral routes (Figure 25). However, the dosages of the ethnoveterinary medicine did not usually have standard traditional measurement scales but rather given by rough estimation. However, it was reported that cups and glasses were rarely used as traditional standards of measurement.
Figure 25 Percent of ethnoveterinary remedy administered through four routes
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4.8.2.5 Marketability
Out of 30 ethnoveterinary medicinal plants, 6 species (20% species) (Coriandrum sativum,
Echinops kebericho, Laggera siceraria, Nigella sativa and Ricinus communis rarely Lepidium sativum) were observed and reported to be sold in Adet and Dabi market places of Yilmana
Densa and Quarit districts respectively (Figure 17).
4.8.2.6 Efficacy of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants
The majority of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants (17 species, 40.22%) were reported to be used for the treatment of digestive tract diseases followed by those used to treat dermatological ones
(11 species, 29.1%) (Figure 26). Amongst all plants reported, the highest proportion of species was claimed to treat abdominal bloating (12 species, 40%) followed by rabies, cough and eye diseases (3 species, 10% each). Cucumis ficifolius was recorded with highest number of multiple ethnoveterinary use reports (used against 4 diseases) followed by Stephania abyssinica,
Phytolacca dodecandra, Justicia schimperiana and Echinops kebericho (each species used against 3 diseases).
9.40% 29.10% Species used to treat dermatological DC 7% Species used to treat sensorial DC
Species used to treat respiratory track DC
Species used to treat digestive system DC
Species used to treat infective DC 4.70% 40.20% Species used to treat miscellaneous DC 9.40%
Note: DC=Disease category
Figure 26 Percentage of medicinal plants used to treat each disease category
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4.8.2.7 Relative healing potential of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants
Stephania abyssinica showed highest fidelity level value (93.3%) for gastrointestinal disease
category followed by Justicia schimperiana (64.3%) under miscellaneous disease category.
Cucumis ficifolius also showed relatively high healing potential (16%) under respiratory disease
category (Table 33).
Table 33 Fidelity level of 5 ethnoveterinary medicinal plants
Scientific name Family name Disease treated Ip Iu FL (%) Stephania abyssinica (Dillon & A. Rich.) Walp. Menispermaceae Abdominal bloating 28 30 93.3 Justicia schimperiana (Hochst. ex Nees) T. Anders Acanthaceae Chicken disease 9 14 64.3 Cucumis ficifolius A. Rich. Cucurbitaceae Sneezing 21 131 16.0 Phytolacca dodecandra L‟Her. Phytolaccaceae Rabies 20 220 9.0 Echinops kebericho Mesfin Asteraceae Cough 7 97 7.2 Note: Ip = Number of informants who mentioned the plant for particular use; Iu = Number of
informants who mentioned the plant for any other use
4.8.2.8 Consensus of informants on ethnoveterinary medicinal plants
Highest informants' consensus factor (ICF) values were recorded for infective disease category
(0.97) followed by sensorial and miscellaneous (0.9 each) and gastrointestinal (0.87) disease
categories. In addition, highest plant use citation (49%) was recorded for gastrointestinal diseases
followed by those of miscellaneous ones (17.7%) (Table 34).
Table 34 Informants‟ agreements on 6 livestock disease categories Disease categories Nur Nt ICF 1. Infective diseases (rabies) 33 2 0.97 2. Miscellaneous diseases (febrile illness, emaciation, chicken disease) 43 4 0.9 3. Sensorial diseases (eye disease) 23 3 0.9 4. Gastrointestinal diseases (abdominal bloating/impelling, weight loss, leech) 119 16 0.87 5. Respiratory diseases (sneezing, cough) 12 5 0.6 6. Dermatological system diseases (back bleeding, hair disease, rashes, swelling, lice) 13 9 0.3 Note: ICF = Informant consensus factor; Nur = Number of use reports; Nt = Number of species
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4.8.2.9 Preference of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants
Phytolacca dodecandra was recorded to be the most preferred (by total score of 129) medicinal
plant to treat abdominal bloating while Cucumis ficifolius (by total score of 117) was the second
for the same purpose (Table 35).
Table 35 Preference ranking of 9 medicinal plants reported to treat abdominal bloating/impel Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants for Informants labeled A to P abdominal bloating A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P TS R
Arisaema schimperianum Schott 7 3 8 7 8 2 1 3 6 8 6 3 9 5 7 3 86 4th Brucea antidysenterica J. F. Mill. 4 6 4 4 7 4 3 4 5 2 2 5 1 7 6 2 66 6th Crinum abyssinicum Hochst. ex A. Rich. 1 2 3 5 3 1 2 1 2 3 5 6 2 4 3 1 44 8th Croton macrostachyus Del. 2 1 5 3 5 5 4 2 3 4 7 1 7 6 5 8 68 5th Cucumis ficifolius A. Rich. 8 8 7 6 6 8 9 8 4 7 9 7 6 8 9 7 117 2nd Justicia schimperiana (Hochst. ex Nees) T. 3 5 1 8 1 3 6 5 1 5 1 2 3 2 4 9 7th Anders. 59 Phytolacca dodecandra L‟Her. 9 7 9 9 9 9 8 9 7 9 8 9 5 9 8 5 129 1st Rumex nepalensis Spreng. 5 4 2 1 2 6 6 6 8 1 3 4 4 3 1 6 59 7th Stephania abyssinica (Dillon & A. Rich.) 6 9 6 2 4 7 7 7 9 6 4 8 8 1 2 4 3rd Walp. 89 Note: Scores indicated that ranks were given to ethnoveterinary medicinal plants based on their
efficacy. Highest number (9) was given for medicinal plant which informants thought most
effective in treating abdominal bloating and lowest number (1) for the least.
4.8.2.10 Preference of multipurpose ethnoveterinary medicinal plants
The output of the Direct Matrix Ranking (DMR) exercise on seven multipurpose ethnoveterinary
medicinal plants used for treating domestic animals enabled to identify which of the
multipurpose plant was most under pressure in the areas, and the respective factors that
threatened the plant. Accordingly, Calpurnia aurea was ranked first (most threatened) followed
by Croton macrostachyus (Table 36).
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Table 36 Average DMR score of six key informants for 7 species with additional uses UD Medicinal plants Calpurnia aurea Croton Erythrina Justicia Olinia Phytolacca Vernonia macrostachyus brucei schimperiana rochetiana dodecandra amygdalina Informant (I)(1-6) I I I I I I AT 5 5 5 4 3 4 4 5 5 4 4 5 2 1 0 0 1 0 1 2 2 1 3 4 1 2 2 3 3 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 1 Fc 3 2 1 3 4 5 3 1 4 1 3 1 3 4 3 5 2 1 5 5 4 5 5 5 2 3 3 4 4 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 2 3 0 Fw 4 3 4 2 1 3 5 4 3 5 5 4 5 5 4 4 5 5 1 3 3 1 2 3 4 5 4 5 5 5 1 1 2 1 1 1 3 2 3 0 1 4 Mn 5 4 3 5 5 2 2 2 1 3 2 3 4 3 2 2 4 2 2 3 1 2 1 2 3 3 1 2 1 2 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 3 2 2 Ws 3 1 2 1 2 1 1 3 2 2 1 2 1 0 0 1 0 0 3 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 5 5 5 5 5 5 2 3 2 4 4 5 I t 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 9 2 2 8 2 4 0 0 1 4 0 3 0 5 5 0 2 2 6 2 2 2 1 1 0 0 2 2 Gt 95 90 69 71 73 76 66 R 1st 2nd 6th 5th 4th 3rd 7th Note: AT = Agricultural tools, Fc = Fence, Fw = Firewood, Mn = Medicine, Ws = Washing purpose, IT = Informant total, Gt = Grand total, R= Rank. Based on use criteria (5 = Best; 4 = Very good; 3 = Good; 2 = Less used; 1 = Least used and 0 = No value) 4.8.2.11 Use categories
Out of the total 30 ethnoveterinary medicinal plants of the districts, about 73% (22 species) were
recorded to be grouped into traditional medicinal and environmental use categories (11 species,
31.4% for each category). The remaining 8 species (22.9%) were also recorded to be used for
social uses whereas least number of species was cited for food (3 species, 8.6%) and fodder (2
species, 5.7%). Vernonia amygdalina was reported to be the most preferred plant for various use
categories such as fodder for bees and cattle, for alcoholic preparation, for firewood, shade and
soil fertility. The immature leaves of this plant were reported to be used for traditional alcohol
preparation and as a source of fodder for cattle. Besides, it was reported to increase the fertility
of the soil due to its highly degradable leaves. The flowers were reported to be as one of the best
sources of nectar for bees as they have good odor (Appendix 10). It was also reported that this
plant was planted in the surroundings of houses to be used as a wind breaker.
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4.9 Wild edible plants in Yilmana Densa and Quarit districts
Thirty two wild edible plants were reported in the two districts. These species were grouped in
30 genera and 24 families. Rosaceae and Polygonaceae were recorded with 3 species representation (9.4% each) followed by Anacardiaceae, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, Moraceae and
Solanaceae (2 species, 6.3% each) (Appendix 11).The remaining 16 families were represented by single species each (1 species, 3.1%). The species were recorded to be herbs, shrubs and trees.
Herbs were reported to be the primary source of wild food with percentage distribution of 40.6%
(Figure 27).
Figure 27 Percentage distributions of habit classes (Herbs, shrubs and trees)
4.9.1 Edible parts
Nine edible parts were reported and observed to be the source of food from 30 wild edible plants in the two districts. Fruits composed the highest edible parts (17 species, 53.1%) followed by leaves (6 species, 18.8%). The other 7 edible parts contributed to 28.2% of wild food sources
(Figure 28)
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Figure 28 Number and percentage of edible plant parts 4.9.2 Collection sites and collecting households
Farm lands, grazing lands, bare lands, roadsides, forests and homegardens were reported to be the major collection sites (Figure 29). Some WEPs (Urtica simensis, Vernonia amygdalina,
Cordia africana, Ensete ventricosum) were also reported to be collected only in homegardens.
Most of the harvesters of wild foods were reported to be young males (shepherds).
Approximately, 72% of food sources were collected by males whereas 28% was by females.
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A. Acacia abyssinica gum (on the stem) from B. Rubus apetalus fruit collected by a young boy in Asheti Leba Kebele Dambash Kebele
C. Cordia africana fruit collected by young D. Ficus sur fruit harvested in Gebeze Mariam females in Konch Gosheye Kebele Kebele
E. Syzygium guineense from Dambash Kebele F. Rosa abyssinica fruit in Gebeze Mariam forest patche Figure 29 Photo of some wild edible plants found in Yilmana Densa (B, C, E) and Quarit (A, D,
F) (Photo by the researcher and field assistant)
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4.9.3 Use preference
Among 8 edible species presented to 16 informants, Ficus sur was recorded to be the most
preferred edible plant with total score of 111 (Table 37).
Table 37 Preference ranking of 8 wild edible plants based on their taste of preference
Preference of WEPs Informants labeled A to P based on their taste A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Total score Rank Carissa spinarium 1 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 3 2 1 2 26 8th Cordia africana 6 8 7 6 8 6 7 5 5 6 8 6 8 6 7 6 105 2nd Dovyalis abyssinica 3 2 5 4 2 4 4 2 1 3 2 4 2 4 4 3 49 6th Ficus sur 8 7 8 6 7 5 8 6 8 8 7 6 7 5 8 7 111 1st Ficus vasta 4 3 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 4 3 1 1 1 2 4 36 7th Rosa abyssinica 7 6 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 5 102 3rd Rhus glutinosa subsp. 2 4 3 3 4 3 3 4 4 2 4 3 4 3 3 1 5th glutinosa 50 Rubus apetalus 5 5 4 5 5 8 5 8 7 5 5 5 5 8 5 8 93 4th Each rank was given a value of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8. The most effective plant was stated by
highest value 8 while the least important was stated by a value of 1. An overall rank for the
species was given by adding up these values for the key informants.
4.9.4 Use diversity
The uses of WEPs were grouped into 6 use categories, namely environmental uses, fodder, fuel,
medicine, poison and social use categories, and the uses of most species (22 species, 36%) fall
under fuel use category (Figure 30).
Environmental use
This category included soil conservation, increment of soil fertility, fence (dry and live fence).
Approximately, 15% of WEPs were recorded to be grouped under this category. Acanthus sennii,
Carissa spinarum, Opuntia ficus-indica, Urtica simensis and Rosa abyssincia were reported to
be the most commonly used species for live fence while Cordia africana was reported to be the
most commonly mentioned species for soil fertility.
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Forage
This use category included forage plants for cattle and bees (becoming source of nectar for bees).
The most commonly reported edible plant to be used as source of food for bees was Vernonia amygdalina. It was also reported to be the most commonly used forage plant together with
Cordia africana, Rosa abyssynica, Cyperus rigidifolius, Persicaria nepalensis, Acacia abyssinica and Acanthus sennii. The main reported edible parts for most of the forage plants were leaves.
Figure 30 Percentage distributions of wild edible plants on different use categories
Fuel
This category included firewood and charcoal uses. All dried parts of almost all WEPs were reported to be used as firewood. Acacia abyssinica, Mimusops kummel, Ficus vasta, F. sur and
Cordia africana were reported to be the most preferred ones (Table 38).
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Table 38 Direct matrix ranking of 5 WEPs based on 5 use criteria by 4 key informants Uc Wild edible plants Acacia abyssinica Carissa spinarum Cordia africana Olea europaea subsp. Rosa abyssincia cuspidata Informants (I) (1-6) I I I I 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 eu 3 3 3 3 3 3 5 4 3 5 4 3 0 1 1 2 1 2 3 3 2 4 2 3 4 3 4 3 2 4 fg 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 3 3 2 3 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 1 1 2 3 fl 4 4 4 4 4 4 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 4 3 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 md 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 5 4 5 5 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 3 4 3 3 4 4 su 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 3 5 2 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 4 3 2 4 it 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 5 6 7 8 9 0 6 7 8 9 0 1 5 2 3 6 4 7 2 4 7 0 8 9 3 8 6 5 7 2 g 105 111 77 100 101 r 2nd 1st 5th 4th 3rd Note: (5 = Best; 4 = Very good; 3 = Good; 2 = Less used; 1 = Least used and 0 = No value).
Environmental use (eu) = fence; forage (fg) = fodder; fuel (fl) = firewood, charcoal; medicine
(md); social use (su) = (rope, agricultural tools, house construction, house tools, fumigation,
walking stick, timber); g = grand total; it = informant total, uc = use categories, r = rank
Social use
This category included house construction, rope, timber, agricultural tools, baking materials and
fumigation. Acacia abyssinica was reported to the most commonly used species for agricultural
tools such as arms and plowing rope. Cordia africana was the most commonly used species for
timber. The leaves of Ensete ventricosum, the peels of Acacia abyssinica and Cordia africana
were also reported to be the most commonly used parts for baking bread and putting injera, and
rope preparation respectively.
4.9.5 Traditional knowledge difference on wild edible plants
One way ANOVA and a statistical F-test was calculated to test the null hypothesis that states,
"There is no significant wild edible plant knowledge difference between adults (< = 50 years old)
and elders (> 50) of the districts". Following the analysis, there was a significant traditional
WEPs knowledge difference (p < 0.05) between adult (< 50 years old) and elder (> 50 years)
individuals (Table 39).
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Table 39 ANOVA table for age groups Age Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 16531.014 1 16531.014 Within Groups 24617.720 393 263.903 .000 62.641 Total 41148.734 394
4.9.6 Wild edible plant species similarity between two agroclimatic zones
There was a significant difference between Jacard‟s and Sorensen‟s similarity coefficient of
Weyna Dega and Dega agroclimatic zones (Table 40).
Table 40 Jacard‟s and Sorensen‟s similarity coefficient of the two agroclimatic zones Similarity Sj* = Jacard‟s similarity Ss** = Sorensen‟s Test of significance coefficient similarity coefficient Weyna Dega and Dega 0.84 0.914 Tcal < T tab(p < 0.05)
Note: * Sj = a/ (a+b+c); ** Ss = 2a/ (2a+b+c); where Sj = Jacard‟s similarity coefficient; Ss =
Sorensen‟s similarity coefficient; a = Number of species with simultaneous occurrence in two agroclimatic zones 1 and 2; b = Number of species that occur only in agroclimatic zone 2; c =
Number of species that occur only in agroclimatic zone 1.
Agroclimatic zones Recorded unique species Dega Hagenia abyssinica Urtica simensis Weyna Dega Opuntia ficus-indica Mimusops kummel Syzygium guineense Ximenia americana 4.9.7 Market surveys on wild edible plants of the districts
Three WEPs (9.4%) (Ficus sur, Mimusops kummel and Olea europaea subsp.cuspidata) were reported to be sold in local markets of the districts. The figs of Ficus vasta, and the fruits
Ximenia americana and Ensete ventricosum were reported to be rarely sold in the local markets.
The remaining species (81.3%) were non-marketable. Mimusops kummel was observed in Adet market between November - April. Olea europaea subsp.cuspidata was also observed at this market too. Figs of Ficus sur were found in markets especially in Bir Gebeya, Dabi and Adet
108 markets rarely in small market places between March - May (Figure 31). The fruits of Mimusops kummel were reported and observed to be sold in a can (containing about ½ kg). A single can of its fruits were sold by 3 Birr or by count 10 fruits were sold by 1 Birr.
Figure 31 Fruits of Mimusops kummel in Adet market presented for sell
4.10 Threats and conservation efforts of plants in Yilmana Densa and Quarit districts
The major observed and reported threats of plants in the study areas were agricultural expansion, plantation of monoculture Eucalyptus species, firewood, overgrazing and overharvesting. The preference ranking exercise showed that agricultural land expansion was a primary threat for plants in the study areas (Table 41, 42). Olea europaea subsp.cuspidata was reported to be highly harvested for its branches and stems for the purpose of fumigation and agricultural tools respectively (Figure 32). Echinops kebericho was harvested for its roots for fumigation purposes to avoid evil spirits, especially during childbirth. The roots of this plant were also sold in local markets of the study areas. Cucumis ficifolius was also the other highly overharvested medicinal plant for its roots for traditional treatment of human and animal diseases. The other reported indirect causes to the vegetation dwindling of the study areas were lack of sufficient awareness creation, and lack of regular guards to the patches.
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The reported conservation practices taken by the local peoples of the study areas were also
cultivating plants in homegardens and covering bare lands with seedlings, seasonal protection of
forest patches. It was reported that plants were cultivated for their indirect uses including
aesthetic, fence, food, shade, spice, firewood, charcoal, source of income and cultural uses.
Table 41 Ranking of vegetation threats of the study areas by 15 key informants
Threats Informants Score Rank A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O Firewood 3 2 4 1 2 2 1 5 1 2 1 1 2 4 1 32 3rd Agricultural land expansion 4 5 5 2 4 5 3 4 2 4 2 4 4 5 3 56 1st Plantation of monoculture species 2 4 2 5 1 3 5 2 4 1 4 3 3 2 5 46 2nd Overgrazing 1 1 1 3 3 1 2 1 3 3 3 2 1 1 4 30 4th Note: 5 = Most threat, 4 = More threat, 3 = Threat, 2 = Less threat, 1 = Least threat
Table 42 Ranking of the threats of wild edible plants by 15 key informants
Threats of Informants I1 to I15 WEPs I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 I7 I8 I9 I10 I11 I12 I13 I14 I15 Score R Agriculture 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 3 4 5 2 5 5 3 4 65 1st Material uses 3 4 1 3 3 4 2 2 3 2 1 2 1 1 3 35 5th Firewood 2 1 4 1 4 3 3 4 2 4 4 3 4 5 5 49 2nd Overgrazing 1 2 3 2 1 1 1 5 5 3 3 4 3 2 1 37 4th Plantation 4 3 2 4 2 2 5 1 1 1 5 1 2 4 2 39 3rd Note: The most threat is stated by highest value 5 while the least threat is stated by 1.
A) B)
Figure 32 Degradation of Gebeze Mariam forest patche (A), particularly overharvesting of Olea
europaea subsp.cuspidata (B) in Quarit district
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CHAPTER FIVE
5. DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Discussions
5.1.1 Plant composition
The results showed that forest patches were rich in species composition as indicated by the presence of 249 species distributed into 194 genera and 81 families. It also showed that the forest patches are the reservoirs of 69 traditional medicinal and 18 wild edible plants. The presence of such high number of species record, agreed with the literature source of IBC (2005) that described the districts‟ vegetation as the part of dry evergreen montane forest and grassland complex types with high species diversity. The findings of Jin-Ming et al. (2003) further indicated that most tropical forests are sources of vital traditional medicinal remedy, and even serve as the basis for at least 25% of modern drugs. Moreover, according to Jamnadass et al.
(2011), it was also proved that tropical forests, particularly in complex landscape mosaics with significant forest cover are the source of vital WEPs around the world. The results further proved that the forest patches have higher species richness than some other forests of Ethiopia (Table
43).
It also showed that the patches had higher species record than some monasteries such as Sesa
Mariam (113 species) (Birhanu Woldie et al., 2015) and Debre Libanos (61 woody species)
(Getachew Demie, 2015). Moreover, it proved that the patches have better record of species compared to the fragmented landscapes of northern Ethiopia (153 species) (Ermias Aynekulu,
2011) and midland of Sidama zone (75 species) (Abiot Molla and Zenebe Asfaw, 2014).
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The variation in species composition of the different forests of Ethiopia could be due to the following reasons: 1) Differences in topography among the forests compared (Chen et al., 2003;
Alemayehu Wassie et al., 2010; Ermias Aynekulu, 2011) since species richness decreased or increased with altitudinal variation (Alemayehu Wassie et al., 2010; Schmitt et al., 2010); 2)
Environmental heterogeneity, regeneration success and competition (Chen et al., 2003); 3) The degree of availability of suitable environmental gradients in the respective forests (Ermias
Aynekulu, 2011); 4) Habitat diversity (Hamilton, 2005). Moreover, forests with a high degree of human interference and disturbances for prolonged periods show relatively lower species richness than the others (Alemayehu Wassie et al., 2010; Ermias Aynekulu, 2011; Getachew
Demie, 2015).
The results further showed that Asteraceae was the dominant family in species number in agreement to other research findings (Genene Bekele and Reddy, 2015; Getinet Masresha et al.,
2015). According to Hedberg (1970), the ability to disperse better by wind due to the varied morphology endowed by parachute (a bunch of bristles called a pappus) like structures adapted for air floatation and improved chances of successful establishment of diaspores after arrival in various areas that could have allowed the the family to establish a successful population. The results also showed that more than 50% of the species were herbs followed by shrubs including more than 20% of species. Herbs were also recorded as the dominant components with regard to number in other forests of the country such as Belete (Kflay Gebrehiwot and Kitessa, 2014),
Jibat (Tesfaye Burju et al., 2013). This might be for the reason that most of the dominant families of the forest patches were Asteraceae and Fabaceae (30 species representation) which were mostly herbs or shrubs. Family Asteraceae is commonly composed by herbs or shrubs
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(Mesfin Tadesse, 2004) while Fabaceae is commonly trees, shrubs, or herbs with cosmopolitan distribution (Hedberg and Edwards, 1989) with its woody genera are mostly distributed in the tropics (Langran et al., 1998).
Furthermore, the results showed that the forest patches of the districts were rich with endemic species (24 species, 9.6%) compared to some other forests of Ethiopia such as Alemsaga (7)
(Getinet Masresha, 2015), Belete (17) (Kflay Gebrehiwot and Kitessa Hundera, 2014), Jibat (16)
(Tesfaye Burju et al., 2013), Biteyu (16) (Mekonnen Biru, 2003), Metema (2) (Haile Adamu et al., 2012). So, the results indicated that the forest patches were better reservoirs of endemics than such vegetation areas of the country. The variation in richness of endemics among such forests might be due to the presence of improper documentation of endemics in the respective vegetations of the country (Ensermu Kelbessa et al., 1992). It might be also due to the presence of great variety in topography and environmental conditions (Demel Teketay, 1994; Zerihun
Woldu, 1999) and considerable pressure from the rapidly expanding population (Zerihun Woldu et al., 1999). As population of a given area increases in number it needs extra land for farming or herding its livelihoods and affects the natural habitats of the endemics (USAID, 2008). Thus, it progressively results the loss of endemics of one area.
Table 43 Comparison of some forests in their species number
Forests Species number Name of the researchers and year of the study The current study patches 249 Bonga 243 Ensermu Kelbessa and Teshome Soromessa (2008) Sire Beggo 185 Abyot Dibaba et al. (2014) Jibat 183 Tesfaye Burju et al. (2013) Denkoro 174 Abate Ayalew (2006) Belete 157 Kflay Gebrehiwot and Kitessa Hundera (2014) Alemsaga 124 Getinet Masresha et al. (2015) Boda 95 Fikadu Erenso et al. (2014) Metema 87 Haile Adamu et al. (2012)
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5.1.2 Plant communities
The results showed that vascular plants of the districts were clustered into 4 community types.
According to Kent and Coker (1992), a plant community is a clearly recognizable and definable entity that repeats itself with regularity over a given region of the earth‟s surface. According to this concept, the identified 4 community types of Yilmana Densa and Quarit districts might be different from the community types in other parts of the country. However, the results showed that the current study forest patches had similar indicator species to the other dry Afromontane forests of the country. For example, Maytenus gracilipes was an indicator species for Alemsaga forest (Getinet Masresha et al., 2015). The other species, Osyris quadripartita was also an indicator species in Boda dry evergreen montane forest (Fikadu Erenso et al., 2014). This might be due to all the listed forests were dry Afromontane forest types which might have similar indicator species.
5.1.3 Vegetation structure
5.1.3.1 Density of trees and shrubs
The results showed that the forest patches had highest number of individuals of woody species.
The results also showed that the two dominant species of the forest patches were Dodonea angustifolia and Croton macrostachyus. It also indicated that forest patches had highest total density of woody species compared to some other forests of Ethiopia (Table 44). The results further showed that the density of woody species based on DBH >10 cm was 164 individuals ha-
1 but that of > 20 was 182 individuals ha-1. The ratio of the density of individuals with DBH >10 cm to those greater than 20 cm showed the distribution of size classes (Grubb et al., 1963). This ratio of the study five forest patches of the districts was 0.9, indicating slight variation between the small sized and large sized stems. The ratio of woody species > 10 and those of > 20
114 indicated that a little bit predominance of large sized woody individuals. It further indicated that the forest patches were under heavy pressure from livestock grazing and crowdedness of woody species which resulted in low regeneration.
Table 44 Total densities of woody species in some areas of Ethiopia
Some areas of Ethiopia Number of individuals h-1 Researchers Wof Washa forest 699 Gebremicael Fisaha et al. (2013) Zengena forest 2,202 Desalegn Tadele et al. (2014) Sesa Mariam monastery forest c.1961 Birhanu Woldie et al. (2015) Zegie forest 3318 Alemnew Alelign et al. (2007) Bonga forest 590 Sisay Nune (2008) Boginda forest 575 Sisay Nune (2008) Mankira forest 454 Sisay Nune (2008) The current forest patches 3592
5.1.3.2 DBH and Basal area of woody species
The results showed that the percentage distribution of woody species in the five forest patches of the districts across six DBH classes showed a relatively high proportion of individuals in DBH class 1-10 cm, DBH class 10-20 cm and DBH class 30-40 cm. The the lowest proportion of individuals was also recorded for DBH class 60-70 cm and 310-320 cm. These showed that the forest patches were crowded by low DBH class woody species which resulted in low basal area ha-1.
The results also showed that total basal area of woody species (DBH > 2.5 cm) of the forest patches was 29.8 m2 ha-1. This showed that the current study areas showed higher basal area per hectare compared to some other forests of Ethiopia such as Achera natural forest (3.61 m2 ha-1)
(Habtam Getaneh and Ali Seid, 2015), Zengena forest (22.3 m2 ha-1) (Desalegn Tadele et al.,
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2014). Moreover, Prunus africana, Juniperus procera and Eucalyptus globulus with highest record of basal area can be considered as the most important species of the forest patches in the districts. This is because species with highest contribution to basal area can be considered as the most important species in the forest (Cain and Castro, 1959).
5.1.4 Population structure
The analysis result of the population structure of some woody species showed that there was high variation in the forest patches as indicated by three representative patterns. The presence of
Inverted „J‟ in the forest patches showed that most of the populations were in the lower diameter class. According to Tamrat Bekele (1993), Feyera Senbeta (2006) and Getachew Tesfaye et al.
(2010), this distribution type shows more or less a healthy or stable regeneration and reproduction potential of species in forests (Tamrat Bekele, 1993; Feyera Senbeta, 2006;
Getachew Tesfaye et al., 2010). Thus, the study forest patches showed stable regeneration and reproduction potential of species.
In contradiction to this, the study forest patches had a poor reproduction and recruitment of species which was indicated by the presence of bell shaped pattern. Because according to Feyera
Senbeta et al. (2007), bell shaped pattern indicates a poor reproduction and recruitment of species. This might also be associated with intense competition from the surrounding species.
Upward „F‟ type of frequency distribution pattern also showed that individuals concentrated in the first (lower) and intermediate (third or fourth) diameter class and the rest of the classes were with almost equally few number of individuals. In aggreement to the current study, the two distribution patterns (inverted „J‟ shaped and „bell‟ shaped) were also observed in other forests of Ethiopia such as Sheko (Feyera Senbeta et al., 2007), Alemsaga (Getinet Masresha et
116 al., 2015), Jibat (Tesfaye Burji, 2013) and northern highland church (Alemayehu Wassie et al.,
2010) forests.
5.1.4.1 Percentage frequency of woody species
The results showed that 9 species were classified under class II (class B) in the percentage frequency of 21-40 and the species were seldom present in the quadrats. Six species were also assigned in the frequency range of 41-60 in the third frequency clsass (Class III or Class C) and these species were often present in most of the quadrats. Only two woody species were assigned under percentage frequency class of IV or Class D in the range of 61-80 which showed that the species were mostly distributed in most of the quadrats. These species were Croton macrostachyus and Vernonia auriculifera which might have a wide range of seed dispersal mechanisms by wind, livestock, wild animal, or birds.
According to Lamprecht (1989), high values in D/E and low values in A/B ratio indicate constant or similar woody species composition (homogeneous). A high degree of plant heterogeneity is found when the situation is reversed i. e. when the values of D/E are low and the values of A/B are high. Following this concept, the current forest patches were rich in a high degree of plant heterogeneity. In addition, absence of woody species record in class V or class E in the percentage frequency range of 81-100 showed the absence of constantly present species within the five forest patches. This further might lead to conclude that the forest patches were with heterogeneous species composition.
5.1.4.2 Importance values of woody species
The result showed that there were high IVI variations among the analyzed woody species of the forest patches. It further showed that Dodonea angustifolia was the first species with highest
117 importance value (IVI = 43.8) followed by Croton macrostachyus (IVI = 14), Vernonia auriculifera (IVI = 11), Osyris quadripartita (IVI = 10) and Carissa spinarum (IVI = 8.8).
Therefore, these species had highest ecological value in the forest patches. Dodonea angustifolia was also recorded with highest IVI in other findings (Getinet Masresha et al., 2015). The top dominant and ecologically most important species might also be the most successful species
(IBC, 2009) and these types of species with highest importance will adapt to high pressure disturbance, natural and environmental factors and the effect of local communities. The priority for conservation should be based on their importance value index and priority should be given for species with least importance value index because they are at risk of local extinction and the last priority of conservation should be given for species with highest importance value index
(Mesfin Belete and Tamiru Demsis, 2018).
5.1.5 Plant similarity
The results showed that the five forest patches of the two districts had comparable plant species similarity as analyzed using Sorensen‟s (Ss) and Jacard‟s (Js) coefficient of similarity. However, there was a significant difference (P < 0.05) in the value of the two coefficients for each paired and compared forest patches. The result further showed that altitudinal variation showed its own effect for plant variation among the five forest patches. Thus, Sorensen‟s (Ss) and Jacard‟s (Js) coefficient of similarity had higher value for those compared forest patches with comparable altitude. Chinehilgn forest patche (located at altitudinal range of 1750-3060 masl) had low valuses of Ss and Js coefficient compared to Avola, Gebsh, Gelawolde and Gebeze Mariam
(located at altitudinal range of 2100-2550 masl). This indicated that plant species composition was strongly influenced by altitudinal gradient in agreement to Schmitt (2006). The difference might be also due to variation in spatial scale (quadrat size) that might change spatial patterns in
118 beta diversity (Lennon et al., 2001; Dufour et al., 2006), or it might be due to environmental heterogeneity (variability) (Dufour et al., 2006).
5.1.6 Diversity of plant species in the districts
The results showed that Yilmana Densa and Quarit districts had high and closer diversity (H' =
4.23 and 3.873 respectively) and evenness of species (J = 0.77 and 0.74 respectively). The presence of such types of closer diversity also showed the presence of similar environmental and anthropogenic factors influencing species diversity of the districts. The total plant diversity (H') of the two districts was also 3.765 which was higher than some other forests of Ethiopia such as
Alemsaga (3.67) and Zengena (2.74) (Desalegn Tadele et al., 2014), Zegie (3.72) (Dereje
Mekonen et al., 2012). More to the point, the forest patches showed high evenness value indicating that there were few number of dominant species compared to the majority of the species in the forest patches. According to Desalegn Tadele et al. (2014), the high diversity and evenness values of forests are characterized by low disturbance, environmental variations and species characteristics (Dereje Mekonen et al., 2012). However, in the study forest patches, the presence of high record of species might be related to the absence of crowdedness of huge tree species that might prevent the growth of other smaller species.
5.1.7 Species - area relationship
The result of a regression analysis of the study forest patches showed that there was a significant relationship (R2 = 0.92) between species richness and area. Results from previous studies have positive agreements with this result. According to Desmet and Cowling (2004), more species are found in larger sampled areas. It further indicated that the number of species is correlated with the area where a species found and in larger areas more species are found and in smaller areas few number of species are found. According to Rosenzweig (1995), the number of species is
119 also increasing as the sampling area increases. Schroth et al. (2004) also stated that tropical ecosystems contain more than half of all terrestrial species since they cover a large part of the earth‟s surface.
5.1.8 Regeneration of woody species of the forest patches
Based on the findings of this study, there was a significant mean percentage difference (P < 0.05) between seedlings and saplings, and seedlings and mature individuals (DBH > 2.5 cm) (Tcal <
Ttab,) in the forest patches of the two districts. The ratios between the two pairs were also 0.74 and 0.24 respectively. The ratio of the first pair was much higher than the later. Thus, there was low regeneration potential in the forest patches. This is because a regeneration potential of the species of any forest is poor if seedlings and saplings are much less than the mature trees as described by Dhaulkhandi et al. (2008). The presence of mature plants than saplings and seedlings in the study forest patches might also be due to high livestock grazing in the forest patches or the seeds in seed banks might be eaten before they germinate; or death of seedlings with unsuitable resource or with herbivores and pathogens; unfavourable environmental conditions such as soil moisture, temperature and light conditions that alter the germination and survival of seedlings. This also showed the presence of low stability of the species to thrive in the environment (Mesfin Belete and Tamiru Demsis, 2018).
5.1.9 Use categories of plant species
The results showed that the plants of the forest patches had a wide range of uses for the community of the two districts. Plants were used for fence, shelter, and erosion control, ornamental and soil improvement, traditional medicine, fuel, fumigation, cosmetics, walking stick, baking and malting materials, detergents. It further indicated that they were used for
120 agricultural tools, house construction and rope preparation, brooms, toothbrush, timber
(preparation of beds, tables and other household utensils), fodder and wild food.
The role of plant species for such types of purposes were also recorded and documented in other parts of Ethiopia. For example, the role of plants for fencing, house construction (roof thatching and walls), household furniture (utensils), firewood and charcoal was documented by Tinsae
Bahru et al. (2012); for forage (for livestock and bees) by Kindu Mekonnen et al. (2009); for agricultural tools by Atinafu Kebede et al. (2017); for human medicine by Balcha Abera (2014),
Habtamu Agisho et al. (2014), Mulugeta Kebebew and Erchafo Mohamed (2017) Dereje
Mosissa (2018); for ethnoveterinary medicine by Teshale Sori et al. (2004), Gebremedhin
Romha et al. (2015), Dereje Mosissa (2018); for insect repellents by Mirutse Giday (2018) and for fumigation by Mekdes Ourge et al. (2018).
Plant species were recorded with variety of uses in different parts of Ethiopia. For example,
Cordia africana was recorded as a source of wild food in the study areas but as source of traditional medicine in Metekel zone (Dereje Mosissa, 2018); Prunus africana was recorded as a medicinal plant in Hadiya zone (Habtamu Agisho et al., 2014) but not in this study; Calpurnia aurea was recorded as source of medicine for tick in Raya-Azebo district (Mirutse Giday, 2018) but it was recorded as source of traditional medicine for snake bite in this study; Croton macrostachyus was recorded as source of medicine for tapeworm in Hadiya zone (Mulugeta
Kebebew and Erchafo Mohamed, 2017) but it was recorded to be used for treatment of Tinea chorporis in this study.
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However, some ethnoveterinary medicinal plants and other useful plants that were recorded at different parts of the country were reported with concomitant uses. For example, Calpurnia aurea was recorded as the most preferred medicinal plant for the treatment of dermatological diseases on livestock in some parts of the county such as southern Ethiopia (Gebremedhin
Romha et al., 2015), Raya-Azebo district (Mirutse Giday, 2018). Furthermore, plant species that were used for fencing at different parts of the country were recorded to be mostly spiny species in agreement to the present study (Tinsae Bahru et al., 2012). This difference and similarity in the use of plants might be due to the availability or scarcity of plant species, and difference in culture and knowledge of a given community.
5.1.10 Traditional medicinal plants of the districts
The results showed that Yilmana Densa and Quarit districts were rich with traditional medicinal plants. The results also showed that most of the species were used for the traditional treatment of human diseases.
5.1.10.1 Reported medicinal plants used for human diseases
The results showed that all the reported medicinal plants were belonged to angiosperms. This was in agreement with Roberson (2008) who documented and described as almost all traditional medicinal plants are flowering plants. This might be due to the success of flowering plants in invading large areas of the globe, and thus it might be also due to their cosmopolitan distribution globally and nationally. Out of c. 213 families of flowering medicinal plants of Ethiopia, 92 families have medicinal properties. Among 92 families having medicinal value, only two families are non-flowering plants; one family is a gymnosperm and the other is a fern
(Ankobonggo, 1992). Therefore, it agrees with the current findings.
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Previous studies in Ethiopia had considered a number of districts and ethnic groups that resulted in a varied number of species. Examples are Bench ethnic group (32 species) (Mirutse Giday et al., 2009); Berta ethnic group (40 species) (Teferi Flatie et al., 2009); Babile district (51)
(Anteneh Belayneh et al., 2012); Guji Oromo Tribes (43 species) (Genene Bekele and Reddy,
2015); Amaro district (56 species) (Fisseha Mesfin et al., 2014); Enderta district (27 species)
(Gidey Yirga, 2010); Alamata (25 species) (Gidey Yirga, 2010); Sekoru district (27 species);
Zay people (33 species) (Mirutse Giday et al., 2003); Meinit ethnic group (51 species) (Mirutse
Giday et al., 2009); Oromo ethnic group in southwestern Ethiopia (67 species) (Haile Yineger et al., 2008a); Ankober district (135 species) (Ermias Lulekal et al., 2013), degraded land of Tigray
(259 species) (Emiru Birhane et al., 2011); Wayu Tuka district (126 species) (Moa Megersa et al., 2013); Kilte Awulaelo district (114 species) (Abraha Teklay et al., 2013). The difference in the richness of medicinal plants might be due to different reasons including sample size, the study area coverage, difference in number of key informants, differences in plant diversity and culture difference of the community.
Fabaceae was recorded as a dominant family of the districts in species number (8 species). In agreement to the current study, other findings also recorded Fabaceae as the dominant family of the areas in species number (Tesfaye Hailemariam et al., 2009; Ermias Lulekal et al., 2013; Moa
Megersa et al., 2013). However, Asteraceae (which was the third dominant family in the current study) was also recorded as the dominant family in other research findings (Haile Yineger et al.,
2008a; Ermias Lulekal et al., 2013; Seyoum Getaneh and Zerihun Girma, 2014; Genene Bekele and Reddy, 2015). The dominance of Fabaceae as medicinal plant might be due to their content of active flavonoid compared with other families. According to Tesfaye Seifu (2004),
123 isoflavonoids are common in species of Fabaceae, but are found in few other plant families (Gazzaneo et al., 2005).
The results also showed that most of medicinal plants were herbs followed by shrubs. In agreement with the current study, other research findings recorded herbs as the primary source of remedy in other parts of Ethiopia (Haile Yineger et al., 2008a; Tesfaye Mekonen et al., 2010;
Emiru Birhane et al., 2011; Fisseha Mesfin et al., 2014). However, shrubs were also recorded as the primary source of traditional medicines in some other areas of the country (Genene Bekele and Reddy, 2015). The use of herbaceous species as the primary source of traditional medicine in the study districts might be related to their availability compared to trees and shrubs (Ermias
Lulekal et al., 2013; Seyoum Getaneh and Zerihun Girma, 2014). It might also be associated to their abundance with relatively high amount of rainfall in the areas; or it might be due to possessing strong phytochemicals like alkaloids and flavanoids that have strong antibacterial and antifungal properties (Seyoum Getaneh and Zerihun Girma, 2014).
5.1.10.2 Types of human diseases treated by medicinal plants
The results showed that 61 identified disease types were treated by traditional medicinal plants of the districts. The results further indicated that blood pressure and asthma were the prevalent human health problems under circulatory system and respiratory system disease categories respectively. Miscellaneous, central nervous system and gastrointestinal disease categories had also highest informant agreements. According to Yang et al. (2016), the treatment of asthma in modern medicine could not restrain all of its symptoms. Thus, treating this disease by traditional medicinal plants was highly efficacious, with low cost, easily managed and with few adverse
124 effects. Similarly, common cold was predominantly self-diagnosed and self-medicated with herbal products (Barnes, 2004; Eccles, 2005; Mathens and Bellanger, 2010).
For myriads of reasons the local communities in any parts of the country have used selected parts of medicinal plants for traditional treatment of diseases. Similarly, the results showed that the local people of the study areas used 12 parts of medicinal plants for the traditional treatment of diseases. Out of these, leaves were the primary source of remedy. According to Mathabe et al.
(2006), the extracts from the barks, flowers, fruits, leaves and roots of medicinal plants have
Alkaloids, Naphtoquinones, Saponin, Flavonoids, Terpenoids, Sesquiterpenoid, Quassinoids,
Xanthones and Ferruginol that have ethnopharmacological use. However, the use of leaves as primary sources of remedy might be related to conservation and sustainable utilization, ease of preparation and collection, and availability of medicinal plants in near by surrounding areas. In agreement with the current study, similar results were reported in other parts of Ethiopia where leaves were the most commonly used medicinal plant parts (Haile Yineger and Delenasaw
Yewhalaw, 2007; Abraha Teklay et al., 2013).
The results also showed that 23 medicinal plants were marketable. However, less number of species were sold and purchased entirely for the purposes of their medicinal applications in Adet and Dabi towns while the majority were sold in bulk for their non-medicinal purposes. This low availability and marketability of medicinal plants in local markets might indicate the presence of low market consumption of the species. Thus, medicinal plant trade might not be a major threat for the species of the study areas.
125
5.1.10.3 Agreements of informants on medicinal plants
The results showed that miscellaneous, central nervous system and digestive system diseases were recorded with highest informant consensus values (0.9 each). Dermatological system and infective diseases had also the second highest informant agreements (0.8 each). According to
Albuquerque et al. (2014), ICF values are always greater when single or few plants are documented to be used by large number of respondents to cure a specific disease, while low ICF values give an indication that informants do not agree over which plant to use. Moreover, highest informant agreements indicate the prevalence of the disease in the areas. Thus, the study showed that diseases with highest ICF were prevalent in the areas. The highest occurrence of digestive system diseases in the districts might be due to poor hygiene, firewood smoke inside houses, water and air pollution.
5.1.10.4 Healing potential of medicinal plants
The results showed that out of the total 14 medicinal plants, Dodonea angustifolia, Dovyalis abyssinica, Hagenia abyssinica, Nigella sativa and Urtica simensis had highest fidelity level.
According to Heinrich et al. (1998), medicinal plants with highest fidelity level are widely used by the local people than those that are with less fidelity level. Thus, it indicated that these species were the most widely used species in the study areas. Albuquerque et al. (2014) further stated that highest fidelity level demonstrates the knowledge distribution of the species in the local people. Thus, these species were the most well known medicinal plant species of the areas.
5.1.10.5 Use value of medicinal plants
The results showed that out of the total 24 most cited traditional medicinal plants, Trigonella foenum-graecum had highest use value (UV = 6.8) followed by Carissa spinarum (UV = 4.7).
According to Phillips and Gentry (1993), the relative importance of plants reflects the number of
126 uses assigned to it. The results using this technique are commonly interpreted as the pressure on a given resource resulting from use, considering the logic that most well-known resources are also the most used. However, Albuquerque et al. (2014) considered that there are no studies that have established a direct relationship between use value and the real pressure on a given resource resulting from use.
5.1.10.6 Cultural role of medicinal plants
The results showed that Carissa spinarum, Croton macrostachyus, Calpurnia aurea, Millettia ferruginea, Rosa abyssinica and Dodonea angustifolia had highest cultural values. According to
Turner (1988), cultural significance index is important in indicating the importance of traditional medicinal plants for the local communities. Thus, these species with highest cultural values had highest cultural role for the local people. The index further showed that these species with highest cultural values were highly preferred by the community.
5.1.10.7 Frequency of medicinal plants
The results showed that Phytolacca dodecandra (FI = 99.2), Embelia schimperi (FI = 98.7),
Otostegia integrifolia (FI = 98.5), Zehneria scabra (FI = 98), Cucumis ficifolius (FI = 97.5),
Allium sativum (FI = 94.9) and Stephania abyssinica (FI = 93.2) were recorded with highest frequency values. Thus, these species were the most frequently mentioned species in study areas.
In addition, it showed that medicinal plants with highest FI values were mentioned by many informants. It also indicated that such types of medicinal plants were under pressure and might be exposed for various threats.
5.1.10.8 Use preference of selected medicinal plants
The findings of the current study from the preference ranking of 7 medicinal plants used to treat blood pressure showed that Verbascum sinaiticum and Thymus schimperi were the most
127 preferred medicinal plants with total score of 74 and 70 respectively. Similarly, the earlier species was the most preferred for asthma with total score of 45. The other preference ranking exercise for 6 selected medicinal plants used to treat common cold showed that Otostegia integrifolia was the most preferred with total score of 64. As Ramos et al. (2014) stated that such type of ranking exercise is important for demonstrating taxonomic groups that could be targets for greater extractives pressure. Thus, according to this concept, these species were under greater extractives pressure.
5.1.10.9 Use diversity of medicinal plants
The results showed that out of the total 112 medicinal plants of the areas, the majority of the species (97 species, 86.5%) were cited for one or more uses other than their medicinal role. It also showed that most of the species were exposed to highest threats. As a result of direct matrix ranking exercise done on five multipurpose medicinal plants showed that Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata, Carissa spinarum and Rosa abyssinica had highest total score of 95, 84 and 76 respectively. The highest total score of multipurpose species was an indication to identify plant species that were the most widely used by local communities. It also showed multipurpose plants that were most under pressure in the areas and the respective factors that threaten them.
Thus, based on their rank these species were found to be threatened in the areas due to their diverse uses for the local community.
5.1.10.10 Traditional knowledge difference and transfer between informant groups
The results showed that the local community of the study areas were endowed with traditional knowledge with significant difference (p < 0.05) between general and key informants, adults and elders, illiterate and literate, and between males and females. In agreement with the current study, the presence of such types of significant knowledge differences between informant groups
128 was reported by some other research findings. For example, the presence of significant knowledge difference between general and key informants, and adults and elders was recorded by Getnet Chekole et al. (2015). In addition, the presence of significant knowledge difference between illiterate and literate was also reported by Haile Yineger et al. (2008a) whereas those of males and females was reported by Tilahun Teklehaimanot and Mirutse Giday (2007) and Haile
Yineger et al. (2008a).
According to Haile Yineger et al. (2008a), the traditional knowledge difference of the local people in some parts of Ethiopia was due to the presence of fragmentation and erosion of knowledge from illiterate healers. But key informants might have formal written records used as a reference. Besides, they might upgrade and develop their knowledge from their daily trial and error experience since it is their livelihood. But when we come to the general informants it might be their additional livelihood so they might not take so much care for their knowledge as key informants. Thus, it might be diminished or degraded so knowledge difference might come between the two groups come. Similarly, elders might have good experience in relation to their age. Besides, they might be experienced with many medicinal plants that existed in the previous years but nowadays vanished from their surrounding areas.
Age and experience also might be the reason for significant knowledge difference between elders and adults as recorded in other parts of Ethiopia (Ermias Lulekal et al., 2013). Males were shown to have better TK than females. This might be due to the fact that males might have multiple source of knowledge. For example, males might have a chance of learning church education which was the main source of traditional medicinal knowledge. But females might spend more
129 time in their home. So this might help males to get TK from their friends since they might experience more friends with various sources of TK than females. However, the traditional knowledge gained (9.1%) from friends was much lower than TK gained from parents (90.9%).
Percentage difference of TK gained from different sources might be due to the presence of suspicion between traditional knowledge donors and receivers. This was due to according to
Kebu Balemie et al. (2004) the secrecy of traditional medical practices are common phenomena elsewhere in Ethiopia. Thus, children might be most loyal to their parents than other groups and hence parents could transfer their knowledge fully to their children rather than to the others.
Moreover, knowledge might be transferred from parents to children without payment but with significant payment to those of outside family members as indicated in other research results
(Mirutse Giday et al., 2009).
5.1.11 Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants of the districts
The results showed that the majority (63.6%) of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants were reported to be used for the remedy preparation for cattle. This might be due to the rearing of more cattle than other domestic animals. Asteraceae and Euphorbiaceae were the dominant plant families used as the primary source of ethnoveterinary medicine. The preference of Asteraceae as the source ethnoveterinary medicine might be due to its highest distribution in the flora areas while
Euphorbiaceae might be due to possessing diverse toxic species that might have highest antimicrobial activities.
The results showed that the study districts were recorded with higher ethnoveterinary medicinal plant species (30 species) compared to the other districts in the country such as Chiro district (12
130 species) (Asayegn Bekele and Abiy Musa, 2009); Dabat district (18 species) (Berhanemeskel
Weldegerima et al., 2008); Kilte Awulaelo district (19 species) (Abraha Teklay et al., 2013);
Wonago district (28 species) (Fisseha Mesfin et al., 2009); Goma district (29 species). The difference in the richness of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants in different parts of Ethiopia might be due to: 1) Variation of traditional knowledge among the local communities; 2) The repeated occurrence of domestic diseases in study areas than in other areas; 3) Difference in vegetation diversity.
5.1.11.1 Growth forms, usable parts and mode of preparation
The results showed that most of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants in the two districts were herbs and shrubs with percentage distribution of 40% and 26.7% respectively. This might be due to their great diversity. If herbaceous species are abundant in an area, a community may adapt to use the available resources rather than searching less abundant species. It further showed that leaves and roots were used as primary source of remedy with percentage contribution of 30.6% and 25% respectively. These parts were also recorded as the primary source of remedy in other research findings (Berhanemeskel Weldegerima et al., 2008; Mirutse Gidey and Tilahun
Teklehaimanot, 2013; Reta Regassa, 2013).
According to Paiva et al. (2010), barks, flowers, fruits, leaves and roots possess secondary metabolites such alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, and other phenolic compounds, and lectins that have antimicrobial activity against gram negative and positive bacteria that is why ethnoveterinary medicinal plants were used as a remedy for animal diseases. The preference of leaves as the primary source of remedy might be due to the ease of the preparation of leaves than other parts. According to Ermias Lulekal et al. (2013), harvesting of roots for the preparation of
131 remedy might kill the plant. Thus, it might be the cause for the loss of medicinal plants.
Additionally, collecting leaves as primary source of remedy rather than collecting roots, bark, stem or whole plant might not pose a lasting danger to the continuity of an individual and might not affect sustainable utilization of plants (Gidey Yirga, 2010).
Moreover, the results showed that freshly harvested parts of medicinal plants were dominantly
(94%) used for the preparation of remedy. This might be the main reason in preferring crushing as the main preparation method. Furthermore, it might be for achieving high efficacy in using active ingredients of fresh plant parts which they could suspect to be lost on drying. According to
Haile Yineger et al. (2007) and Ermias Lulekal et al. (2008) freshly harvested materials have better efficacy than dried plant materials. This is due to some compounds or molecules inside the fresh materials might be evaporated when they are exposed to intense sunlight and hence might result loss of their efficacy level (Fisseha Mesfin et al., 2014). The other reason might be due to unsuitability of ethnoveterinary medicinal plant parts to preserve in dried form.
5.1.11.2 Percentage distribution of species used to treat diseases
The result showed that more than 40% of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants were used as a source of remedy for treatment of gastro-intestinal diseases. Especially, highest proportion of species was used for the treatment of abdominal bloating whereas about 29% of species was used for treatment of dermatological diseases which was the dominant disease category with percentage distribution of 33.3%. The causes of the prevalence of dermatological disease might be due to the scarcity of fodder which results in weight loss that might lead the body of the animal to be exposed for lice. Moreover, the livestock that reared in the field might be exposed to blood sucking birds. It also resulted in a lesion which is a dermatological disease. Furthermore, the
132 rearing places of domestic animals might lack purity. Thus, it might cause and contribute for such types of diseases to prevail. However, more percentage of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants was used for diseases under gastro-intestinal disease category. This indicated that the diseases under this category had highest frequency and risk in the areas. That means such diseases were lethal for domestic animals. Besides, it indicated that they were more frequent than others.
Therefore, local people might take more care for such types of diseases, and thus might undergo repeated traditional tests on more species of medicinal plants to protect them from such disease types than the others.
5.1.11.3 Diagnosis methods, routes of administration and dosages
The result showed that the major diagnosis methods of the infected animals were through interviews with owners and visual inspection. The preferred route of administration method was also oral. In agreement to the current findings, oral routes were reported as the major routes in the other research findings (Kebu Balemie et al., 2004; Ermias Lulekal, 2005; Fiseha Mesfin,
2007; Gidey Yirga, 2010; Kalayu Mesfin et al., 2013; Reta Regassa, 2013).
5.1.11.4 Healing potential and use citation of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants
The result showed that Stephania abyssinica and Justicia schimperiana had highest fidelity level of 93.3% and 64.3% respectively. It also showed that infectious disease categories had highest informant agreements. Highest fidelity values indicated the correlated highest healing potential of the species. In addition, it revealed that the distribution of most important knowledge of the species in the local community (da Silva et al., 2014).
5.1.12 Wild edible plants of Yilmana Densa and Quarit districts
The results showed that the current study districts harboured 32 species of WEPs. Most of the species were herbs followed by trees. It also indicated that Rosaceae and Polygonaceae had
133 highest species representation. It further showed that the study districts generally reserved comparable edible species to the other parts of Ethiopia (Table 45). However, the presence of some variation in the richness of WEPs between the study areas and other parts of Ethiopia might be due to cultural variation among the community of the country in consumption of wild foods. This means that plants which were edible in some parts of the country might be non- edible in other areas. Thus, it might result in variation in number of WEPs of that area. For example, many species of WEPs that were recorded as wild edible plants in Konso community by Getachew Addis et al. (2013a) were non-edible in study areas. This was cultural difference in selecting wild food plants as a source of food. Thus, the choice of selection of WEPs as source of wild food might bring species number variation (Fentahun Mengistu and Hager, 2008).The other reason for WEPs number variation among different areas might be due to variation in vegetation cover in the areas of the country.
Table 45 Number of recorded WEPs in some parts of Ethiopia
Parts of Ethiopia No of spp. Researchers Yalo district 106 Tilahun Teklehaymanot (2017) Bullen district 77 Tariku Berihun and Eyayu Molla (2017) Kamash district 60 Dessalegn Ayele (2017) Chelia district 58 Tena Regassa et al. (2014) Berehet district 53 Getu Alemayehu et al. (2015) Burji district 46 Mersha Ashagre et al. (2016) Quara district 36 Mekuanent Tebkew et al. (2018) Chilga district 33 Mekuanent Tebkew et al. (2014) Bule Hora district 29 Baressa Anbessa (2016)
5.1.12.1 Habits of wild edible plants
The results showed that most edible species of the districts were herbs. This contradicted the result of some research findings that revealed trees as the dominant edible species (Tilahun
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Teklehaymanot and Mirutse Giday, 2010; Mekuanent Tebkew et al., 2014; Tariku Berihun and
Eyayu Molla, 2017); shrubs as the dominant edible species (Debela Hunde et al., 2011; Getu
Alemayehu et al., 2015; Baressa Anbessa, 2016; Dessalegn Ayele, 2017) in other areas. This might be the result of the presence of cultural difference among the local communities of the country.
5.1.12.2 Edible parts of wild edible plants
The results of the study revealed that 9 edible parts were used as a source of wild food.
Furthermore, it revealed fruits were the main sources of wild food. In agreement with the current study, fruits were also recorded as the main source of wild food in other parts of the country
(Tilahun Teklehaymanot and Mirutse Giday, 2010; Assegid Assefa and Tesfaye Abebe, 2011;
Debela Hunde et al., 2011; Getachew Addis et al., 2013a; Getu Alemayehu et al., 2015; Baressa
Anbessa, 2016; Tariku Berihun and Eyayu Molla, 2017). The reason for preference of fruits as the primary source of wild food might be due to their possession of highest nutritional value than other edible parts (Mahapatra et al., 2012; Nayak and Basak, 2015). The results of the nutritional analysis of the fruits of some WEPs indicated that fruits contain appreciable amount of nutrients and energy that are useful for food supplements (Debela Hunde et al., 2011; Getachew Addis et al., 2013a).
5.1.12.3 Collection sites, collecting households and marketability
The result of the study revealed that WEPs were collected from various habitats. This indicated that the edible species were highly distributed in the study districts. This agreed with other research works conducted in several parts of Ethiopia (Kebu Balemie and Fassil Kebebew, 2006;
Getachew Addis et al., 2013a; Berhane Kidane et al., 2014; Tena Regassa et al., 2014; Baressa
Anbessa, 2016; Mersha Ashagre et al., 2016). In addition, the results showed that only limited
135 edible species were managed by the local community of the districts. The management of these species was not for the sake of their edible role but concerning their role as timber (Cordia africana), fence (Carissa spinarum).
The result also showed that most of the collectors of edible parts of the species were males. This might be due to the presence of division of labor in the households. That means females might mostly work in the house whereas males might mostly work outside their houses that led males to be more experienced with edible species and collection of their edible part. Moreover, males might have better ability to climb and grip the mature tallest trees than females. Thus, more burden of collection might lie down on males than females. Additionally, it indicated that most of the shepherds were young males that might experience hungry since they might be far from their houses. However, in Bullen district, in disagreement to this result, females were the major household members of collection of wild foods (Tena Regassa et al., 2014; Tariku Berihun and
Eyayu Molla, 2017).
The results further indicated that some species of wild edible plants such as Mimusops kummel,
Ficus sur and rarely others such as Ximenia americana, Ficus vasta, Ensete ventricosum were sold in local markets. A similar result of low record of marketable species was reported in east
Shewa (Debela Hunde et al., 2011). This indicates that the local community of the districts had low culture of using WEPs as a complementary food. This might be one of the reasons that
WEPs were mostly consumed by households while there was a collapse in the harvest of cultivated food crops because of drought as reported in other areas (Zemede Asfaw, 1997; Kebu
Balemie and Fassil Kebebew, 2006; Tigist Wondimu et al., 2006). Thus, the absence of a culture
136 of using WEPs as complementary food in the local people of these districts might be due to the opportunity of lack of repeated occurrence of drought in the districts in the past time. Even if this is the case, in Quarit district, Rubus apetalus was reported that it was used as source of staple food due to shortage of cultivated food during drought at one time in the past. According to
Debela Hunde et al. (2011) the low affinity in using WEPs as complementary food indicates a need for awareness rising on the use and management of WEPs.
5.1.12.4 Use preference of wild edible plants
The result of the study revealed that Ficus sur was the most preferred edible species based on taste and income generation. Ficus sur was found to be a sweet taste as one of WEPs that were marketable for income generation. This edible plant was also recorded as the most preferred species in other findings (Assegid Assefa and Tesfaye Abebe, 2011; Getu Alemayehu et al.,
2015). Furthermore, according to Getachew Addis et al. (2013a), Ficus sur was recorded as the most threatened species (with many use diversity) indicating that it was one of the most preferred edible species.
5.1.12.5 Use diversity of wild edible plants
The result revealed that WEPs have 6 additional roles for the local people. In agreement to the current findings, WEPs were reported to be used as a source of traditional medicine in other parts of Ethiopia (Tilahun Teklehaymanot and Mirutse Giday, 2010; Getu Alemayehu et al., 2015).
Moreover, they were reported to be used as source of fodder, firewood, charcoal and construction in other parts of the country (Kebu Balemie and Fassil Kebebew, 2006; Getu
Alemayehu et al., 2015; Mersha Ashagre et al., 2016). The result also revealed that WEPs were used primarily for firewood. This also agreed with the result of Getu Alemayehu et al. (2015).
However, WEPs were reported to be used primarily for source of traditional medicine in other
137 areas of the country (Tilahun Teklehaymanot and Mirutse Giday, 2010). The findings of Mersha
Ashagre et al. (2016) also showed that WEPs were primarily used for fodder. This showed that even if WEPs were recorded with diverse uses, their preference of use among different communities in different parts of the country was greatly varied.
5.1.13Threats and conservation of plant species of the districts
5.1.13.1 Threats
The result of the current study revealed five major threats in the forest patches of the two districts. In agreement with the current research, agricultural land expansion was mentioned as the major threat of forests by many findings (Tewolde Berhan Gebre Egziabher, 1988; Demel
Teketay, 2001; Darbyshire et al., 2003; Debela Hunde, 2007; Sisay Nune, 2008; BIDNTF, 2010;
Tamene Yohannes et al., 2013; Zenebe Mekonnen and Adugna Nigatu, 2013; Habtamu Agisho et al., 2014; Teklu Gebretsadik and Kassahun Mereke, 2017). The results further indicated that agricultural land expansion might be caused by several reasons: 1) Low productivity of the limited land of the communities; 2) Increased population growth.
Furthermore, the results showed that firewood collection was mentioned as the other major threat in other literature sources in agreement with the current study (Million Bekele and Leykun
Berhanu, 2011). Over grazing, which was the third major threat of the study areas, was also stated as a major threat in other areas (Million Bekele and Leykun Berhanu, 2011; Samuale
Tesfaye et al., 2014; Birhanu Woldie et al., 2015; UN-REDD Programme, 2016). The increasing demand of firewood might be interrelated with directly degrading forests or it might be accompanied by the replacement of forest patches by fast growing monoculture non-native trees.
Such types of activities were also recorded in other findings (Belay Tefera et al., 2014; Addisu
138
Asefa et al., 2015). And the activities contradicted the main goal of conservation whose primary goal should have been to maintain maximum diversity of native species. The activities further pointed out the low attention given to conservation in the areas (Addisu Asefa et al., 2015).
According to Gessesse Dessie and Teklu Erkossa (2011), the increasing demand for firewood and construction material created dependable markets for Eucalyptus products which have contributed to the steady expansion of its area in the region.
The results also revealed that these mentioned threats were the main threats of medicinal plants in other areas of Ethiopia. In agreement with the findings of the current study, the reported and observed threats particularly agricultural expansion was also recorded to be the main threat for medicinal plants in other parts of the country (Mirutse Gidey et al., 2003; Kebede Deribe et al.,
2006; Anteneh Belayneh et al., 2010; Gidey Yirga, 2010; Girmay Zenebe et al., 2012; Ermias
Lulekal et al., 2013; Tadesse Birhanu and Dereje Abera, 2015). The primary reason for agricultural expansion to be the most threat for medicinal plants might be due to not only it damages the species of the forest patches but it also destroys all species that existed at any habitats since land expansion takes place at any direction and place.
However, there were other additional minor threats of medicinal plants of the areas. The preference of a species and its parts might be a threat for that particular species (Ramos et al.,
2014) since preference of use might result in overharvesting of the species. Cucumis ficifolius and Echinops kebericho were rare in the areas because of overharvesting of the species. More to the point it indicated that the roots of the species were harvested for ethnoveterinary medicinal purpose. In agreement with the current study, such types of activities done on non-cultivated
139 medicinal species were recorded as the most critical threats for such species (Hareya Fassil,
2003; Gidey Yirga, 2010; Ermias Lulekal et al., 2013). Moreover, medicinal species with highest use diversity might be under pressure. The results also showed that multipurpose species such as
Calpurnia aurea, Croton macrostachyus and Phytolacca dodecandra were the most threatened species. This was due to the fact that multipurpose species were the most threatened than the other ones (Getu Alemayehu et al. 2015).
It also showed that agricultural expansion and firewood were the major threats for WEPs of the study areas in agreement with other findings done in other parts of Ethiopia (Kebu Balemie and
Fassil Kebebew, 2006; Assegid Assefa and Tesfaye Abebe, 2011; Getachew Addis et al., 2013a;
Mekuanent Tebkew et al., 2014; Baressa Anbessa, 2016; Mersha Ashagre et al., 2016). The preference ranking exercise of some WEPs showed that replacement of indigenous useful plants by monoculture exotic species (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) was the other threat for the natural vegetation of the study areas. This replacement was due to the fact that this tree species might have diverse uses such as source of charcoal and cash earnings. For example, a single stem of
Eucalyptus camaldulensis with a DBH value of 10 cm was sold with 100 Birr which exceeded other indigenous species with low income generation values. Besides, most species of wild edible and medicinal plant species were nonmarketable. Thus, the local community might expend much of its efforts in the plantation of such fast growing monoculture species rather than taking care for the conservation of indigenous species.
The results further indicated that overharvesting and firewood were the major threats for multipurpose medicinal plants of the current districts in contrast to most areas of Ethiopia whose
140 major threat for multipurpose species was agricultural expansion (Ensermu Kelbessa et al., 1992;
Zemede Asfaw, 2001; Kebu Balemie et al., 2004; Fisseha Mesfin et al., 2014; Genene Bekele and Reddy, 2015). This might be due to the fact that overharvesting might kill the roots of some medicinal plants that might result in a severe threat for the survival of rare and slowly reproducing medicinal plants (Ermias Lulekal et al., 2013). Firewood was also the other major threat for the loss of woody species in the current study districts in agreement with other findings done in other parts of Ethiopia (Bongers and Tennigkeit, 2010; Getachew Demie, 2015).
5.1.13.2 Conservation status of plants
The results generally showed that some conservation activities were practiced in the current study districts in agreement to other parts of Ethiopia. These were training the local communities to prepare firewood saving traditional stoves and to use biogases; planting and cultivating plants and involving the local communities for conservation. It showed that firewood saving traditional stoves and biogases reduce firewood use. Thus, it might decrease the high consumption of woody species. Such types of activities have been also practiced in Addis Ababa for conservation of firewood though they have been practiced through modern stoves (IBC, 2009).
However, such types of activities (using biogas and traditional firewood saving stoves for cooking) were not practiced by the majority of the local people. The other conservation activities taken by the local people were planting trees, and protecting forest patches through the participation of the local community. The participation of the local communities in conserving plant resources was also stated as the best approach of conservation (Badege Bishaw, 2008; IBC,
2009; Yitebitu Moges et al., 2010). The results further showed that cultivating plants for income generation, fence, timber, aesthetic, shade and soil conservation were the other indirect
141 conservation activities. Cordia africana, a well known timber plant, was conserved by such indirect conservation activities. Especially, many medicinal plants were conserved by such types of activities in agreement with the other findings done in other parts of Ethiopia (Kebu Balemie et al., 2004; Gidey Yirga, 2010; Ermias Lulekal et al., 2013; Mirutse Giday and Tilahun
Teklehaymanot, 2013; Fisseha Mesfin et al., 2014; Yihenew Simegniew et al., 2018).
142
5.2 Conclusion
The current study showed that the two districts with almost similar agroclimatic environments reserved ample plant species (300 species) with high richness of endemics (c.10%). Most of the species (131 species) were herbs followed by shrubs (74 species). Asteraceae was recorded with highest species representations (35 species) followed by Fabaceae (29 species) and Poaceae (24 species). The sampled forest patches were also the major reservoirs of most species (83%).
The study further showed that vascular plant species were classified into 4 Community types namely Croton macrostachyus - Maytenus gracilipes community, Calpurnia aurea • Osyris quadripartita • Rosa abyssinica • Pterolobium stellatum community, Maesa lanceolata -
Dodonea angustifolia • Otostegia integrifolia community and Acacia negrii • Rhus glutinosa •
Clutia lanceolata community. It also showed that all 4 community types were composed of closer number of quadrats. However, community 4 had more number of total species and endemics than the remaining 3 communities.
The study also showed that woody species showed highest total density per hectare (3627 ha-1) with highest contribution of Dodonea angustifolia and Croton macrostachyus. However, they showed a relatively high proportion of individuals in the lower DBH classes (1•10 cm) indicating that the forest patches were with low total basal areas. Woody species further showed three representative patterns namely inverted „J‟ shaped, „Bell‟ shaped and upward „F‟. The first one concomitantly showed that the majority were in the lower diameter classes. It also showed that most woody species had less frequency values. Croton macrostachyus was also the first species with highest frequency value indicating as it was the dominant species in the forest patches.
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More to the point, this species and Dodonea angustifolia were the first species with highest importance values.
The results also showed that the forest patches had low regeneration potential which was described by the presence of higher number of mature woody individuals than those of seedlings
(2063). The presence of low regeneration potential was also tested by the presence of significant mean percentage difference (p < 0.05) between the two groups. However, Otostegia integrifolia,
Dodonea angustifolia, Acacia negrii and Vernonia auriculifera were the first species with highest regeneration. The other point was that species richness and area showed a significant relationship (R2 = 0.92). In addition, the forest patches showed high species diversity (3.765) with a little bit species variation among them as it was confirmed from the calculations of
Jacard‟s and Sorensen‟s similarity coefficients.
The results further showed that plant species of the two districts had diverse uses with seven use categories. However, most of the species had environmental and medicinal uses respectively.
The results also showed that the two districts were rich with medicinal plants for which the major sites of collection were forest patches. The species were grouped in 101 genera and 62 families of angiosperms. Fabaceae was represented with highest species number (8 species) followed by
Lamiaceae and Cucurbitaceae (6 species). Most of the species were herbs indicating a need of seasonal collection of species. The species were used for the traditional treatment of 61 human disease types. However, most of them (112 species) were used for the traditional treatment of human diseases. Out of which, central nervous and digestive system diseases were the most prevalent which were characterized by a high informant agreement on them. The major diagnosis
144 methods for the diseases were also visual inspection and interviews. After the disease was identified by using such major and other additional diagnosis methods, the traditional remedy was prepared from barks, buds, bulbs, fruits, latex, leaf, resin, rhizome, root, stem and flower including seed even if more of the preparations (33.8%) were solely from leaf parts. In addition, most of the remedy (87.6%) was prepared from freshly harvested parts. Most of such freshly harvested parts were prepared through boiling and most of it (59.6%) was administered through oral routes indicating that it needs a great care.
The results also showed that Dodonea angustifolia, Dovyalis abyssinica, Hagenia abyssinica,
Nigella sativa and Urtica simensis had highest healing potential for malaria, asthma, tapeworm, cough and stomach ulcer respectively. Verbascum sinaiticum was also the most preferred species to treat blood pressure and asthma. Trigonella foenum-graecum had highest use value. The other point in connection to medicinal species was that they had several additional uses out of their medicinal role. Thus, medicinal plants with more use diversity were the most under pressure species indicating a need of priority of conservation. The results further showed that there was low potential of marketability of human medicinal plants in the study districts. This showed that on one side low market pressure on medicinal plants; on the other side low culture of selling/buying medicinal plants, and thus low attention of cultivating the majority of them.
The two districts also harboured 30 species of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants grouped in 30 genera and 22 families. Asteraceae and Euphorbiaceae were the dominant families in species number. The results further showed that most of the species were herbs. Most of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants were harvested from wild habitats, and the majority (63.6%) were used to treat
145 cattle diseases. Most of the remedy was prepared from leaves. This might be the reason for most of the remedy (94.3%) to be prepared from freshly harvested parts. Most of the remedy was administered through oral routes.
Digestive tract diseases were treated by the majority (40.22%) of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants. Highest proportion of species was claimed to treat abdominal bloating and rabies.
Cucumis ficifolius, Stephania abyssinica, Phytolacca dodecandra, Justicia schimperiana and
Echinops kebericho were recorded with highest use reports while Stephania abyssinica was recorded with highest fidelity level (93.3%) for gastrointestinal diseases. Cucumis ficifolius also showed highest healing potential (16%) for respiratory diseases. Infective, sensorial and miscellaneous diseases had highest informant agreements whereas Phytolacca dodecandra and
Cucumis ficifolius were the most preferred species to treat abdominal bloating.
The results showed that the study districts also harboured 32 wild edible plant species grouped in
30 genera and 24 families. Approximately, 40.6% species were herbs. The major edible parts
(53.1%) of wild edible plants were leaves. Ficus sur was the most preferred edible plant. Most of the collectors (72%) of the wild foods were males. The results also showed that 36% of wild edible plants were used as a source of fuel.
The analysis result on human traditional medicinal plant knowledge of the local people showed that there was a significant difference (p < 0.05) between the local people of the two districts based on gender, age, education and informant groups. Thus, traditional knowledge was transferred from knowledgeable people to less knowledgeable ones. However, the traditional
146 knowledge of most of the respondents (90.9%) was gained from parents. Likewise, the analysis of the traditional knowledge on wild edible plants showed that there was significant knowledge difference (p < 0.05) between adults and elders (elders were more knowledgeable than adults).
Generally, the results showed that Yilmana Densa and Quarit districts were rich with wild edible, medicinal and other useful plants. However, there was low conservation efforts compared to the magnitude of the threats faced the species. Thus, most of the species were under degradation and extinction.
147
5.3 Recommendations
The local people should protect at least a certain part of the forest patches from seasonal grazing and human interference in order to minimize the pressure of cattle grazing and other anthropogenic influences on forest patches, and favor regeneration of medicinal, wild edible and other useful plant resources. The districts‟ administrators should take legal measures and creating public awareness to control illegal activities that affect the forest patches and to maintain each patched forest and valuable medicinal, wild edible and other useful plants within it. There should be a need to give conservation priority for community 4 since it harbors highest number of medicinal, endemics and wild edible plants, and those species with highest importance values.
The districts‟ administrators and the local people should also give priority of conservation for the identified multipurpose medicinal, wild edible and other useful plants since they are under serious local use pressure.
The districts‟ administrators should design in situ and ex situ conservation strategies to medicinal and wild edible plants of the districts that are purposefully harvested for their remedial roots, and to those endemic plants sheltered in the areas. The conservation strategy design should be towards a coordinated effort for a community-based conservation and sustainable utilization of species with high use preferences in an attempt to maintain cultural and medicinal uses of species in the areas.
The districts' health offices should perform pharmaceutical studies on all medicinal plants with traditional use reports to determine claimed medicinal use reports. There is also a need to run toxicity tests over medicinal plants used in the districts to ensure safe use of remedial plants.
148
Since dependence on traditional plant remedy to treat various ailments does not necessarily indicate an in-depth local understanding of the root causes and modes of transmission of diseases, there is a need to run a continuous community health education programme with respect to the identified major human and livestock ailments in the areas. It is also recommended to work with traditional healers especially on issues related to sanitation and dosages of remedial preparations used in the districts. The Districs‟ agricultural offices should carry out nutritional analysis studies of wild edible plants and their parts with more use preference reports to determine claimed preference of the plants and their parts.
The current findings also call for an attention to in-depth investigation on marketable medicinal and wild edible plants of the study areas. An overall and successive market survey over a number of years together with an in-depth value chain analysis study of potential money making plants will help to come up with the real economic potential of medicinal, wild edible and other useful plants in the study areas. It is also recommended to establish a traditional healers' association in the districts and strengthen members by providing professional support as a basis to practice integration of modern and traditional health care systems in the areas. Moreover, establishing medicinal and wild edible plant nurseries to propagate seedlings of the most preferred medicinal and wild edible plants with concomitant distribution to farmers is recommended as a means to conserve useful medicinal and wild edible plants. Finally, since oral transmission of ethnobotanical knowledge is subjected to loss of important plant use knowledge at each point of transfer, the current findings call for an effort to an overall documentation of medical traditions in the areas.
149
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APPENDICES
Appendix 1 Semi-structured interview questions that were employed for ethnobotanical data collection in Yilmana Densa and Quarit districts.
I. Household survey sample data sheet
1. District______Kebele_____Peasant association______Agroclimatic zone _____
2. Name of the respondent ______3. Gender (M/F) ______4. Age ______5. Marital status of the respondent (married/widowed/divorced/single)_____6. Religion______7.
Occupation______8. Level of education______9. Land and cattle assets and household construction A. Farm land size______
B. Owner cattle number ____C. House type: corrugated iron / Traditional thatched hut______
II. Data collection concerning wild edible plants
1. Are there wild edible plants in your area? Yes /No______2. If you say „yes‟ in Q1 list them. ______3. At what season do you collect them? ______
4. What is the role of wild edible plants? A. As stable food B. For food security during food shortage C. Complementary food due to their different characteristics (taste, color, odor, medicinal value). Which one is best preferred for the mentioned reasons? ____
5. Where do you find them? A. Forest B. Scrubland C. Farm land D. Grassland E. Other specify_
6. What is the difference between the present and the previous days based on the availability or scarcity of wild edible plants? Is there a dwindling of wild edible plants nowadays or are there opportunities to increase the abundance of them in your area? List them ______
7. How do the local people use them? Cooked, fresh, and other specify______
8. What are the parts used as source of food? Root, fruit and other specify______
9. Which wild edible plant is marketable? ______
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10. Who are the households of collectors and sellers of wild edible plants?______
11. Do wild edible plants put in your house for a long time? A. Yes. How____B. No. Why _____
12. Do wild edible plants have additional uses other than food source? A. Yes B. No
If you say yes what are additional uses______
13. Based on the above mentioned uses which one is best preferred, most preferred, preferred, less preferred and least preferred (provide values for them 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5) ______
14. What are the main challenges for collection and preparation of wild edible plants? How widespread is/are wild edible plants? Easily obtained from homegarden/surrounding areas/far away places (how far? ___)/ purchased [if purchased from individual at household/market
(indicate name of individual/market place)______
15. What are the main threats for wild edible plants in your areas? ______?
16. What are good practices of conservation for wild edible plants in your areas?
III. Data collection concerning medicinal plants
1. Are there medicinal plants in your area? Yes/ No. If you say „yes‟ list the name of plants and associated parts, mode of preparation, ingredients, dose (amount) of the medicinal plant, administration, and the type of disease they can cure. If two or more medicinal plants are mentioned for a particular disease or disease category which one is best prepared, most preferred, preferred, less preferred and least preferred?______
2. Let you discuss any noticeable adverse/side effect(s) and any antidotes for adverse/side effect.
3. How do you preserve traditional medicine? 4. Could you list other uses of medicinal plants?
5. Why do you use medicinal plants to treat diseases? A. Due to unavailability of modern medicine in the area B. Due to the far distance of health institutions C. Due to the cost of modern medicine D. Due to less cost of traditional medicine
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6. Where do you collect medicinal plants? A. Forest B. Woodland C. Cultivated D. Protected areas E. Other specify ______7. What are the main challenges for preparation and collection of medicinal plants for use? Are they rare or abundant? ______8. Is the use of medicinal plants increasing or decreasing nowadays? A. Increasing due to ______B. Decreasing due to ______9. Could you list other uses of medicinal plants? _____
10. List the threats for medicinal plants in your areas? ______
IV. Data collection concerning other useful plants
1. What is the role or use of plants found in the forest patches?
2. What are the major and minor threats of the forest patches?
3. List any conservation measures taken by the local people or by the district‟s administrators.__
4. What do you recommend for conservation of vegetation in your areas? ______
Name of interviewer/researcher______
Date/Month/Year: ______
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Appendix 2 Family, local name, status and use diversity of plant species of the forest patches in Yilmana Densa and Quarit districts S. Scientific name H Family Local name Status Use diversity No T 1. 1 Abutilon longicuspe Hochst. ex A. Rich. S Malvaceae Amedmado Indigenous Soil conservation 2. 2 Acacia abyssinica Hochst. ex Benth.* T Fabaceae Grar Indigenous Agricultural tools, firewood, house constructions 3. 3 Acacia mearnsii De Wild. T Fabaceae Omedla Exotic Timber, firewood, fence, soil conservation 4. 4 Acacia negrii Pic.Sermi. ** T Fabaceae Cheba Endemic Fumigation 5. 5 Acanthus polystachius Delile.* S Acanthaceae Kosheshilie Indigenous Food, fence 6. 6 Achyranthes aspera L.** H Amaranthaceae Telenji Indigenous Fodder 7. 7 Acmella caulirhiza Del.** H Asteraceae Yemdir Berberie Indigenous Fodder, medicine 8. 8 Acokanthera schimperi (A. DC.) Schweinf. S Apocynaceae Merenz Indigenous Firewood /toxic 9. 9 Acroceras zizanioides (Kunth) Dandy H Poaceae Sar Indigenous Fodder 10 Adansonia digitata L. T Bombacaceae Bamba Indigenous Firewood 11 Aira caryophyllea L. H Poaceae Indigenous Fodder 12 Albizia gummifera (J. F. Gmel.) C. A. Sm. T Fabaceae Sesa Indigenous Fodder, firewood 13 Alchemilla pedata A. Rich. H Rosaceae Indigenous Fodder 14 Alectra sessiliflora (Vahl) Kuntze H Scrophulariaceae Indigenous Soil conservation 15 Allophylus abyssinicus (Hochst.) Radlk T Sapindaceae Embs Indigenous Firewood 16 Aloe pulcherrima Gilbert & Sebsebe** S Aloaceae Ret Endemic Medicine 17 Aloe sp. ** Aloaceae Ret Indigenous Medicine, soil conservation 18 Amaranthus caudatus L.** S Amaranthaceae Yebahir Teff Indigenous Soil conservation, medicine 19 Andropogon amethystinus Steud. H Poaceae Gaja Sar Indigenous Soil conservation, fodder 20 Apodytes dimidiata E. Mey. ex Arn. H Icacinaceae Donga Indigenous Firewood 21 Argemone mexicana L.** T Papaveraceae Dendero Exotic Medicine 22 Argyrolobium ramosissimum Bak. H Fabaceae Indigenous Soil conservation 23 Argyrolobium rupestre (E. Mey.) Walp. H Fabaceae Indigenous Soil conservation 24 Arisaema schimperianum Schott** S Araceae Yejib Ageda Indigenous Medicine /Toxic 25 Aristida adoensis Hochst. H Poaceae Indigenous Fodder 26 Arundinaria alpina K. Schum. H Poaceae Kerkeha Indigenous House construction, material use 27 Asparagus africanus Lam.** S Asparagaceae Yeset Kest Indigenous Medicine Avena sp. H Poaceae /Aveneae Sar Indigenous Fodder 29 Bersama abyssinica Fresen. S Melianthaceae Azamir Indigenous Firewood, soil conservation, material use 30 Bidens pilosa L. H Asteraceae Yeseitan Merfie Indigenous Fodder for livestock, soil conservation 31 Bidens prestinaria (Sch. Bip.) Cufod. H Asteraceae Adey Abeba Indigenous Soil conservation, cultural role 32 Bidens sp. H Asteraceae Indigenous Fodder
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33 Brucea antidysenterica J. F. Mill.** H Simaroubaceae Abalo/Waginos Indigenous Medicine 34 Buddleja polystachya Fresen. S Loganiaceae Anfar Indigenous Firewood, washing purpose 35 Calpurnia aurea (Ait.) Benth. ** S Fabaceae Zigta Indigenous Agricultural tools 36 Calotropis procera (Ait.) Ait. f. ** S Asclepiadaceae Tobia Indigenous Medicine 37 Carissa spinarum L. *** S Apocynaceae Agam Indigenous Food, fodder, medicine, firewood, fence 38 Carthamus lanatus L. S Asteraceae Yeset Af Indigenous For weaving purpose 39 Capparis tomentosa Lam.** S Capparidaceae Gimero Indigenous Medicine 40 Caylusea abyssinica (Fresen.) Fisch. & Mey. S Resedaceae Yewusha Jina Indigenous Soil conservation 41 Chamaecrista mimosoides (L.) Greene H Fabaceae Indigenous Firewood 42 Cheilanthes farinosa (Forssk.) Knulf. H Sinopteridaceae Fern/Kurti Indigenous Soil conservation 43 Cheilanthes coriacea Decne. H Sinopteridaceae Fern /Kurti Indigenous Soil conservation 44 Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten. H Asteraceae Yahiya Eshoh Exotic Soil conservation, fodder 45 Clausena anisata (Willd.) Benth.** H Rutaceae Limich Indigenous Medicine, toothbrush 46 Clematis simensis Fresen. ** S Ranunculaceae Azo Areg Indigenous Rope 47 Clerodendrum myricoides (Hochst.) Vatke** H Lamiaceae Misirich Indigenous Medicine 48 Clutia lanceolata Forssk. ** S Euphorbiaceae Fiyele-feji Indigenous Medicine 49 Combretum adenogonium Steud. ex A. Rich. S Combretaceae Weyba Indigenous Firewood 50 Commelina benghalensis L. S Commelinaceae Indigenous Fodder 51 Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronq. H Asteraceae Indigenous Fodder 52 Conyza stricta Willd. H Asteraceae Indigenous Fodder 53 Crinum abyssinicum Hochst. ex A. Rich.** H Amaryllidaceae Yejib Shnkurt Indigenous Medicine 54 Crotalaria g1auca Willd. H Fabaceae Indigenous Soil conservation 55 Crotalaria lachnophora Hochst. ex A. Rich. H Fabaceae Indigenous Soil conservation 56 Crota1aria quartiniana A. Rich. S Fabaceae Indigenous Soil conservation 57 Crotalaria spinosa Hochst. ex Benth. H Fabaceae Yemdir Grar Indigenous Soil conservation 58 Croton macrostachyus Del. ** S Euphorbiaceae Bisana Indigenous Medicine, agricultural tools, house construction 59 Cucumis ficifolius A. Rich. ** T Cucurbitaceae Yemdir Embuay Indigenous Medicine 60 Cupressus lusitanica Mill. H Cupressaceae Yeferenji Tsid Indigenous Timber 61 Cyanotis barbata D. Don. T Commelinaceae Yewet Kolo Indigenous Fodder 62 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. * H Poaceae Serdo Sar Indigenous Fodder 63 Cynoglossum coeruleum Hochst. ex A.DC.** H Boraginaceae Shemigeg Indigenous Medicine 64 Cyperus fischerianus A.Rich. H Cyperaceae Gramta Indigenous Material use 65 Cyperus rigidifolius Steud. *** H Cyperaceae Angicha Indigenous Medicine, fodder 66 Cyphostemma cyphopetalum (Fresen.) Descoings ex H Vitaceae Indigenous Medicine /toxic Wild & Drummond** 67 Datura stramonium L. ** H Solanaceae Astenagir Exotic Medicine, food 68 Delphinium dasycaulon Fresen. H Ranunculaceae Gedel Admq Indigenous 69 Dicliptera verticillata (Forssk.) C.Chr. H Acanthaceae Indigenous Fodder 187
70 Dipsacus pinnatifidus Steud. ex A. Rich. H Dipsacaceae Kelem Indigenous Firewood 71 Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. H Fabaceae Ader Indigenous Firewood 72 Discopodium penninervium Hochst.** T Solanaceae Ameraro Indigenous Firewood 73 Dodonea angustifolia L.f.** S Sapindaceae Kitikita Indigenous Firewood, medicine, walking stick 74 Dombeya torrida (J. F. Gmel.) P. Bamps S Sterculiaceae Wulkifa Indigenous Firewood, material 75 Dovyalis abyssinica (A. Rich.) Warb. * S Flacourtiaceae Koshim Indigenous Firewood, food 76 Echinochloa ugandensis Snowden & C.E. Hubb. S Poaceae/Paniceae Indigenous Fodder 77 Echinops amplexicaulis Oliv. H Asteraceae Yahiya Eshoh Indigenous Fodder 78 Echinops macrochaetus Fresen. H Asteraceae Yahiya Eshoh Indigenous Medicine 79 Echinops longisetus A. Rich. H Asteraceae Yahiya Eshoh Endemic Fence 80 Ekebergia capensis Sparrm. ** S Meliaceae Lol Indigenous Medicine 81 Eleusine jaegeri Pilg. S Poaceae Akrma Indigenous Materials, fodder 82 Eragrostis sp. H Poaceae: Eragrosti- Indigenous Fodder deae 83 Erica arborea L. H Ericaceae Indigenous Firewood 84 Erythrina brucei Schweinf.** T Fabaceae Korch Endemic Medicine, firewood 85 Ethulia conyzoides L.f. subsp. conyzoides T Asteraceae Ageratifa Indigenous Fodder, soil conservation 86 Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. H Myrtaceae Qey Bahr Zaf Exotic Charcoal, firewood, construction, walking stick 87 Eucalyptus globulus Labill. ** T Myrtaceae Bule Bahr Zaf Exotic Firewood, timber, rope, construction/toxic, walking stick 88 Euclea racemosa Murr. subsp. schimperi (A. DC.) T Ebenaceae Dedeho Indigenous Medicine /toxic White ** 89 Euphorbia abyssinica Gmel.** S Euphorbiaceae Kulkual Indigenous Medicine 90 Euphorbia platyphyllos L.** T Euphorbiaceae Abaydem Indigenous Medicine 91 Euphorbia tirucalli L.** H Euphorbiaceae Kinchib Indigenous Medicine 92 Festuca simensis Hochst. ex A.Rich. S Poaceae Sar Indigenous Fodder 93 Ficus palmata Forssk. ** H Moraceae Kotile-beles Indigenous Medicine 94 Ficus sur Forssk. * S Moraceae Shola Indigenous Food, firewood 95 Ficus vasta Forssk.* T Moraceae Warka Indigenous Food, firewood 96 Flacourtia indica (Burm.f) Merr. T Flacourtiaceae Zsangurt Indigenous Firewood 97 Flaveria trinervia (Spreng.) C. Mohr S Asteraceae Exotic Firewood 98 Gardenia ternifolia Schumach & Thonn.** H Rubiaceae Gambilo Indigenous Medicine 99 Geranium aculeolatum Oliv. T Geraniaceae Indigenous Soil conservation 100 Girardinia bullosa Wedd. ** H Urticaceae Kusha Indigenous Medicine 101 Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis** H Urticaceae Kusha Indigenous Medicine 102 Gladiolus abyssinicus (Brongn. ex Lemaire) Goldblatt H Iridaceae Enzeresey Indigenous Medicine & de Vos ** 103 Gnidia glauca (Fresen.) Gilg. H Thymelaeaceae Awura Indigenous Materials
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104 Gomphocarpus purpurascens A. Rich. S Asclepiadaceae Endemic Soil conservation 105 Grevillea robusta R. Br. H Proteaceae Gravilia Indigenous Soil conservation 106 Grewia ferruginea Hochst. ex A. Rich.** T Tiliaceae Lenquata Indigenous Washing purpose , walking stick, firewood 107 Guizotia schimperi Sch. Bip. ex Walp. ** S Asteraceae Mech Indigenous Fodder, medicine 108 Habenaria petitiana (A. Rich.)Th. Dur. & Schinz H Orchidaceae Indigenous Soil conservation 109 Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J. F. Gmelin** H Rosaceae Koso Indigenous Medicine, firewood 110 Helichrysum formosissimum Sch. Bip. ex A. Rich. T Asteraceae Tinjutie Indigenous Soil conservation 111 Helichrysum schimperi (Sch.Bip. ex A. Rich.) Moeser H Asteraceae Tinjutie Indigenous Soil conservation 112 Helichrysum stenopterum DC. H Asteraceae Indigenous Soil conservation 113 Helinus mystacinus (Ait.) E. Mey. ex Steud. H Rhamnaceae Indigenous 114 Hibiscus micranthus Hochst. ex A. Rich. W Malvaceae Nacha Indigenous Materials/rope C 115 Hygrophila schulli (Hamilt.) M.R. & S.M.** S Acanthaceae Amekela Indigenous Soil conservation 116 Hyparrhenia dregeana (Nees) Stent H Poaceae/Andropo- Sembelet Indigenous Soil conservation, fodder goneae 117 Hypericum revolutum Vahl. H Hipericaceae Amja Indigenous Soil conservation 118 Hypoestes forskaolii (Vahl) R.Br. S Acanthaceae Indigenous Soil conservation 119 Impatiens ethiopica Grey-Wilson** H Balsaminaceae Insosla Indigenous Cultural value 120 Indigofera arrecta Hochst.ex A. Rich. H Fabaceae Indigenous Soil conservation 121 Indigofera mimosoides Bak. S Fabaceae Indigenous Soil conservation 122 Indigofera spicata Forssk. H Fabaceae Indigenous Soil conservation 123 Ipomoea indica (Burm. f.) Merrill H Convolvulaceae Kura Hareg Indigenous Material use 124 Jasminum abyssinicum Hochst. ex DC.** H Oleaceae Tenbelel Indigenous Fodder (bee) C 125 Jasminum grandiflorum L.** W Oleaceae Tenbelel Indigenous Firewood C 126 Juncus dregeanus Kunth W Juncaceae Indigenous Fodder C 127 Juniperus procera Endl. H Cupressaceae Yehabesha Tsid Indigenous Timber, house construction 128 Justicia diffusa Willd. T Acanthaceae Indigenous Soil conservation 129 Justicia ladanoides Lam. H Acanthaceae Indigenous Soil conservation 130 Justicia odora (Forssk.) Lam. H Acanthaceae Indigenous Soil conservation 131 Justicia sp. S Acanthaceae Soil conservation 132 Kalanchoe petitiana A. Rich.** H Crassulaceae Andahula Endemic Soil conservation, medicine 133 Kniphofia foliosa Hochst. H Asphodelaceae Ashengide Endemic Soil conservation 134 Lactuca serriola L. H Asteraceae Nechilo Indigenous Soil conservation 135 Laggera crispata (Vahl) Hepper & Wood** H Asteraceae Kesbedeje Indigenous Soil conservation 136 Laggera tomentosa (Sch. Bip. ex A. Rich.) Oliv. & H Asteraceae Keskeso Endemic Medicine, soil conservation Hiern**
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137 Launaea capitata (Spreng.) Dandy H Asteraceae Indigenous 138 Leonotis ocymifolia (Burm.f.) lwarsson var. raineriana H Lamiaceae Yeferes Zeng Indigenous Medicine, firewood, soil conservation (Visiani) lwarsson** 139 Leptothrium sp. S Poaceae Yeqoq Sar Indigenous 140 Leucas martinicensis (Jacq.) R. Br. H Lamiaceae Indigenous Soil conservation, medicine 141 Leucas stachydiformis (Hochst. ex Benth.) Briq. ** H Lamiaceae Yeferes Zeng Endemic Soil conservation, medicine 142 Linum volkensii Eng. S Linaceae Indigenous Soil conservation 143 Lippia adoensis Hochst. ex Walp. var. adoensis H Verbenaceae Kesi Endemic Soil conservation, medicine, washing purpose Lippia adoensis Hochst. ex Walp var. koseret Sebsebe S Verbenaceae Kesi Endemic Soil conservation, medicine, washing ** purpose 144 Lotus schoelleri Schweinf. S Fabaceae Indigenous 145 Loudetia flavida (Stapf) C.E. Hubb. H Poaceae Sar Indigenous Fodder 146 Maesa lanceolata Forssk. H Myrsinaceae Kilaba Indigenous Leaves for bread preparation, firewood 147 Malva verticillata L. S Malvaceae Lut Indigenous Soil conservation 148 Maytenus gracilipes (Welw. ex Oliv.) Exell S Celastraceae Atat Indigenous Firewood, soil conservation 149 Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exell S Celastraceae Koba Indigenous Soil conservation, firewood 150 Medicago polymorpha L. S Fabaceae Yekemis Kulf Indigenous Soil conservation, fodder 151 Megalastrum lanuginosum (Willd. ex Kaulf) Holttum H Tectariaceae Kurti Indigenous Soil conservation 152 Microglossa pyrifolia (Lam.) O. Kuntze H Asteraceae Indigenous Soil conservation 153 Momordica foetida Schumach. ** S Cucurbitaceae Kurgn Indigenous Material use, medicine 154 Myrica salicifolia A. Rich. * H Myricaceae Shnet Indigenous Firewood C 155 Myrsine africana L. T Myrsinaceae Qechemo Indigenous Soil conservation, firewood 156 Nephrolepis undulata (Afzel. ex SW.) J. Sm. S Nephrolepidacae Indigenous Soil conservation 157 Nelsonia canescens (Lam.) Spreng. H Acanthaceae Indigenous Soil conservation 158 Nicandra physaloides (L.) Gaertn. H Solanaceae Mogne Astenag- Indigenous Soil conservation er
159 Nidorella resedifolia DC. H Asteraceae Indigenous Soil conservation 160 Ocimum urticifolium Roth ** H Lamiaceae Dama Kasie Indigenous Medicine, food 161 Olea europaea L. subsp. cuspidata (Wall. ex G.Don) S Oleaceae Woira Indigenous Firewood, fumigation, material use, Cif.*** medicine 162 Olinia rochetiana A. Juss.** T Oliniaceae Tifie Indigenous Medicine, firewood 163 Oliverella hildebrandtii (Engl.) Tieghem T Loranthaceae Teketila Indigenous Medicine 164 Orobanche minor Smith. E Orobanchaceae Indigenous Soil conservation 165 Osyris quadripartita Decn. ** H Santalaceae Keret Indigenous Firewood , walking stick 166 Otostegia integrifolia Benth. ** S Lamiaceae Tinjut Indigenous Fumigation, medicine 167 Otostegia tomentosa A. Rich. subsp. steudneri S Lamiaceae Giram Tinjut Endemic Soil conservation
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(Schweinf.) Sebald 168 Oxalis procumbens Steud. ex A. Rich. subsp. procum- S Oxalidaceae Indigenous Soil conservation Bens 169 Panicum hochstetteri Steud. H Poaceae: Paniceae Indigenous Fodder, soil conservation 170 Pavetta abyssinica Fresen. ** H Rubiaceae Dingay Seber Indigenous Medicine 171 Pavonia urens Cav. S Malvaceae Yewusha Nacha Indigenous Material use 172 Pennisetum clandestinum Chiov. S Poaceae: Panicea- Indigenous Fodder, soil conservation e 173 Pennisetum thunbergii Kunth** H Poaceae Sebez Indigenous Materials use 174 Periploca linearifolia Quart.-Dill. & A. Rich. H Asclepiadaceae Moyder Indigenous Medicine 175 Persicaria nepalensis (Meisn.) Miyabe* W Polygonaceae Lambut Indigenous Fodder, food C 176 Phragmanthera macrosolen (A. Rich.) M.Gilbert ** H Loranthaceae Teketila Endemic Medicine 177 Phragmanthera regularis (Sprague) M. Gilbert** E Loranthaceae Teketila Indigenous Medicine 178 Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims E Pittosporaceae Anqewalit Indigenous Firewood 179 Plantago lanceolata L. ** T Plantaginaceae Gorteb Indigenous Medicine, fodder, soil conservation 180 Plectocephalus varians (A. Rich.) C. Jeffrey ex Cufo- H Asteraceae Endemic Soil conservation d. 181 Plectranthus garckeanus (Vatke) J. K. Morton H Lamiaceae Endemic Soil conservation 182 Plectranthus punctatus (L. f.) L 'Her. H Lamiaceae Yewusha Ziqaqi- Indigenous Soil conservation bie 183 Premna schimperi Engl. H Lamiaceae Checho Indigenous 184 Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkm. S Rosaceae Koma Indigenous Firewood 185 Pterolobium Stellatum (Forssk.) Brenan** T Fabaceae Keltefa Indigenous Medicine, fence 186 Rhabdotosperma brevipedicellata (Engl.) Hartl W Scrophulariaceae Indigenous Medicine, soil conservation C 187 Rhamnus catharticus L. H Rhamnaceae Indigenous 188 Rhamnus prinoides L‟Herit. S Rhamnaceae Gesho Indigenous Firewood, traditional alcohol preparation 189 Rhus glutinosa A. Rich. subsp. glutinosa* S Anacardiaceae Qamo Endemic Food, firewood, walking stick 190 Rhus retinorrhoea Oliv. T Anacardiaceae Talo Indigenous Firewood 191 Ritchiea albersii Gilg T Capparidaceae Indigenous Firewood 192 Rosa abyssinica Lindley*** T Rosaceae Kega Indigenous Food, fumigation, firewood, fence, walking stick 193 Rubia cordifolia L. ** S Rubiaceae Minchirir Indigenous Medicine 194 Rubus apetalus Poir.*** H Rosaceae Injori Indigenous Fence, food 195 Rumex abyssinicus Jacq. * S Polygonaceae Mekmeko Indigenous Food, soil conservation 196 Rumex nepalensis Spreng. ** H Po1ygonaceae Yewusha Milas Indigenous Medicine, soil conservation 197 Rumex nervosus Vahl * H Polygonaceae Ambacho Indigenous Food, medicine 198 Sacciolepis spiciformis (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Stapf H Poaceae Tucha Sar Indigenous Fodder
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199 Salix subserrata Willd. H Salicaceae Haya Indigenous Firewood 200 Satureja abyssinica (Benth.) Briq. T Lamiaceae Etse-masa Indigenous Medicine 201 Satureja punctata (Benth.) Briq. H Lamiaceae Chenger Indigenous Soil conservation 202 Satureja simensis (Benth.) Briq. H Lamiaceae Indigenous Soil conservation 203 Schefflera abyssinica (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Harms** H Araliaceae Getem Indigenous Medicine, firewood 204 Senecio subsessilis Oliv& Hiern T Asteraceae Indigenous Soil conservation 205 Senna didymobotrya (Fresen.) Irwin & Barneby H Fabaceae Serk Abeba Indigenous Soil conservation 206 Senna septemtrionalis (Viv.) Irwin& Bameby S Fabaceae Exotic Soil conservation 207 Senna singueana (Del.) Lock S Fabaceae Gufa Indigenous Medicine 208 Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr. S Fabaceae Alqim Indigenous Soil conservation 209 Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. & Schult. S Poaceae:Paniceae Adimamo Indigenous Fodder, soil conservation 210 Sida rhombifolia L. H Malvaceae Gorjejit Indigenous Material use/rope, medicine 211 Sida schimperiana Hochst. ex A. Rich.** S Malvaceae Chifrig Indigenous Medicine, material uses 212 Sideroxylon oxyacanthum Baill. S Sapotaceae Kemer Atat Indigenous Firewood 213 Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. S Asteraceae Exotic Soil conservation 214 Snowdenia polystachya (Fresen.) Pilg. H Poaceae Muja Indigenous Soil conservation, fodder 215 Solanecio gigas (Vatke) C. Jeffrey H Asteraceae Boz Endemic Soil conservation 216 Solanum anguivi Lam. ** H Solanaceae Zerech Embuay Indigenous Medicine /toxic 217 Solanum dasyphyllum Schumach.** S Solanaceae Geber Embuay Indigenous Soil conservation, medicinal use/toxic 218 Solanum incanum L. ** H Solanaceae Embuay Indigenous Soil conservation, medicinal use/toxic 219 Solanum marginatum L. f.** S Solanaceae Geber Embuay Endemic Soil conservation, medicinal use/toxic 220 Solanum nigrum L.*** S Solanaceae Awut Indigenous Medicinal use 221 Sonchus asper (L.) Hill H Asteraceae Indigenous Soil conservation 222 Sonchus oleraceus L. H Asteraceae Indigenous Soil conservation 223 Sparmannia ricinocarpa (Eckl. & Zeyh.) O. Ktze. H Tiliaceae Wolkifa Indigenous Soil conservation 224 Sporobolus africanus (Poir.) Robyns & Tournay S Poaceae Murie Indigenous Soil conservation, fodder, material use 225 Sporobolus discosporus Nees H Poaceae: Eragrosti- Sar Indigenous Soil conservation, fodder deae 226 Sporobolus festivus Hochst. ex A.Rich. H Poaceae Sar Indigenous Soil conservation, fodder 227 Stephania abyssinica (Dillon & A. Rich.) Walp.** H Menispermaceae Engochit Indigenous Medicine 228 Stereospermum kunthianum Cham. H Bignoniaceae Zana Indigenous Firewood C 229 Tacazzea conferta N.E. Br. T Asclepiadaceae Indigenous Firewood 230 Tagetes minuta L. W Asteraceae Chibo Exotic Bonefire C 231 Tephrosia pentaphylla (Raxb.) G. Don H Fabaceae Indigenous Firewood 232 Teramnus uncinatus (L.) Sw. S Fabaceae Indigenous Material use 233 Terminalia schimperiana Hochst. W Combretaceae Yekola Abalo Indigenous Fumigation, firewood C
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234 Thalictrum rhynchocarpum Dill. & A. Rich. ** T Ranunculaceae Sire-bizu Indigenous Medicine, soil conservation 235 Torilis arvensis (Hudson) Link H Apiaceae Indigenous Soil conservation 236 Trichodesma zeylanicum (Burm.f.) R.Br. H Boraginaceae Koskoso Indigenous Soil conservation 237 Trifolium schimperi A. Rich.* H Fabaceae Endemic Fodder, soil conservation 238 Trifolium steudneri Schweinf. H Fabaceae Wazma Indigenous Fodder /toxic 239 Trifolium sp. H Fabaceae Endemic Fodder, soil conservation 240 Urera hypselodendron (A.Rich.) Wedd. H Urticaceae Lankuso Indigenous Firewood 241 Urtica simensis Steudel*** W Urticaceae Sama Endemic Medicine, soil conservation, food, fence C 242 Verbascum sinaiticum Benth. ** H Scrophulariaceae Daba Keded Indigenous Medicine, soil conservation 243 Verbascum valerianifolium (A. Rich.) Hub. Mor. H Scrophulariaceae Endemic Soil conservation, medicine 244 Vernonia auriculifera Hiern. H Asteraceae Gengerita Indigenous Firewood, live fence 245 Vernonia bipontini Vatke S Asteraceae Endemic Firewood 246 Vernonia sp. S Asteraceae Indigenous Firewood 247 Vernonia hochstetteri Sch. Bip. ex Walp. var. hochste- S Asteraceae Indigenous Firewood tteri 248 Vernonia leopoldi (Sch. Bip. ex Walp.) Vatke S Asteraceae Zenezena Endemic Bonfire 249 Vulpia bromoides (L.) S.F. Gray H Poaceae: Poeae Indigenous Firewood 250 Zehneria scabra (Linn.f.) Sond. ** H Cucurbitaceae Areg Resa Indigenous Medicine, fence Note: HT = Habit; H = Herb, S = Shrub, T= Tree, WC = Woody Climber, HC = Herb Climber, E = Epiphyte, Ss = Sub-shrub. * Wild edible species;** Medicinal species;***Wild edible plants having medicinal value
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Appendix 3 Density and relative density of woody species Scientific name of species Number of individuals Density (m2) Relative density (m2) Seedlings < 1 m Saplings > 1 < 3 m DBH > 2.5 Total Acacia abyssinica Hochst. ex Benth. 17 37 33 87 0.00200 0.600 Acacia mearnsii De Wild. 8 15 11 34 0.00080 0.200 Acacia negrii Pic.Sermi. 300 174 330 804 0.02000 5.300 Albizia gummifera (J. F. Gmel.) C. A. Sm. 15 20 154 189 0.00500 1.300 Allophylus abyssinicus (Hochst.) Radlk. 4 5 5 14 0.00030 0.090 Apodytes dimidiata E. Mey. ex Arn. 2 10 1 13 0.00030 0.090 Bersama abyssinica Fresen. 38 31 303 372 0.00900 2.500 Brucea antidysenterica J. F. Mill. 12 15 76 103 0.00200 0.700 Buddleja polystachya Fresen. 6 7 9 22 0.00050 0.100 Calpurnia aurea (Ait.) Benth. 174 240 - 414 0.01000 2.700 Carissa spinarum L. 73 55 600 728 0.02000 4.800 Capparis tomentosa Lam. - - 6 6 0.00010 0.040 Clerodendrum myricoides (Hochst.) Vatke 2 1 2 5 0.00005 0.030 Clutia lanceolata Forssk. 136 22 196 354 0.00900 2.300 Combretum adenogonium Steud. ex A. Rich. - - 15 15 0.00040 0.100 Croton macrostachyus Del. - 117 903 1020 0.02000 6.800 Cupressus lusitanica Mill. 5 15 134 154 0.00400 1.000 Dodonea angustifolia L. 350 1400 3932 5682 0.10000 37.700 Dovyalis abyssinica (A. Rich.) Warb. 5 4 17 26 0.00060 0.200 Ekebergia capensis Sparrm. 6 16 16 38 0.00090 0.300 Erica arborea L. 50 100 200 350 0.00800 2.300 Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. - - 7 7 0.00020 0.050 Eucalyptus globulus Labill. - - 3 3 0.00007 0.020 Euclea racemosa Murr. subsp. schimperi (A. - 12 48 0.00100 0.004 DC.) White 60 Ficus palmata Forssk. - 5 10 15 0.00040 0.100 Ficus vasta Forssk. - - 1 1 0.00002 0.007 Flacourtia indica (Burm.f) Merr. - 1 3 4 0.00010 0.030 Gardenia ternifolia Schumach & Thonn. - - 3 3 0.00007 0.020 Gnidia glauca (Fresen.) Gilg. - - 9 9 0.00030 0.060 Grewia ferruginea Hochst. ex A. Rich. 10 15 19 44 0.00100 0.300 Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J. F. Gmelin 1 4 3 8 0.00020 0.050 Hypericum revolutum Vahl. - - 10 10 0.00020 0.070 Jasminum abyssinicum Hochst. ex DC. - 7 13 20 0.00050 0.001 Jasminum grandiflorum L. 70 19 73 162 0.00400 1.000 Juniperus procera Endl. - - 1 1 0.00005 0.007 Maesa lanceolata Forssk. - 8 183 191 0.00500 1.300
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Maytenus gracilipes (Welw. ex Oliv.) Exell 15 200 - 215 0.00500 0.010 Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exell 6 15 64 85 0.00200 0.600 Premna schimperi Engl. - - 18 18 0.00040 0.100 Olea europaea L. subsp. cuspidata (Wall. ex - 100 756 0.02000 5.700 G.Don) Cif. 856 Olinia rochetiana A. Juss. - - 6 6 0.00010 0.040 Osyris quadripartita Decn. 37 111 598 746 0.02000 4.900 Otostegia integrifolia Benth. - 128 55 183 0.00400 1.200 Pavetta abyssinica Fresen. 1 22 35 58 0.00100 0.400 Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims - - 154 154 0.00400 1.000 Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkm. 50 75 175 300 0.00700 2.000 Pterolobium Stellatum (Forssk.) Brenan - 2 165 167 0.00400 1.100 Rhus glutinosa A. Rich. subsp. glutinosa 3 2 22 27 0.00060 0.200 Rosa abyssinica Lindley 5 16 281 302 0.00700 0.020 Schefflera abyssinica (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) - 3 5 0.00020 0.050 Harms. 8 Senna singueana (Del.) Lock - 25 5 30 0.00070 0.200 Sideroxylon oxyacanthum Baill. - 58 197 255 0.00600 1.700 Stereospermum kunthianum Cham. - - 5 5 0.0001 0 0.030 Tacazzea conferta N.E. Br. - - 5 5 0.00010 0.030 Terminalia schimperiana Hochst. - - 11 11 0.00030 0.070 Vernonia auriculifera Hiern. 232 17 439 688 0.02000 4.600
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Appendix 4 Basal area and dominance of woody species Scientific name of plant species DBH (cm) Basal area (m2) Basal area (m2/ha) Dominance Relative dominance Acacia abyssinica Hochst. ex Benth. 190.20 2.80 0.700 0.0001000 3.50 Acacia mearnsii De Wild. 170.00 2.30 0.500 0.0001000 3.50 Acacia negrii Pic.Sermi. 40.80 0.10 0.100 0.0000020 0.10 Albizia gummifera (J. F. Gmel.) C. A. Sm. 60.50 0.30 0.100 0.0000070 0.40 Allophylus abyssinicus (Hochst.) Radlk. 90.60 0.60 0.200 0.0000100 0.40 Apodytes dimidiata E. Mey. ex Arn. 340.10 9.10 2.200 0.0002000 7.10 Bersama abyssinica Fresen. 20.30 0.03 0.010 0.0000010 0.04 Brucea antidysenterica J. F. Mill. 30.20 0.10 0.020 0.0000020 0.10 Buddleja polystachya Fresen. 90.20 0.60 0.200 0.0000100 0.40 Calpurnia aurea (Ait.) Benth. 30.20 0.10 0.020 0.0000020 0.10 Carissa spinarum L. 10.40 0.01 0.002 0.0000002 0.01 Capparis tomentosa Lam. 90.00 0.60 0.200 0.0000100 0.40 Clerodendrum myricoides (Hochst.) Vatke 70.00 0.40 0.100 0.0000100 0.40 Clutia lanceolata Forssk. 30.60 0.10 0.020 0.0000020 0.10 Combretum adenogonium Steud. ex A. Rich. 150.50 1.80 0.400 0.0000400 1.40 Croton macrostachyus Del. 120.40 1.10 0.300 0.0000010 0.04 Cupressus lusitanica Mill. 40.10 0.10 0.020 0.0000020 0.10 Dodonea angustifolia L. 50.60 0.20 0.050 0.0000050 0.20 Dovyalis abyssinica (A. Rich.) Warb. 70.50 0.40 0.100 0.0000100 0.40 Ekebergia capensis Sparrm. 270.60 5.70 1.400 0.0001000 3.50 Erica arborea L. 300.70 7.10 1.700 0.0000400 1.40 Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. 310.40 7.50 1.800 0.0002000 7.10 Eucalyptus globulus Labill. 370.00 10.70 2.600 0.0003000 3.50 Euclea racemosa Murr. subsp. schimperi (A. DC.) White 30.90 0.10 0.020 0.0000020 0.10 Ficus palmata Forssk. 70.00 0.4 0.100 0.0000100 0.40 Ficus vasta Forssk. 248.90 4.80 1.200 0.0001000 3.50 Flacourtia indica (Burm.f) Merr. 70.00 0.40 0.100 0.0000100 0.40 Gardenia ternifolia Schumach & Thonn. 200.70 3.10 0.800 0.0001000 3.50 Gnidia glauca (Fresen.) Gilg. 210.70 3.50 0.800 0.0001000 3.50 Grewia ferruginea Hochst. ex A. Rich. 120.10 1.10 0.300 0.0000010 0.04 Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J. F. Gmelin 220.20 3.80 0.900 0.0001000 3.50 Hypericum revolutum Vahl. 60.80 0.30 0.100 0.0000010 0.04 Jasminum abyssinicum Hochst. ex DC. 50.00 0.20 0.050 0.0000050 0.20 Jasminum grandiflorum L. 40.90 0.10 0.020 0.0000020 0.10 Juniperus procera Endl. 400.50 12.60 3.000 0.0003000 10.60 Maesa lanceolata Forssk. 10.70 0.01 0.002 0.0000002 0.01 Maytenus gracilipes (Welw. ex Oliv.) Exell 30.20 0.10 0.020 0.0000020 0.10
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Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exell 30.90 0.10 0.020 0.0000020 0.10 Premna schimperi Engl. 40.50 0.10 0.100 0.0000020 0.10 Olea europaea L. subsp. cuspidata (Wall. ex G.Don) Cif. 140.70 1.50 0.400 0.0000400 1.40 Olinia rochetiana A. Juss. 60.40 0.30 0.100 0.0000007 0.02 Osyris quadripartita Decn. 30.90 0.10 0.020 0.0000020 0.10 Otostegia integrifolia Benth. 30.60 0.10 0.020 0.0000020 0.10 Pavetta abyssinica Fresen. 60.40 0.30 0.100 0.0000007 0.02 Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims 20.30 0.03 0.010 0.0000002 0.01 Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkm. 630.70 31.20 7.500 0.0010000 35.30 Pterolobium Stellatum (Forssk.) Brenan 70.00 0.40 0.100 0.0000100 0.40 Rhus glutinosa A. Rich. subsp. glutinosa 150.40 1.80 0.400 0.0000400 1.40 Rosa abyssinica Lindley 60.50 0.30 0.100 0.0000007 0.02 Schefflera abyssinica (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Harms. 60.60 0.30 0.100 0.0000007 0.02 Senna singueana (Del.) Lock 70.70 0.40 0.100 0.0000100 0.40 Sideroxylon oxyacanthum Baill. 30.60 0.10 0.020 0.0000020 0.10 Stereospermum kunthianum Cham. 130.40 1.30 0.200 0.0000300 1.10 Tacazzea conferta N.E. Br. 40.80 0.10 0.020 0.0000020 0.10 Terminalia schimperiana Hochst. 60.50 0.30 0.100 0.0000007 0.02 Vernonia auriculifera Hiern. 40.00 0.10 0.020 0.0000020 0.10 Total 6472.4 121.12 29.824 0.0028350
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Appendix 5 Percentage frequency of most frequent woody species Scientific name Habit Family Percentage frequency Relative frequency Acacia abyssinica Hochst. ex Benth. T Fabaceae 24.0 2.4 Acacia negrii Pic.Sermi. T Fabaceae 21.0 2.1 Acanthus polystachius Delile S Acanthaceae 14.0 1.4 Albizia gummifera (J. F. Gmel.) C. A. Sm. T Fabaceae 21.0 2.1 Bersama abyssinica Fresen. S Melianthaceae 33.0 3.3 Brucea antidysenterica J. F. Mill. S Simaroubaceae 19.0 1.9 Buddleja polystachya Fresen. S Loganiaceae 15.0 1.5 Calpurnia aurea (Ait.) Benth. S Fabaceae 30.0 3.0 Carissa spinarum L. S Apocynaceae 40.0 4.0 Clutia lanceolata Forssk. S Euphorbiaceae 42.0 4.2 Croton macrostachyus Del. T Euphorbiaceae 68.3 6.8 Dodonea angustifolia L. S Sapindaceae 58.7 5.9 Ficus palmata Forssk. S Moraceae 10.6 1.1 Grewia ferruginea Hochst. ex A. Rich. S Tiliaceae 17.0 1.7 Jasminum grandiflorum L. WC Oleaceae 12.6 1.3 Maesa lanceolata Forssk. S Myrsinaceae 23.0 2.3 Maytenus gracilipes (Welw. ex Oliv.) Exell S Celastraceae 44.2 4.4 Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exell S Celastraceae 10.6 1.1 Osyris quadripartita Decn. S Santalaceae 53.8 5.4 Otostegia integrifolia Benth. S Lamiaceae 49.0 4.9 Pavetta abyssinica Fresen. S Rubiaceae 12.5 1.3 Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims T Pittosporaceae 10.6 1.1 Pterolobium Stellatum (Forssk.) Brenan WC Fabaceae 28.8 2.9 Rhus glutinosa A. Rich. subsp. glutinosa S Anacardiaceae 27.9 2.8 Rosa abyssinica Lindley S Rosaceae 58.7 5.9 Senna singueana (Del.) Lock S Fabaceae 5.8 0.6 Sida schimperiana Hochst. ex A. Rich. S Malvaceae 16.3 1.6 Sideroxylon oxyacanthum Baill. S Sapotaceae 27.9 2.8 Vernonia auriculifera Hiern. S Asteraceae 65.4 6.5 Note: T=Tree, S=Shrub, WC = Woody Climber
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Appendix 6 Importance values of woody species Scientific name of plant species Relative density Relative dominance Relative frequency Importance values Acacia abyssinica Hochst. ex Benth. 0.600 3.50 2.40 6.5 Acacia negrii Pic.Sermi. 5.300 0.10 2.10 7.5 Albizia gummifera (J. F. Gmel.) C. A. Sm. 1.300 0.40 2.10 3.8 Bersama abyssinica Fresen. 2.500 0.04 3.30 5.8 Brucea antidysenterica J. F. Mill. 0.700 0.10 1.90 2.7 Buddleja polystachya Fresen. 0.100 0.40 1.50 2.0 Calpurnia aurea (Ait.) Benth. 2.700 0.10 3.00 5.8 Carissa spinarum L. 4.800 0.01 4.00 8.8 Clerodendrum myricoides (Hochst.) Vatke 0.030 0.40 0.70 1.1 Clutia lanceolata Forssk. 2.300 0.10 4.20 6.6 Combretum adenogonium Steud. ex A. Rich. 0.100 1.40 0.90 2.4 Croton macrostachyus Del. 6.800 0.04 6.80 13.6 Dodonea angustifolia L.f. 37.700 0.20 5.90 43.8 Euclea racemosa Murr. subsp. schimperi (A. DC.) White 0.004 0.10 0.60 0.7 Gnidia glauca (Fresen.) Gilg. 0.060 3.50 0.90 4.5 Grewia ferruginea Hochst. ex A. Rich. 0.300 0.04 1.70 2.0 Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J. F. Gmelin 0.050 3.50 0.30 3.9 Jasminum grandiflorum L. 1.000 0.10 1.30 2.4 Maesa lanceolata Forssk. 1.300 0.01 2.30 3.6 Maytenus gracilipes (Welw. ex Oliv.) Exell 0.010 0.10 4.40 4.5 Osyris quadripartita Decn. 4.900 0.10 5.40 10.4 Otostegia integrifolia Benth. 1.200 0.10 4.90 6.2 Pavetta abyssinica Fresen. 0.400 0.02 1.30 1.7 Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims 1.000 0.01 1.10 2.1 Pterolobium Stellatum (Forssk.) Brenan 1.100 0.40 2.90 4.4 Rhus glutinosa A. Rich. subsp. glutinosa 0.200 1.40 2.80 4.4 Rosa abyssinica Lindley 0.020 0.02 5.90 5.9 Sideroxylon oxyacanthum Baill. 1.700 0.10 2.80 4.6 Vernonia auriculifera Hiern. 4.600 0.10 6.50 11.2 Total 82.800 16.40 83.90 183.1
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Appendix 7 Medicinal plants used for traditional treatment of human diseases/ailments S. Scientific name Family name Local Disease treated PU Mode of preparation and application No name 1 Acacia negrii Pic.Sermi. Fabaceae Cheba Wound Rn Paint the wound by the resin of this plant 2 Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae Telenji Throat (Oesophagus) disease L Cut the leaves of this plant at three or five places and crush it then take it in the mouth. 1. 3 Acokanthera schimperi (DC.) Oliv. Apocynaceae Merenz Syphilis, wound L, St Pound the leaf of this plant then mix the powder with butter and paint the infected part once a day; pound the leaf and stem together and place on the wound. 2. 4 Allium cepa L. Alliaceae Qey Headache Bb Eat the basal leaf (bulb) of this plant Shnkurt 3. 5 Allium sativum L. Alliaceae Nech Evil eye, cough, abdominal Bb One of the main composing ingredients of the traditional Shnkurt pain (vomiting), swelling, medicine of evil eye; for cough boil with honey and malaria drink it; crush the bulb and drink it to protect swelling, abdominal pain, vomiting; eating the corm by cooking helps in avoiding malaria 4. 6 Amaranthus caudatus L. Amaranthaceae Yebahir Frequent miscarriage/Neo- R, S To avoid this problem pound the root of Verbascum Teff natal death sinaiticum, Cucumis ficifolius, Echinops kebericho, Verbena officinalis, Clutia lanceolata, Calpurnia aurea, Carissa spinarum, and the seed of Amaranthus caudatus and sesame then mix them in a good manner then eat the prepared mixture. 5. 7 Argemone mexicana L. Papaveraceae Dendero Wound F Crush the fruit of this plant and drop the liquid part on the wound 6. 8 Asparagus africanus Lam. Asparagaceae Yeset Migraine H. Bind the stem of this plant by the thread of fibre by left Kest hand and wear around the head
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7. 9 Astragalus atropilosulus (Hochst.) Fabaceae Yebab Snake bite H Chew the root of this plant Bunge Alenga 8. 10 Brassica carinata A. Br. Brassicaceae Gomenzer Abdominal pain S Pound the seeds and mix with water and then drink it. 9. 11 Brucea antidysenterica J. F. Mill. Simaroubaceae Abalo/W- Madness/ Mental disease L, F Give the leaf and fruit of this plant to eat without any aginos preparation 12 Buddleja polystachya Fresen. Loganiaceae Anfar Headache . T The powder of the root and leaf is placed in the nose 13 Carica papaya L. Caricaceae Papaya Diabetes L To treat this disease: dry the leaf of this plant and boil in water then drink it. 14 Carissa spinarum L. Apocynaceae Agam Snake bite, mental illness, L, R Cut the leaf of this plant by mouth then eat or chew the toothache leaf and put the chewed part on the harmed part; crush the root of this plant and chew this crushed part for toothache; crush the root of this plant then add a hyena bone then give to the patient of madness 15 Calpurnia aurea (Ait.) Benth. Fabaceae Ligita Snake bite R, L, When a snake bites a person, chew the leaf or root or Ba bark and swallow then the poison will be removed or the person will not be harmed. 16 Catha edulis (Vahl) Forssk. ex Celastraceae Chat Malaria, cough, asthma L Boil the leaf for a night and drink it for seven Endl. consequent days. 17 Citrus aurantiifolia (Christm.) Rutaceae Lomi Gonorrhoea F, F Add the bulb of Allium sativum and the fruit of this plant Swingle. and crush together then decant the liquid part and keep it for seven days and drink it after seven days. 18 Clausena anisata (Willd.) Benth. Rutaceae Limich Madness/mental illness L, F Give the leaf or fruit to the mad man then the mad man then turn to normal state 19 Clerodendrum myricoides (Hochs- Lamiaceae Misirch Migraine L Crush the leaf of this plant, Salvia nilotica and Rumex t.) Vatke nervosus and squeeze the liquid then add by the nose and ear of the patient
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20 Clutia lanceolata Jaub. & Spach. Euphorbiaceae Fiyele feji Frequent miscarriage/Neo- R, S To avoid this problem pound the root of Verbascum natal death sinaiticum, Cucumis ficifolius, Echinops kebericho, Verbena officinalis, Clutia lanceolata, Calpurnia aurea, Carissa spinarum, and the seed of Amaranthus caudatus and sesame then mix them in a good manner then eat the prepared mixture. 21 Coccinia abyssinica (Lam.) Cogn Cucurbitaceae Werq Malaria, evil eye R Crush the root and drink with Tella to treat malaria; the Bemieda root of this plant is also one component of the traditional medicine of evil eye 22 Coffea arabica L. Rubiaceae Buna Headache S By roasting the seed of this plant inhale or smell the smoke. 23 Crotalaria spinosa Hochst. ex Fabaceae Yemdir Rabies R Dig the root of this plant and boil in water and give by a Benth. Grar spoon. 24 Croton macrostachyus Del. Euphorbiaceae Bisana Tinea nigra, Tinea corporis, La, L, When the young parts of the braches cut watery blood pressure, snake bite, Bu exudates will be produced then add this substance to the eye disease, epistaxis (nose infected body part; crush the leaf of this plant and then bleeding), malaria decant it then add honey or urine to the decanted substance then give to a patient of blood pressure; eat the bud of this plant by chewing for snake bite; squeeze the leaf of this plant then add the exudates water on the eye for eye disease; squeeze the 7 buds of this plant and add the exudates on the bleeding nose and also smell the exudates to prohibit nose bleeding; cut about 3 cm of 3 or 5 or 7 young buds of this plant then peel them add in stew which has dried met and butter and cook it then eat with Injera or drink the cooked stew and drink boiled
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buttermilk to avoid malaria 25 Cucumis ficifolius A. Rich. Cucurbitaceae Yemdir Evil eye, abdominal pain R, L Crush about 3 cm root of this plant then mix with water Embuay (bloating, vomiting), febrile and then give by the cup to the patient who is with illness, rabies, ear pest abdominal swelling and pain; the crushed root of the plant is also one component of the traditional medicine of evil eye; immerse the leaf of this plant in water and cook it until it become hot then smell the steam to avoid febrile illness; crush about 3 centimetre root of this plant then mix by water and then give for 3 or 4 days for those bitted by a dog caught by rabies; crush the root of this plant and mix with the dust of Hordeum vulgare then give to a man that have abdominal pain; to remove pests from the ear crush or pound the root then add the juice or water solution of the powder once as ear drops to get rid of insects or worms present in the ear cavity. 26 Cucurbita pepo L. Cucurbitaceae Duba Rheumatic pain S To treat this disease dry the seed of this plant and pound then mix with honey and eat in the morning and at night after dinner. 27 Cynoglossum coeruleum Hochst. Boraginaceae Shemigeg/ Febrile illness, spider bite, L, R Crush the leaf of this plant and paint the infected part of ex A.DC. Etse-dem- toothache the body to avoid febrile illness or boil the leaf of this ena plant and inhale the steam of boiling; for spider bite crush the leaf of this plant and drop the liquid part on the harmed part of the body; for toothache catch the root of this plant by chewing for several times. 28 Cyperus rigidifolius Steud. Cyperaceae Angicha Snake bite R/Sn Dry the root or tuber of this plant and pound then drink it
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29 Cyphostemma cyphopetalum Vitaceae Yejib Ar- Poisonous H Chewing its stem is poisonous (Fresen.) Descoings ex Wild & eg Drummond 30 Datura stramonium L. Solanaceae Astenagir Dandruff, rheumatic pain L, S Crush the leaf of this plant and paint the infected part of the head to avoid skin disease; smoke the seed of this plant and inhale the smoke to avoid rheumatic pain 31 Dodonea angustifolia L.f. Sapindaceae Kitikita Malaria R, L Cut the root and leaf then crush and mix with Tella and drink the mixture to cure malaria 32 Dovyalis abyssinica (A. Rich.) Flacourtiaceae Koshim Blood pressure, asthma L To treat these mentioned diseases: dry the leaf and boil Warb. with water and drink it as tea. 33 Echinops kebericho Mesfin Asteraceae Kebericho Evil spirit, evil eye, mental R Burn the root of this plant and smoke it inside the house illness, febrile illness, com- and inhale or smell its smoke is used to protect any mon cold amicable disease, and also to avoid any spiritual disease and common cold; by pounding and mixing its root to other ingredients, it is used to prepare traditional medicine for evil eye. 34 Embelia schimperi Vatke Myrsinaceae Enkoko Ascaris, abdominal disease F Pound the fruit then mix with water then drink one glass (bloating), Taenia saginata of the mixture in bare stomach or eat the mature fruit to infection or beef tapeworm avoid Taenia and any abdominal disease of the abdomen (Koso) or pound the dried fruit and distilled in the form of Katicala then drink it or pound the dried fruit then mix with Tella to avoid any abdominal disease 35 Eucalyptus globulus Labill. Myrtaceae Bule Bah- Common cold L By boiling the leaf of this plant inhales or smells the ir Zaf steam to avoid common cold. 36 Euclea racemosa Murr. subsp. sch- Ebenaceae Dedeho Eczema L Dry the leaf of this plant and pound it then add the dust imperi (A. DC.) White on the wound.
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37 Euphorbia abyssinica Gmel. Euphorbiaceae Kulkual Rabies La About 3 cm depth of a cup of milky latex of this plant is given to a patient of rabies 38 Euphorbia platyphyllos L. Euphorbiaceae Abaydem Poisonous H Painting the latex is poisonous 39 Ferula communis L. Apiaceae Inslal Night blindness L Crush the leaf of this plant and decant the liquid part and paint it to strength the observing capacity of the eye. 40 Ficus palmata Forssk. Moraceae Qotilebele Breast swelling, swelling La, L To treat breast swelling boil the leaf and bandaged once -s a day; when a spine injects a man sometimes it swells without pus and feels a strong pain so to avoid this pain drop the latex on the injected part to make pus 41 Gardenia ternifolia Schumach. & Rubiaceae Gambilo Evil sprit T Bury the some piece of stem of this plant around the Thonn. compound of the house 42 Gladiolus abyssinicus (Brongn. ex Iridaceae Enzeresey Haemorrhoids R Dry and pound the root of Gladiolus abyssinicus and Lemaire) Goldblatt & de Vos the root of Withania somnifera with the fruit of this plant and Brassica carinata and mix the oil of sesame and Niger seed then add honey then add to the haemorrhoids 43 Guizotia abyssinica (L. f.) Cass. Asteraceae Nug Tinea capitis (boldness) S Pound the seed of this plant and the leaf of Brucea antidysenterica and paint the infected part of the body. 44 Guizotia schimperi Sch. Bip. ex Asteraceae Mech Ascaris, Taenia saginata R, L To treat and avoid Ascaris and beef tapeworm from the Walp. infection or beef tapeworm body pound the leaf of this plant, the root of Guizotia schimperi, Solanum marginatum, Ricinus communis, Kalanchoe petitiana and Verbascum sinaticum and then mix with the water of Helianthus annuus then drink it. 45 Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J. F. Rosaceae Koso Ascaris, Taenia saginata infe- F Pound/ Crush the fruits of this plant and mix by water Gmelin ction or beef tapeworm then drink one glass of the mixture in bare stomach 46 Helianthus annuus L. Asteraceae Suf Rabies H Pound the seed then mix its oil with the latex of
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Euphorbia abyssinica and drink it in a cup at a single joint of a finger 47 Hordeum vulgare L. Poaceae Gebs Impotency H Prepare in the form of Tella and it is used as ingredient for the traditional medicine 48 Hygrophila schulli (Hamilt.) M.R. Acanthaceae Amekela Eczema AP Collect all parts of this plant and then burn it then paint & S.M. the ash of this burned plant to the wound of the body. 49 Impatiens ethiopica Grey-Wilson Balsaminaceae Insosla Cough RS, To treat cough crush the tuberous root of this plant and ** Bu mix with Allium sativum, the seed of Nigella sativa and white myrrh then pound together then mix with honey and boil and together then drink the boiled mixture in a cup. 50 Jasminum abyssinicum Hochst. ex Oleaceae Tenbelel Ascaris, Taenia saginata L, R To treat and avoid Taenia from the body pound the leaf DC. infection or beef tapeworm of this plant, the root of Guizotia schimperi, Solanum marginatum, Ricinus communis, Kalanchoe petitiana and Verbascum sinaticum and then mix with the water of Helianthus annuus then drink it. 51 Justicia schimperiana (Hochst. ex Acanthaceae Sensel Abdominal pain (bloating), R, L Crush about three cm root of this plant with water and Nees) T. Anders. swelling, rabies give in a cup to the patient of abdominal pain, stomach bloating, vomiting and swelling; squeeze the young buds of this plant and drink in a cup; pound the leaf this plant, the root and leaf of Cucumis ficifolius, the root of Verbena officinalis and the leaf of Millettia ferruginea together then mix them by water then give by the glass of local Katicala for 7 or more than 7 days, one glass per day to the patient of rabies. 52 Kalanchoe petitiana A. Rich. Crassulaceae Andahula Tonsillitis R, S Crush the root of the plant then add with 7 malted
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cereals then immerse in water then add in the nose of the patient to raise the fall down epiglottis. 53 Kanahia laniflora (Forssk.) R. Br. Asclepiadaceae Tifrena Gland removal, evil eye, La, R Crush the root of this plant then mix with other scabies (itching) ingredients for treatment of evil eye; the milky latex is drop on any permanent swelling of the body or paints the swelling (gland removal) by milky latex; pound the leaf of this plant and mix with butter and paint the infected part to prevent itching. 54 Laggera crispata (Vahl) Hepper & Asteraceae Kes Bede- Abdominal burning (gastritis- R Cook the root of this plant and pound the cooked root Wood je s) and knocking then eat it with honey. 55 Laggera siceraria (Molina) Stand- Cucurbitaceae Qil Abdominal bloating, stoma- H Pour a water in bitter gourd and shake it then drink the ley chache mixture 56 Leonotis ocymifolia (Burml. f.) Iw- Lamiaceae Ras Kimr Cancer, wound H Crush the flowers and roots for the treatment of cancer arsson var. raineriana (Visiani) and wound lwarsson 57 Lepidium sativum L. Brassicaceae Feto Febrile illness, evil eye, gon- S Pound the seed of this plant then mix in water and drink orrhoea in a cup to avoid febrile illness; the seed is the main ingredient of the traditional medicine of evil eye; pound the seed of this plant then add one spoon of it to boiling milk and drink the mixture at morning for 7 consecutive days in bare stomach to treat gonorrhoea. 58 Linum usitatissimum L. Linaceae Telba Constipation, eye disease S Pound the seed of this plant and rub it by water and add some salt then eat it by Injera; for eye disease insert the seeds into the eye and tie the eye by piece of cloth then unfasten after several minutes. 59 Lobelia rhynchopetalum Hemsl. Lobeliaceae Gibra Impotency R Crush the root of this plant and Verbascum sinaticum
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and drink with Tella 60 Lupinus albus L. Fabaceae Gibto Blood pressure S Pound the seed and in distillation process it become Katicala or eat the seed without cooking 61 Melia azedarach L. Meliaceae Nim Malaria L Crush the leaf of this plant with the leaf of Vernonia amygdalina then decant the liquid part and drink it with a dose of about 3 cm depth of a cup. 62 Millettia ferruginea (Hochst.) Bak. Fabaceae Birbira Tinea nigra, Tinea corporis, S Pound the seed of this plant and mix with sulphur then eczema, skin peeling mix by butter then paint the infected part of the body. 63 Momordica foetida Schumach. Cucurbitaccae Kurgn Wound L Squeeze the leaf of this plant and add to a burned body to cure the body from wound 64 Myrica salicifolia A. Rich. Myricaceae Shinet Migraine Ba Mix the bark of Securidaca pendiculata and the bark of this plant and pound together then mix by butter finally insert it in the nose 65 Myrtus communis L. Myrtaceae Ades Wound, scabies (itching) L Crush the leaf of this plant thin mix by butter then paint the head of infants to avoid itching and wound. 66 Nigella sativa L. Ranunculaceae Tikur Az- Cough Bu, S To treat cough mix the seed of this plant with Allium mud sativum and white myrrh then pound together then mix with honey and boil and together then drink the boiled mixture in a cup. 67 Ocimum americanum L. Lamiaceae Ziqaqibie Lung disease, liver disease/ F First immerse the fruit and the leaf of this plant by milk jaundice, intestinal diseases or water then drink in bare stomach 68 Ocimum urticifolium Roth Lamiaceae Dama Ke- Febrile illness, abdominal L, F To treat febrile illness crush the leaf and paint the sie pain, common cold infected part; to avoid any abdominal pain eat the uncooked leaf; to avoid common cold boil the leaf of this plant with the leaf or fruit of Ruta chalepensis and drink the boiled mixture.
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69 Olea europaea L. subsp. cuspidata Oleaceae Woira Common cold, night blindn- L, Bu When the leaf of the plant is added to the fire it provides (Wall. ex G.Don) Cif. ess a good smelled smoke and the smoke is used to avoid common cold; To treat the observing weakness of the eye, cut seven young buds of this plant and Achyrantus aspera and squeeze their liquid then add to the juice of lemon and eye cosmetics and paint the eye to strength its ability to see. 70 Olinia rochetiana A. Juss. Oliniaceae Tifie Swelling Bu Cut about 3 centimetre of three buds of this plant by tooth at three place then chew by tooth and put this chewed bud to the swelled part of the body 71 Osyris quadripartita Decn. Santalaceae Keret Trachoma R To treat eye disease crush the root of this plant, Withania somnifera and Cucumis ficifolius then mix by water then wash the infected eye by this mixture. 72 Otostegia integrifolia Benth. Lamiaceae Tinjut Common cold, evil sprit L Adding the leaf of this plant to the fire provides smart smoke, this smoke is used to remove common cold; the smoke also protects a new breast feeding mother from devil/evil spirit; the smoke also used to avoid house flies 73 Pennisetum thunbergii Kunth Poaceae Sindedo Mitch /febrile illness H Root and leaf powder placed in fire and fumigate the patient with the smoke 74 Persea americana Mill. Lauraceae Avocado Diabetes L Boil the leaf of this plant and drink one glass of tea in a day until the disease is avoided after diagnosed by a doctor. 75 Phoenix reclinata Jacq. Arecaceae Selen Deafness F Pound the fruit of this plant and Verbascum sinaticum and mix and boil together then add in the ear for seven days 76 Phragmanthera regularis (Spragu- Loranthaceae Teketila Blood pressure L Pound or crush the leaf of this parasitic plant and add a
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e) M. Gilbert spoonful of dust of this plant to tea and drink it for seven consecutive days. 77 Phragmanthera macrosolen Loranthaceae Teketila Blood pressure L Pound or crush the leaf of this parasitic plant and add a (A. Rich.) M. Gilbert spoonful of dust of this plant to tea and drink it for seven consecutive days. 78 Phytolacca dodecandra L‟Her. Phytolaccaceae Endod Abdominal pain (swelling, L, F, Crush the leaf of this plant with water and decant the vomiting), rabies, scabies R liquid part to a cup until it reaches a depth of about 3 cm (itching) and then give this decanted liquid to the patient to avoid vomiting, abdominal pain and swelling; cut about 3 cm of the root of this plant then peel it then splice into three parts then pound these three spliced parts and mix with water then decant it and add honey on the decanted part then drink for three days to avoid rabies; wash the itched part with water first then wash the itched part by the fruit and leaf of this plant; crush the root of this plant together with the root of Euphorbia abyssinica then mix with the pounded Guizotia abyssinica or cooked milk whose butter is removed by pushing then give to a patient of rabies. 79 Piper nigrum L. Piperaceae Qundo B- Haemorrhoids F Dry and pound the root of Gladiolus abyssinicus and erbere the root of Withania somnifera with the fruit of this plant and Brassica carinata and mix the oil of sesame and Guizotia scabra then add honey then add to the haemorrhoids 80 Plantago lanceolata L. Plantaginaceae Gorteb Wound L Crush the leaf of this plant first then mix with butter then add on the wound caused by burning.
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81 Plumbago zeylanica L. Plumbaginaceae Amira Abdominal pain, swelling L First boil the leaf of this plant with spiced butter then drink it to avoid any abdominal pain; crush the leaf and boil with spiced butter then add salt then decant and separate the liquid and drink it to avoid swelling. 82 Pterolobium stellatum (Forssk.) Fabaceae Keltefa Evil eye WC The crushed or pounded root is used as the ingredient Brenan for evil eye 83 Punica granatum L. Punicaceae Roman Abdominal pain Ba Eat the bark of this plant with the rhizome of ginger for 7 days. 84 Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae Chakima Abdominal impelling, poiso- R, S Cut about 3 cm of the root of this plant then chew it; ning, abdominal pain crush the root of this plant then mix with water then give in a cup with 3 cm depth to avoid abdominal pain and to cause vomiting to avoid poisoning; splice the seed of this plant into two or four according the person and mix with water then give to the patients of abdominal pain and any swelling on the body 85 Rubia cordifolia L. Rubiaceae Enchibir Asthma R, L To treat asthma boil the leaf and root of this plant, the root and leaf of Clausena anisata, the root of Thymus sp. and Dovyalis abyssinica and decant in a bottle then drink one of the decanted liquid per day during morning in bare stomach for seven days. 86 Rosa abyssinica Lindley Rosaceae Kega Blood pressure F Boil the mature fruit of this plant by water and drink as tea until it is checked by a doctor to be cured. 87 Rosa x richardii Rehd. Rosaceae Tsigereda TB (head wound) Fl Melt the flower of this plant with the flower of Verbascum sinaticum with butter of goat then insert in the patients nose. 88 Rubus apetalus Poir. Rosaceae Enjori Blood pressure S Eat the fresh fruit of this plant
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89 Rumex abyssinicus Jacq. Polygonaceae Mekmeko Diabetes R Dry the root of this plant and pound it then add a spoonful of dust to a stew and eat with Injera 90 Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Po1ygonaceae Yewusha Abdominal impelling, abdo- R Crush the root of this plant then mix by water then drink Milas minal pain, abdominal swell- for treatment abdominal pain, vomiting, swelling; crush ling, diarrhoea, evil eye, the root of this plant and Cynoglossum coeruleum tonsillitis together then mix with water and give to the infants for the treatment of diarrhoea; the root of this plant is crushed and added to the traditional medicine of evil eye; crush the root of this plant then give in a cup with a depth of about 3 cm to raise the fall down of epiglottis.
91 Rumex nervosus Vahl Polygonaceae Ambacho Warts, common cold, wound St, L, To treat warts: first hot the stem of this plant by fire or Bu hot material then rub the infected part by this hot stem; to treat common cold first boil the leaf of this plant then smell or inhale the steam of boiling; squeeze the young buds of this plant and drop or paint the liquid part to the wound of the circumcision baby to cure the wound. 92 Ruta chalepensis L. Rutaceae Tenadam Evil eye, abdominal pain, FL, St The young branch with the fruit and leaf is used as the swelling, vomiting main component of a mixture of the traditional medicine of evil eye; for all other mentioned disease types squeeze the leaf with water and give in a cup to the patients. 93 Scadoxus multiflorus (Martyn) Amaryllidaceae Chiret TB (Wound), abdominal and R For tuberculosis: dry the root and pound it then mix by Raf. penis swelling butter then paint the harmed part; for abdominal and penis swelling crush the dried root of this plant then boil with honey then drink it. 94 Schefflera abyssinica (Hochst. ex Araliaceae Getem Snake bite R, L To avoid snake poison: mix the root of Carissa
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A. Rich.) Harms spinarum, Calpurnea aurea and this plant, and the leaf of Plumbago zylenica then pound them together then immerse in water and squeeze the liquid part and drink it. 95 Securidaca longepedunculata Fre- Polygalaceae Etse-men- Headache Ba Mix the bark of Securidaca pendiculata and the bark of sen. ahe Myrica salcifolia and pound together then mix by butter finally insert it in the nose. 96 Sesamum orientale L. Pedaliaceae Selit Haemorrhoids R, F Dry and pound the root of Gladiolus abyssinicus and the root of Withania somnifera with the fruit of this plant and Brassica carinata and mix the oil of sesame and Guizotia scabra then add honey then add to the haemorrhoids 97 Sida rhombifolia L. Malvaceae Gorjejit Vomiting, wound L Crush the leaf of this plant with water and give in cup to avoid vomiting: paint the wound by crushing the leaf of this plant to cure wound. 98 Sida schimperiana Hochst. ex A. Malvaceae Chifrig Gonorrhoea, urinary retentio- St, L Cut seven young branches of this plant and Ferula Rich. n communis and mix with one role of myrrh and milk then boil and drink it; for urination defect boil the young branches of Ferula communis, Sida schimperiana and milk or water and drink it. 99 Solanum anguivi Lam. Solanaceae Zerech E- Wound F Crush the fruit of this plant and add to the wound of the mbuay body to cure the wound. 100 Solanum incanum L. Solanaceae Embuay Scabies (itching), wound F Crush the fruit of this plant and add the liquid part to butter and paint the itching part; crush and drop the liquid part to the wound 101 Solanum nigrum L. Solanaceae Awut Scabies (itching), burned F, L Crush the fruit of this plant and paint the itched part;
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wound crush the leaf of this plant with water and add or drop to the burned wound to cure the wound, the burned wound may grow hair but if the oil or dough is first dropped on the wound the traditional medicine become valueless. 102 Stephania abyssinica (Dillon & A. Menispermaceae Yedimet Abdominal impelling, febrile R, L Crush the root of this plant first mix with water then Rich.) Walp. Ain illness decant and give the decanted part in a cup with a depth of about three cm for abdominal impelling; boil the leaf of this plant and smell the steam to avoid febrile illness; the root of this plant is crushed then mix with water and drink in a cup with a depth of 3 cm for abdominal swelling, abdominal pain, vomiting; cook all parts of this plant then inhale the steam of the boiling to avoid trachoma, febrile illness; chew about 3 cm root of this plant and swallow the liquid part for the treatment of diarrhoea
103 Thalictrum rhynchocarpum Dill. & Ranunculaceae Sire-bizu Nightmare R Put the root of this plant under the pillow when a person A. Rich. cowards/ fearful during sleeping 104 Thymus schimperi Ron. Lamiaceae Tosign Blood pressure L Boil the leaf with tea and drink it or boil it with the leaf of Lippia adoensis then drink it. 105 Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Fabaceae Abish Abdominal pain, swelling, S Pound the seed of this plant and boil in water and drink abdominal bloating, wound, it; for wound first wash by salt then mix the pounded cough seed of this plant with lemon water and then paint the wound for several days; to treat cough cook the seed of this plant then dry the cooked seed and pound it then cook like porridge then add honey and milk to the cooked one and eat it in a spoon in bare stomach.
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106 Urtica simensis Steudel Urticaceae Sama Rheumatism/ rheumatism, L Boil the leaf of this plant and drink until it cures; eat the stomach ulcer leaf of this plant by cooking and mixing with the dust of barley and salt. 107 Verbascum sinaiticum Benth. Scrophulariaceae Daba Ke- Swelling, abdominal pain, R, L, Crush the root and leaf of this plant with water and drink ded eczema, oesophagus swelli- Ba it for swelling, abdominal pain, vomiting; crush the root ng, backache, asthma, nose of this plant and mix with water and drink for 5 bleeding (epistaxis), blood continuous days to avoid oesophagus swelling ; crush pressure, loss of weight, rhe- the root of this plant with the fruit of Gossypium umatism barbadense and the root of Cucumis ficifolius and mix with honey and tie to the wound of the patient to avoid eczema; for abdominal pain chew the fresh root of this plant and swallow the liquid part; for loss of weight crush the root of this plant and the root of Cucumis ficifolius, the bark of Croton macrostachyus and the fruit of Ruta chalepensis together then mix with milk then give for infants, or mix with coffee and give for adults; for backache crush the root of this plant together with the leaf and root of Verbena officinalis and pound the mixture then add to milk whose butter is removed then drink it; for asthma pound the root of this plant and mix with the root of Rubia cordifolia, Rubus apetalus, Thalictrum rhynchocarpum, Securidaca longepedun- culata bark and wood then pound all these parts together then add to Teji then drink; for nose bleeding pound the root of this plant with the root of Cucumis ficifolius then envelope by a piece of cloth then add in the nose; for blood pressure chew about 3 cm root of this plant.
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108 Verbena officinalis L. Verbenaceae Atuch Poisoning, diarrhoea, snake R, L, Chew the root of this plant or crush the root and mix bite, tongue disease, acute St with water and drink to avoid the poison given by febrile illness (elevated To.), human; for diarrhoea, acute febrile illness and stabbing stabbing pain pain crush enough amount of root and stem leaf then mix with water and drink; for snake bite crush both the root and leaf and drink; for tongue disease boil the leaf by water then rinse the mouth by the relatively hot liquid and then avoid the rinsed liquid.
109 Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal Solanaceae Egiziwa Diarrhoea, haemorrhoids L Crush the leaf with water and decant the liquid part then drink it; dry and pound the root of Gladiolus abyssinicus and the root of Withania somnifera with the fruit of this plant and Brassica carinata and mix the oil of sesame and Niger seed then add honey then add to the haemorrhoids. 110 Ximenia americana L. Olacaceae Enkoy Wound R, L Roots and flowers are used to remove placenta 111 Zehneria scabra (Linn. f.) Sond. Cucurbitaceae Areg Resa Febrile illness (fever), trach- St, L For febrile illness and trachoma: boil the stem and leaf oma, TB (wound) of this plant and inhale /smell the steam of the boiling; squeeze the leaf of this plant and drink a cup of it until it cures. 112 Zingiber officinale Roscoe Zingiberaceae Zingibl Cough, common cold Rh Crush the rhizome then boil it with sugar then drink it Note: PU = Parts Used; L = Leaf; Sn = Stolon; R = Root; St = Stem; Ba = Bark; S = Seed; F = Fruit; Bu = Bulb; Rh = Rhizome; Fl = Flower; La = Latex; Rn = Resin. Tella (ale) (Traditional alcoholic drink made from the dust of malt and Rhamnus prinoides leaf), Teji (local beer made of honey), Katicala (local beer prepared by traditional distillation process); Injera = A thin bread made up of Eragrostis tef.
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Appendix 8 Medicinal plants used for traditional treatment of domestic animal diseases S. Scientific name Family name Local Disease treated PU Mode of preparation and application N name 1 Acmella caulirhiza Del. Asteraceae Yemdir Eye disease Fl Chew its inflorescence and put the chewed material to the eye of a Berbere livestock (an ox including bull or cow including heifer). 2 Aloe pulcherrima Gilbert & Aloaceae Ret Hair disease JL This disease removes the marginal hair of the livestock (ox or cow) so Sebsebe to treat this disease paint the infected part with the jell of the leaf. 3 Arisaema schimperianum Sch- Araceae Yejib Ag- Abdominal bloating St Crush the stem of this plant and provide through the mouth of a ott eda livestock (ox or cow) for abdominal bloating 4 Brucea antidysenterica J.F. Mill. Simaroubaceae Abalo Abdominal bloating L Crush the leaf of this plant and provide through the mouth of a livestock (ox or cow). 5 Calotropis procera (Ait.) Ait. f. Asclepiadaceae Tobia Rashes La Give the milky latex of this via mouth plant when rashes are observed on the body of a livestock (cow or ox) 6 Calpurnia aurea (Ait.) Benth. Fabaceae Ligita Lice L Wash the caught animal by the leaf of this plant (ox or cow). 7 Clausena anisata (Willd.) Benth. Rutaceae Limich Swelling L, When a livestock (cow or ox) become ill due to unknown reason R provide the leaf or root of this plant and the root of Phytolacca dodecandra by crushing through its mouth; when a swelling is occurred on the centre of the abdomen of livestock (horse, donkey, mule) give the leaf of this plant and the leaf of Phytolacca dodecandra by crushing and mixing with water for drink. 8 Coriandrum sativum L. Apiaceae Dinbilal Cough S Pound the seed of Coriandrum sativum then mix with the seed of Hordeum vulgare then feed the livestock (cow, ox); roast the seed of this plant with the seed of Hordeum vulgare then feed it to a livestock (mule, donkey, horse).. 9 Crinum abyssinicum Hochst. ex Amaryllidaceae Yejib Abdominal bloating Bb Crush the rhizome and give to a livestock (cow or ox) through its A. Rich. Shnkurt mouth to avoid abdominal bloating. 10 Croton macrostachyus Del. Euphorbiaceae Bisana Abdominal bloating Bu When the abdomen of a livestock (ox or cow) becomes inflated at any reason give via mouth the bud of this plant by crushing.
11 Cucumis ficifolius A. Rich. Cucurbitaceae Yemdir Swelling, rabies, abdomen- R, Crush the root of this plant and mix by water and give to a livestock Embuay al bloating, sneezing F, (cow, ox) when it become swelled at any body parts; when swelling L observed on the thigh of a livestock (cow or ox) crush the root and mix by water and add through his mouth; when a livestock crushes its own teeth and when its back bleeds crushing and mixing the root of the three plant ( Verbascum sinaiticum, Rumex nepalensis and Sida schimperiana) feed the three mixture by rolling by leaf or injera to livestock (cow, ox) ; when a livestock (ox, cow, sheep, goats) sneezes crush and the fruit of this plant through its nose; crush the root of this plant and seed of Lepidium usitasimum and pour through its mouth when a livestock (cow or ox) shakes its body; crush the leaf and root 217
of this plant and mix by water then give for a livestock (cow, ox) for more than seven days to treat rabies for dog give this mixture by meat. 12 Echinops kebericho Mesfin Asteraceae Kebercho Swelling, abdominal bloa- R Crush the root with the root of Phytolacca dodecandra then feed the ting, cough livestock (cow or ox) for swelling and abdominal bloating; pound the root with the seed of Coriandrum sativum then mix with seed of Hordeum vulgare then feed the livestock (donkey, mule or horse). 13 Erythrina brucei Schweinf. Fabaceae Korch Eye disease L Crush the leaf of this plant and put the crushed part to the eye of a livestock (ox or cow) 14 Euphorbia abyssinica Gmel. Euphorbiaceae Kulkual Emaciation La Give the latex of this plant by small cup through the mouth of livestock (cow or ox) to avoid rabies 15 Justicia schimperiana (Hochst. Acanthaceae Sensel Swelling, abdominal bloat- L For swelling and abdominal bloating crush the leaf of Phytolacca ex Nees) T. Anders. ing, chicken disease dodecandra and the leaf of this plant together then give through the mouth of a livestock (cow or ox); crush the leaf this plant and Stephania abyssinica then give by Injera to the chicken to prevent death; crush the leaf and give through its mouth to avoid the abdominal bloating of livestock (horse, donkey, mule). 16 Laggera siceraria (Molina) Cucurbitaceae Qil Abdominal bloating F When livestock (cow or ox) stomachs become inflated crush the fruit Standley of the gourd and mix by water and give it to drink. 17 Lepidium sativum L. Brassicaceae Feto Febrile illness, cough S Pound the seed of this plant then give it through the mouth of a livestock (cow or ox). 18 Myrica salicifolia A. Rich. Myricaceae Shinet Febrile illness L, Wash the ox by the leaf of this plant to avoid „mich‟ (shaking of the Ba body of the ox or cow); filter the infusion of the bark and drop on the eye of the ox/cow. 19 Nicotiana tabacum L. Solanaceae Tinbaho Leech L, By crushing the leaf or fruit add through its mouth to remove leech F from the livestock (cow, ox, bull) 20 Nigella sativa L. Ranunculaceae Tekur Leech S Mix the seed of this plant by water and give to a livestock through its Azemud mouth to remove leech from the oesophagus of (cow or ox). 21 Olinia rochetiana A. Juss. Oliniaceae Tifie Eye disease Bu Chew the bud of this plant and pour into the eye of an ox or cow. 22 Phytolacca dodecandra L‟Her. Phytolaccaceae Endod Rabies, swelling, abdom- R, Crush the root and give in milk for a dog to treat rabies; for swelling enal bloating L and abdominal pain crush the leaf of Justicia schimperiana and the leaf of this plant together then give through the mouth of a livestock (cow or ox); crush the leaf and pour through its mouth to treat rabies; for shaking of the body crush the leaf and pour through the mouth of a livestock (cow or ox). 23 Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae Chakima Abdominal bloating R Crushing the root of this plant and add to water then give the mixed liquid by a cup or by a glass to a livestock (cow or ox) when a livestock becomes inflated 24 Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Po1ygonaceae Yewusha Abdominal bloating, swell- R When a livestock (ox or cow) is bloated give the root of this plant and Milas ing the leaf of Justicia schimperiana by crushing together through mouth helps to lose the abdominal bloating and to avoid any swelling of the 218
body. 25 Solanum marginatum L.f. Solanaceae Gebre Sneezing F Crush the fruit of this plant inside the nose of livestock (cow, ox, Embuay sheep, goat) when it is sneezing. 26 Stephania abyssinica (Dillon & Menispermaceae Engochit Abdominal bloating, swell- R Crush the root of this plant and add with water and give the mixture A. Rich.) Walp. ing, rabies liquid to a livestock (cow, ox, sheep, goats) ; crush the root of this plant and mix with milk then give to puppy to protect rabies 27 Thalictrum rhynchocarpum Dill. Ranunculaceae Sire-bizu Weight loss, abdominal R Crush the root of this plant and Cucumis ficifolius then give through & A. Rich. illness the mouth. of livestock (cow, ox, sheep, goats) 28 Urera hypselodendron (A.Rich.) Urticaceae Lankuso Swelling L Crush the leaf of Justicia schimperiana , Phytollacca dodecandra and Wedd Urera hypselodendron then squeeze the liquid part and give through the mouth of the livestock (donkey) to avoid swelling on the leg of donkey 29 Verbascum sinaiticum Benth. Scrophulariaceae Daba Ke- Back bleeding, weight loss R When a livestock (cow or ox) crushes its own teeth and when its back ded bleeds crushing and mixing the root of the three plant (Verbascum sinaiticum, Rumex nepalensis and Sida schimperiana) and feed the livestock (cow, ox) by rolling with leaf or Injera; to fatten a livestock (cow or ox): crush the leaf of this plant and feed a livestock (cow, ox) with its own fodder or by rolling by a leaf with salt. 30 Vernonia amygdalina Del. Asteraceae Grawa Abdominal bloating L Crush the leaf with water and give to the livestock to drink or pour through its mouth. Note: L=Leaf, Sn = Stolon, R = Root, St = Stem, Ba = Bark, S = Seed, F = Fruit, Bu = Bulb, Rh = Rhizome, Fl = Flower, La = Latex, Rn = Resin
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Appendix 9 Use diversity and habitats of medicinal plants used for human diseases Scientific name Use diversity Habitat Acacia negrii Pic.Sermi. Fumigation, fodder, firewood, rope, medicine Forest, farm land Achyranthes aspera L. Fodder, soil conservation, medicine Forest, farm land Acmella caulirhiza Del. Medicine, fodder, soil conservation Forest, farm land Acokanthera schimperi (DC.) Oliv. Firewood, medicine Forest Allium cepa L. Food, medicine Homegarden, irrigation land Allium sativum L. Food, medicine Homegarden, irrigation land Aloe pulcherrima Gilbert & Sebsebe Soil conservation, medicine, firewood Forest Amaranthus caudatus L. Medicine Farm land, forest Argemone mexicana L. Medicine, invasive, toxic, firewood Roadside, farm land Arisaema schimperianum Schott Medicine, toxic Farm land, forest Asparagus africanus Lam. Firewood, medicine Farm land Astragalus atropilosulus (Hochst.) Bunge Medicine Farm land, pasture land Brassica carinata A. Br. Food, medicine, baking material Farm land Brucea antidysenterica J. F. Mill. Medicine, cultural uses Farm land, homegarden Buddleja polystachya Fresen. Firewood, washing purpose, medicine Forest, farm land Calotropis procera (Ait.) Ait. f. Medicine ,firewood Farm land, roadside Carica papaya L. Food, medicine Homegarden Carissa spinarum L. Fodder, fence, firewood, medicine, food Forest, farm land Calpurnia aurea (Ait.) Benth. Agricultural tools, fence, medicine Forest, farm land Catha edulis (Vahl) Forssk. ex Endl. Stimulant, medicine ,firewood Homegarden Citrus aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle. Food, medicine, firewood, fence Homegarden Clausena anisata (Willd.) Benth. Toothbrush, agricultural tools, medicine, Forest firewood Clerodendrum myricoides (Hochst.) Vat- Medicine, agricultural tools Forest, roadside ke Clutia lanceolata Forssk. Agricultural tools, medicine Forest Coccinia abyssinica (Lam.) Cogn. Medicine Forest Coffea arabica L. Food, medicine Homegarden Coriandrum sativum L. Food, medicine Homegarden Crinum abyssinicum Hochst. ex A. Rich. Medicine, toxic Forest Crotalaria spinosa Hochst. ex Benth. Medicine, soil conservation Pasture land Croton macrostachyus Del. Agricultural tools, firewood, soil fertility, Forest, farm land washing purpose, fence, shade Cucumis ficifolius A. Rich. Medicine Forest, bare land Cucurbita pepo L. Food, medicine Homegarden Cynoglossum coeruleum Hochst. ex A. Medicine, soil conservation Forest, farm land, pasture land DC. Cyperus rigidifolius Steud. Fodder, thatching, soil conservation, medicine Pasture land, farm land Cyphostemma cyphopetalum (Fresen.) Poisonous Forest Descoings ex Wild & Drummond Datura stramonium L. Poisonous, medicine Roadside, bare land Dodonaea angustifolia L. Agricultural tools, soil conservation, medicine, Forest walking stick Dovyalis abyssinica (A. Rich.) Warb. Food, firewood, fence, medicine Forest Echinops kebericho Mesfin Fumigation, fence, medicine Bare land Embelia schimperi Vatke Food, firewood, medicine Forest Erythrina brucei Schweinf. Firewood, medicine, fence Forest, pasture land Eucalyptus globulus Labill. Insecticide, medicine, firewood, lumbering, Farm land, roadside, forest agricultural tools, construction, toxic, walking stick Euclea racemosa Murr. subsp. schimperi Firewood, medicine, soil conservation Forest (A. DC.) White
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Euphorbia abyssinica Gmel. Medicine, fence, firewood, lumbering, toxic Forest Euphorbia platyphyllos L. Poisonous Roadside Ferula Communis L. Food, medicine Farm land Ficus sur Forssk. Medicine, firewood Forest, farm land Gardenia ternifolia Schumach. & Thonn. Firewood, medicine/spiritual disease Forest Zingiber officinale Roscoe Exotic , food, medicine Farm lands, forest Gladiolus abyssinicus (Brongn. ex Medicine, soil conservation Farm land Lemaire) Goldblatt & de Vos Guizotia abyssinica (L.f.) Cass. Food, medicine, firewood Farm land, forest Guizotia schimperi Sch. Bip. ex Walp. Fodder, conservation and fertility of soil, Forest, homegarden medicine Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J.F.Gmelin Firewood, medicine, toxic Homegarden Helianthus annuus L. Oil, food, medicine, firewood Farm land Hordeum vulgare L. Food, fodder (straw), material for mud, Pasture land medicine, mattress, pillow Hygrophila schulli (Hamilt.) M.R. & S. Soil conservation, medicine Forest M. Impatiens ethiopica Hook. f. Aesthetic, dyes/cosmetics, medicine Forest Jasminum abyssinicum Hochst. ex DC. Firewood, medicine Roadside Justicia schimperiana (Hochst. ex Nees) Fence, firewood, medicine Forest T. Anders. Kalanchoe petitiana A. Rich. Medicine Farm land, pasture land Kanahia laniflora (Forssk.) R. Br. Medicine Farm land, forest Laggera crispata (Vahl) Hepper & Medicine Forest, farm land Wood Leonotis ocymifolia (Burml. f.) Iwarsson Shrub, firewood, medicine Farm land var. raineriana (Visiani) lwarsson Lepidium sativum L. Medicine Farm land Linum usitatissimum L. Food, medicine, materials Forest Lobelia rhynchopetalum Hemsl. Medicine Farm land Lupinus albus L. Food, medicine, soil fertility, firewood Roadside, forest Malva verticillata L. Soil fertility, medicine Forest, homegarden Millettia ferruginea (Hochst.) Bak. Firewood, construction, medicine Roadside, forest Momordica foetida Schumach. Medicine, soil fertility Homegarden, forest Myrica salicifolia A. Rich. Firewood, washing purpose, medicine Farm land Myrtus communis L. Firewood, medicine, ointment Bare land Nicotiana tabacum L. Medicine Farm land Nigella sativa L. Food, medicine Homegarden Ocimum americanum L. Medicine, food Roadside, forest, bare land Ocimum urticifolium Roth Firewood, food, medicine, aesthetic Pasture land Olea europaea L. subsp. cuspidata (Wall. Aesthetic, fumigation, firewood, medicine Forest, homegarden ex G.Don) Cif. Olinia rochetiana A. Juss. Firewood, medicine Forest Oenanthe palustris (Chiov.) Norman Medicine, poisons/toxic Forest Osyris quadripartita Decn. Firewood, medicine Forest Otostegia integrifolia Benth. Fumigation, medicine, firewood Pasture land, forest Pennisetum thunbergii Kunth Fodder, materials (thatching, rope, sewing), Homegarden soil conservation Persea americana Mill. Food, firewood, conservation of soil, med-icine Forest Phoenix reclinata Jacq. Medicine, materials (mat construction) Forest, farm land Phragmanthera regularis (Sprague) M. Medicine Homegarden, forest Gilbert Phytolacca dodecandra L‟Her. Medicine, washing purpose Farm land Piper nigrum L. Food, medicine Homegarden
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Plantago lanceolata L. Fodder, soil conservation, medicine Forest, homegarden, roadside Plumbago zeylanica L. Medicine Forest Pterolobium stellatum (Forssk.) Brenan Firewood, fence, medicine Forest, roadside, homegarden Punica granatum L. Food, firewood Forest Ricinus communis L. Oil, firewood, fodder, soil conservation, medi- Homegarden cine Rosa abyssinica Lindley Food, fence, fumigation, medicine, walking Roadside, farm land, forest stick Rosa x richardii Rehd. Aesthetic, medicine Homegarden Rubia cordifolia L. Medicine Forest, farm land Rubus apetalus Poir. Firewood, food, medicine, fence Forest, farm land Rumex abyssinicus Jacq. Food, medicine, dyes Pasture land, forest Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Medicine, firewood Forest, roadside, bare land Rumex nervosus Vahl Food, medicine, firewood Homegarden Ruta chalepensis L Food, medicine, aesthetic Pasture land Scadoxus multiflorus (Martyn) Raf. Aesthetic, medicine Bare land Schefflera abyssinica (Hochst. ex A. Rich Firewood, medicine Forest .) Harms Securidaca longepedunculata Fresen. Medicine Forest, roadsides Senna singueana (Del.) Lock Shrub/iindigeneous, medicine, stick, agric- Farm land ultural tools, firewood Sesamum orientale L. Food, medicine Cultivated land Sida rhombifolia L. Materials, medicine Pasture land, forest Sida schimperiana Hochst. ex A. Rich. Broom, soil conservation, medicine Bare land, forest Solanum anguivi Lam. Medicine, fence, toxic Pasture land, forest Solanum incanum L. Medicine, fence, toxic Bare land, pasture land Solanum marginatum L.f. Fence, medicine, toxic Farm land, forest Solanum nigrum L. Food, medicine Forest Stephania abyssinica (Dillon & A. Rich.) Medicine, rope Forest Walp. Thalictrum rhynchocarpum Dill. & A. Medicine, fodder (cattle) Bare land, forest Rich. Thymus schimperi Ronniger Food, medicine Farm land Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Food, medicine, fodder (cattle) Forest Urera hypselodendron (A. Rich.) Wedd Medicine Bare land Urtica simensis Steudel Food, fence, medicine Homegarden, roadside Verbascum sinaiticum Benth. Medicine, soil conservation Farm land Verbena officinalis L. Soil conservation, medicine Roadside, homegarden Vernonia amygdalina Del. Fodder (bee, cattle), alcoholic drink prepa- Forest ration, firewood, construction, medicine Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal Medicine Homegarden Zehneria scabra (Linn. f.) Sond. Medicine Forest, homegarden, roadside
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Appendix 10 Cultivation status and use diversity of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants Scientific name Cultivation Uses Acmella caulirhiza Del. Non-cultivated Medicine, soil conservation Aloe pulcherrima Gilbert & Sebsebe Non-cultivated Soil conservation, medicine Arisaema schimperianum Schott Non-cultivated Medicine Brucea antidysenterica J. F. Mill. Non-cultivated Medicine Calotropis procera (Ait.) Ait. f. Non-cultivated Medicine Clausena anisata (Willd.) Benth. Non-cultivated Toothbrush, medicine, agricultural tools Coriandrum sativum L. Cultivated Food, medicine Crinum abyssinicum Hochst. ex A. Rich. Non-cultivated Medicine Croton macrostachyus Del. Non-cultivated Medicine, firewood, agricultural tools, material use, soil fertility Cucumis ficifolius A. Rich. Non-cultivated Medicine Echinops kebericho Mesfin Non-cultivated Medicine, fence, source of income Erythrina brucei Schweinf. Non-cultivated Firewood, medicine Euphorbia abyssinica Gmel. Non-cultivated Medicine, firewood, construction, fence Justicia schimperiana (Hochst. ex Nees) T. Cultivated Fence, medicine Anders. Laggera siceraria (Molina) Standley Cultivated Medicine, fence Lepidium sativum L. Cultivated Medicine Myrica salicifolia A. Rich. Non-cultivated Firewood, medicine Nicotiana tabacum L. Non-cultivated Medicine Nigella sativa L. Cultivated Food, medicine Olinia rochetiana A. Juss. Non-cultivated Firewood, agricultural tools, medicine Phytolacca dodecandra L‟Her. Cultivated Washing purpose, medicine Ricinus communis L. Non-cultivated Soil fertility, firewood, medicine, oil, income Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Non-cultivated Medicine Solanum marginatum L.f. Non-cultivated Medicine, fence Stephania abyssinica (Dillon & A. Rich.)Walp. Non-cultivated Medicine Thalictrum rhynchocarpum Dill. & A. Rich. Non-cultivated Medicine Urera hypselodendron (A. Rich.) Wedd Non-cultivated Medicine Verbascum sinaiticum Benth. Non-cultivated Medicine, soil conservation Vernonia amygdalina Del. Cultivated Fodder, alcohol preparation, firewood, fence, bee rearing
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Appendix 11 Use diversity, mode of preparation and consumption of wild edible plants S. Scientific name Family Local name HT EP Mode of preparation Additional uses N 1. 1. Acacia abyssinica Hochst. Fabaceae Grar T Rn The resin is eaten by shepherds Firewood, charcoal, rope, agricultural tools, fence, house construction 2. 2 Acanthus sennii Chiov Acanthaceae Kosheshilie S N The nectar of Acanthus senni is sucked Fence, firewood, fodder 3. 3 Carissa spinarum L. Apocynaceae Agam S F The ripe fruit is eaten Firewood, live and dry fence, medicine, fodder 4. 4 Commelina sp. Commelinaceae Yebere Qolet H R The root is eaten Fodder, soil conservation 5. 5 Cordia africana Lam. Boraginaceae Wanza T F The ripe fruit is eaten Firewood, house construction, fodder, timber, rope, house tools 6. 6 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Poaceae Serdo H St The stem is eaten Soil conservation, fodder 7. 7 Cyperus rigidifolius Steud Cyperaceae Angicha H Sn The ripe stolon is eaten House construction, rope, fodder, medicine, soil conservation 8. 8 Datura stramonium L. Solanaceae Astenagir H N The nectar is sucked Medicine, poison 9. 9 Dovyalis abyssinica (A. Ric- Flacourtiaceae Koshim S F The fresh fruit is eaten Firewood, medicine h.) Warb. 10 Embelia schimperi Vatke Myrsinaceae Enkoko S F By using distillation method dry the fruit of Medicine, firewood this plant then pound it then mix it with malt and Rhamnus prinoides dust then prepare a local Katikalla and drink it or eat simply the fruits 11 Ensete ventricosum (Welw.) Musaceae Enset H F The ripe fruit is eaten Baking materials Cheesman 12 Ferula communis L. Apiaceae Enslal H L Add the leaf of Ferula communis in the Medicine, firewood distilled material and drink it after distillation 13 Ficus sur Forssk. Moraceae Shola T Fi Dry the mature fig on the mother tree by Firewood, house tools, income protecting fruit eating animals especially birds then after the fruits dried up collect the dried fruit and immerse with water then eat 14 Ficus vasta Forssk. Moraceae Warka T Fi The ripe fig is eaten Firewood, house tools 15 Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) Rosaceae Koso T F Add the pounded fruit with a glass of water Firewood, medicine J.F. Gmelin and drink it 16 Mimusops kummel A. DC. Sapotaceae Ishe T F By roasting or the fresh fruit is eaten Firewood, house construction, agricult- ural tools 17 Ocimum urticifolium Roth Lamiaceae Checho S Fl, As spice or the leaf is eaten Medicine, firewood, aesthetical, income L 18 Olea europaea L. subsp.cus- Oleaceae Woira T L, The local alcohol prepared from the leaf of Firewood, fumigation, house tools, house
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pidata (Wall. ex G.Don) Cif. F this plant is drunken, the fruit is eaten construction, agricultural tools 19 Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mi- Cactaceae Beles S F The ripe fruit is eaten by peeling Fence, firewood ller 20 Persicaria nepalensis (Meis- Polygonaceae Lanbut H S The ripe salty taste stem is eaten Fodder n.) Miyabe 21 Rhus glutinosa A. Rich. Anacardiaceae Kamo S/ F The ripe fruit is collected from the tree and Firewood, medicine T eaten 22 Rosa abyssincia Lindley Rosaceae Qega S F The ripe fruit is eaten Fumigation, fence firewood, fodder, wal- king stick 23 Rubus apetalus Poir. Rosaceae Enjori S F The ripe fruit is eaten Firewood, fence, medicine 24 Rumex abyssinicus Jacq. Polygonaceae Mekmeko H R Dry the root then pound it then add with Firewood, dyes butter then it will be added to Wet 25 Rumex nervosus Vahl Polygonaceae Ambacho H St, Young stems are eaten by shepherds Medicine, firewood L 26 Solanum nigrum L. Solanaceae Awut H F The ripe fruit is eaten Medicine 27 Syzygium guineense (Wild.) Myrtaceae Dokma T F The ripe fruit is eaten Firewood, house tools DC. 28 Thymus schimperi Ron. Lamiaceae Tosgn H L Add with tea and drink it Medicine, soil conservation 29 Trifolium schimperi A. Rich. Fabaceae H F The ripe fruit is eaten Fodder, soil conservation 30 Urtica simensis Steudel Urticaceae Sama H L Collect the leaves then remove the spines by Medicine, live fence, rope rubbing it then add in the pot and cooking it then mix it well by using a spoon then add a dust on it and mix then eat it. Vernonia amygdalina Del. Asteraceae Grawa S L Its leaf is used to prepare Tella (local beer) Fodder for bee and cattle, house const- 31 ruction, firewood 32 Ximenia americana L. Olacaceae Enkoy S F The ripe fruit is eaten Fence, medicine, firewood Note: HT = Habits; S = Shrub, T = Tree, H = Herb; EP = Edible Part; F = Fruit; L = Leaf; St = Stem; R = Root; Fl = Flower; N = Nectar; Fi = Fig; Sn = Stolon; Rn = Resin
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DECLARATION
I, undersigned, declare that this dissertation is my original work, it has not been presented in other Universities,
Colleges or institutions, seeking for similar degree or other purposes. All sources of the materials used in the dissertation have been only accordingly acknowledged.
Name Signature Date
Derebe Alemneh ______
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