Rehabilitation of Former Snowy Scheme Sites in Kosciuszko National Park by Elizabeth Macphee and Gabriel Wilks

Home , Geehi Dam, Snowy Mountains, Snowy Mountains Scheme, Tooma River

doi: 10.1111/emr.12067 FEATURE Rehabilitation of former Snowy Scheme sites in Kosciuszko National Park By Elizabeth MacPhee and Gabriel Wilks

Ten years of restoration work at 200 sites within Kosciuszko National Park – sites damaged during the construction of Australias most iconic hydroelectric scheme – is showing substantial progress and is contributing to the protection of the parks internationally signiﬁcant ecosystems.

Key words: alpine ecosystem restoration, conservation management, industrial site remediation, soil stabilisation.

Figure 1. Summer view in Kosciuszko National Park looking from about 1750 m (subalpine zone) to Geehi Dam (at 1100 m). The Snowy Mountains Hydro-Electric Scheme left high historic value, but a legacy of environmental damage at about 400 sites in the park, of which about half have been rehabilitated to date through this ambitious restoration project (The Alpine zone, including Mt Kosciuszko is in the far distance.) (Photograph G. Little).

Heritage List and recognised as an Introduction International Biosphere Reserve Elizabeth MacPhee is Rehabilitation Officer osciuszko National Park (Fig. 1), (UNESCO 2010). with National Parks and Wildlife Service, Office Klocated in the south-eastern corner The Snowy Mountains Hydro-Elec- of Environment and Heritage NSW (PO Box 472, of New South Wales (NSW), contains tric Authority (SMHEA) Scheme, Aus- Tumut, NSW 2720, Australia); Email: elizabeth. alpine and subalpine flora and fauna tralia’s largest industrial project, was [email protected]; Tel: +61 2 communities (Box 1), the continents’ carried out from 1949 to 1974 in the 6947 7076). Gabriel Wilks is Environmental highest mountains, unique glacial area now gazetted as national park. Officer with National Parks and Wildlife Service, landscapes, and rich indigenous and This scheme is listed on Australia’s Office of Environment and Heritage NSW (PO historic cultural values. These features Register of the National Estate for its Box 472, Tumut, NSW 2720, Australia); Email: have contributed to the park being internationally recognised engineer- [email protected]. included on the Australian National ing achievements and its impact on

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Ecological Society of Australia FEATURE

Box 1. Kosciuszko National Park Ecosystems Kosciuszko National Park is one of the largest conservation reserves in Australia, encompassing 673 542 ha of land. It straddles the Great Dividing Range in south-east corner of the Australian mainland and contains the continent’s highest peak, Mt Kosciuszko, at 2228 m. The park contains the headwaters of the Murrumbidgee, Snowy and Murray Rivers; however, 60% of the stream ﬂow in the Park is captured and diverted for the Snowy Scheme and irrigation purposes. Its valued features include exceptional diversity of plant communities and endemic species in alpine vegetation, soils of outstanding scientiﬁc value and a number of threatened fauna species.

Vegetation Three zones, based on altitude, are recognised (Good 1992, McClucki 1927, Costin 1954, 1957): montane zone, subalpine zone and alpine zone.

1 Montane zone consists of steeply sloping land extending from the valley floors and plains (at about 300 m) up to about 1500 m in NSW. At this upper limit, the mean mid-winter temperature is about 0°C, and in mid-winter, snow continuously lies for a month or more. Summers are hot to warm (the latter at higher elevations), and at the lower elevation average rainfall is about 650 mm, increasing to 2200 mm at the higher elevation. Typically in this zone, the summers are warm and the winters are cold. In this zone, many species of eucalyptus and other trees can grow. The zone supports eucalypts and other trees, with broad community types including (i) Woodlands of peppermints, boxes and stringybarks (Eucalyptus spp.), on duplex soil with sharp increases in clay content at about 30 cm in depth. This leads to a hardsetting surface, with subsoils of low soil porosity. (ii) Open forests of peppermints and gums on soils with a gradual increase in clay content with progressively more friable soil with more open structure and increasing acidity. (iii) Tall open forests of Alpine Ash (Eucalyptus delegatensis) and Mountain Gum (Eucalyptus dalrympleana) on soils with uniform texture profiles on soils that are more friable and more acidic, as low as pH 5.0, becoming clay loams or loams at about 1200 m. The steep terrain of the ridges and long upper slopes result in shallow soils, from which material is being removed by natural processes such as soil creep, and in deeper soils on the lower slopes sometimes on collegial gravels which have in filled deep former gullies.

2 Subalpine zone is characteristically high plains or rolling plateaus and occurs between 1350 and 1750 m and is characterised by very low winter temperatures with snow lying on the ground. Cold, wet and often windy conditions can occur at any time of the year, and summers can be warm and dry. The range of trees that can survive is restricted; however, more by the cold and wet low winter temperatures, Snow Gum (Eucalyptus pauciﬂora) is characteristic of this zone. There are two distinctive landscapes with characteristic soils: (i) Snow Gums and heaths on shallow, stony, uniform soils. The understorey species include snow grasses (Poa spp.) and sparse heath plants. The upper slopes also have similar soils, with heath species of Prostanthera, Orites, Grevillea and Phebalium occurring. (ii) Grasslands on deep uniform soils (alpine humus soils or organic loams on the lower slopes of the rolling plateaus. These slopes are characterised by the absence of trees due to cold air drainage patterns, but support open heaths and grasslands.

3 Alpine zone occurs above the treeline where the mean summer temperature is approximately 10°C or less. In NSW, the alpine zone occurs at around 1800 m and supports a suite of significant vegetation communities, including heaths, herbfields, bogs, fens, feldmark and sod tussock grasslands. These communities also have significant biological and hydrological conservation values and support many rare and endemic flora and fauna species. Alpine soils are typically organic humus soils prone to wind and water erosion when exposed. They are typically low in nutrients, but cycle nutrients rapidly resulting in thick vegetation cover where undisturbed. Rocky outcrops are common.

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Australian society from the influx of valleys with spoil rock (Fig. 2), some Protection Authority), NSW Treasury, migrant workers and industrial work- of which has destabilised and washed SMHEA and an independent consul- place developments. The Scheme, downstream in major flood event, tant (CH2M Hill 2000) to determine which evolved into a hydroelectricity causing turbidity and sedimentation the extent of risk of breaching NSW and irrigation complex, was a massive of water which has severely impacted and Commonwealth environmental engineering feat with the construc- aquatic life below the site (Harris legislation. The sites were split into tion of seven power stations, 16 et al. 2006). The erosion events have two categories: those with environ- major water storages and 220 km of also filled natural ponds, blocked or mental issues but unlikely to breach tunnels and aqueducts. diverted streams, and buried riparian legislation were classed as minor In environmental terms, the con- vegetation, creating moist areas open and those with greater potential for struction of the ‘Snowy Scheme’ had to weed invasion such as willows (Sa- breaching legislation were classed as significant negative impacts on the lix spp.) and Scotch Broom (Cytisus major. Of the 35 sites listed as major biota and landscapes of the park as scoparia). Further slips have the sites, 23 were spoil dumps with the well as on the catchments involved. potential to cause greater damage in remainder including quarries, former This included impacts from activities the future unless the sites are fully townships and landfill sites. Minor such as water diversion from rivers stabilised. sites were generally snow courses, and streams; the cutting and clearing Prior to corporatisation of the communications lines, storage of roads and construction sites SMHEA in 2002, relevant agencies depots, temporary camps and town- through sensitive areas such as sphag- agreed that it was necessary to deter- ships, power lines and stream gaug- num bogs and steep unstable coun- mine the extent of environmental ing stations. try; and the use of introduced plants liabilities on sites within Kosciuszko CH2M Hill was then engaged to fur- to stabilise eroding soils (Costin National Park that were no longer ther assess and develop a concept 1958). One impact that has been per- required as part of management of plan for each major site. Each plan haps less well documented is the the Snowy Scheme. Between 1998 identified the natural and cultural her- dumping of large volumes of rock and 2000, approximately 400 former itage values of the site and current following underground blasting of Snowy Scheme sites within the park issues at each site including site stabil- tunnels and the cutting of benches (Fig. 3) were assessed by National ity, flora and fauna, weed invasion, for aqueduct pipelines in a range of Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS), hydrology and water quality, solid locations across the park. This has other natural resources state agencies waste, visual amenity, heritage values resulted in the filling of a number of (including the NSW Environmental and management logistic issues. The

Box 1. Continued Fauna The park provides habitat for a diversity of mammals, birds, reptiles, frogs and invertebrate fauna. Among the mammals, there is only one species, the Mountain Pygmy Possum (Burramys parvus), which is today confined to the mountains of south-eastern Australia and only occurs above 1200 m. Another small mammal species, the Broad-toothed Rat (Mastacomys fuscus) is presently found in two widely separated areas in NSW (the Barrington Tops region and Snowy Mountains region). Among the birds, there are no species confined to the mountains. However, of the 60 species recorded living above 500 m, there are only 12 species that are year-round residents in the Snowy Mountains. These include owls, kingfishers, warblers and wood swallows. Terrestrial vertebrate wildlife is usually scarce in alpine regions. However, the wildlife of the Snowy Mountains and Victorian Alps is comparatively rich with eight frogs, two snakes and 12 lizards, all but one of which are skinks. Endemic skink species include the Alpine Water Skink (Eulamprus kosciuskoi), the Guthega Skink (Liopholus guthega) and the Alpine Oak Skink (Cyclodomorphus praealtus). Three frog species, the Southern Corroboree Frog (Pseudophryne corroboree), Northern Corroboree Frog (Pseudophryne pengilleyi) and the Baw Baw Frog (Philoria frosti) and two subspecies, the Alpine Tree Frog (Litoria verreauxii alpina) and the Snowy Mountains Banjo Frog (Limnodynastes dumerili fryi), are found only in snow-country areas. The majority of endemic species occur in the invertebrate group: swift moths, stoneflies, cockroaches and particularly the grasshoppers of the genus Kosciuscola are specific to the Australian Alps. [Fauna information for this box was drawn from Green and Osborne (2012) and DEC (2006).]

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Snowy Scheme Sites – and $7 M to fund the minor former sites. The difference in funding was agreed to be addressed by further risk assessment, and accepting sites would not be fully restored to their pre-existing landforms, but stabilised with functional locally native vegetation communities, achieving restoration standards to the highest standard feasible. This article focuses on reporting results of site reshaping and revegetation works that have been conducted on reshaped rock spoil and dump sites within the last 10 years – comprising a major part of the For- mer Snowy Scheme Sites Restoration Project. The objectives of the works have been to address a range of issues at the sites to achieve the twofold aim of reducing environmental risks (including further erosion) and reinstating self- perpetuating indigenous plant communities on the sites. Former Snowy Scheme Sites Restoration Project Figure 2. Distribution of the Former Snowy Scheme Sites within Kosciuszko National Park as The ‘Restoration of Former Snowy surveyed by CH2M Hill. The survey informed the agreement between NPWS and SHL to fund and Scheme Sites Project’ (the Project) implement the Former Snowy Scheme Rehabilitation programme (Map courtesy NPWS Tumut). commenced in 2003. One of the major challenges facing the team at plan also provided conceptual restora- As a result of the assessment pro- the start of the project was the tion measures to treat the causes and cess, in 2002, the newly corporatised absence of procedures and tech- addresses these impacts, including Snowy Hydro Limited (SHL) and niques for ecological restoration an estimate of cost. A total of $78 mil- NSW NPWS signed a deed whereby works on very steep, high-altitude lion was estimated to implement the SHL agreed to contribute a total of sites virtually devoid of soil and agreed restoration objectives at these $25 M to fund the restoration, man- organic matter – the conditions found major sites. aged by NPWS, of the major Former at spoil dumps (Box 2, Fig. 2).

Box 2. Issues at Most of the Sites Requiring Major Works

Unconsolidated rock dumped in steep valleys and hill slopes, with rock sitting at the material angle of repose (1–1.5) pre- senting instability factors (i.e. only marginally stable) (Sinclair Knight Merz 2013). Continual movement of outer slope faces due to steepness, lack of a soil cover and organic matter, and vegetation, to the extent that, over 50 years, little vegetation has been able to establish itself on these unstable surfaces. A requirement for the ﬁnal landform to be safely traversable by personnel for revegetation work. Many of the sites, particularly the large spoil dumps, were located in steep valleys where creeks were either located adja- cent to the sites or ran through the sites. This posed a serious problem to the overall stability of the sites.

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Previous efforts at soil stabilisation hydroelectric scheme (McDougall At the commencement of the cur- and revegetation after the removal of 2001). Good natural recovery has rent project, therefore, no successful grazing and/or wildfire at high-alti- been noted in sites on relatively gen- examples existed of revegetation of a tude sites in the park by the NSW Soil tle slopes, although this has been former Snowy site that was predomi- Conservation Service involved sites slow (McDougall 2005). nantly rock spoil, devoid of topsoil with considerable amounts of topsoil The SMHEA soil conservation and bare for over 50 years. The resto- and some natural vegetation present branch also undertook some revegeta- ration team was faced with the chal- (Clothier & Condon 1968; Good tion works on roadside batters and lenge of developing new techniques 1976, 1992, 1999). In these areas, some steep sites in the early years of and procedures, drawing on some cultivation, sowing with an exotic construction of the Snowy Scheme. specialist advice and a limited soil con- stabilising ‘crop’, mulching and sub- The techniques for these sites servation and ecological restoration sequent oversowing or planting of included the installation of batter literature for exposed sites (e.g. native species was the basic berms and planting with advanced Houghton & Charman 1986; Allen approach. Much was learnt from this willows, poplars (Populus spp.) and 1988; Berger 1990; Tongway & Lud- extended programme, particularly in Scotch Broom that are now environ- wig 1990.) The specific methods terms of mulching rates, soil temper- mental weeds within the park (Good developed were continually updated ature regimes, native seed germina- 1999). Unfortunately, this work pro- and refined as more was learned about tion and application rates, and the vided limited guidelines to the restora- the ecological requirements of local restoration of peat swamp ecosys- tion of the former Snowy Scheme ecosystems and specific sites, largely tems (Good 1999). Some erosion con- construction sites, although work by through the monitoring of success trol works had also been undertaken Carr et al. (1980), Johnson (1987) and/or failure on each of the sites. in similar high country in the Victo- and MacPhee (1998) recognised the To achieve success, it was clear rian Alps after disturbances associ- use of native shrub species in subal- that a multidisciplinary team was ated with ski slopes, roads and the pine area restoration works. needed that contained engineering, environmental assessment, high- altitude plant establishment and administrative expertise. A Rehabilita- tion Officer, an Environmental Officer and an Engineer formed the team – along with administrative support and field staff with specialist skills in remote area nursery and irrigation establishment and site-specific compost production. Skilled contractors are also engaged for geotechnical design, earthworks, large-scale/steep planting, fauna surveys, weed control in difficult terrain and seed collection. Without pre-existing models, it was necessary to develop ecological restoration techniques by undertaking trials on the sites themselves. In 2005, earthworks and revegetation trials were conducted at the T2 Dog- leg site (Fig. 4), a former rock crushing site used for concrete making for the Tumut 2 Power Station Dam wall. This site was selected as it pre- sented a number of stability, weed and pest animal problems that were Figure 3. Happy Jacks Spoil Dump 1, in which over 970 000 m3 rock spoil was dumped both common to many of the former – sides of the Tumut River, is another of the 35 major sites that has now been subject to rehabili- Snowy Scheme sites with a view tation earthworks and planting. Its condition prior to treatment, pictured here, illustrates the envi- to developing a suite of techniques ronmental risk associated with the filling of valleys with spoil rock, which can be further washed and protocols that could be applied down by streams or even block or divert the streams themselves (Photograph Regina Roach). at other sites.

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(a) patches of native vegetation were methodically checked by volunteers. Each blackberry cane was cut and painted. This resulted in a neat and accessible site, but with a rock spoil and subsoil surface with a north-wes- terly aspect. After lengthy planning and consulta- tion with all stakeholders, the site was revegetated using a range of different techniques including a range of planting densities and hole sizes for a diverse plant species, along with the use of slow-release fertilisers, prewet water crystals and straw mulch (b) (Appendix S1). Over 85 000 tubestock were planted. Direct seeding of native plants was also trialled, along with seeding with a sterile Rye Corn cover crop. ‘Log ladders’ were installed to create terraces (to slow water and accumulate soil and any dispersing seed, Tongway & Ludwig 2006) and to assist with access for the planters working on very steep slopes (Fig. 5). Vegetation survival rates and establishment rates were subsequently assessed for each differently treated area. The limitations and successes for each treatment are tabulated in – Figure 4. T2 Dogleg site was used to trial approaches to site remediation. In 2005 2006, the Appendix S1. Greater than 95% sur- site was reshaped, metal removed and earthworks undertaken. A range of trial techniques includ- vival of seedlings occurred when ing use of sediment mats, straw and compost were applied prior to planting 85 000 plants. (a) T2 dogleg just after earthworks and prior to soil preparation and planting and (b) same site 5 years using small planting holes, while large < after planting. The site is starting to integrate with the surrounding environment and is demonstrat- planting holes resulted in 50% sur- ing ecosystem function with natural recruitment of species (Photographs NPWS Tumut). vival, largely due to the holes collapsing in over time and crushing the seedlings. Planting centres of 1–2m Initial Trial Site objectives were to achieve site stabil- proved most successful, while direct ity and then reinstate a framework of seeding failed in the inhospitable envi- T2 Dogleg techniques pilot native plant species selected from ronment. The log ladders and cover project those occurring in the surrounding crop improved soil stability and The rock spoil dump at T2 Dogleg vegetation. The aim was for a vegeta- biological activity. site, located on the Elliott Way adja- tion community that could integrate cent to the Tumut 2 Power station visually into the surrounding natural on the Tumut River, has an altitude landscape and be colonised by addi- Standard Techniques and of about 750 m, an area of about tional species over time. Procedures Applied to 12 ha and an average slope of about Works commenced with reshaping Other Sites 35 degrees. The range of issues pre- of the site using standard bench/ Adaptive management and sented included issues of stability, batter techniques (Fig. 4a). Machinery monitoring access, weed control, pest animal completing the earthworks was also control, lack of topsoil, protection of used to bury relatively benign waste The results of the Dogleg T2 trial remaining native vegetation and artiﬁ- such as steel and to remove large trea- were used to inform a set of tech- cial bat habitat. The site was heavily ted Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus) niques then applied to other sites – burnt in 2003, which exposed much bushes. Willows were cut down, poi- with reﬁnements then made on an of the waste and site instability. The soned and chipped, and the remnant ongoing basis. Further lessons were

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anticipated water flows across site, and installing run-off control struc- tures if required. The Rehabilitation Officer then undertakes detailed assessments of the weeds and natives on site to develop planting lists and substrate preparation specifications to ensure the works are specifically tailored to conditions at each site.

Erosion and sediment control Where possible, sites are reshaped to achieve the standard of 2:1 (H:V) slope ratios, with access benches Figure 5. Planting into compost-filled holes at Bourkes Gorge #2 site. Site preparation involv- ing surface shaping and creating permeable and fertile microniches is a key to successful plant and log ladders constructed as establishment. Engaging local contractors is also important. Over 200 000 work days for local required. The three main erosion contractors has been generated by the project, which has created substantial benefits to local and sediment control methods for sur- communities (Photo NPWS Tumut). face stabilisation are as follows: covering the site with organic matter (chip mulch and straw), the construction of to be derived from both informal and and shrub tubestock are included. cross drains and covering with jute formal monitoring including the fol- Woody debris are measured in matting. Standard geotextile sediment lowing. a smaller area within the fencing is temporarily installed to 20 9 20 m quadrat, and the results catch any soil, small rocks or soil fines 1 Informal photomonitoring and are extrapolated to the 20 9 20 m disturbed during earthworks and is inspection of each site by the resto- quadrat. At each site, a photograph removed once seedlings are estab- ration team is carried out through- is taken along the transect from lished and the site is stable. Supported out the year to monitor for each end (Greening Australia by stakes, the base of the sediment weeds, planting success and site 2012). fencing is dug in and secured with stability; rocks, pins and straw bales. Cross 2 Formal monitoring is carried out by Site assessment drains, manually constructed or by a personnel from Greening Australia small excavator, act as small collec- At major sites, the concept plan pre- Capital Region at eight key plant- tion areas for water, soil, seed and pared by CH2M Hill provides a basis ing sites against a benchmark of any other biota and promote the for undertaking further assessment remnant vegetation at each site. movement of water through the rock and developing the rehabilitation Site recordings were not under- slope rather than over the top of it. design. Prior to scheduling specific taken prior to works; however, site Jute matting is used on larger areas works, the Environmental Officer photography attests to the fact that such as spoil dump slopes or sloping undertakes a review of environmental all the sites were basically rubble batters to prevent erosion and soil factors, drawing on specialist exper- prior to treatment, with some natu- loss. However, rice straw is the most tise for fauna surveys. These surveys ral regeneration and various levels commonly used material to prevent are based on structured transect of weed infestation occurring on erosion of the spoil and any remnant observations, surveys using Elliot the smaller sites. soil where soil exists. traps and harp nets, playback, and The formal postrehabilitation mon- audio and camera recordings. Soil Selection of species for itoring uses an adapted BioMetric and water samples are taken where planting (DECCW 2011) methodology, required to identify whether any con- recording data along permanent tamination occurs on the site and to A formal flora survey of 25 selected 50-m transects and in a assist with managing plant health at former Snowy Scheme sites listed 20 9 20 m quadrat at each site. planting time. If significant earth- the most common indigenous colonis- On small sites, shorter transects works are required, the Project Engi- ers across the sites as candidates for are used. All plant species are neer manages the surveying work the revegetation works (Duncan & counted, regardless of height, to and development of geotechnical Gillies 2000). These species included ensure that recently planted tree design, detailing and catering for Burgan (Kunzea ericoides), Small-

ª 2013 Ecological Society of Australia ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 14 NO 3 SEPTEMBER 2013 165 FEATURE fruit Hakea (Hakea microcarpa), Sil- All plant propagules are collected For alpine species, about 5% of the ver Wattle (Acacia dealbata), Black- under a scientific collection licence, volume of the growing medium is wood (Acacia melanoxylon), and collection is consistent with the made up of local soil to ensure rein- Common Cassinia (Cassinia longifoli- Guidelines for the Translocation of troduction of soil microflora to the a) and Native Raspberry (Rubus par- Threatened Plants in Australia (Austra- site. Aged compost and wetted water vifolius). Standard procedure during lian Network for Plant Conservation crystals are also incorporated into the planning phase for restoration 2006). Two years in advance of the the hole at the time of planting works at each site, however, includes works, seed and cutting material are (Fig. 5), with watering-in occurring a site inspection and preparation list collected (by the Restoration Team at that time with subsequent watering of species only occurring at that par- and contractors) from the actual site applied as required. ticular site – from which a much to be revegetated. The timing for seed Compost, mulch thatch wider planting list is complied. This and cutting collection and pretreat- and litter cover considers the need to include species ments for seed of a range of shrubs from each stratum; the dominant spe- species follows MacPhee (1998). Compost provides the planting med- cies in the surrounding vegetation; Some species (such as Dianella ium for tubestock planted into rock colonisers occurring locally; the feasi- spp.) are also salvaged from the site spoil, to mitigate the lack of organic bility of commercial propagule collec- prior to earthworks and used as prop- material at most construction sites tion and propagation; and tolerance agation stock. and spoil dumps. This is produced to exposure and relative vulnerability Plants are grown by local nurseries locally, using old decomposing saw- to herbivory. under contract. Nursery stock is dust stockpiled at regional sawmills The use of colonising shrubs is a required to be in prime condition at that once milled Alpine Ash (E. dele- now standard approach in the revege- the time of planting, well hardened gatensis). The compost is designed tation of some alpine and subalpine off, weed and pathogen free, and to meet the requirements of montane ecological communities (Johnson grown in an appropriate potting med- and subalpine native species, using 1987; Carr et al. 1980; MacPhee ium to avoid excessive drying and principles outlined in Handreck 1998). Some commonly occurring col- prolonged saturation. Most trees and (1996) (Fig. 6); that is, dolomite is onising shrubs are readily propagated, grasses to date have been grown in added to the highly acidic sawdust including Mountain Hovea (Hovea forestry tubes. Many alpine shrub spe- to adjust it to pH 5.5–6, with some montana), Common Shaggy Pea cies, however, have strongly branch- woodchip added. Nitrogen is added (Oxylobium ellipticum) and Alpine ing lateral roots and are better suited in the form of urea. As the compost Shaggy Pea (Podolobium alpestre), to grow in 7.5-cm round pots. Smaller is low in phosphorus and potassium, while Pimelea ligustrina is difficult pots are occasionally used, but larger a slow-release fertiliser is used at to propagate from seed or cuttings. tubestock is desirable as seedlings planting. Other common colonising species are more likely to cope with trans- Native grass straw from the Yarran- such as Leafy Bossiaea (Bossiaea foli- plant shock. gobilly Native Seed and Straw Farm, osa) can be propagated, but often fail to thrive in planted situations – most likely due to specific microorganism requirements that are not present in a highly degraded environment. Sourcing plant material and planting Most of the native grass seed used in the project is produced at the Yarran- gobilly Native Seed and Straw Farm (see www.emrprojectsummaries.org/ 2013/08/17/). This production area was specifically developed to provide suitable high-altitude native grass seed and straw for the revegetation work, irrigated by grey water generated by the nearby Yarrangobilly Caves waste- Figure 6. Compost used in the revegetation works is prepared for the project, based on aged water treatment plant. waste fortuitously remaining from decommissioned regional sawmills.

166 ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 14 NO 3 SEPTEMBER 2013 ª 2013 Ecological Society of Australia FEATURE along with rice straw, has also proven inhibiting native vegetation. The to be very effective in addressing the earthwork stage is used to bury some woody Coarse lack of organic matter on sites, modi- weedy substrates, and weed control debris (m) fying surface temperature for young is also carried out at all sites accord-

plant survival and reducing competi- ing to the Noxious and Environmen- 10 cm < dbh

tion by weeds. As the straw is the tal Weed Control Handbook Woody

source from a very different environ- (Department of Agriculture NSW Stems ment, the weed risk in high-altitude 2005). sites is considered to be negligible. The main weeds of concern on the

Small tree limbs and cut vegetation sites include Browntop Bent Grass native sp Number of (thatch) are also applied to create hab- (Agrostis capillaris), St Johns Wort itat and microclimates, reducing wind (Hypericum perforatum), black- velocity across bare rock surfaces and berry (R. fruticosus), Viper’s Bugloss exotic sp holding straw and mulch in place. (Echium vulgare) and Grey Sallow Number of The thatch used in the project is Willow (Salix cinerea). In addition, sourced locally from vegetation con- the project includes control of weeds Debris trol activities occurring along roads, of concern in the vicinity of sites,

ﬁre trails and power line easements including weeds subject to park-wide Rock Woody in the park. control programmes Scotch Broom (Cytisus scoparius) and Orange Protection from herbivore ground Hawkweed (Hieracium aurantia- browsing cum). Litter Bare Most plants need protection from browsing until well established. The + nat ex gd cover

Works at Other Sites and Sum of main herbivores are wallabies (Macr- Their Results to Date opus spp.), Eastern Grey Kangaroo % Cover forbs (Macropus giganteus), Wombat Over the last 8 years, over 200 sites Exotic (Vombatus ursinus), European Rabbit in the park have had restoration (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and Brown works applied to them, using the Exotic grasses Hare (Lepus capensis). Generally the techniques described above, with perennial sites are fenced or plastic mesh tree over 100 sites still to have their envi- guards used around seedlings until ronmental liabilities addressed. Over Exotic annual they are established. Browsing deter- 1 million native plants have been grasses rents such as egg powder and iron ﬁl- established as part of the Former cover native ground ings, as well as ultrasonic sound Snowy Scheme Sites programme to Sum of systems, have been trialled. After many date (Table 1), at a total expenditure forbs

years of protecting seedlings from graz- of approximately $18 M. Native ing in the park, however, a fence or Plant establishment rate has well-constructed tree guards have exceeded 90% across the 200 sites Native shrubs been found to be the most effective in the ﬁrst year, a result that has rein- ground techniques in controlling browsing forced the value of the high level of Native and grazing. site preparation undertaken. Levels grasses of plant cover have increased over Weed management

time, with very satisfactory levels of mid- storey The vegetation survey conducted by vegetation development by both Native Duncan and Gillies (2000) found that woody and herbaceous native spe- over- storey weed at the sites ranged from minor cies across the vast majority of sites. Native to high infestations. The report rec- As the initial application of mulch 5050 25 22 050 5635 0 050 58 0 2 7.5 50 4.3 0 2 18 164 29 5 2 20 6 17 12 8 22 0 42 2 30 0 46 2 6 0 0 0 178 56 96 0 0 0 0 0 22 0 14 0 0 80 30 46 6 10 0 52 77 10 76 2 33 0 86 2 52 23 6 10 8 15 1 6 11 1120 7 4 18 17.5 3 16 13 425 990 9 190 230 530 875 75 109 ommended that major consideration decomposes, it is expected that it (m) transect be given to the reduction or elimina- will be replaced by litterfall from Length of tion of all introduced species at the the growing revegetation, and it is sites due to the likelihood of the weed hoped that this will occur prior to Summary of vegetation attributes for each site invading neighbouring native vegeta- the breakdown of the applied mulch tion, spreading along waterways and and woody debris. Table 1. Control (Nungar Quarry) Bourke’s GorgeJindabyne Valve House Nungar 40Pipers CreekSnowy Adit 2008, inside exclosure Sue City, outside 0exclosure 36T2 DoglegTumut 50 Pond 1.3Hairpin 0 7.5 0 50 3 20 0 25 11 7.5 0 27.5 35 19 2 2 11 0 20 14 41 0 2 22 0 0 88 18 31 35 12 16 50 75 22 2 122 0 148 86 18 32.5 74 5 0 50 4 68 0 19 2 0 6 0 28 2 21 0 25 1510 11 13 14 82.5 912 13 248 0 640 14 105 Site

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While vegetation establishment can- Some 260 tonnes of waste steel these events. Vegetation monitor- not guarantee stability of steep slopes was salvaged from the site and ing since that time has proven out- alone, extremely low levels of rilling sold, netting $61 K that was rein- standing survival and growth rates and subsidence have occurred on vested in the project. The site of over 19 site-native species, with reshaped batters to date, despite some was reshaped to create linked an average of over 35% cover in 100-year rainfall events, attesting to the dams, planted with 110 000 tube- the monitored plots within 1 year appropriateness of the engineering stock of 11 species in three stages (See Fig. 7 and www.emrproject standards adopted. There is no doubt and mulched with straw. After high summaries.org/2013/08/22/). that the revegetation has contributed initial browsing by wallabies, part 3 Jindabyne Valve House: This to surface stabilisation, and it can be of the site was fenced, resulting required major earthworks, which expected that the deeper root systems in almost 100% plant establishment commenced in May 2010 and were of larger species such as Eucalyptus success. Monitoring found 30% completed in July 2010. Some can be expected to improve overall native plant cover in the ground 35 000 tubestock were planted in site stability over time. stratum with 7.5% cover of Ribbon 2010–2011. Observations 3 years An initial indicator that the goal of Gum at mid-storey height and very after treatment showed that about restoring self-perpetuating vegetation few exotic species. 80% of all seedlings survived. Due communities is commencing is the 2 Bourkes Gorge Spoil Dump # 2: to the steepness of the site, it was occurrence of natural colonisation in This spoil dump containing some impractical to fence it, and grazing the microsites created by the applica- 300 000 m3 of rock was reshaped of seedlings by Eastern Grey Kanga- tion of thatch and log ladders at a for stability, accessibility and safe roos and wallabies occurred, number of sites. These represent a water movement across the site in which has restricted some plant range of growth forms including trees 2009–2010. Slope angles were development. Overall the site is (particularly Ribbon Gum, Eucalyptus reduced from around 38° to well on the way to recovery and viminalis), shrubs (Silver Wattle and between 26° and 30°. It was will be mulched with woodchips Leptospermum obovatum) and a planted with 50 000 tubestock in in November 2013 to increase the range of grasses and forbs. These 2010–2011 and had specific man- litter levels on the site (See www. include some species that have been agement practices applied to mini- emrprojectsummaries.org/2013/08/ sown as well as some unsown spe- mise the impact on potentially 20/). cies. Many of the sites are now being present threatened species. In the visited by fauna including Lyre Bird 4 Khancoban Tip: This former tip 3 years since the works, there have (Menura novaehollandiae), Wom- and spoil dump contained tunnel been two major (>100-year inten- bat, Red-necked Wallaby (Macropus spoil from the Murray 1 and Murray sity rainfall) events in the region, rufogriseus), Swamp Wallaby (Walla- 2 Power Station developments and but there has been no evidence of bia bicolor), Eastern Brown Snake had also been subjected to erosion or slumping following (Pseudonaja textilis) and Tiger Snake (Notechis scutatus). Major works at the following four sites are briefly summarised as examples of the results currently being achieved, with more data and photographs of two of these cases provided at www.emrprojectsummaries.org. 1 Snowy Adit: This is a large rehabilitation site in the Snowy River valley. A stockpile of millions of tonnes of rock spoil from the Island Bend-Geehi tunnel (measur- ing 1000 m by 400 m) was reshaped in 2008 and revegetation works completed in 2011. The site had relatively high cover levels of Figure 7. Rehabilitation Officer Liz McPhee is pictured at Bourke’s Spoil Dump #2, where weed prior to treatment, including monitoring has shown outstanding survival and growth rates within 1 year, with 19 native species St Johns Wort, Vipers Bugloss and establishing, all sourced from the surrounding vegetation. Other native species are now colonis- Bokhara Clover (Melilotus albus). ing (Photograph NPWS Tumut).

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100 years of grazing. At a lower due to the rapid growth of a dense (m) debris woody

elevation than many of the other Coarse mid-storey and overstorey. locations, the site had a well-estab- Litter cover at the monitored sites lished weed population and popu- varied from 52% to 86%. The amount dbh 10cm Stems < lations of feral animals. In 2010, Woody of coarse woody debris was within a the sites were reshaped and the satisfactory level, with most sites hav- tip capped with a clay liner. In ing levels well above that of the refer- exotic sp

2011, the site was ripped and Number of ence site (17.5 m). planted with 30 000 tubestock Exotic species (grasses and forbs) (conﬁned to grasses at the tip site). were generally a greater component Observations 2 years after treat- of the older sites than the younger native sp ment show that the seedlings have Number of ones. It is not clear whether this is a established very well and growth function of time since restoration or

rates have exceeded expectations. Debris whether it is due to cleaner, more sterile substrates on the more recent

Observations from formal Rock Woody sites. The two high-altitude sites monitoring (Data in this located in Snow Gum (E. pauciﬂora) section derived from woodland (Pipers Creek and Nungar Greening Australia 2012) ground Quarry) are particularly high in exotic species cover. Again, it was not evi-

Quadrat and transect data collected at Litter Bare dent whether this is because of the eight of the revegetated sites in April–

+ earlier restoration methods or the May 2012 show that the results at that exgd nat cover presence and type of exotic species date varied depending on the age of Sum of in the area around these sites. the restoration work and various site- forbs speciﬁc factors such as altitude, slope, Exotic vegetation type and herbivore grazing % Cover Other Outcomes pressures (Table 2). Twenty comprehensive fauna surveys Exotic

– grasses A range of 11 25 native plant spe- perennial have been completed as part of the cies had been established at the eight project. Few sites had been surveyed, sites. At most sites, the greater propor- and hence, little data were available Exotic annual tion were shrub species; however, at grasses from any previous surveys. The 20 sur- the two high-altitude sites, naturally veys carried out have added over 1200 regenerating native forbs made up cover native ground Sum of species locations to the Wildlife Atlas the majority of species. The number database for Kosciuszko National of woody stems (shrubs and tree sap- Park, including 63 sites for threatened forbs lings) ranged from 230 to 1510 per Native species. Approximately 360 individual plot, with only one site (Bourke’s threatened species records have been Gorge #2, Fig. 7) with a higher number Native shrubs ground added to the database. These ﬁgures of stems than the reference site (1120). do not include the extensive annual Native plant cover at the eight res- recording and radiotracking of Moun- Native toration sites varied with stratum. grasses tain Pygmy Possum (B. parvus)at Between 18% and 56% cover was Happy Jacks that has occurred since achieved in the ground stratum (0– mid- storey

Native the initial discovery of two individuals 1 m height). Some native plants had (Schultz et al. 2012). Three surveys grown to mid-stratum height at six of recorded multiple individuals of the overstorey the sites, with the exceptions being Native recently described Tan-backed Rock the two higher-altitude sites (Pipers Skink (Liophilis montana) for which Creek and Nungar Quarry). At the old- 5050 25 2250 035 56 0 050 0 58 2 7.5 50 0 4.3 2 18 29 164 5 20 2 17 12 6 8 22 0 42 2 30 0 2 46 6 0 0 0 56 178 0 96 0 0 0 0 0 22 14 0 80 0 30 6 46 10 52 0 77 76 10 2 33 86 0 2 52 23 6 10 8 15 1 6 1120 11 4 18 7 17.5 3 16 425 13 190 990 230 9 530 75 875 109 (m) minimal data are available on its transect est (7-year-old) T2 Dogleg site, per- Length of occurrence, with only one previous centage cover in both upper and record existing for the park. mid-stratum had developed to levels Summary of vegetation attributes for each site The project is also playing a similar to that of the reference site key role in supporting the ongoing (Fig. 4b). This site, however, had the park-wide programme to remove sig- lowest native ground layer, perhaps Bourke’s GorgeJindabyne Valve House NungarPipers 40 CreekSnowy Adit 2008, inside exclosure Sue City, outside exclosure 0T2 36 DoglegTumut Pond 50Hairpin 1.3 0 7.5 0 50 3 20 0 25 11 7.5 0 27.5 19 35 2 2 11 0 14 20 41 0 2 22 0 88 18 0 31 12 35 16 50 75 22 2 122 0 148 18 86 32.5 74 50 0 5 4 68 0 19 2 6 0 0 28 2 21 0 25 1510 11 82.5 13 14 912 13 248 0 14 640 105 Table 2. Site Control (Nungar Quarry) niﬁcant weeds within the park, includ-

ª 2013 Ecological Society of Australia ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 14 NO 3 SEPTEMBER 2013 169 FEATURE ing Scotch Broom in the upper Snowy frog species both in the park and has undertaken landform stabilisa- River Catchment, exotic trees on further afield. tion, stream channel stabilisation Guthega Road and willows (Salix and revegetation works at over 200 2 The standards and guidelines devel- spp.) in the upper Murrumbidgee sites. It is clear that the sites, many oped within this project are cur- and Tumut Rivers. It is also making a which were unstable and located in rently being revised for application significant contribution to the Orange gullies affecting downstream water- to all restoration and revegetation Hawkweed (Hieracium auranta- courses, now have limited potential work within National Parks in cum) Program, an emerging weed of for sedimentation and contamination NSW and other parks within the significance that has destroyed many discharge into waterways. The risk Australian Alps. Our ambition is to native ecosystems in New Zealand. of spoil collapsing into streams has see the restoration standards devel- A series of training and site inspec- been greatly decreased, and previous oped within this project, applied tions have also taken place to inform surface stream flow has been rein- to all protected natural areas in the and educate NPWS staff, SHL staff stated through reshaping some creek parks estate so that native vegeta- and community volunteers on the res- lines, with riparian vegetation tion and restoration is incorporated toration programme. Specifically this planted on the new banks. Over in every planning stage, and to opti- has included conducting site tours 900 000 plants have been success- mise potential for all development for Landcare Nursery volunteers, fully established on the sites, includ- proposals to include budget alloca- NPWS staff and Utilities (SHL, Trans- ing on 18 major sites previously tion for restoration. grid), as well as Site Restoration bare for 40 years. Courses for NPWS staff. 3 Development of a ‘green card’ Efforts have been made to match Standards have been developed in Accreditation system ensures land plant species to the main species in this project covering erosion control, managers and construction work- the local species pool, although differ- tubestock management, species selec- ers are trained in protecting ences are inevitable due to the chan- tion, contractor planting standards environmental values when devel- ged nature of the landforms and and maintenance requirements and opments are occurring. In NSW, substrates. It is anticipated that func- are embedded in contract documents all construction workers must have tional, locally native vegetation com- and management plans. a white card for safety and comply munities will develop on the sites, In addition, a ‘Green Book’ field with the ‘Blue Book’ for erosion reducing the vulnerability of sur- guide has been published, drawn and water controls. A green card rounding vegetation to weed inva- from the lessons learned throughout will ensure everyone from manag- sion. Already, recruitment and the project (MacPhee 2013). This field ers to site workers understand colonisation of trees, shrubs and guide covers goals, restoration stan- and take responsibility for the ground covers is occurring on most dards, planting lists, principles and long-term impacts of disturbance sites – an early indication that condi- techniques that can be interpreted at works and comply with set vegeta- tions are likely to be suitable for each site by skilled officers. tion protection standards. recruitment of other species over time. Further study of the sites’ levels 4 Restoration of large and high-risk of similarity or difference to locally Looking Forward Former Snowy Scheme Sites in occurring communities over time will the Happy Jacks and Tumut valley. The programme is scheduled to run for help park managers continue to opti- another 9 years, drawing to a close in 5 Design of Mountain Pygmy Possum mise restoration outcomes. Such 2022. The Restoration of Former habitat including artificial boulder- study will also contribute to the body Snowy Sites Project team still has many fields within restoration projects of knowledge on the degree to which new challenges ahead to address. The (See Schultz et al. 2012). restoration is possible or not on following projects are already in the highly modified sites. 6 Installation of interpretative panels initial stages of development. We believe that the work demon- and ‘apps’ that convey the cultural strates that, even in these extreme 1 Construction of critically endan- values and history of sites and the conditions, long-term commitment, gered frog breeding habitats within restoration achievements. secure funding and skilled staff can restoration areas, providing pools combine to achieve a promising eco- for the reintroduction of these logical restoration result. These frogs across the park that has com- Is the Work Making a results should encourage people menced and will run for 5– Difference? working in less extreme sites, to strive 10 years. If successful, the tech- to solve problems with careful, niques developed will have impli- Over the 10 years since the project informed and determined effort. cations for survival of riverine commenced, the restoration team

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DEC (2006) Kosciuszko National Park Plan of species (Masters Thesis). University of Mel- Acknowledgements Management 2006. Department of Environ- bourne, Melbourne, Vic. ment and Conservation, Sydney, NSW. MacPhee E. (2013) Rehabilitation Field Guide. Thanks are extended to the restora- DECCW (2011) Operational Manual for BioMet- Australian Alpine Liaison Committee, Tumut tion team at Kosciuszko National ric 3.1. Department of Environment, Climate NSW. Park, including the many contractors Change and Water, Sydney, NSW. McClucki J. (1927) “The vegetation of Kosciusko Department of Agriculture (2005) Noxious and Plateau, Part 1 The plant communities”. Pro- who participated. We also thank Environmental Weed Control Handbook. ceedings of the Linnean Society New South Nicki Taws and Angela Calliess NSW Government, Sydney, NSW. Wales 52, 187–221. (Greening Australia Capital Region) Duncan A. and Gillies C. (2000) Botanical survey McDougall K. L. (2001) Colonization by alpine of former SMA sites: Survey and report. native plants of a stabilized road verge on who undertook the formal vegeta- Reserve Conservation Unit, NPWS, Tumut, the Bogong High Plains, Victoria. Ecological tion monitoring and who have per- NSW. Management & Restoration 2,47–52. mitted their data to be cited in this Good R. B. (1976) Contrived regeneration of McDougall K. L. (2005) Recovery of an eroding alpine herbfields. Proceedings of the AN- peat surface on the Bogong High Plains, Vic- article. ZAAS Congress. Hobart, Tas. 1–13. toria. Ecological Management & Restoration Good R. B. (1992) Kosciusko Heritage. The Con- 6, 217–219. servation Significance of Kosciusko National Schultz M., Wilks G. and Broome L. (2012) Occu- References Park. NPWS and Surrey Beatty and Sons, pancy of spoil dumps by the Mountain Pygmy- Chipping Norton. possum Burramys parvus in Kosciuszko Allen E. B. (ed.) (1988) The Reconstruction of dis- Good R. B. (1999) Rehabilitation and revegetation National Park. Ecological Management & turbed Arid Lands. An Ecological Approach. of the Kosciuszko summit area following the Restoration 13, 290–296. American Association for the Advancement removal of grazing – An historic review. Pro- Tongway D. J. and Ludwig J. A. (1990) Vegetation of Sciences. Selected Symposium 109, West- motion, Practice and Partnerships Proceed- and soil patterning in semi-arid mulga lands of view Press Inc, Boulder, CO. ings 4th biannual Conference of the eastern Australia. Australian Journal of Ecol- Australian Network for Plant Conservation (2006) Australian Network for Plant Conservation. ogy 15,23–34. Guidelines for the Translocation of Threa- (ed. J. Mill) pp. 21–25. ANPC Canberra, Tongway D. J. and Ludwig J. A. (2006) Rehabilita- tened Plants in Australia. Australian Network Albury, NSW. tion of semiarid landscapes in Australia. I. for Plant Conservation, Canberra, ACT. Green K. and Osborne W. 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