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A Study of Gongfu Tea in Chaoshan, China UNIVERSITY OF NEW ENGLAND ART AS EVERYDAY PRACTICE: A STUDY OF GONGFU TEA IN CHAOSHAN, CHINA A Dissertation submitted by Peter H.N. d’Abbs, BA (Hons), MA, PhD For the award of Master of Arts with Honours June, 2017 ii ABSTRACT This study explores the place of traditional Chinese tea culture in a society undergoing changes both culturally, with the rise of consumerism, and structurally, with the growth of a market economy and globalization. It does so by examining tea drinking in the Chaoshan region of eastern Guangdong Province. Chaoshan is the home of a style of preparing and drinking tea known as ‘gongfu’ tea, involving preparation of strong tea in small pots, and drinking repeated brews in small cups. As well as being an important part of the regional food and drink culture, gongfu tea has been adopted outside Chaoshan as a refined form of tea culture, and even represented outside China as an authentic ‘Chinese tea ceremony’. It therefore provides an appropriate case study through which to examine both local practices and the processes through which local cultural objects are appropriated and transformed for use in other contexts. The study pursues two lines of inquiry. The first examines the development of a contemporary discourse representing Chaoshan gongfu tea as a manifestation of a continuous tradition dating back more than 1,000 years to the Tang Dynasty. I argue that, while tea has long been consumed in Chaoshan, this representation is not supported by historical evidence, and is an example of an invented tradition. The second line of inquiry is a study of contemporary gongfu tea-drinking practices, both among people born in Chaoshan, and among non-Chaoshan people who have taken it up as an acquired practice. Methodologically, the study uses sociological ethnography, in which the ‘field’ of research is not a specific locality but a field of inquiry defined by pursuing linkages relevant to the research questions. Findings are based on fieldwork involving semi-structured interviews with, and observations among, a snowball sample of 32 individuals plus one family that was treated, for analytical purposes, as a single unit. Fieldwork was conducted in four visits to the region between 2010 and 2017. The study found that, among people born in Chaoshan, gongfu tea is experienced as an integral part of everyday life, rather than a form of tea art. As a practice, it entails close attention to detail in preparing, serving and drinking tea, on the one hand and, on the other, a high level of creativity, rather than slavish adherence to a prescriptive model. People who have taken up gongfu tea as an acquired practice exhibit similar skills, but for them, gongfu tea is unlikely to be woven into the fabric of everyday life. Some people choose to cultivate additional knowledge and skills in order to enhance their gongfu tea practice as tea art. iii The study concludes by considering the relationship between Chaoshan gongfu tea as a cultural object created through discourse, and contemporary tea-drinking practices. I argue that the relationship is not as close as literary accounts imply. While each is informed by the other, neither is a mirror of the other, and each is a product of distinctive social processes: the discourse, by the activities of academics, entrepreneurs and others, each pursuing their own interests; tea-drinking practices, by the opportunities and constraints generated through economic and social processes emanating from the wider society. iv CERTIFICATION OF DISSERTATION I certify that the ideas, fieldwork, results, analyses, and conclusions reported in this dissertation are entirely my own effort, except where otherwise acknowledged. I also certify that the work is original, has not been previously submitted for any other award, and does not contain any previously published material. __ __________ 16 June 2017 Signature of Candidate Date ENDORSEMENT Signature of Supervisor/s Date v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The research on which this dissertation is based would not have been possible without the generous help of many people, not all of whom can be named. I am particularly grateful to Professor Wu Cuncun, who continued to provide supervision long after leaving the University of New England and taking up her current position at Hong Kong University. Dr Mark Stevenson informally contributed ideas and guidance through the long period of conducting fieldwork and writing the thesis. My wife, Sha (Laurel) Zhang, has been an invaluable source of support in many ways – from suggesting locating the study in Chaoshan in the first place, to putting me in touch with many of my initial research participants, to acting as an interpreter through many interviews and discussions with tea drinkers in and outside Chaoshan. In Chaoshan itself, Mr Xie Hongzhou shared his passion for gongfu tea, his wisdom, and many hours of enjoyable company throughout the project. Mr Yang Dairong and Mr Wang Yongzhe also contributed their knowledge and insights. Other research participants must, as a condition of the ethics approval attached to this research project, remain anonymous, but my gratitude to all of them for sharing their time, insights and experiences is deep. In the final stages of preparation, when Word’s propensity to play havoc with graphics and captions with all but the most knowledgeable users was driving me to despair, Perri Hull stepped in and quietly righted things. This project has taken an inordinately long time to complete, and I am grateful to staff at the School of Arts, University of New England, for their forebearance as I juggled too many commitments. For whatever flaws remain in the study, notwithstanding the support and guidance received, I alone am responsible. vi CONTENTS Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1 1.1 The evolution of Chinese tea culture ............................................................... 2 1.2 The changing context: globalization, individualism and consumerism in China today ................................................................................................................ 10 1.3 Defining the scope of this study ..................................................................... 17 1.4 Overview of the thesis .................................................................................... 20 1.5 Ethics approval ............................................................................................... 23 1.6 Summary .......................................................................................................... 23 1.7 A note on terminology and style .................................................................... 23 Methodology .......................................................................................................... 25 2.1 Examining representations of Chaoshan gongfu tea as a cultural object .. 25 2.2 Studying Chaoshan gongfu tea as a practice: strategic issues ..................... 26 2.3 Fieldwork: sampling and data collection ...................................................... 27 2.4 Conceptual frameworks: from consumption ritual to everyday practice .. 33 2.5 Data analysis: managing and interpreting data ........................................... 35 2.6 Limitations ...................................................................................................... 37 2.7 Summary .......................................................................................................... 37 Chaoshan gongfu tea as a ‘living fossil’ (活化石): the creation of a literary discourse ........................................................................................................................ 39 3.1 Chaoshan gongfu tea on the internet ............................................................ 44 3.2 Critical perspectives: an invented tradition? ............................................... 46 3.3 Discourse and the practice of Chaoshan gongfu tea .................................... 52 Chaoshan gongfu tea: inherited tradition and adopted practice ....................... 54 4.1 ‘Cong dongshi kaishi’ (从懂事开始): Chaoshan gongfu tea as inherited .... 54 4.1.1 Spatial integration ................................................................................... 56 4.1.2 Temporal integration .............................................................................. 58 4.1.3 Social integration ..................................................................................... 58 vii 4.2 Gongfu tea as adopted practice ...................................................................... 61 4.3 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 67 Chaoshan gongfu tea as everyday practice ......................................................... 68 5.1 Preliminary steps ............................................................................................ 69 5.1.1 Selecting water ........................................................................................ 71 5.1.2 Heating the water .................................................................................... 72 5.1.3 Selecting tea ............................................................................................. 72 5.1.4 Selecting utensils (chaju 茶具) ............................................................... 74 5.1.5 Warming the pot, rinsing the cups ........................................................
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