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This thesis has been submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree (e.g. PhD, MPhil, DClinPsychol) at the University of Edinburgh. Please note the following terms and conditions of use: • This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, which are retained by the thesis author, unless otherwise stated. • A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. • This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author. • The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. • When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. Listenership in Japanese Interaction: The Contributions of Laughter Ayako Namba A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Edinburgh 2010 Declaration I hereby declare that this thesis is of my own composition and that it contains no material submitted previously. Ayako Namba September 2010 i Abstract This thesis contributes to the body of research on listenership. It accomplishes this through an investigation of the functions of laughter in the listening behaviour of participants in Japanese interaction. The majority of studies concerning conversational interactions have focused on the role of the speaker rather than on that of the listener. Notable work on the listener's active role in conversation includes research done by Goffman (1981), Goodwin (1986) and Gardner (2001). Laughter research has shifted from an early interest in the causes of laughter to an interest in how it is organised and how it functions in conversational interaction. Despite many studies on listenership and laughter as distinct areas of research, there have been relatively few studies on how laughter contributes to listenership behaviour. In order to explore the relationship between listenership and laughter, I used a corpus of spoken interactional data. This data consists of conversations between Japanese participants (university students and teachers) who were asked to tell each other stories about a surprising moment that they had experienced. The corpus was constructed in such a way as to make it possible to compare (1) solidary (student-student) and non-solidary (student-teacher) interactions and (2) higher status story-teller (teacher telling student) and lower status story-teller (student telling teacher) interactions. Qualitative methods (drawing on a variety of techniques of discourse analysis) were used to discover laughter patterns and functions in relation to the role of the listener both at the micro-level and in relation to the macro-structure of the surprise story-telling. Quantitative methods were used to analyse the relationship between laughter patterns/functions and the above interaction types (solidary/non-solidary and lower status/higher status interactions). I found, firstly, at the micro-level of analysis, that the listener’s laughter contributed to the co-production of conversation through functions that included: responding/reacting, constituting and maintaining. There were two patterns of the listener’s laughter that were motivated by the speaker’s laughter invitation: acceptance, and declination. Acceptance involved the functions of responding/reacting or constituting, with the listener’s laughter functioning to support mutual understanding and bonding between the participants. Declination could be related to signal the listener’s lack of support for the speaker, however, the listener used the third option, the ambivalence. This shows that despite the absence of laughter, a verbal acknowledgement or understanding response was alternatively used. In a problematic situation, the listener’s laughter was found to reveal the listener’s third contribution: the maintaining function, helping to resolve an ongoing interactional problem. ii At the macro-level of analysis, based on the three phases in a surprise story, I found that laughter played a key role at phase boundaries (1st: preface/telling; 2nd: telling/response; and 3rd: response/next topic). The laughter patterns and functions appeared in each boundary. The acceptance pattern was more frequent than other patterns in all of the boundaries. The responding/reacting and constituting functions mainly appeared in the acceptance. The patterns of laughter in a trouble context were rare because they only appeared in a trouble context. The maintaining function in such a context also occasionally occurred in order to repair the trouble situation. Looking at laughter in relation to the different interaction types, I found, lastly, that the solidary dyads tended to demonstrate acceptance (constituting the responding/reacting and constituting functions), while the non-solidary dyads had a greater tendency to show declination. In addition, the lower-ranked listeners tended to show ambivalence, while the higher-ranked listeners tended to be more flexible in showing either acceptance or declination. These findings suggest the existence of a relationship between laughter patterns/functions and politeness: a higher degree of solidarity and a lower degree of status can influence the display of acceptance patterns/functions and listenership behaviour; a lower degree of solidarity and a higher degree of status can indicate flexibility when choosing a response type. In a trouble situation, laughter in its various patterns/functions was used in all interaction types to recover resolutions to any impediments in the ongoing engagement. All in all, I found that laughter contributes to listenership, both through supporting affiliation and through helping to resolve ‘trouble’ situations. I showed how listenership expressed through laughter plays a role in negotiating, creating, and maintaining the relationship between the self and the other in mutual interactions. As implications, I finally indicated that such laughter activities as the display of listenership could be closely connected to the Japanese communication style. iii Acknowledgements This piece of work could never have been completed without the help of numerous people across Scotland and Japan. This work is a project supported by many loving people in Edinburgh, Tokyo, Kobe and Okayama, my home town. My heartfelt gratitude goes to my co-supervisors, Hugh Trappes-Lomax and Joseph Gafaranaga. Both individuals offered immense support throughout my entire student life in Edinburgh, and especially over the long distance between Edinburgh and Tokyo. Throughout my research, numerous meetings were filled with precious and delightful moments of academic learning. I thank them for their human kindness and enthusiasm: without them, I would not be here. No words can express my gratitude to Hugh Trappes-Lomax. He provided me with academic knowledge, wisdom and humour. His supervision taught me a great deal about academic pursuits and daily living, while his positive attitude always encouraged me to continue developing my research. I am also deeply grateful to Joseph Gafaranga. He taught me the fundamentals of data analysis and encouraged my critical thinking throughout the project. He always pushed me to go forward in my study. I owe a great deal to his time and patience. My gratitude extends as well to other academic scholars — individuals who provided me with thoughtful and supportive feedback throughout my study. I thank Liz Holt, my external examiner, who offered important perspectives on laughter studies. I thank Joan Cutting, my internal examiner, who organised my viva and supported me up to the moment of submission. I would like to thank Erik Shleef, Miriam Meyerhoff, and Sotaro Kita for offering comments and suggestions in the earliest stages of writing my thesis. I am also greatly thankful to Kristin Cook who kept proofreading my drafts from the first to last stages of thesis writing. I would like to offer special thanks to the Rotary Foundation for supporting my life in Edinburgh. Without its generous financial support, I would have never been able to study abroad. The Rotary Foundation also enriched my life in Edinburgh through various heartfelt meetings, particularly with my counsellor, Mrs. Jacqueline Easson, Mr. Donald Easson, Ms. Diane Roehrig, Mr. Dick Allan, Mrs. Margaret Allan, Mr. Ken Kinnear, and Mrs. Andrea Kinnear. I am also grateful to the Kobe College Megumi Association, which provided me with a valuable scholarship in 2005. My sincere gratitude goes to those people from Tokyo who supported my student life over the years. I would like to express special thanks to Sachiko Ide, of Japan Women’s University, who opened the door for me to study Sociolinguistics. She always encourages me to pursue my research with an open mind. She also teaches me so much through her care and concern as a mentor and as a professional. She continuously supported me during the ups and downs of student life, encouraging me with a heartfelt iv attitude. I would like to express thanks as well to Yoko Fujii, also of Japan Women’s University. She always gives me sound advice — encouraging me the most when I began handling my thesis over the long distance between Tokyo and Edinburgh. I would also like to extend thanks to Yasunari Harada of Waseda University. He gave me various new insights and provided me with opportunities to link my
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