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Between China and Tibet: a Documentary History of Khotan in the Late Eighth and Early Ninth Century

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Between China and Tibet: a Documentary History of Khotan in the Late Eighth and Early Ninth Century Between China and Tibet: A Documentary History of Khotan in the Late Eighth and Early Ninth Century The Harvard community has made this article openly available. Please share how this access benefits you. Your story matters Citation Zhang, Zhan. 2016. Between China and Tibet: A Documentary History of Khotan in the Late Eighth and Early Ninth Century. Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, Graduate School of Arts & Sciences. Citable link http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:33840754 Terms of Use This article was downloaded from Harvard University’s DASH repository, and is made available under the terms and conditions applicable to Other Posted Material, as set forth at http:// nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of- use#LAA Between China and Tibet: A Documentary History of Khotan in the Late Eighth and Early Ninth Century A dissertation presented by Zhan Zhang to The Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the subject of History Harvard University Cambridge, Massachusetts September 2016 © 2016 Zhan Zhang All rights reserved. To my parents ! Acknowledgement My first encounter with Khotan began many years ago. When I was having one-on-one Pahlavi class with my M.A. advisor Prof. Duan Qing in her office, someone knocked on the door. The visitor was a private collector from Khotan, who came to present a group of manuscripts including a Judaeo-Persian one, which Prof. Duan Qing assigned to me to study. This manuscript turned out to be a letter written by a Jewish merchant in Khotan at the end of the eighth century. The letter, written some 1200 years ago, eventually led me to Harvard University to further study the language and history of Khotan. I am, therefore, immensely indebted to Prof. Duan Qing, who opened the door, both literally and figuratively, and guided me into the world of Iranian languages and peoples. From the fall of 2009, my advisor P. O. Skjærvø began to teach Khotanese to me and Wen Xin, a young historian and fellow doctoral student at Harvard. After Wen Xin and I grasped the basics of the language, the three of us formed a reading group, and met at least two hours per week to read Khotanese secular documents. By the summer of 2014, we finished reading nearly all extant Khotanese secular documents, improved a lot of readings, and made quite a number of discoveries along the way. The results of our reading group form the basis of my dissertation. I am unable, however, to ascribe every improvement to a particular meeting in my dissertation. I would say that Prof. Skjærvø made most of them. Even when he did not, he taught me how to do it. It goes without saying that all errors are mine alone. Many people have helped and supported me during the long process of my graduate studies. Without them, it could not have been possible for me to finish my dissertation. ! iv Words cannot express my appreciation and gratitude to Prof. Skjærvø, whose warmth, sharpness, and humor, let alone his encyclopedic knowledge of Iranian languages and beyond, never fails to amaze me. My sincere gratitude is due to my dissertation committee members Prof. Mark C. Elliott and Prof. Leonard van der Kuijp, both from Harvard University, for their kindness, insights, and unwavering support all the way to the very end. Prof. Yutaka Yoshida from Kyoto University gave me his important book when I visited him in 2007, even though I could not read Japanese at that time. Special thanks go to my friends for their help and encouragement. Grace Jackson kindly polished my English with great care and precision. Einor Keinan-Segev and Wang Xiyue also helped me polish Chapter II. I benefitted greatly from talks over coffee and beers with Wen Xin, who never hesitated to share with me his discoveries. Fu Ma, Zhang Fan, and Geng Yuanli all helped me obtain books and articles. I am also enormously grateful to my girlfriend Nine for her smiles and confidence in me during my darkest days. Last but not least, I could not have completed this work without the sustained encouragement and support from my parents. It is my pleasure to dedicate this dissertation to them. ! v Dissertation Advisor: Prods Oktor Skjærvø Zhan Zhang Between China and Tibet: A Documentary History of Khotan in the Late Eighth and Early Ninth Century Abstract Since the late 19th century, expeditions in Khotan sponsored by various countries have yielded several collections of Khotanese manuscripts. Among them, the British Collection, the Russian Collection, and the Hedin stand out as they contain most of the secular documents from the Khotan region. In his groundbreaking work in 2006, Yutaka Yoshida regrouped these secular documents into six archives, Archive 0 to Archive 5, according to date and provenance. In my dissertation, I continue Yoshida’s work and focus on Archive 3, a group of texts from the Domoko Oasis, some 120 km east of Khotan, dating from 798-802, the initials years of the Tibetan occupation of Khotan (790s-840s). First, I divide the documents in Archive 3 into six groups according to genre and subject: 1) communications, 2) vouchers, 3) accounts, 4) patrol rosters, 5) rosters of other tasks, and 6) miscellaneous. Next, I re-edit and re-translate all the documents with a new editorial method. Instead of presenting the documents according to their appearance in the manuscripts as previous editors did, I present them in sections according their inner logic. This method is especially helpful ! vi for synoptic texts. It also shows more clearly how the text corresponds to the translation. By paying close attention to the formulae in orders, petitions, vouchers, and rosters, I restore many documents, and establish the original line length, which in turn helps restore more lacunae. When re-editing, I also check the text of each document against its facsimile, and improve the readings along the way. A more accurate reading and understanding of each document in Archive 3 sheds light on the history of Khotan during the late eighth and early ninth century, allows glimpses into various aspects of lives in Khotan, such as the administrative system, the taxation system, the distribution of corvée work, and various other issues. By studying the documents of Archive 3 with a disciplined methodology, I also set up a framework for further research of Khotanese secular documents in other archives. ! vii Table of Contents Introduction: Goal and Means ............................................................................................. 1 Chapter I: Expeditions in Khotan ........................................................................................ 7 Chapter II: A History of Khotan from the Seventh to the Ninth Century .......................... 52 Chapter III: Texts of Archive 3 .......................................................................................... 88 Archive 3/1 Communications ...................................................................................... 96 Archive 3/2 Vouchers ................................................................................................ 246 Archive 3/3 Accounts ................................................................................................ 276 Archive 3/4 Patrol Rosters ......................................................................................... 329 Archive 3/5 Rosters of Other Tasks ........................................................................... 382 Archive 3/6 Miscellaneous ....................................................................................... 420 Chapter IV: Analysis of Archive 3 ................................................................................. 447 Conclusion: Toward a Social History of Khotan ............................................................ 504 Abbreviations ................................................................................................................... 509 Bibliography .................................................................................................................... 510 ! ! viii Introduction: Goal and Means From the 1890s to the 1930s, numerous explorations and expeditions in Xinjiang yielded a large number of manuscripts, which are now preserved in various museums and libraries in the countries that sponsored those expeditions. In these manuscripts, scholars discovered Khotanese, an Eastern Iranian language spoken in Khotan before the advent of Islam in the early 11th centu- ry. Owing to the persistent efforts of Iranists over the last century, the Khotanese language has been successfully deciphered. Today, almost all extant Khotanese texts have been published in facsimile, transcription, or both. In respect to genre, Khotanese texts can be divided into two groups: literary and non-lit- erary. Literary texts include Buddhist texts, poems, folktales, stories, and so on. Non-literary texts include medical works, administrative documents, economic documents, bilingual manuals, and other miscellaneous texts. Much scholarly effort has been devoted to the literary texts, since these texts are not only longer and more complete, but in many cases, also enjoy the advantage of having parallels in Sanskrit, Chinese or Tibetan. They are, therefore, of great help in decipher- ing and elucidating the Khotanese language. On the other hand, the non-literary texts—or the secular documents, as they are also known—have been studied far less, since they present greater difficulties
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