93323_OIV Kaft 09-03-2010 13:30 Pagina 1

TABLE DES MATIÈRES / CONTENTS

Bulletin GHO¶OIV, vol. 83, janvier-février - mars 2010, n°947-948-949 V I O ’ L E D ACTIVITÉS '(/¶2,9/ 2,9¶6ACTIVITIES N LE BULLETIN I T

33. Weltkongress für Rebe und Wein«««««««««««««««««««««««5 E

nd L

33 World Congress of Vine and Wine««««««««««««««««««««««6 L

XXXIII° Congreso Mundial de la Viña y el Vino ««««««««««««««««««« U B XXXIIIème Congrès Mondial de la Vigne et du Vin«««««««««««««««««« XXXIII° Congresso Mondiale della Vigna e del Vino«««««««««««..«««..«««9 DE L’OIV

ARTICLES ORIGINAUX / ORIGINAL CONTRIBUTIONS

C. VAN LEEUWEN, J.-P. ROBY, D. PERNET AND B. BOIS ± Methodology of soil-based zoning for viticultural terroirs...... 13 Revue Technique Internationale

E. AGUERA, V. ATHÈS-DUTOUR, M. BES, S. CAILLÉ, P. COTTEREAU, J.-L. ESCUDIER, M. MIKOLAJCZAK, A. ROY, J.-M. SABLAYROLLES, A. SAMSON, I. SOUCHON, J.-P. VIDAL - Viticulture Réduction de la teneur en alcool des vins : Étude comparative de différentes Œnologie technologies...... 31 Economie 0 P. B. GURNEY - ,QGLD¶VGUDPDWLFGHEXWXSRQWKHJOREDOZLQHVWDJH Can 1 Droit winemakers from downunder play a leading part via joint venture investment? 0 2 ...... 43 Vin et santé

A. CHARRY CORREA, I. SÁNCHEZ RECARTE - Law Framework Compilation on GMOs ...... 61

A. CHARRY CORREA, I. SÁNCHEZ RECARTE - Law Framework Compilation on Organic Production...... 79

REVUE SIGNALÉTIQUE / CURRENT AWARENESS Janvier-Février-Mars

Revue signalétique des périodiques / Current awareness of periodicals...... 111 – ORGANISATION INTERNATIONALE

9

4 DE LA VIGNE ET DU VIN 9 -

INFORMATIONS / NEWS 8 4 9 -

3UL[GHO¶2,9 / 2,9¶V$ZDUGV««...... 151 7 4

...... 154 9

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Recommandations aux auteurs / Recommandations to authors...... 158 3 8

. l o Janvier-Février-Mars 2010 V Vol. 83 - N° 947-948-949

ISSN 0029-7127 93323_OIV Kaft 09-03-2010 13:30 Pagina 2

ORGANISATION INTERNATIONALE DE LA VIGNE ET DU VIN

Organisation intergouvernementale » FUppHj3DULVSDUO¶$FFRUGGXDYULO : ÉTATS MEMBRES : Groupe Ad Hoc AFRIQUE DU SUD, ALGÉRIE, ALLEMAGNE, ARGENTINE, AUSTRALIE, AUTRICHE, Coordonnateur : Philippe Hunziker (Suisse) Président Secrétaire

BELGIQUE, BRÉSIL, BULGARIE, CHILI, CHYPRE, CROATIE, ESPAGNE, FINLANDE, Biotechnologies innovatrices Vice-président :

FRANCE, GÉORGIE, GRÈCE, HONGRIE, IRLANDE, ISRAËL, ITALIE, LIBAN, des Spécification Alain Bertrand Alain(France) Bertrand SURGXLWV±QRORJLTXHV Valeriu Cotea (Roumanie) Valeriu Cotea LUXEMBOURG, ARY MACÉDOINE, MALTE, MAROC, MOLDAVIE, MONTÉNÉGRO, 0pWKRGHVG·DQDO\VH Jean-Claude Villetaz Jean-Claude(Suisse) Villetaz : NORVÈGE, NOUVELLE-ZÉLANDE, PAYS-BAS, PÉROU, PORTUGAL, RÉPUBLIQUE : TCHÈQUE, ROUMANIE, RUSSIE, SERBIE, SLOVAQUIE, SLOVÉNIE, SUÈDE, SUISSE, TURQUIE, URUGUAY Président Secrétaire Vice-président : :

OBSERVATEURS Cartographie Patrizia Restani Patrizia (Italie) Sécurité alimentaire Groupe Ad Hoc Coordonnateur : Creina Stockley (Australie) Président : (Espagne) Blanch Ana-Isabel Jean StrohlJean (CIHEAM) Birgit Dusemund (Allemagne) Dusemund Birgit

États : TUNISIE, UKRAINE, Province de Yantaï (Chine) Vice-président : Pekka (Finlande) Lehtonen Secrétaire scientifique : (Portugal) Paulo Barros Sous-Commission « Président :

Organisations internationales : (Allemagne) Microbiologie ˜ Association Internationale des Juristes du Droit de la vigne et du vin (AIDV) Vice-président Manfred Grossmann ˜ Association Universitaire Internationale du Vin et des Produits de la Vigne (AUIV) Romano Patrizia (Italie) ˜ Académie Internationale Amorim :

˜ Fédération Internationale des Vins et Spiritueux (FIVS) 2

˜ Fédération Mondiale des Grands Concours Internationaux de Vins et Spiritueux (VINOFED) ,21$/('(/$9,*1((7'89,1 et santé

˜ Union Internationale GHV¯QRORJXHV 8,2(  Président O·2,9 Commission II « Oenologie » Vice-président : ˜ Association de la Sommellerie Internationale (ASI) Président : Boban (Croatie) Mladen GHO·2,9 Vice-président : Patrizia (Italie) Restani Bilan de CO : Commission IV « et Sécurité Santé » Groupe Ad Hoc ˜ Assemblée des Régions Européennes Viticoles (AREV) Coordonnateur : Président : Monika Christmann (Allemagne) Philippe Gambert Philippe(France) Gambert Consommation, nutrition nutrition Consommation, Susana Buxaderas (Espagne) ˜ Centre de recherche d'études et de valorisation de la viticulture de montagne (CERVIM) de Secrétariat général Vice-président : Sanz Mínguez Santiago (Espagne) Secrétaire scientifique : (France) Dominique Tusseau Secrétaire scientifique : Pierre-Louis Teissedre (France) Président Technologie

PRESIDENT DE L¶ORGANISATION : M. Yves BENARD (France) Vice-président :

VICE-PRESIDENT : M. Michele BORGO (Italie) William Hardy (Australie) D. DIRECTEUR GENERAL DE L¶2,9 : M. Federico CASTELLUCCI (Italie)

COMMISSION I : VITICULTURE : Président : M. Michele BORGO (Italie) ·25*$1,6$7,21,17(51$7

Vice-président : M. François MURISIER (France) : : (Espagne) Président

Secrétaire scientifique : M. Alberto GARCÍA DE LUJÁN (Espagne) Président : Yves Bénard (France) vitivinicoles Vice-président : Víctor Carrascal Víctor Silvia Nicoli (Italie) Nicoli Silvia Vice-président : (Italie) Borgo Michele

&200,66,21,,¯12/2*,( spiritueuses Boissons Président Secrétaire n (Espagne) á Président : Mme Monika CHRISTMANN (Allemagne) Vice-président :

COMITE SCIENTIFIQUE ET TECHNIQUE Vice-président : M. Santiago MÍNGUEZ SANZ (Espagne) Sotés (Espagne) Vicente Christian AsselinChristian (France) Environnement viticole viticole Environnement et évolution climatique et évolution Hans Schultz Hans Schultz (Allemagne)

Secrétaire scientifique : M. Dominique TUSSEAU (France) Secrétaire Général (Directeur Castellucci Federico : a de Luj í : COMMISSION III : ÉCONOMIE et DROIT Président : M. John BARKER (Nouvelle-Zélande) Président (Argentine) Vice-président : M. Jean-Luc DAIRIEN (France) Formation Vice-président : Armando Tonioni : Secrétaire scientifique : M. Wolfgang HAUPT (Allemagne) : ) Hervé Hannin (France) Hannin Hervé (France) uie

COMMISSION IV : SÉCURITÉ et SANTÉ q Tur Président ( Président : M. Mladen BOBAN (Croatie) Secrétaire li Commission I « Viticulture » Vice-président : ü Vice-président : Mme Patrizia RESTANI (Italie) Président : (Italie) Borgo Michele : Gestion et innovation Gestion et innovation Ben Ami Bravdo (Israël) Vittorino Novello (Italie) Vittorino Commission III « Économie et Droit » Vice-président : François Murisier (Suisse)

viticoles des techniques

Secrétaire scientifique : M. Pierre-Louis TEISSEDRE (France) Vice-président : (France) Jean-Luc Dairien Président : John Barker (Nouvelle-Zélande) Alain Carbonneau (France) Secrétaire scientifique : (Allemagne) Haupt Wolfgang (Portugal) SOUS-COMMISSION « 0e7+2'(6'¶$1$/<6((7'¶$335e&,$7,21'(69,16 » Président Marchés et Secrétaire scientifique : Alberto Garc Vice-président : Président : Mme Ana-Isabel BLANCH CORTES (Espagne) consommation João CarvalhoJoão Ghira Eugenio PomariciEugenio (Italie) Vice-président : Mme Pekka LEHTONEN (Finlande) ue : Ahmet Altindi q

Secrétaire scientifique : M. Paulo BARROS (Portugal) : :

SOUS-COMMISSION « RAISINS DE TABLE, RAISINS SECS : : Président Secrétaire (Argentine) Jan Booysen Jan

ET PRODUITS NON FERMENTÉS DE LA VIGNE » Vice-président : (Afrique du Sud) (Afrique Président : Luís Peres de Sousa (Portugal) Olivier Viret (Suisse) Olivier Viret Vice-président : (Italie) Antonacci Donato Alejandro Marianetti et produits non fermentés de la vigne »

Président : M. Luís PÉRES DE SOUSA (Portugal) vigne la de Protection Secrétaire scientifi Président Vice-président : M. Donato ANTONACCI (Italie) Secrétaire Vice-président : et conjoncturelle Secrétaire scientifique : M. Ahmet ALTINDISLI (Turquie) Sous-Commission « Raisins de table, raisins secs Peter Botos Peter (Hongrie) Analyse économique Analyse économique Marcello Agosta (Italie) Patrick Aigrain (France) Aigrain (France) Patrick

JURY DES PRIX statistiques ORGANIGRAMME DU COMITE SCIENTIFIQUE ET TECHNIQUE DE L : G·LQIRUPDWLRQV

Président : S.E.M. Frantisek LIPKA (Slovaquie) : : pour la collecte Vice-président : Mme Wendy JONKER (Afrique du Sud) Projet spécial CST Secrétaire scientifique : M. Jean-Luc BERGER (France) Edit. Octobre 2009 (France) Président : Wolfgang Haupt Haupt Wolfgang : Secrétaire Raisons secs (Espagne) Secrétaire (Allemagne) Groupe Ad Hoc Vice-président : Coordonnateur : Vice-président :

consommateur Jean-Michel Boursiquot (Allemagne) Maul Erika Ressources génétiques génétiques Ressources et sélection de la vigne la de et sélection Angelo Costacurta (Italie) Abdellatif Benhiba (Maroc) Ignacio Sánchez Recarte Ignacio Sánchez Recarte Véronique Fouks Véronique (France) Droit et information du Droit et information Président

ORGANISATION INTERNATIONALE DE LA VIGNE ET DU VIN Direction-Administration 18, rue d’Aguesseau - 75008 Paris Tél. : + 33 (0)1 44 94 80 92 – Fax : + 33 (0)1 42 66 90 63 E-mail : [email protected] - Site web : www.oiv.int

Directeur de publication : Federico CASTELLUCCI Rédactrice : Camille LAPLANCHE

BULLETIN DE L’OIV Fondé en 1928 – Trimestriel Vol. 83, n°947-948-949, janvier-février-mars 2010

Comité de Lecture

Jan BOOYSEN (Afrique du Sud) Alain BERTRAND (France) Monika CHRISTMANN (Allemagne) Jean-Michel BOURSIQUOT (France) Manfred GROSSMANN (Allemagne) Jean-Luc DAIRIEN (France) Wolfgang HAUPT (Allemagne) Hervé HANNIN (France) Reiner WITTKOWSKI (Allemagne) Jean-Marc ORGOGOZO (France) Martín CAVAGNARO (Argentine) Joël ROCHARD (France) Claudia QUINI (Argentine) Pierre-Louis TEISSEDRE (France) Peter HAYES (Australie) Dominique TUSSEAU (France) Tony SPAWTON (Australie) Stefanos KOUNDOURAS (Grèce) Creina STOCKLEY (Australie) Zoltán ZILAI (Hongrie) Reinhard EDER (Autriche) Ben Ami BRAVDO (Israël) Brigitte VANDECAVEY (Belgique) Donato ANTONACCI (Italie) Regina VANDERLINDEN (Brésil) Alberto BERTELLI (Italie) Mladen BOBAN (Croatie) Michele BORGO (Italie) Marina DEUR (Croatie) Mario FREGONI (Italie) Ana-Isabel BLANCH (Espagne) Eugenio POMARICI (Italie) Suzana BUXADERAS (Espagne) Patrizia RESTANI (Italie) Victor CARRASCAL (Espagne) Patrizia ROMANO (Italie) Ana CASP VANACHLOCHA (Espagne) John BARKER (Nouvelle-Zélande) Alberto GARCIA DE LUJAN (Espagne) Paulo BARROS (Portugal) Santiago MINGUEZ SANZ (Espagne) Amadeu PEIXOTO MENESES (Portugal) Vicente SOTES RUIZ (Espagne) Luis PERES de SOUSA (Portugal) Greg HODSON (Etats-Unis) Valeriu COTEA (Roumanie) Pekka LEHTONEN (Finlande) Philippe HUNZIKER (Suisse) Patrick AIGRAIN (France) François MURISIER (Suisse) Christian ASSELIN (France) Frédéric ROTHEN (Suisse) Yves BENARD (France) Ahmet ALTINDISLI (Turquie) Jean-Luc BERGER (France) Estella de FRUTOS (Uruguay)

Activités de l’OIV OIV’s Activitys

(Vol. 83, n°947-948-949) Bulletin de l’OIV 5

33. Weltkongress für Rebe und Wein Tiflis (Georgien), 20. bis 27. Juni 2010

Rebe und Wein - Welterbe Tradition und Innovation

Thema 1 Thema 2 Umwelt im Weinbau und der Neue Produkte, neue Technologien, Weinbereitung: neue Herausforderungen Schutz und Verbesserung Subthema 1-A Subthema 2-A

(Weinbau) (Weinbau) Anpassung der Sorten für neue Auswirkungen des Klimawandels im Herausforderungen im Sektor Weinbau Weinbau und Weinbereitung Produktionssysteme für umweltfreundlichen Biotechnologien für Weinreben Nachhaltigen Weinbau Biodiversität der Rebe: genetische Innovative Techniken im Weinbau Ressourcen Subthema 1-B Subthema 2-B

(Önologie) (Önologie) Önologische Verfahren für Nachhaltige Umsetzung traditioneller und moderner

Weinbereitung Biotechnologien in der Önologie Neue önologische Verfahren und deren Wein und Weinbereitungsumfeld: Anwendung im Hinblick auf Verbindungen und Zusammenhänge Konsumentenanforderungen Analysemethoden: Innovationen und

Perspektiven Subthema 1-C Subthema 2-C

(Wirtschaft & Recht) (Wirtschaft & Recht) Nachhaltige Produktion: wirtschaftliche Neue Produkte, neue

Parameter Konsumentenanforderungen Etikettierung von ökologischen Produkte, die GVO enthalten: Definition,

Erzeugnissen Etikettierung Kohlendioxid-Bilanz Subthema 1-D Subthema 2-D

(Sicherheit & Gesundheit) (Sicherheit & Gesundheit) Gesundheits- und Umwelt- Auswirkungen der Produkte des Weinbaus

"Risiko"-Management und der Weinbereitung auf die Gesundheit Gute Hygienepraktiken Veränderung des Konsumverhaltens www.oiv2010.ge 6 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

33rd World Congress of Vine and Wine Tbilissi (Georgia), 20-27 June 2010

Vine and Wine – Worldwide Heritage Tradition and innovation

Theme 1 Theme 2 Vitiviniculture Environment: New products, new technologies, new Protection and Development challenges

Sub-theme 1-A Sub-theme 2-A (Viticulture) (Viticulture) Adapting varieties to new challenges Impact of climate change in viticulture facing the vitiviniculture sector Environmentally-friendly Production Biotechnologies applied to vines Systems for sustainable viticulture Grapevine Biodiversity: Genetic resources Innovative techniques in grape production Sub-theme 1-B Sub-theme 2-B

(Oenology) (Oenology) Oenological practices for sustainable wine Application of traditional and modern

production biotechnologies in oenology New oenological practices and their Links and relations between wine and its application with regards to consumer production environment demands Methods of analysis: Innovation and

perspectives Sub-theme 1-C Sub-theme 2-C

(Economy & Law) (Economy & Law) Sustainable Production: Economic New products, new consumer demands parameters Products containing GMOs: Definition, Labelling of organic products Labelling Carbon Dioxide balance Sub-theme 1-D Sub-theme 2-D

(Safety & Health) (Safety & Health) Health and environmental "risk" Health impact of vitivinicultural products management Good hygiene practices Changing consumer patterns www.oiv2010.ge (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949) Bulletin de l’OIV 7

33º Congreso Mundial de la Viña y el Vino Tbilisi (Georgia), 20-27 de junio de 2010

Viña y Vino - Patrimonio Mundial Tradición e innovación

Tema 1 Tema 2 Medio Ambiente Vitivinícola: Nuevos productos, nuevas Protección y Desarrollo tecnologías, nuevos desafíos

Sub-tema 1-A Sub-tema 2-A

(Viticultura) (Viticultura) Impacto del cambio climático en la Adaptación de variedades a los nuevos

viticultura desafíos del sector vitivinícola Sistemas de producción respetuosos con el medio ambiente para una viticultura Las biotecnologías aplicadas a la vid sostenible Biodiversidad de la vid: recursos Técnicas innovadoras en la producción de

genéticos uva Sub-tema 1-B Sub-tema 2-B

(Enología) (Enología) Prácticas enológicas para la producción Aplicación de biotecnologías tradicionales

sostenible de vino y modernas en enología Las nuevas prácticas enológicas y su Vínculos y relaciones entre el vino y su aplicación a la luz de las demandas de los ambiente de producción consumidores Métodos de análisis: Innovaciones y

Perspectivas

Sub-tema 1-C Sub-tema 2-C

(Economía y Derecho) (Economía y Derecho)

Producción sostenible: Parámetros Nuevos productos, nuevas demandas de

económicos los consumidores Productos que contienen OGM: Definición, Etiquetado de productos ecológicos etiquetado Balance de dióxido de carbono Sub-tema 1-D Sub-tema 2-D

(Seguridad y Salud) (Seguridad y Salud) Impacto en la salud de los productos Gestión del “riesgo” sanitario y ambiental vitivinícolas Buenas prácticas de higiene Cambio de patrones de consumo www.oiv2010.ge 8 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

33ème Congrès Mondial de la Vigne et du Vin Tbilissi (Géorgie), 20-27 juin 2010

Vigne et Vin - Patrimoine mondial de l’humanité Tradition et innovation

Thème 1 Thème 2 L’environnement vitivinicole : Nouveaux produits, nouvelles Protection et amélioration technologies, nouveaux défis

Sous-thème 1-A Sous-thème 2-A

(Viticulture) (Viticulture) Impact du changement climatique en Adaptation des variétés aux nouveaux

viticulture défis du secteur vitivinicole Systèmes de production respectueux de l’environnement pour une viticulture Biotechnologies appliquées à la vigne durable Biodiversité de la vigne : Ressources Techniques innovantes dans la production

génétiques viticole Sous-thème 1-B Sous-thème 2-B

(Œnologie) (Œnologie) Pratiques œnologiques pour la production Application des biotechnologies

durable des vins traditionnelles et modernes à l’œnologie Nouvelles pratiques œnologiques et leur Liens et relations entre le vin et son application vis-à-vis de la demande du environnement de production consommateur Méthodes d’analyse : Innovations et

perspectives Sous-thème 1-C Sous-thème 2-C

(Économie et Droit) (Économie et Droit) Production durable : Paramètres Nouveaux produits, nouvelle demande

économiques des consommateurs Produits contenant des OGM : Définition, Étiquetage des produits biologiques Étiquetage Bilan du Dioxyde de Carbone Sous-thème 1-D Sous-thème 2-D

(Sécurité et Santé) (Sécurité et Santé) Maîtrise des « risques » sanitaires et Impact des produits vitivinicoles sur la

environnementaux santé Bonnes pratiques d’hygiène Évolution des modes de consommation www.oiv2010.ge (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949) Bulletin de l’OIV 9

XXXIII° Congresso Mondiale della Vigna e del Vino Tbilissi (Georgia), 20-27 giugno 2010

Vite e Vino – Patrimonio Mondiale dell’Umanità Tradizione e Innovazione

Tema 1 Tema 2 L’ambiente vitivinicolo: Nuovi prodotti, nuove tecnologie, Protezione e sviluppo nuove sfide

Sottotema 1-A Sottotema -A

(Viticoltura) (Viticoltura) Impatto dei cambiamenti climatici sulla Adattamento delle varietà alle nuove sfide

viticoltura del settore vitivinicolo I sistemi di produzione rispettosi dell’ambiente per una viticoltura Biotecnologie applicate alla vite sostenibile Tecniche innovative perla produzione Biodiversità della vite: risorse genetiche dell’uva Sottotema 1-B Sottotema 2-B

(Enologia) (Enologia) Pratiche enologiche per la produzione Applicazione delle biotecnologie

sostenibile di vino tradizionali e moderne all’enologia Nuove pratiche enologiche e loro Legami e relazioni tra il vino e il suo applicazione alla luce delle richieste dei ambiente di produzione consumatori Metodi d’analisi: Innovazioni e Prospettive Sottotema 1-C Sottotema 2-C

(Economia & Diritto) (Economia & Diritto) Produzione sostenibile: Parametri Nuovi prodotti, nuove richieste dei

economici consumatori I prodotti contenenti OGM: Definizione, Etichettatura dei prodotti biologici etichettatura Bilancio del biossido di carbonio Sottotema 1-D Sottotema 2-D

(Sicurezza & Salute) (Sicurezza & Salute) Gestione del “rischio” sanitario e L'impatto sulla salute dei prodotti

ambientale vitivinicoli Buone pratiche igieniche Evoluzione del gusto del consumatore www.oiv2010.ge

Articles originaux Original Contributions

Methodology of soil-based zoning for viticultural terroirs

(1*) (1) (2) CORNELIS VAN LEEUWEN , JEAN-PHILIPPE ROBY , DAVID PERNET (3) AND BENJAMIN BOIS

(1) ENITA de Bordeaux, ISVV, UMR EGFV, 1 Cours du Général de Gaulle, CS 40201, 33175 Gradignan cedex, France *Contact: [email protected]

(2) SOVIVINS, Site Montesquieu, 4 allée Isaac Newton, 33650 Martillac, France

(3) Centre de Recherches en Climatologie, UMR 5210, CNRS - Université de Bourgogne, 6 Boulevard Gabriel, 21000 Dijon, France

KEYWORDS: viticulture, terroir, zoning, soil, vine, mapping, scale

ABSTRACT

Terroir is a key-concept in viticulture that is more and more widely recognized to explain variations in wine quality and wine style. Terroir refers to an area and thus possesses a geographical dimension. Hence, zoning of viticultural terroir is necessary. This paper addresses soil related aspects of terroir zoning. The first step of the zoning process is a clear identification of the objectives that are being pursued: demarcation of production areas, the adaptation of the viticultural management practices to variations in soil types or the protection of viticultural landscapes. The second step is the definition of a scale adapted to the objectives. The precision of the zoning increases with the scale, but so does its cost. Thirdly, a scientific discipline must be chosen for the zoning approach. Geology or geomorphology enable the production of synthetic maps at low costs for scales ranging from 1:50 000 to 1: 250 000. However, several soil types can be located in the same geological or geomorphological unit and it is difficult to relate vine behaviour to geology or geomorphology. Soil mapping by a pedological approach at scales ranging from 1:2 000 to 1:50 000 allows to produce more refined maps that can be used for an agronomic interpretation. However, it is not possible to relate wine quality directly to soil type. Soil maps are more expensive than geological or geomorphological maps, because their implementation is more time consuming (auger drilling, soil pit studies). The use of new technologies, like Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Digital Elevation Models (DEM), Geophysics, remote sensing and geostatistics enable the production of more detailed maps at reduced costs. Viticultural zoning has to be validated by eco-physiological studies. (Bulletin de l’OIV, 2010, vol. 83, n°947-948-949, p. 13-29) 14 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

Les terroirs viticoles : une méthodologie de zonage en fonction du sol

(1*) (1) (2) CORNELIS VAN LEEUWEN , JEAN-PHILIPPE ROBY , DAVID PERNET ET (3) BENJAMIN BOIS

(1) ENITA de Bordeaux, ISVV, UMR EGFV, 1 Cours du Général de Gaulle, CS 40201, 33175 Gradignan cedex, France *Contact: [email protected]

(2) SOVIVINS, Site Montesquieu, 4 allée Isaac Newton, 33650 Martillac, France

(3) Centre de Recherches en Climatologie, UMR 5210, CNRS - Université de Bourgogne, 6 Boulevard Gabriel, 21000 Dijon, France

MOTS CLÉS: viticulture, terroir, zonage, sol, vin, cartographie, échelle

RÉSUMÉ

La notion de terroir est de plus en plus utilisée en viticulture pour expliquer des variations dans la qualité et le style de vins produits. Le terroir fait référence à une zone de production et possède donc une dimension géographique. Par conséquent, se pose la question du zonage. Cet article aborde la question du zonage de la composante « sol » du terroir viticole. La première étape du zonage consiste à définir clairement les objectifs poursuivis : délimitation des zones de production, optimisation de l’itinéraire technique en fonction du type de sol ou protection des paysages viticoles. Ensuite, une échelle adaptée à ces objectifs doit être choisie. La précision du zonage augmente avec l’échelle ; cependant le coût du zonage augmente également avec l’échelle. La troisième étape consiste à choisir une discipline scientifique pour effectuer le zonage. La géologie et la géomorphologie permettent la production de cartes synthétiques à un coût réduit, à des échelles comprises entre 1 :50 000e et 1 :250 000e. La cartographie des sols (approche pédologique) permet l’élaboration de cartes plus détaillées, à des échelles comprises entre 1 :2 000e et 1 :50 000e. La pédologie est une discipline proche de l’agronomie, donc des cartes pédologiques se prêtent à une interprétation concernant le comportement de la vigne. Cependant, il n’est pas possible de relier directement le type de sol à la qualité du vin. Des cartes de sol sont plus onéreuses que des cartes géologiques ou géomorphologiques, car elles nécessitent un important travail d’investigation sur le terrain (sondages et étude de profils). L’utilisation de nouvelles technologies, comme les Système d’Information Géographiques (SIG), des Modèles Numériques de terrain (MNT), la géophysique, la télédétection et les géostatiques permettent d’améliorer la précision des cartes et de réduire leur coût de production. Le zonage viticole doit être validé par des études éco-physiologiques. (Bulletin de l’OIV, 2010, vol. 83, n°947-948-949, p. 13- 29)

Viticultural Terroirs 15

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. The concept of terroir in viticulture

The notion of terroir in viticulture is complex. It involves the vine and its physical environment (soil and climate) as well as their interactions. Numerous authors have offered definitions of the concept of terroir (Seguin, 1986; Vaudour, 2003). The quality of a wine, and consequently the value it can acquire, is largely dependent on the terroir in which it is produced. Terroir varies in space and therefore possesses a geographical dimension. Demarcating the terroir is therefore necessary in order to define the link between terroir and the wines which are produced there. It implies the development of a zoning methodology. The aim of this article is to propose zoning methodologies, in particular for the “soil” component of terroir. This methodology varies according to the objective pursued.

1.2. The purpose of zoning

Before proceeding with the zoning of a viticultural terroir, it is important to define the objective or objectives pursued. Historically, viticultural zoning proved particularly useful in demarcating territories according to their potential to produce wine of a certain quality or wine of a certain typicity. This demarcating of the Appellations d’Origine Contrôlée can be relatively rough in precision, or on the contrary very refined. The demarcating precision can be understood by scale (Côte d’Or in the Burgundy vineyard) or by the number of criteria taken into consideration (Port wine production in Portugal). More recently, wine producers have become interested in viticultural zoning in order to enhance the technical management of their vineyards. A deeper knowledge of the spatial variability of certain terroir factors has enabled a choice of the best adapted plant material in each of the zones studied. The same goes for numerous aspects of the vineyard management practices (soil management, fertilisation, drainage, harvesting dates and so on). Viticultural zoning is also useful for sustainable viticultural purposes; for each type of terroir defined, the appropriate viticultural techniques can be chosen that will have the lowest environmental impact. Zoning can also be useful in demarcating terroirs and viticultural landscapes which merit protection, particularly from the effects of urbanisation.

1.3. Scale

Viticultural zoning can be carried out at various scales, depending on the objective pursued. The zoning of a large region with little differentiation can be done at a small scale (1:100 000 or 1:250 000). The demarcating of crus (wine growths), in a region where the quality potential is well differentiated, requires work at a larger scale (1:25 000 or 1:10 000). Adapting technical management to the environmental, site-specific factors requires an even more refined approach (scale 1:5 000 or even 1:1 000). The soil often has a great spatial variability, which is not necessarily the case for other terroir factors, such as climate. Consequently, a small-scale mapping will have difficulties in taking into account this soil variability. The larger the scale (i.e. the more precise the map), the more costly the zoning will be. In practice, the scale of the zoning is often a compromise between the desired precision and the available budget.

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1.4. Initial discipline

Numerous scientific disciplines have taken an interest in soil studies: geology, geomorphology, pedology, agronomy, geophysics, etc. Scientists in these different disciplines are all interested in viticultural zoning. The approaches to these studies turned out to be very varied, both in terms of method and of scale chosen, and the results obtained are not easily comparable. Each researcher has often thought their discipline to be the best tool for the zoning, often with little knowledge of the other disciplines. Each of these different approaches can have its merits for a particular zoning objective. In this article, these different approaches are discussed, specifying their usefulness, their limits and their field of application.

2. USEFUL SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINES FOR SOIL BASED VITICULTURAL ZONING

2.1. The geological (and lithological) approach

Geology is a discipline which is interested in the rocks which make up the earth’s globe and in particular their origin and evolution. Lithology aims to describe and study the features of the rocky outcrops on the earth’s surface. In some wine regions a correspondence between the type of geological outcrop and the quality or the typicity of the wine produced has been observed. The case most often mentioned is the Chablis wine region, where all the famous crus are situated on Kimmeridgian limestone (Upper Jurassic, Secondary). On the Portlandian shelf (Upper Jurassic) there are also vineyards, but these are only entitled to the much less prestigious appellation “Petit Chablis” (Wilson, 1998). In other vineyards, the geology effect on wine quality appears less marked. This is the case in the Bordeaux wine region, where great wines are produced on very varied geological layers of the Quaternary and Tertiary eras. Wine quality in this region can vary considerably even on the same geological layer (Seguin, 1983, 1986). Zoning based on geological criteria shows several advantages. Geology is less variable in space than pedology. Consequently, it is possible to produce synthetic geological maps at small scales (1:50 000, 1:100 000 or even 1:250 000) which remain readable. There is a link between the soil-type and the geological nature of the parent rock, even if on a given rock varied soils can develop according to the slope, which can condition phenomena of erosion, climate, vegetation-type and the duration of pedogenesis. Geology plays a great role in determining geomorphology (the forms of land surface). The superimposing of a hard rock over a softer rock creates a landscape where plateaux (hard rock) alternate with slopes (soft rock) (figure 1). Geological maps are quite cheap to produce, and for most French regions recent geological maps exist, having been made at a scale of 1:50 000 by the Bureau des Recherches Géologiques et Minières (B.R.G.M.).

Viticultural Terroirs 17

Zoning based on geological maps however has its limitations. Firstly, varied soils can develop on a same geological outcrop. In the wine region of Saint-Emilion, shallow CALCOSOLS (30 to 60cm) developed on the Asteria limestone (Oligocene, Tertiairy) around the town of Saint-Emilion. In the same appellation in the commune of Saint-Hippolyte, on the same geological formation, soils are much deeper (sometimes over 2m) and are often decarbonated. It is not possible therefore to use a geological zoning alone to predict the functioning of the vine and the quality potential of the grapes. In viticultural zoning, geology can be used as a first approach, but it needs to be complemented with further, more in-depth study (determination of soil-types).

Figure 1. The alternation of hard limestone and soft limestone in the region of Saint-Emilion has created a landscape of plateaux and slopes.

2.2. The geomorphological approach

Geomorphology is a physical geography discipline which describes the forms of land surface (plateau, slope, valley, terrace, etc). The land surface forms are the result of the nature of the rocks (especially the differences in hardness), tectonic phenomena and the duration and intensity of erosion phenomena. As with geology, geomorphology presents less variability in space than soils. Geomorphological maps at average scales (1:50 000, 1:100 000, even 1:250 000) maintain good readability (figure 2). Geomorphology presents not only a link with geology, but with pedology, too. It often enables a better understanding of the distribution of the soils in a given region. Since geomorphology describes slopes and exposure, it allows possible local topo- climatic effects to be shown (effect of altitude on temperatures, effect of south or north exposure on sunshine and temperatures, effect of slopes on the draining of water and so on). Geomorphological maps can be produced at relatively low cost, as drilling is not required. Geomorphological maps can be deduced from precise topographical maps with sufficiently close level curves, or else they can be created on computer with the help of a Digital Elevation Model (D.E.M., see section “contribution of new technologies”).

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The geomorphological approach presents the same limitations for zoning as geology. Several soil-types may be present on the same form of land surface. For example, on the asteria limestone plateau of the Saint Emilion appellation, the soil depth and the active lime content vary considerably. It is not possible therefore to predict how the vine will function and what its grape quality potential is from a geomorphological map alone. In alluvial systems, a virtual absence of land surface relief can conceal considerable variability in the nature of the substrata and soil-types. However, geomorphology remains a very useful tool in a first approach and enables landscape interpretation at a medium scale.

Figure 2. Example of a geomorphological map of the Montpellier, Languedoc region (Raynaud, 1996).

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2.3. The pedological approach (soil mapping)

Pedology is the science of the soil. It describes soils and studies their genesis and functioning. Soils evolve over time, very slowly on the human scale, but more quickly than geology. Soils develop on a parent rock (the geological deposit) under the effect of (1) vegetation, which produces humus, (2) climatic conditions (rainfall and temperatures) and (3) time. Soils can disappear through erosion or become buried under a new geological deposit. Soils’ evolution is also dependent on the circulation (or stagnation) of water, which depends among other things on the surrounding topography. Thus, the soil-type integrates geological factors (the type of rock at the beginning of the pedogenesis), geomorphological factors (position of the soil in the landscape), climatic factors (temperatures, height and distribution of rainfall) and botanic factors (type of vegetation). Pedology is a closely related science to agronomy, since it is easy to establish a link between the soil-type and its mineral and hydric fertility. Since pedology integrates factors of geology, geomorphology and agronomy, it makes a precious tool in carrying out viticultural zoning. Despite the closeness of pedology to agronomy, it is not possible however to transform a soil map into a map of potential wine quality. Sometimes, small differences between two soil profiles (differences in the amount of organic matter or in soil depth, for example) can prove sufficient to modify the quality potential for wine production, without modifying the soil type in the pedological classification. Soils present a very great variability in space. It is not uncommon to find several soil-types in a single one-hectare plot. Consequently, pedological mapping is only of interest at large scales (1:25 000 to 1:2 000). At smaller scales (1:100 000 or 1:250 000) several soil types have to be grouped together in each unit of the map key, otherwise the map becomes unreadable. In these conditions, pedological mapping loses much of its interest. Pedological mapping requires numerous drillings and soil profiles (the number of which varies according to the scale, table 1), which make it very expensive. Prior drawing up of geological and geomorphological maps helps to improve the quality of pedological maps, but increases further the costs. In the key of a pedological soil map, soil units can be grouped for each geomorphological landscape unit. This approach can make the soil maps more easy to read.

Table 1. Number of drillings and soil profiles required to draw up a map of soils according to scale (Van Leeuwen and Chéry, 2001). Surface area No. of ha per No. of ha per Price per ha Scale mapped per drilling profile (€) day (ha) 1/2 500 0.1 to 0.2 (7d/ha) 4 to 10 2 to 4 300 to 400 1/10 000 0.5 to 3 10 to 50 40 to 80 30 to 60 1/25 000 5 to 20 50 to 200 100 to 250 15 to 25 1/100 000 50 to 100 300 to 1000 500 to 1000 2 to 3 1/250 000 200 to 300 3000 to 5000 3000 to 9000 0.2 to 0.5

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The soil acts on the functioning of the vine essentially through water supply and the nitrogen nutrition that it induces (Trégoat et al., 2002). These effects are often in relation to the soil depth: in a deep soil, water and nitrogen supply are most of the time not limiting or not very limiting (Coipel et al., 2006). In order to gain a more synthetic approach than pedology, while continuing to use the concept of pedogenesis, Bodin and Morlat (2006) put forward a terrain model based on the depth of soil and the degree of profile evolution (figure 3). They distinguish modalities of Rock (shallow soil, little pedogenesis, little fertility), Alteration (medium deep soil, medium fertility), Alterite (deep soil, high pedogenesis, strong fertility) and Colluvions/alterite (deep soil resulting from colluvionment phenomena). This model functions well on sedimentary formations and enables zoning of efficient viticultural potential at a lower cost compared with the mapping of soils. This model does not function on alluvial soils, where the notion of soil depth is less precise, since there can be large differences between the depth of the pedogenesis and the depth of rooting.

Figure 3. Terrain model based on soil depth (Morlat, 2001)

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2.4. Complementary approaches

Spontaneous vegetation is an indicator of climate and soil-type. It was used for viticultural zoning in the Aude department in France (Astruc et al., 1980). Since then, it has seldom been used. This approach, which requires botanical knowledge, is of great interest and merits more attention from people practising viticultural zoning. Some authors stress the importance of the role of the soil’s microflora in the terroir’s expression (Bourguignon, 1995). The soil’s microflora plays a role, particularly in the mineralisation of organic matter. It therefore has importance, since without active microflora, the vine would have difficulties in nourishing itself correctly with nitrogen. However, although it is indisputable that soil needs viable microflora to function normally, no study has shown a direct link between the quantity of micro-organisms present in the soil and the expression of the terroir. It could even be thought that a too active microflora might induce excessive nitrogen supply, with negative consequences on the quality potential of the grapes.

2.5. The contribution of new technologies

The development of new technologies has opened up interesting prospects for the study of terroir. These new technologies use computer technology and measurements taken by sensors mounted on machines whose geographical position is known with precision at each moment thanks to Global Positioning System (G.P.S.).

2.5.1. Geographical Information System (G.I.S.)

G.I.S. enables geo-referenced information to be managed with the help of a computer. The first application in viticultural zoning is its utilisation in the publishing of maps. Thanks to G.I.S., maps can easily be updated. Databases can be associated with the map –e.g. the analytical data for each soil profile. G.I.S. also enables different layers of spatialised information to be cross referenced. For example, information on soil-type, climatic zone, altitude, slope and exposure can be cross referenced in order to identify the viticultural potential of a vast geographical zone. This approach is of particular interest for the identification of zones with high quality potential in new regions of production. It has been applied successfully in Oregon by Jones et al., 2004. The limitation of this approach is in the quality and the reliability of the different layers of information used. Furthermore, the cross-referencing of the information supposes the attribution of classes to each layer and allotting them a value. It is not always easy to determine the optimal class for each layer of information.

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2.5.2. Digital Elevation Model (D.E.M.)

The Digital Elevation Model (D.E.M.) divides a given region into a network of regular small squares. Each small square in the network is allotted an average altitude. The network of squares enables the slope and exposure of each square to be determined with precision. The D.E.M. enables geomorphological maps to be produced and calculations to be made about the percentage of the surface with a slope superior to X degrees, the percentage of the surface with an altitude superior to Y metres, etc. The precision of the maps depends on the sampling density of the network square, often 25m or 50m.

2.5.3. Geophysics

The measurement of the electrical resistivity of the soil (geophysics) enables us to determine the soil’s capacity to conduct an electric current (Corwin and Lesh, 2003). This capacity depends essentially on the amount of water in the soil and the concentration of solutes in the water in the soil, as well as the temperature of the soil. The amount of water in the soil and its concentration in solutes are closely correlated with the amount of clay. Soil resistivity maps therefore enable us to highlight the variations in the amount of clay, among other things. In order to draw up a resistivity map, a device mounted on a farm machine (quad, tractor, over-the-row-tractor) injects an electric current into the soil and measures, at a known distance, the strength of this current. Through a calculation, the resistivity of the soil to the current is deduced. The depth of the measurement is proportional to the gap between the electrodes. It is therefore possible, by adjusting the gap between the electrodes, to make measurements at different depths (generally at 50cm, 1m and 2m). Several thousand measurements per hectare can be made and can be positioned with precision by G.P.S. Resistivity maps therefore show very precise borders. They do not replace pedological work (soil sampling, study of soil profiles) in determining the type of soil in each of the zones with a homogeneous resistivity, but they enable us to determine with precision the borders of these zones. The measurement of the resistivity is especially useful for very refined mappings of soils, at scales between 1:1 000 and 1:5 000 (the scale of the parcel or the estate). The resistivity can also be evaluated with an electromagnetic technique. This is easier to carry out than injecting a current into the soil, but the results are much less reliable. They are particularly disturbed by the metal wires and stakes which are present in most vineyard plots.

2.5.4. Remote sensing

Remote sensing enables measurements of objects to be made at distance. This technique is based on measurements of wavelength, or ratios of wavelength, of reflected radiation. Remote sensing can be performed using sensors mounted on farm machines (close-range remote sensing) or using airborne sensors (balloon, helicopter, plane or satellite). Remote sensing over bare earth enables us to determine its colour, the presence of coarse elements and its temperature. Remote sensing over vegetation can provide information about the vigour (the vegetation’s richness in chlorophyll, the vegetation’s density and porosity).

Viticultural Terroirs 23

2.5.5. Geostatistics

Geostatistics enables us to transform punctual data (measured in a given point) into spatial data (quantified in any point of space, i.e. maps). Different techniques exist, of which the most often used is kriging. The production of good quality maps requires a large amount of punctual data, generally more than 50 points.

3. VALIDATION OF TERROIR ZONING

3.1. Validation of viticultural zoning through eco-physiological studies (interactions between soil climate and plant material)

In order to validate terroir zoning, the behaviour of the vine in relation the physical environment has to be taken into account. The interaction between the vine, the soil and the climate is the domain of eco-physiology. These studies can eventually explain differences in quality potential and typicity among various terroirs, which a study of the physical environment alone cannot. Eco- physiological studies rely most often on a network of plots. In each plot, the soil and climate are studied, and measurements are taken on the vines and detailed analyses are made on the grapes. Sometimes, micro-vinifications are carried out, enabling an evaluation of the vine’s response to its environment in terms of wine composition and tasting. Numerous eco-physiological studies have been made in very varied environments (Seguin, 1975 ; Duteau et al., 1981; van Leeuwen and Seguin, 1994; Choné et al., 2001; Trégoat et al., 2002; Tésic et al., 2002 and 2002; Bodin and Morlat, 2006; Koundouras et al., 2006; Coipel et al., 2006). They have enabled us to improve considerably our understanding of the functioning of viticultural terroirs. All these studies highlighted the important role played by the vine’s water supply regime on the expression of viticultural terroirs. Vine water deficit reduces vine vigour and yield, limits the size of the berries and increases the grape’s sugar content and phenolic components. Some studies show a similar effect on the quality potential of red wines when the nitrogen supply is limited (Choné et al., 2001; Trégoat et al., 2002), but a low supply of nitrogen is not desirable for the production of dry, white wines, particularly for the Sauvignon blanc grape variety (Peyrot des Gachons et al., 2005; Choné et al., 2006). Despite eco-physiological studies being of interest for advances in viticultural terroir knowledge, their main disadvantage is the extremely time- consuming nature of these studies. The great number of measurements performed (several dozen per site and per year) result in very high costs and limits the number of sites that can be studied simultaneously. Furthermore, these studies remain difficult to spatialise: the functioning of a vine can be known with precision at a given place, but the domain of validity of this type of response is not known. It can be very limited in space and concern an area of less than one hectare.

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Thanks to the development of new tools, two very important elements of the eco-physiological approach can be routinely measured and therefore spatialised: the vine’s nitrogen status and its water status. The vine’s nitrogen status can be evaluated by the measure of yeast available nitrogen in grape juice at ripeness (van Leeuwen et al., 2000). Through taking numerous measurements on a wine estate, maps of the vines’ nitrogen status on the estate can be produced (figure 4).

Figure 4. Spatialisation of the nitrogen status of the vines at the scale of the estate, based on the amount of ammoniacal nitrogen and primary alpha-amine in the grapes (2007 vintage; data: SOVIVINS, F33650 Martillac)

The vines’ water status can be determined through the measurement of carbon isotope discrimination (13C/12C ratio) on the must sugars at ripeness (van Leeuwen et al., 2001; Gaudillère et al., 2002). This measuring is offered by specialised laboratories at a reasonable price. Carrying out numerous measurements enables the water supply regime to be spatialised at the scale of the plot (figure 5) or of the estate (figure 6). It is conceivable that one day the crossing of maps of vines’ nitrogen status and water supply regime with those of the response of the vines to the effects of the environment (maps of the vine canopy, maps of the grape sugar content, maps of the grapes’ anthocyanins) will enable a precise zoning of the terroir’s potentialities to be carried out at an intra- plot level.

Viticultural Terroirs 25

Figure 5. Spatialisation of vine water status at plot scale, based on the measurement of carbon isotope discrimination (13C/12C ratio) on the grape sugars at ripeness (2005 vintage, Van Leeuwen et al., 2006)

80

70

-21.4 60 -21.6 -21.8 -22 -22.2 50 -22.4 -22.6 -22.8 40 -23 -23.2 -23.4 -23.6 30 -23.8 -24 -24.2 20 -24.4 -24.6 -24.8 10

0 4.8 9.6 14.4 19.2 24

Figure 6. Spatialisation of vine water status at the scale of the estate based on the measurement carbon isotope discrimination (13C/12C ration) on the grape sugars at ripeness (2007 vintage; data: SOVIVINS, F33650 Martillac)

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3.2. Other ways of validating soil based terroir zoning

The ability of each terroir unit to produce a distinctive wine can be assessed through the analysis and tasting of wines produced by small scale or real scale vinifications. Vinification and tasting protocols have to be rigorously standardized. Another approach is the use the perception of growers for the terroirs on which they grow grapes (Morlat, 2001). This author showed that terroir zoning can be validated by means of a survey among vine growers. In the Loire Valley, where this study was carried out, a good relationship exists between the perception of the growers of vine behaviour in relation to terroir (precocity, vigour, water status, quality potential…) and characteristics of the physical environment (soil, climate, topography).

3.3. Examples of soil-based viticultural zoning

3.3.1. The demarcation of a region of production

Most of the vine-growing regions have become interested in zonings of their territories. The appellation boundaries had often been established on the basis of administrative borders. It should be remembered that the appellations were originally created to defend the common good, which means the name of the commune or the region. Then, a criterion used at the beginning of the first demarcations was the surface area under vine: plots without vines were often excluded from the zones of production at the time of demarcation. This criterion is very disputable, and examples exist where plots have been wrongly excluded. Then, geology and geomorphology criteria were taken into account. They are easy to use and require few documents or necessitate easily accessible documents (a geological map). It is possible to use geomorphological criteria for zoning based on a good interpretation of the landscape in the field (particularly of the relief). Geology and geomorphology have enabled low flood-prone valleys and hydromorphic dales to be excluded from appellation zones, particularly in the prestigious appellations. To gain a more refined knowledge of their territory, many management bodies (Organismes De Gestion or O.D.G.s) in wine appellations and inter-professional wine boards drew up pedological maps. The appropriate scale for this type of work is 1:25 000. A good knowledge of the physical environment enables a possible segmentation of the production into several quality levels to optimise their value.

3.3.2. Viticultural management

Zoning relating to soil can have the aim of optimising the technical management by adapting it in the best way possible to each soil-type. This optimisation can be realised at different scales. In a zone of production, the drawing up of soil maps at a scale of 1:10 000 or 1:25 000 enables the technical choices to be worked out according to the soil- type: soil management, choice of grape variety, rootstock, fertilisation and so on. Great work of this type has been carried out in the Loire valley where viticultural advice maps at a scale of 1:10 000 have been made from pedological maps for the whole of the region of production (Morlat, 2001).

Viticultural Terroirs 27

On a vine-growing estate level, this work can be carried out with greater precision at a scale of between 1:2 000 and 1:5 000. In order to make pedological maps at this scale, apart from the classic pedology techniques (auger drillings, profiles study), geophysics can enable us to distinguish the boundaries between soil types at a much higher degree. To study the behaviour of vines according to soil-type (eco-physiological approach), the vine’s water and nitrogen status can be evaluated with the help of physiological indicators (the isotope ratio 13C/12C measured on grape sugar, also called δ13C, for the water supply regime and the must’s yeast available nitrogen for the vine’s nitrogen status). The vigour of the vine can be evaluated in each zone using close-range remote sensing (sensors mounted on farm machines) or airborne remote sensing. On a plot level, it becomes difficult to draw up a map of the soil with sufficient precision using the classic pedology techniques alone. The use of geophysics, as a complement to drillings and profiles study, is practically unavoidable for the production of maps with sufficient precision at a scale of 1:500 or 1:1 000. As on the estate level, the response of the vine to the type of soil (validation of the zoning) can be evaluated at the plot scale with the δ13C (water supply regime), the must’s yeast available nitrogen (nitrogen status) and remote sensing (vigour). The adaptation of the viticultural management to the variability of the soil inside the plot is called “precision viticulture”.

3.3.3. Protection of the resources (viticultural landscapes and terroirs of high quality potential)

Terroir can be destroyed by man’s actions: town planning, road-building, railway lines, high tension power lines etc. Those responsible for planning have become aware that terroirs and viticultural landscapes are a resource which deserves to be protected, either by adapting local urban planning or by creating sanctuaries (UNESCO world heritage sites). Zoning for this type of action can be carried out using a geological and geomorphological approach, e.g. at a scale of 1:50 000. However, in some specific cases, a mapping of the soils at a scale of 1:25 000 is necessary. The evaluation of the quality potential of a small zone of production could be considered, for example, which would have priority protection. The aim of this measure is to preserve high quality potential terroirs and the most beautiful landscapes. Exemplary work of this type has been done in the Côtes du Rhône (Assemat et al., 2006).

4. CONCLUSION

Soil is a major component of viticultural terroir. Zoning of the soil is of interest in the demarcating of zones of production, in order to segment the supply of wines in a given region, to optimise the technical management of the vineyard and, in addition, to protect viticultural landscapes. Different approaches exist. They can be based on varied disciplinary fields: geology, geomorphology, pedology or agronomy. They can be carried out at very variable scales. Consequently, the results of these works are not always comparable. Before carrying out a zoning related to soil, the objectives pursued must be defined with precision. On the basis of these objectives, the zoning method must be chosen together with the most appropriate zoning scale.

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TESIC D., WOOLLEY E., HEWITT E. AND MARTIN D. Environmental effects on cv. Cabernet Sauvignon (Vitis vinifera L.) grown in Hawke’s Bay, New Zealand. 1. Phenology and characterisation of viticultural environments. Aust. J. Grape and Wine Res., 2002, vol. 8, p. 15-26.

TESIC D., WOOLLEY E., HEWITT E. AND MARTIN D. Environmental effects on cv. Cabernet Sauvignon (Vitis vinifera L.) grown in Hawke’s Bay, New Zealand. 2. Development of a site index. Aust. J. Grape and Wine Res., 2002, vol. 8, p. 27-35.

TREGOAT O., GAUDILLERE J.P., CHONE X. ET VAN LEEUWEN C. Etude du régime hydrique et de la nutrition azotée de la vigne par des indicateurs physiologiques. Influence sur le comportement de la vigne et la maturation du raisin (Vitis vinifera L. cv Merlot, 2000, Bordeaux). J. Int. Sci. Vigne Vin, 2002, vol. 36, p. 133-142.

VAN LEEUWEN C. ET SEGUIN G. Incidences de l'alimentation en eau de la vigne, appréciée par l'état hydrique du feuillage, sur le développement de l'appareil végétatif et la maturation du raisin (Vitis vinifera variété Cabernet franc, Saint- Emilion, 1990). J. Int. Sci. Vigne Vin, 1994, vol. 28, p. 81-110.

VAN LEEUWEN C., FRIANT P., SOYER J.P., MOLOT C., CHONÉ X. ET DUBOURDIEU D. L'intérêt du dosage de l'azote assimilable dans le moût comme indicateur de la nutrition azotée de la vigne. J. Int. Sci. Vigne Vin, 2000, vol. 34, p. 75-82.

VAN LEEUWEN C. ET CHERY PH. Quelle méthode pour caractériser et étudier le terroir viticole : analyse de sol, cartographie pédologique ou étude écophysiologique ? In Un raisin de qualité : de la vigne à la cuve. J. Int. Sci. Vigne Vin, Hors Série, 2001, p. 13-20.

VAN LEEUWEN C., GOUTOULY J.P., AZAIS C., COSTA-FERREIRA A.M., MARGUERIT E., ROBY J.P., CHONÉ X. AND GAUDILLERE J.P. Intra-block variations of vine water status in time and th space. In VAN LEEUWEN Proceedings of the VI International Terroir Congress. ENITA de Bordeaux et Syndicat Viticole des Coteaux du Languedoc (France), 2-7 July 2006. p. 64-69.

VAUDOUR E. Les terroirs viticoles : définitions, caractérisation, protection. Paris: Ed. Dunod, 2003. 293 p.

WILSON J. Terroir, the role of geology, Climate and Culture in the making of French wines. London: Ed. Michael Beazley, 1998. 336 p.

Réduction de la teneur en alcool des vins : Étude comparative de différentes technologies

(1) (2) (1) Evelyne AGUERA , Violaine ATHES-DUTOUR , Magali BES , (3) (4) (1) Soline CAILLE , Philippe COTTEREAU , Jean-Louis ESCUDIER , (1) (1) (3) Michel MIKOLAJCZAK , Amélié ROY , Jean-Marie SABLAYROLLES , (1) (2) (5) Alain SAMSON , Isabelle SOUCHON , Jean-Paul VIDAL

(1) INRA Unité Expérimentale de Pech Rouge, 11430 Gruissan, FRANCE, [email protected] (2) INRA UMR-Génie et Microbiologie des Procédés Alimentaires, 78850 Thiverval-Grignon, FRANCE (3) UMR Science Pour l’Oenologie, 2 Place Viala, 34060 Montpellier, FRANCE (4) Institut Français de la Vigne et du Vin, Domaine de Donadille, 30230 Rodilhan, FRANCE (5) Union Nationale des Groupements des Distillateurs d’Alcool, 174 Boulevard Camélinat, F-92247 Malakoff, FRANCE

MOTS-CLÉ S : œnologie, désalcoolisation, procédé REDUX, distillation, osmose inverse, nanofiltration, contacteur à membrane.

RÉSUMÉ

L’objectif était d’étudier différentes stratégies et technologies de désalcoolisation, applicables au cours du processus d’élaboration des vins, dans le but de réduire de 2% vol. le degré d’alcool :  la diminution de la teneur en sucre,  la désalcoolisation en cours de fermentation,  la désalcoolisation des vins finis. Le procédé REDUX et la dilution avec du vin sans alcool du moût avant fermentation donnent des vins semblables au Témoin. La distillation pratiquée en cours de fermentation permet d’obtenir des vins non différenciables du Témoin. Sur vins, les meilleurs résultats sont observés pour le couplage osmose inverse–contacteur à membrane. Toutefois, la distillation totale d’un lot de vin utilisé en assemblage permet aussi d’obtenir des vins de qualité même s’ils sont parfois différents. Le couplage nanofiltration-contacteur à membrane aboutit à des vins se différenciant souvent du témoin mais acceptables. Le couplage osmose inverse-distillation n’est pas satisfaisant lors d’une conduite séquentielle, les résultats devraient être tout autres en mode continu. (Bulletin de l’OIV, 2010, vol. 83, n°947-948-949, p. 31-42)

32 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

Reduction of wine alcohol content: A comparative study of different technologies

(1) (2) (1) Evelyne AGUERA , Violaine ATHES-DUTOUR , Magali BES , (3) (4) (1) Soline CAILLE , Philippe COTTEREAU , Jean-Louis ESCUDIER , (1) (1) (3) Michel MIKOLAJCZAK , Amélié ROY , Jean-Marie SABLAYROLLES , (1) (2) (5) Alain SAMSON , Isabelle SOUCHON , Jean-Paul VIDAL

(1) INRA Unité Expérimentale de Pech Rouge, 11430 Gruissan, FRANCE, [email protected] (2) INRA UMR-Génie et Microbiologie des Procédés Alimentaires, 78850 Thiverval-Grignon, FRANCE (3) UMR Science Pour l’Oenologie, 2 Place Viala, 34060 Montpellier, FRANCE (4) Institut Français de la Vigne et du Vin, Domaine de Donadille, 30230 Rodilhan, FRANCE (5) Union Nationale des Groupements des Distillateurs d’Alcool, 174 Boulevard Camélinat, F-92247 Malakoff, FRANCE

KEYWORDS: enology, dealcoholisation, REDUX process, distillation, reverse osmosis, nanofiltration, membrane contactor.

ABSTRACT

The aim was to study different strategies and different technologies, applied during the wine elaboration process, to reduce wine alcohol content about 2%:  reduction of the sugar content,  alcohol removal during fermentation,  alcohol removal from wines. The REDUX process and the dilution of musts with alcohol free wine give wines similar to the control. The distillation carried out during the fermentation produces wines non different to the control. For the treatment of dealcoholisation on wine after fermentation, the best results were obtained with the membrane process coupling the reverse osmosis and the membrane contactor. However, the complete distillation of a part of wine, used to do a mix with non treated wine, gives quality wines too, although these wines are sometimes different to the control. The membrane process coupling nanofiltration to the membrane contactor gives wines often different to the control but they are acceptable too. Because of non continuous way in our experimentation to carry out the trials with the coupling of reverse osmosis and distillation, the wines were not right, but we think that they will be different and probably good in a continuous way. (Bulletin de l’OIV, 2010, vol. 83, n°947- 948-949, p. 31-42)

Réduction de la teneur en alcool des vins 33

1. INTRODUCTION

Le réchauffement climatique, l’évolution des pratiques culturales et œnologiques de production des vins, ont conduit à une augmentation de la teneur en alcool des vins (+2% en 20 ans). Parallèlement, les habitudes de consommation ont fortement évolué. En France, par exemple, la consommation annuelle de vin, per capita, a diminué de 50% en 40 ans et se situe aux environs de 55L (ONIVINS 2004). En 20 ans, la part du vin dans la quantité d’alcool ingérée par les français a chuté de 75 à 60%. La politique de santé publique vis- à-vis de l’alcool mise en place en France amène la filière vitivinicole à s’interroger sur les nouvelles orientations à prendre pour relancer la consommation de vin. Ces différents constats nous ont conduits à construire un programme d’étude complet pour examiner les différentes stratégies possibles pour élaborer des vins de qualité à teneur réduite en alcool. Les techniques envisageables pour extraire l’alcool d’un vin peuvent être des méthodes thermiques ou non grâce à l’utilisation de membrane ou par entraînement à l’aide d’un gaz. Les procédés utilisables ont fait l’objet de revues de synthèse (Scott et al., 1995 ; Pickering, 2000). Certains sont déjà utilisés à l’échelle industrielle : procédé REDUX (Cottereau et al., 2006) distillation sous vide (Mermelstein, 2000) ; colonne à cônes rotatifs (Makarytchev et al., 2004) et osmose inverse (Bui et al., 1986 ; Chinaud et al., 1991). D'autres approches proposées dans la littérature sont l’évaporation osmotique avec contacteur à membrane (Hogan et al., 1998 ; Diban et al., 2008), la pervaporation (Takács et al., 2007), l’adsorption sur zéolite (Anglerot, 1994) ou l’extraction par fluide supercritique (Medina et al., 1997). Concernant la désalcoolisation en cours de fermentation, très peu d'études ont abordé ce sujet et aucune ne concerne le domaine oenologique (Scott et al., 1995, Costa et al., 2000). Cette approche mérite cependant une évaluation car l'extraction de l'éthanol en début de fermentation permet d'envisager de préserver la production des composés volatils d'intérêt organoleptique. En effet, les connaissances sur ces composés, leurs précurseurs et leur cinétique d'apparition ont fortement progressé ces dernières années et témoignent d'une production largement prédominante dans les phases tardives de la fermentation (Lee et al., 2004). Dans notre projet, différentes technologies applicables au cours du processus d’élaboration des vins ont été étudiées :  la diminution de la teneur en sucre (traitement pré-fermentaire par le procédé RTS),  la désalcoolisation en cours de fermentation,  la désalcoolisation des vins finis.

34 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

Les vins obtenus par les différentes technologies ont été comparés sur la base d’analyses sensorielles et physicochimiques. Pour choisir le niveau de désalcoolisation, nous avons utilisé un des principaux résultats obtenu dans le projet VDQA, à savoir que la réduction d’alcool dans un vin titrant entre 13 et 14% vol. est perceptible à partir de -3% vol. et qu’il n’y a pas de différence notable entre les sujets entraînés à la dégustation et les consommateurs (Urbano et al., 2007). Les traitements de désalcoolisation ont ainsi été conduits pour obtenir une réduction de -2% vol., de façon à ce que les différences observées ne relèvent pas de la différence de teneur en alcool.

2. MATÉRIELS ET MÉTHODES

L’étude a été conduite sur les cépages suivants : Chardonnay et Sauvignon pour les blancs, Syrah, Grenache, Carignan et Portan pour les rouges. En traitement pré-fermentaire, nous avons étudié deux options : la dilution du moût par ajout de vin sans alcool et l’extraction du sucre par procédé à membranes. Pour la première option, du vin est préalablement totalement désalcoolisé par distillation sous vide. Ce Vin Sans Alcool (VSA) est ensuite ajouté au moût pour abaisser sa concentration en sucre par dilution. L’extraction des sucres du moût a été réalisée à l’aide d’un couplage de procédés membranaires, ultrafiltration suivie d’une nanofiltration, procédé de Réduction de la Teneur en Sucres (RTS), (Cottereau et al., 2006). Les deux étapes de filtration successives permettent de soustraire au moût, environ 34 g.L-1 de sucres (correspondant à environ 2% d’éthanol) sous forme d’un concentré de sucre à 400 g.L-1 environ (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Procédé de Réduction de la Teneur en Sucre (RTS) des moûts avant fermentation par couplage Ultrafiltration/Nanofiltration

R é tentat NF = Perm é at UF = Sucre Concentr é R é tentat UF = eau, sucre, (~400g/L) Polyph é nols , Ac . organiques macromol écules UF NF

Mo û t Mo û t All é g é En sucres Perm é at NF = eau, acides organiques

Réduction de la teneur en alcool des vins 35

Le pilote utilisé a été fourni par Bucher-Vaslin (procédé REDUX®). Il est équipé de membranes spiralées dont le seuil de coupure est de 0,01 à 0,1 μ en UF et de 0,001 à 0,01 μ en NF. Les pressions de travail sont de l’ordre de 6 bars en UF et 70 bars en NF.

Des procédés de distillation (D) et de stripping au CO2 (S) ont été utilisés en cours de fermentation alcoolique pour extraire l’éthanol, lorsque le degré d’alcool du moût en fermentation était d’environ 6% vol. Seule une partie du moût est totalement désalcoolisée par distillation, pour atteindre ensuite l’objectif visé par réassemblage. En revanche, pour le stripping, la totalité du moût est traitée. Le pilote de distillation, d’une capacité de 45 L, comprend une colonne adiabatique à garnissage Sulzer (40 plateaux théoriques) fonctionnant sous vide (80 à 60 mbar) chauffée par deux générateurs micro-ondes (2 kW) et équipée d’un système de condensation étagée (4°C puis -10°C). Le pilote de stripping, d’une capacité de 100 L, est constitué de la cuve de traitement équipée d’un système de diffusion du gaz, d’un condenseur maintenu à 4°C, d’un ballon recette et d’une pompe de circulation du gaz. Le gaz utilisé pour le stripping est du CO2 circulant en boucle dans l’installation à un débit de 50 m3.h-1. Les technologies suivantes ont été utilisées pour le traitement de désalcoolisation post fermentaire, sur vin fini :  la distillation sous vide ;  le stripping ;  l’osmose inverse (OI) ou la nanofiltration (NF) couplée aux contacteurs à membrane (CM) ou à la distillation ;  les contacteurs à membranes (CM). Dans le cas des couplages de procédés à membranes, la première étape du procédé de désalcoolisation (osmose inverse ou nanofiltration) permet de séparer les constituants du vin en extrayant l’éthanol sous forme d’un perméat hydro alcoolique. La seconde étape, avec le contacteur à membrane, permet d’extraire en partie l’éthanol du perméat selon le principe de l’évaporation osmotique, en utilisant de l’eau comme solvant, les pores de la membrane utilisée (matériau hydrophobe) étant remplis d’air. Les deux étapes sont conduites en continu, les perméats étant désalcoolisés au fur et à mesure de leur production et réintroduits au fur et à mesure dans le vin en cours de traitement (figure 2).

36 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

Figure 2. Désalcoolisation par couplage de procédés membranaires

Perméat = Eau Immobilisation eau, éthanol + des 2 interfaces Ethanol OI Phase 1 =s ou CM eau NF

Rétentat = Vin Phase 2 = Constituants produit du vin

Eau Phase 3 = Vin partiellement Perméats phase gaz désalcoolisé partiellement désalcoolisés

Le contacteur à membrane est un carter de fibres creuses microporeuses (0,02 à 0,2 μm) en matériau hydrophobe. Pour nos expérimentations, la sortie du perméat du pilote Busher-Vaslin équipé soit en osmose inverse, soit en nanofiltration, alimentait le contacteur à membrane. Le solvant d’extraction sur le contacteur à membrane est l’eau (appelée stripwater). Cette eau est chauffée aux environs de 55°C pour favoriser le transfert d’éthanol. Le vin, quant à lui, est maintenu aux environs de 18°C. Les pressions de travail sont de l’ordre de 60 bars pour les vins rouges et 40 bars pour les vins blancs en osmose inverse ; de 25 bars pour les vins rouges et 20 bars les vins blancs en nanofiltration. Dans le cas des couplages de procédés à membrane à la distillation (OI-D et NF-D), les deux étapes ont les mêmes objectifs que pour les couplages de procédés uniquement à membranes, la distillation remplaçant l’étape de traitement par contacteur à membrane. La distillation permet contrairement aux contacteurs à membrane de désalcooliser totalement les perméats avant leur réintroduction dans le vin. Lors de nos expérimentations, le couplage procédé à membrane –distillation a été conduit de façon séquentielle et non continu. Les vins élaborés ont été caractérisés par analyses physico-chimiques et analyses sensorielles. Les composés volatils sont dosés en CPG selon les méthodes décrites dans la littérature pour les esters (Bertrand et al., 1978), pour les glycosides (Schneider et al., 2001). Le coefficient de variation de ces analyses est de l’ordre de 10%. L’analyse sensorielle est réalisée sur les différents vins issus des expérimentations par un jury expert de 19 juges, en tests de différences tripartites et/ou en analyse descriptive. Les données sont acquises à l’aide du logiciel FIZZ et le traitement est fait avec le logiciel XLstat.

Réduction de la teneur en alcool des vins 37

3. RÉSULTATS ET DISCUSSION

3.1. Traitements pré-fermentaires

Tableau 1. Exemple de concentration en composés volatils pour un vin blanc et variation de concentration pour des séries d’essais

Chardonnay 2007 Variation de concentration par Concentration en rapport au Témoin en % μg/L En Témoin RTS Maximum Minimum moyenne Acétate d’isoamyle a 5314 3550 -50 0 -15 Acétate d’hexyle a 381 360 -60 0 -18 Hexanoate d’éthyle a 998 1037 -25 +10 -8 Octanoate d’éthyle a 1584 1607 -80 0 -18 Furanéol b -- -- -7 -2 -5 -Damascénone c 17 14 -30 0 -11 a Résultats de 8 essais dont 2 industriels. b Résultats de 2 essais dont 1 industriel, composés uniquement présents dans les cépages rouges. c Résultats de 3 essais dont 1 industriel. Le tableau 1 indique que les concentrations en composés volatils dans le vin obtenu par traitement RTS sont plus faibles que celles du Témoin. En fonction des composés, les variations moyennes de concentration pour les essais sont acceptables (≤ à -18%) mais une forte variabilité existe. L’analyse sensorielle descriptive de ces vins a permis de démontrer que les profils olfactifs et gustatifs étaient globalement peu modifiés par rapport au témoin. Les tests sensoriels tripartites entre le vin témoin et le vin obtenu par dilution du moût au VSA avant fermentation montrent que ces vins ne sont pas significativement différents. La dilution au VSA est très facile à mettre en œuvre mais elle nécessite cependant l’élaboration préalable d’un VSA de qualité par distillation à température maîtrisée sous vide. L’inconvénient majeur de cette méthode de dilution réside dans la réglementation (assemblage d’un vin avec du moût) qui ne l’autorise pas. La limite de réduction de cette méthode n’a pas été évaluée, elle dépendra uniquement d’impact sensoriel. Le traitement par REDUX est applicable en cave. Pour les cépages rouges en vinification traditionnelle, la diminution de la teneur en sucre est limitée par le volume de saignée disponible, et une clarification de cette saignée est indispensable avant traitement. Cette technique génère une perte en volume importante (environ 7% par degré probable retiré). La limite de réduction pour cette technique est de l’ordre de 3%. Dans les deux cas, la diminution de la concentration en sucres avant fermentation améliore les conditions de fermentation des moûts. Les productions en acétate et en esters sont sensiblement inférieures sans que cela soit dommageable pour le profil sensoriel des vins.

38 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

3.2. Traitements en cours de fermentation alcoolique

La figure 3 (ci-après) montre que jusqu’au moment du traitement, les cinétiques se superposent parfaitement (bonne répétabilité des fermentations). Après désalcoolisation, la vitesse de fermentation augmente de manière très significative pour le lot traité par stripping et de façon moindre pour la distillation. Dans les deux cas, la durée de fermentation est écourtée. L’analyse sensorielle de ces vins montre que celui obtenu par distillation ne se différencie pas significativement du vin Témoin, contrairement au vin produit par Stripping ; les deux vins à degré réduit se différenciant parfois entre eux.

Figure 3. Cinétiques fermentaires de moûts de Chardonnay désalcoolisés pendant la fermentation

1,2 Traitement de

) Désalcoolisation 1 Témoin stripping 0,8 distillation 0,6

0,4

0,2 vitesse de fermentation (gl-1h-1 fermentation de vitesse 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 Durée de fermentation (h)

Les analyses des composés volatils d’arômes de ces vins montrent que les pertes existent mais les concentrations finales dans les vins restent comparables à celles reportées dans la littérature pour des vins finis et largement supérieures au seuil olfactif (Francis et al., 2005). Les deux traitements en cours de fermentation nécessitent une intervention à un moment précis de la fermentation ce qui est très contraignant en période des vendanges et rend, de fait, quasi-impossible, le transfert de ces méthodes. En plus, le traitement par stripping implique un couplage avec une autre technologie rendant son application complexe et provoque parfois des défauts sensoriels. En revanche, la distillation en cours de fermentation permet d’obtenir des vins de qualité sensorielle équivalente au témoin, cependant son transfert est difficilement envisageable pour des raisons réglementaires et des contraintes techniques importantes.

Réduction de la teneur en alcool des vins 39

3.3. Traitements post fermentaire sur vin

Tableau 2. Comparaison Osmose Inverse - Nanofiltration en désalcoolisation de 2% d’un vin à 14%

Osmose Inverse Nanofiltration Degré du perméat ~ 10-11% ~ 13% Débit Alcool Pur en L/h.m² 1,8 2,5 Eau Eau Acides organiques, potassium Composition du perméat Trace de potassium Des arômes : alcools supérieurs, Très faible trace d’arômes certains acétates et éthyl esters Pertes en composés volatils Avantage Traitement plus rapide très limitées

Il apparaît dans le tableau 2 que la NF en retenant moins de constituants du vin transfère plus d’éthanol dans les perméats. Le traitement d’extraction de l’éthanol est donc plus rapide par NF que par OI. En revanche, cette dernière permet une meilleure rétention des composés volatils d’arômes dans le vin traité.

Tableau 3. Données comparatives des traitements en couplage en désalcoolisation -2% d’un vin à 14%

OI-D NF-D OI-CM NF-CM Volume de perméat à produire / L de vin en % ~ 25 ~ 18 ~ 50 ~ 30 Quantité d’eau nécessaire au traitement L eau / L vin 0 0 0,45 0,3 Eau alcoolisée Nature du co-produit (effluent) Alcool ≥ 92% (~4% OI, ~7% NF) Valeur en italique = valeur estimée par calculs.

La concentration en éthanol dans les perméats étant supérieure lors d’un traitement en NF par rapport à l’OI, il en découle (tableau 3) que les quantités de perméats à produire pour un même objectif de désalcoolisation sont supérieures en OI. Le couplage au Contacteur à membrane nécessite une production plus importante de perméat que le couplage à la distillation. Le traitement du vin est donc plus long. Un traitement de désalcoolisation de -4% nécessiterait une production d’environ 27% de perméat en NF-D et près de 120% en NF-CM avec pour cette dernière une consommation d’eau de l’ordre de 0,6L / L de vin. Ainsi une limite raisonnable de traitement de désalcoolisation doit être fixée pour les procédés de couplage à membrane, elle se situe à -3% environ. Pour le couplage procédé à membrane distillation la limite est plus basse, reste à valider la qualité sensorielle finale dans ce cas. Les sous-produits résultant du traitement sont de nature différente, le retraitement de l’eau alcoolisée du couplage à membrane doit être pris en compte.

40 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

Tableau 4. Résultats d’analyses sensorielles en test tripartite, risque  de la différence

Sauvignon Syrah Syrah Test Syrah Prémium Prémium Australienne T / D 0,0074 a 0,1719 b 0,5207 0,7186 T / OI-CM 0,5207 0,0755 0,5207 0,7186 T / NF-CM 0,013 a 0,0273 a 0,1905 --- T / CM --- 0,1719 b 0,0376 a 0,1719 b D / OI-CM 0,1905 0,0004 a 0,3385 0,0755 D / NF-CM 0,0648 a 0,0557 0,7186 --- OI-CM / NF-CM 0,5207 0,3992 0,4569 --- D / CM --- 0,0212 a 0,1076 0,5223 OI-CM / CM --- 0,3992 0,0919 0,1265 NF-CM / CM --- 0,2399 0,2233 --- a Différence significative entre les deux vins comparés. b Zone d’incertitude, tendance à la non différence.

Le tableau 4 regroupe les résultats d’analyses sensorielles de vins pour un seuil de désalcoolisation de 2%. Il apparaît que le traitement permettant d’obtenir un vin ne se différenciant pas du témoin est le couplage OI-CM. Le traitement par distillation permet aussi d’obtenir dans de nombreux cas, des vins proches du témoin. En revanche, le traitement direct par CM sans étape préalable d’osmose inverse ou de nanofiltration conduit à la production de vins significativement différents du témoin. Il est à remarquer que globalement, les vins désalcoolisés par les différentes technologies ne sont pas significativement différents entre eux.

4. CONCLUSION

Cette étude a permis de montrer que pour produire un vin à teneur réduite en éthanol plusieurs options étaient possibles. Des traitements à différents moments du processus d’élaboration du vin sont envisageables. Les avantages et les inconvénients de chaque technologie ont été identifiés. Les critères sensoriels pour une désalcoolisation maîtrisée de l’ordre de 2% étant satisfaisants, le choix de la technologie à mettre en œuvre dépendra plutôt de critères économiques et environnementaux. Pour des traitements de désalcoolisation plus poussés, le choix de la technologie sera imposé par les limites de chaque technique. Il est important de noter que le choix du vin est aussi un élément clé à prendre en considération selon l’objectif de désalcoolisation visé pour produire un vin de qualité à teneur réduite en alcool. Des études complémentaires devraient permettre de guider ce choix.

Réduction de la teneur en alcool des vins 41

REMERCIEMENTS

Ce travail a été financé par Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR) au travers du programme “Vins de Qualité à teneur réduite en Alcool” (N° ANR-05- PNRA-011). www.agence-nationale-recherche.fr/actualite/13?lngInfold=279

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BUI K., D.R. MOULIN AND P. GALZY. A reverse osmosis for production of low ethanol content wine. Am. J. Enol. Vitic., 1986, vol. 37, n°4, p. 297-300.

CHINAUD N., P. BROUSSOUS AND G. FERRARI. Application de l’osmose inverse à la désalcoolisation des vins. J. Inter. Sc. de la Vigne et du Vin, 1991, vol. 25, n°4, p. 245-250.

COSTA A.C., E.C. DECHECHI, F.L.H. SILVA, F. MAUGERI, AND R. MACIEL. Simulated dynamics and control of an extractive alcoholic fermentation. Applied biochemistry and biotechnology, 2000, vol. 84-86, p. 577-593.

COTTEREAU P., D. SOLANET, P. VUCHOT, E. FERMENT, P. NOILET. Réduction de la teneur en sucre des moûts. 20ème Congrès International de la Vigne et du Vin, Logroňo (Espagne), 2006.

DIBAN N., V. ATHÈS, M. BES, AND I. SOUCHON. Ethanol and aroma compounds transfer study for partial dealcoholization of wine using membrane contactor. Journal of Membrane Science, 2008, vol. 311, 136-146.

FRANCIS I.L. AND J.L. NEWTON. Determining wine aroma from compositional data. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine research, 2005, vol. 11, p. 114-126.

HOGAN P.A., R.P. CANNING, P.A. PETERSON, R.A. JOHNSON AND A.S. MICHAELS. A New Option: Osmotic Distillation. Chem. Eng. Prog, 1998, vol. 94, n°77, p. 49-61.

LEE S.J., D. RATHBONE, S. ASIMONT, R. ADDEN AND S.E. EBELER. Dynamic changes in ester formation during Chardonnay juice fermentations with different yeast inoculation and initial brix conditions. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 2004, vol. 55, n°4, p. 346-354.

MAKARYTCHEV S.V., T.A.G. LANGUISH AND D.F. FLETCHER. Mass transfer analysis of spinning cone columns using CFD. Chem. Eng. Res. Des., 2004, vol. 82, n°6, p. 752- 761.

MALLOUCHOS A., M. KOMAITIS, A. KOUTINAS AND M. KANELLAKI. Investigation of volatile evolution during the alcoholic fermentation of grape must using free and immobilized cells with the help of solid phase microextraction (SPME) headspace sampling. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2002, vol. 50, n°13, p. 3840-3848.

42 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

MEDINA I. AND J.L. MARTINEZ. Dealcoholisation of cider by supercritical extraction with carbon dioxide. J. Chem. Technol. and Biotechnol., 1997, vol. 68, n°1, 14-18.

MERMELSTEIN N.H. Removing Alcohol from Wine. Food Technol., 2000, vol. 54, n°11, p. 89-92.

PICKERING G.J. Low-and reduced-alcohol wine: a review. Journal of Wine Research, 2000, vol. 11, n°2, p. 129-144.

SCHNEIDER R., R.A. RAZUNGLES, C. AUGIER, R. BAUMES. Monoterpenic and Norisoprenoidic Glycoconjugates of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Melon B. as Precursors of Odorants in Muscadet Wines. J. Chromatogr., 2001, vol. 936, n°1-2, p. 145-157.

SCOTT J.A. AND D.E. COOKE. Continuous gaz (CO2) stripping to remove volatiles from an alcoholic beverage. Journal of the American Society of Brewing Chemists, 1995, vol. 53, n°2, p. 63-67.

TAKÁCS L., G. VATAI AND K. KORÁNY. Production of alcohol free wine by pervaporation. J. Food Eng., 2007, vol. 78, n°1, 118-125.

URBANO C., C. DUPRESSOIR, A. SAMSON, S. CORDELLE, G. GUILLOT AND P. SCHLICH. R-index and triangular tests to determine the perception threshold of a reduction of alcohol content in wine. 7th Pangborn Sensory Science Symposium, Minneapolis (USA), 2007.

,QGLD¶VGUDPDWLFGHEXWXSRQWKHJOREDO wine stage:

Can winemakers from downunder play a leading part via joint venture investment?

PHILIP B. GURNEY

Auckland, New Zealand [email protected]

KEY WORDS: economy, India, wine, export potential, joint venture

ABSTRACT

India has a growing middle class approaching 300 million people, and an increasing thirst for quality wine. Starting from the 1980s, a modern wine industry has emerged in India. But domestic production notwithstanding, there is also huge growth potential for Australasian winemakers in relation to boosting exports of wine into the Indian market. As well as commenting on such export potential, this essay focuses on the merits of expanding market presence in India by investing in joint ventures with Indian wine producers. Some examples of such activity are described; and the legal framework for joint venturing in India is reviewed. The ability to safeguard intellectual property rights in India (in respect of wine labels) also allows for an optimistic conclusion. %XOOHWLQGHO¶2,9YROQƒ-948-949, p. 43-59) 44 %XOOHWLQGHO¶2,9 (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

1. INTRODUCTION

India is the second most populous country on earth with a population estimated at 1.2 billion and a growing middle class approaching 300 million. It also has a grape growing tradition going back thousands of years. But even today, the average Indian is far more likely to be familiar with whisky, beer or toddy (which is made from the sap of palm trees) than with wine made from grapes. This is not surprising when one considers that winegrowing in India in the modern era, using Vitis vinifera grapevines, dates back little more than a quarter-century. However, DFFRUGLQJ WR RQH DXWKRULWDWLYH VRXUFH ³ZLQH FRQVXPSWLRQ DQG SURGXFWLon are increasing fast [in India] despite the general unsuitability of most of the country for conventional winegrowing. A prosperous, wine-drinking middle class has emerged in ,QGLD>DQG@GHPDQGIRUZLQHKDVEHHQJURZLQJ´ 5RELQVRQSS-356). In the context of these statistics, the challenge posed by the title to this paper is to identify what new opportunities may arise for Australasian winemakers IURP ,QGLD¶s accelerating development - as both a wine consuming and wine producing nation. In Part 2, some historical perspective is introduced ± including the trend to prohibition in India following independence in 1947. The emergence of three principal domestic winemakers starting from the 1980s is also described. This leads on, in Part 3, to an examination of what (if any) laws and rules are in place to govern and control the production and distribution of wine. It will be observed that QRWPXFKPRUHWKDQDERG\RI³recommended specifications´ can be identified at present although steps have been taken to establish Wine Boards at both the national and state levels. The possibility of expanding market presence in India by investing in joint ventures with Indian producers is dealt with in Part 4. It will be seen that there are already some examples of foreign winemakers entering into joint venture arrangements in India. Benefits that can be derived from joint venturing are spelt out, as well as the practical steps that need to be taken to establish an incorporated joint venture in India. The Australian wine producer Howling Wolves Wine Group ³+::*´ RI0DUJDUHW5LYHU:HVWHUQ$XVWUDOLDLVXVHGDVDQH[DPSOHRIKRZDQ Australasian wine exporter has moved forward to become a joint venture participant in India in partnership with its former distributor. The issue of safeguarding winemakers¶ intellectual property is also dealt with in this Part. This includes a brief review of relevant Indian legislation as well as the availability of the common law ³passing off´ action. The results of this review are sufficiently encouraging to allow for an optimistic conclusion to be arrived at in Part 5. Wine industry in India 45

2. ORIGINS OF INDIAN VITICULTURE

It is generally thought that grapevines were introduced into India from Persia as far back as the 4th millennium BC, but they were initially used to produce table grapes or grape-juice rather than alcoholic drinks. The first reference to wine made from grapes is apparently contained in the writings of Kautilya around 300 BC, who wrote a text on statecraft in which he mentions madhu (wine). ³'RZQWKHFHQWXULHV wine has maintained its status in India as a drink of the Kshatriya caste of DULVWRFUDWVDQGZDUULRUVUDWKHUWKDQRIWKHPDVVHV´ 5RELQVRQS  By the 16th century, European travellers to the courts of the Mughal emperors reported tasting wines grown in royal vineyards (Karibasappa, Adsule, Sawant and Banerjee, 2006, p. 2); and around the same period Portuguese colonists at Goa introduced port wine to India which led to the production of fortified wine in other regions. Centuries later, during the period of the British Raj in the 19th century, wine production was strongly encouraged for consumption by British colonists; and vineyards were planted in the Baramati, Kashmir and Surat regions. According to historical accounts, a number of Indian wines were exhibited at the Great Calcutta Exhibition of 1884 and received favourable comment. But by the end of the 19th century the phylloxera epidemic had made its way to India and effectively destroyed all grape production. In the 20th century a prohibition movement developed in India, supported by Mahatma Gandhi amongst others and following Indian independence in 1947, the new Constitution of India stated as one of its aims the total prohibition of alcohol (Robinson, 2006, p. 355). In the ensuing period, VHYHUDOVWDWHVGLGLQIDFWJR³dry´ and Indian governments encouraged vineyards to convert to table grape and raisin production. However, by 2008 only Gujarat in the west (the home state of Mahatma Gandhi) ZDVFRQWLQXLQJWRDGKHUHWRD³strict´ legislative policy of total prohibition. It seems, though, that this policy has not been an unqualified success. According to one history of the state (Yagnik and Sheth, 2005, p. 232): ³*XMDUDW LV OHJDOO\ D ³GU\´ VWDWH ZKLFK PHDQV WKDW LW KDV D IORXULVKLQJ ERRWOHJJLQJ business. With the establishment of giant corporations and entry of large numbers of professionals from outside the state, the demand for liquor increased and liquor suppliers prospered. The liquor mafia could not survive without police and political patronage and, for its part, the mafia generously funded political parties and supplied muscle power during elections.´ Some states, including Kerala and Tamil Nadu in the south, continue to apply less extreme liquor control policies by simply imposing restrictions on the production and consumption of locally distilled liquor such as arrack (which is usually distilled from coconut sap or sugarcane). But throughout the whole of India, the advertising or direct promotion of alcoholic drinks (including wine) is still prohibited; and wine distributors must rely on tasting or food pairing events in order to promote their products.

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Prohibition and other restrictions regardless, by the 1980s the genesis of the modern Indian wine industry had occurred. In 1982, Chateau Indage was established near Pune in Maharashtra and it began to produce sparkling wines in 1984. It was soon followed by Grover Vineyards which was established near Bangalore in Karnataka in 1988. Subsequently, in 1997, Sula Vineyards began to plant vines in Maharashtra at a location approximately 200 kilometres north of Mumbai. These three vineyards remain the leading producers in ,QGLD¶s domestic wine industry, although many smaller winemakers have appeared on the scene in recent years. As at May 2008, Maharashtra was UHSRUWHGWREHGRPLQDWLQJ,QGLD¶s wine industry, SURGXFLQJSHUFHQWRI,QGLD¶s grape wine (The Times of India, 4 May 2008).

2.1. Chateau Indage

Chateau Indage Estate was established in 1982 pursuant to a technical collaboration agreement with Piper-Heidsieck of France. With its main vineyard located at Narayangaon in the Sahyati Valley of western Maharashtra, Indage began by producing sparkling wine for the export market and, in 1986, it sent an initial consignment of wine to the United Kingdom. This had the distinction of being the first Indian wine ever to be exported abroad. By 1988, Indage had launched its flagship product undHU WKH DOWHUQDWLYH EUDQG QDPHV ³2PDU .KD\\DP´ and ³Marquise de Pompadour´ - this being a méthode traditionelle sparkling wine made from the Chardonnay grape. By 1990, Chateau Indage had also started to sell a variety of wine styles into an expanding domestic market and, according to its own website1, LWQRZKDV³DSHUFHQWPDUNHWVKDUHLQWKHSUHPLXPUHGDQGZKLWHZLQH FDWHJRULHVDQGDYLUWXDOPRQRSRO\LQWKHVSDUNOLQJZLQHVHJPHQW´7KHVHZLQHVDUH produced from vineyards spread over 2,500 hectares, with 20 varieties under cultivation including Chardonnay, Ugni Blanc, Pinot Blanc, Pinot Noir, Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot. The Indage manufacturing facility in Narayangaon has a production capacity of 15,000 bottles per hour, making it the largest wine production facility in India. Chateau Indage now exports its wines to 69 countries around the world ± and is seeking to enter into joint venture arrangements as well as embark on international acquisitions. It has already formed a joint venture with Wienkellerei Peter Mertes GmbH of Germany; and in 2000 it signed a memorandum of understanding with Cranswick Premium Wines Ltd of Australia to establish a joint venture to market Australian wine in India. It has also recently acquired Thachi Wines, a listed winery in South Australia. Clearly, Chateau Indage is becoming a significant player in the worldwide wine industry.

1 www.indagegroup.com

03-03-2010 12:31:29 Wine industry in India 47

2.2. Grover Vineyards

In 1988, Grover Vineyards was established at Dodballapur which is located about 40 kilometres north of Bangalore in Karnataka state. According to the Grover website2, ³QLQH YDULHWLHV WKDW UHVSRQGHG ZHOO WR ,QGLDQ FRQGLWLRQV ZHUH SODQWHG RQ DQLQGXVWULDOVFDOH´$WWKHWLPHRILQLWLDOHVWDEOLVKPHQWWKH,QGLDQRZQHUVRI*URYHU were assisted by technical viticultural expertise provided from France. This led, in 1996, to the champagne house Veuve Clicquot Ponsardin of France purchasing a minority shareholding in Grover. Veuve Clicquot now provides technical support to Grover via their subsidiaries in both Australia and New Zealand. Grover Vineyards has more than 200 hectares planted with Vitis vinifera grapes. This creates a wine producing capacity of more than 1 million litres per annum. Grover is currently producing both Sauvignon Blanc and a Viognier blend, as well as a Shiraz rose and a Cabernet Shiraz. Its premier label is La Reserve made from a blend of Cabernet Sauvignon and Shiraz grapes, and aged in French oak barrels. Grover aims to export 25 per cent of its production, and its main export markets at present are France, the USA, and the UK, with some wine being sent to Russia also.

2.3. Sula Vineyards

Sourced from grapes grown on a family estate at Nashik in Maharashtra, Sula Vineyards released its first bottled wines to the marketplace in the year 2000 with an initial emphasis on Sauvignon Blanc and Chenin Blanc. The land used to establish Sula Vineyards is owned by a local Indian family and technical assistance was obtained from an experienced Californian winemaker. According to the Sula Vineyards website3, ³WKH IRXU ZLQHULHV WKDW 6XOD RZQV WRGD\ KDYH D FRPELQHG FDSDFLW\ RI ILYH PLOOLRQ OLWUHV«>DQG@ 6XOD KDV H[SDQGHG IURP WKH RULJLQDO  DFUH family estate to 1500 acres (owned and contracted) under plantation both in Nashik as well as in nearb\ 'LQGRUL´ 7KH UDQJH RI ZLQHV SURGXFHG E\ 6XOD KDV HYLGHQWO\ expanded and now includes Cabernet Sauvignon, Zinfandel, Shiraz and Merlot. Sula sells its wines within India; and also exports some of its production to overseas destinations including the USA, UK, France, Italy, Canada and Ireland. By its own accouQW6XOD9LQH\DUGVLVQRZ,QGLD¶V³SUHPLXPZLQHFRPSDQ\ZLWKVDOHVRIRYHU WZRPLOOLRQERWWOHVLQWR´

2 www.groverwines.com 3 www.sulawines.com

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According to one source (www.bharatbook.com 9 August 2008), the three Indian winemakers whose operations are reviewed above (Indage, Grover and Sula) collectively supply more than 90 per cent of the wine consumed in India; and the balance is supplied by a number of smaller Indian winemakers, together with wine imported from overseas either in bottles or in bulk form. There are now more than 50 wineries operating in India altogether, with the vast majority being located in Maharashtra. Total domestic production in India is about 6.2 million litres per annum (Seth and Associates, 2007). The Indian domestic market for wine has huge growth potential. As noted in one recent report, wine is beginning to replace hard liquor as the drink of preference on many tables and therefore demand is rising (The Times of India, 4 May 2008). While France and Italy consume 60 to 70 litres of wine per person per year, consumption in India (for 2008) is estimated at 10 millilitres per person (which is equivalent to about one dessertspoonful!). Consumption in the future is expected to grow at more than 30 per cent per annum in India, with the demand for red wine outstripping white. It is clear that wine and other luxury consumables are likely to have increasing appeal for India¶s growing middle class. In recent times, both Maharashtra and Karnataka states have sanctioned the opening of wine bars which will further promote domestic consumption of wine.

3. GOVERNANCE OF THE WINE INDUSTRY IN INDIA

Given the growth in winemaking in India since the early 1980s, it might reasonably be expected that India already has a body of laws in place to regulate all aspects of the production and sale of wine. However, this is far from being the case at present. Whereas Australia and New Zealand have both enacted laws aimed at regulating winemaking procedures and labelling requirements, as well as to protect the quality of wine exported abroad, it is evident that India has yet to promulgate equivalent country-wide rules. A detailed review of Indian legislation at the national level discloses only one statute with any particular relevance, namely the Prevention of Food Adulteration Act 1954 (India). Pursuant to this Act, together with the Standards of Weights and Measures (Packaged Commodities) Rules 1977 (India) and various State Excise Duty rules, certain specifications have been recommended for Indian wine production (as prescribed by the Bureau of Indian Standards). Wine industry in India 49

The most important of these have been outlined as follows (Karibasappa et al., 2006): x Table wines shall be produced from the alcoholic fermentation of fresh grape juice/must, grape juice concentrate (obtained by reverse osmosis), or frozen grapes; and shall possess the varietal character derived from the grapes or the constituents formed during fermentation. x Sparkling wines shall be wines that have retained the carbon dioxide which naturally evolved from alcoholic fermentation; or wines that are carbonated externally with carbon dioxide. x Table wines shall be free from any unpleasant aroma, unpleasant taste, cloudiness or sediment and also from any suspended matter, mould, bacteria, or other growth. x Table wines shall be free from any ingredients injurious to health, but may contain permitted food additives (such as colouring) where this is specifically allowed by the relevant State Excise Department and is clearly disclosed on the label. x When a varietal is specified on the label of table wines, the taste should respect the property and the characteristics of the particular variety of grape and the style of wine. The addition of any artificial or external aromas to enhance the palate and the flavours in the wine should completely be prohibited. The natural flavor and taste of the wine should only come from the fermentation process, and characteristics of grape variety. x Table wines shall comply with stipulated tolerance levels in relation to characteristics such as residual sugar, total acid, total sulphur dioxide, tannins, and ethyl alcohol content by volume. x Table wines may be filled in glass bottles, plastic bottles, or other suitable neutral or non-reactive containers. The bottles or containers shall be properly sealed. Used bottles are generally not permitted for bottling wines ± but may be so permitted by the relevant State Excise Department if the bottles are thoroughly cleaned and sanitised in a hygienic manner by the producer and in accordance with stipulated International Organization for Standardization ³,62´ VWDQGDUGV x Wine containers must be marked legibly and indelibly with the following information: (a) Name and type of thHFRPPRGLW\ HJ³:LQH´  (b) Alcoholic content, in percentage terms by volume; (c) Batch or code number; (d) Month and year of packing; (e) Name and address of the producer; (f) Net volume in ml; (g) Geographical region from where the grapes are produced;

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(h) Varietal name of the grape, as long as 85 per cent of the bottled wine is sourced from a single variety; twin varietal names shall be stipulated (where two varieties are used); and where more than two varieties are used in the wine, it should be cleaUO\VWDWHGDV³EOHQGHG´7KHVWLSXODWLRQRI³,QGLDQZLQH´ shall not appear on the label if Indian wine is blended with foreign (imported) wine amounting to more than 25 per cent of the volume in the bottle; (i) Any other markings required under the Standards of Weights and Measures (Packaged Commodities) Rules 1977 (India), or any other statutory requirement.

Amusingly, there is one further specification not reproduced above, which VWDWHV WKDW ³WDEOH ZLQHV VKDOO KDYH WKH FKDUDFWHULVWLF WDVWH DQG DURPD RI ZKLVN\´ This may say something about the traditional Indian love affair with hard liquor! More significantly, standards relating to water used in wine production as well as guidelines for hygienic production have yet to be issued. This has led one Indian cRPPHQWDWRUWRQRWHWKDW³ZKDWWKHFRXQWU\QHHGVQRZLVDVHWRIUXOHVDQGQRUPV to monitor quality compliance so that [the] credibility of Indian wines as a product RUEUDQGLVHVWDEOLVKHG´ (Seth and Associates, 2007). In addition, there are ongoing difficulties with the proper storage and transportation of wine within India. In 2008, the Indian Ministry of Food Processing Industries announced, on its own website4, that a National Wine Board has been established at Pune in the state of Maharashtra (as a non-profit body corporate). Its mandate includes the following: x To disseminate best viticulture practices. x To fix grade/standards of juice, raisins and wine. x To provide quality testing facilities for wine to meet global standards. x To advise farmers, industry and government on commercial and technical issues relating to grapes and other fruits/wine.

The most important point to bear in mind when considering the regulation of wine production in India (or lack thereof) is that India is a federal republic where the Constitution allows the states autonomous powers to manage alcohol related policies. And this is complicated by the fact that many states are ruled by opposition parties from time to time. The federal government has control over customs duties that are chargeable on alcoholic beverages imported into India; but it performs only an advisory role in relation to the production and sale of alcoholic products within India. By contrast, each state has full control over the manufacture and distribution of alcohol within its own borders ± as well as responsibility for levying state excise duties and (in some cases) imposing prohibitLRQUXOHV6RPHVWDWHVUHTXLUH³safety holograms´ to be printed on each locally produced bottle of wine certifying that duty has been paid and that the wine is of a prescribed standard.

4 www.mofpi.nic.in Wine industry in India 51

Only two states in India have started to implement the regulation of wine production in any real detail and these are (not surprisingly) Maharashtra and Karnataka. IQ  0DKDUDVKWUD LVVXHG LWV ³Grapes Processing Industry Policy´ which largely dealt with tax and licensing matters. It also provided for the HVWDEOLVKPHQW RI ZLQH LQVWLWXWHV LQ RUGHU ³WR maintain the quality of wine at the LQWHUQDWLRQDOOHYHO´ 0LWUDS 232). Such an Institute has been set up already in the Krishna wine park which lies within Sangli district, with more on the way. In addition, a Grape Processing Industry Board has been set up in Pune, comprising industry representatives together with government officials and Wine Institute personnel, with responsibility for the following (Mitra, 2003): x To inspect and control the quality of grape cultivation and wine production. x To give approval to labels. x To inspect quality and standard norms. x To draft various schemes for sale of processed grape products on the global level.

KarnaWDNDDOVRDQQRXQFHGLWVIXWXUH³Grape Processing and Wine Policy´ in 2007, including the intended establishment of a Grape Processing Industries Board. It is noted that draft rules dealing with the manufacture of wine were published in Bangalore on 1st July 2008 for public consultation. If introduced into law as currently drafted, these rules will impose a number of requirements pertaining to the process of wine production ± LQFOXGLQJDQREOLJDWLRQ³WRXVHRQO\IUHVKIUXLWV´>VLF@ At this point in time, then, legislation governing production and hygiene standards for wine is quite limited in India. It must be assumed that quality control within the major Indian wineries has been largely a matter of self-regulation; and in many cases this has been assisted by the employment of specialist foreign winemakers on-site in India. The efficacy of such self-regulation must be even more critical, where wine produced in India is destined for overseas export markets. 52 %XOOHWLQGHO¶2,9 (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

4. JOINT VENTURING IN INDIA

As seen already in Part 2, some Indian winemakers ± notably Chateau Indage ± have already moved toward the establishment of winemaking joint ventures in India with the desired investment flowing in from foreign winery operations. Following the commencement of domestic Indian wine production in the 1980s, overseas winemakers have progressively begun to take a closer interest in investing in winemaking activity in India (and indeed in Asia generally) rather than simply exporting to the region. A good example of this is the recently announced joint venture inYROYLQJ ,QGLDQ ZLQHPDNHU 1DWXUH¶s Bounty Wines & Allied Products and Casa Vinicola Calatrasi of Sicily, Italy. According to a newspaper report (The Financial Express, India, 5 March 2008), a joint venture was to be formed between these two parties to enable wine to be imported into India in bulk form, and then bottled in India for domestic sale. However, the joint venture was only likely to proceed if there was found to be a promising market for various Sicilian brands currently being imported into India in bottles. The report goes on to state that India imports 1.7 million litres of wine (per annum) mostly from France, Australia, Italy and the U.K. ± about three quarters of which comes in as bulk wine.

4.1. Motivating Factors

The rationale for Australasian winemakers to consider joint venturing in foreign markets has not changed substantially over the last quarter-century. As was QRWHG LQ  ³7KHUH LV D QHHG IRU >$XVWUDODVLDQ@ FRPSDQLHV WR EH DZDUH RI WKH opportunity for business expansion not only through export trade, but also through offshore joint ventures. In the past, many companies have sought to do no more than increase exports per se. Joint venture investment offers an opportunity to PD[LPLVHH[SRUWHDUQLQJVE\FRQFHQWUDWLQJRQPDUNHWGHYHORSPHQW´ *XUQH\ p. 3). In the case of wine production in India, there is one overriding reason why intending foreign investors need to search for a local joint venture partner. This is due to the fact that ownership of vineyard land and control of the viticultural process is reserved solely for Indian nationals (Seth and Associates, 2007). However, a foreign invested joint venture is permitted to set up a winery facility in India; to process grapes for the production of wine and to handle the distribution of the finished product. Indeed, foreign winemaking technology and skills are much sought after in India ± and this form of intellectual property might be licensed to the Indian joint venture or even contributed as a form of investment capital in lieu of cash. Wine industry in India 53

So although a local partner is a prerequisite for a grassroots wine producing operation in India (involving the cultivation of land), this is not necessarily disadvantageous. On the contrary (Gurney, 1983): Many foreign investors in fact prefer joint ventures with host country partners to total foreign ownership. A local partner may be able to expedite the commencement of business by liaising with the government, suppliers, and outlets, and by overcoming language problems. The involvement of a local partner often leads to readier acceptance of a project in the host country. ThHORFDOSDUWQHU¶s capital contribution may help to cover high start-up costs, and the commercial risk is spread accordingly. A joint venture may be inevitable because the local partner controls the market or source of supply, or is able to provide skills or facilities which are essential to the success of the enterprise. Frequently, the local partner has acted for the foreign investor as an agent or distributor prior to the formation of the joint venture. In relation to winemaking specifically, a local joint venture partner might also be able to provide valuable advice on matters such as local labelling requirements and taste or varietal preferences. The ability to educate Indian consumers on all aspects of wine consumption ± whether through wine clubs or otherwise ± is another key area that a local partner might handle effectively, thus growing market share for the foreign invested joint venture and its branded wines. This is likely to be particularly important, given that the direct advertising or promotion of wine (and other alcoholic beverages) is not permitted in India (as mentioned in Part 2). Producing wines locally in India through a joint venture arrangement may also be a clever method of circumventing protectionist tariff barriers. This was apparently a key reason for HWWG entering into a joint venture with its Indian distributor to manufacture wine in India rather than simply export bottled wines SDUWLFXODUO\ WKH ³Eight Vineyards´ label) from Australia into that country. According to a newspaper report (The Financial Express, India, 26 August 2007), ³RQWKHEDFNRIJURZLQJZLQHFRQVXPSWLRQLQ,QGLDDQGVWHHSLPSRUWGXW\:HVWHUQ Australia based HWWG is entering into a 50-50 joint venture agreement with Indian distiller and distributor Brihans to manufacture wine in India [in the Shreepur area, about 100 kilometres south of Mumbai]. The newly formed company will be called Brihans Howling Wolves Wines Pvt Ltd. This is the first time an Indian company has tied up with [an] international wine major to manufacture and sell foreign brands in WKHFRXQWU\´7KHILQDOFRPPHQWUHIHUVWRWKHIDFWWKDWDOOZLQHVDUHVWLOOWREHVROG under the Howling Wolves brand name in India ± but moving the production of ³Eight Vineyards´ into India would allow its local pricing to remain low due to the fact that it would in the future be categorised as a local wine and be eligible for tax and import duty relief. Overall, then, it is evident that moving to a joint venture relationship in India was a critical step for HWWG in expanding its presence in the Indian domestic market. To date, it seems that no other Australasian based winemakers have followed the lead of HWWG and entered into joint venture arrangements on the ground in India ± but it must surely be just a matter of time before this occurs. 54 %XOOHWLQGHO¶2,9 (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

4.2. Legal Framework

Turning to Indian law as it relates to the establishment of joint ventures in India, the first important point to note is that there is no specific legislation governing joint ventures per se. The usual structure used to set up a joint venture in India is a private limited company vehicle - and this will be treated exactly the same as a domestic Indian company even though a percentage of shares is held by a non-resident. The two sides to the joint venture may choose to incorporate a new company and subscribe for shares therein in their agreed proportions; or the foreign investor might subscribe for newly issued shares in an existing Indian company, thus turning it into a joint venture. There will invariably be a joint venture agreement concluded between the parties beforehand which will set out in some detail the terms and conditions upon which the joint venture will operate; and the DUWLFOHVRIDVVRFLDWLRQRIWKHMRLQWYHQWXUHFRPSDQ\³VKRXOGFRQWDLQWKHVWLSXODWLRQV mentioned in the joint venture agreement, and clearly delineate the rights and REOLJDWLRQVRIWKHSDUWQHUV´ 6HWKDQG$VVRFLDWHV  In India, it is important to make the joint venture agreement conditional upon all necessary consents or licences being granted by governmental agencies such as WKH )RUHLJQ ,QYHVWPHQW 3URPRWLRQ %RDUG ³),3%´  RU WKH 5HVHUYH %DQN RI ,QGLD ³5%,´ ,IVXFKDSSURYDOVDUHQRWIRUWKFRPLQJit should be stipulated that the joint venture will not proceed (in which case, neither side should incur any penalty). In general, though, the process for sanctioning foreign direct investment into India is in the process of being liberalised. For instance, a foreign (non-resident) investor needs the approval of the RBI to acquire shares in an Indian company and to establish a place of business in India. However, the RBI has (as from 1993) granted JHQHUDO SHUPLVVLRQ IRU WKH ,QGLDQ VLGH WR D MRLQW YHQWXUH ³to subscribe to the memorandum and articles of association of a company for the purpose of LQFRUSRUDWLRQLQ,QGLD« and such company is also permitted to issue shares to the non-residents subject to the condition that the total face value of shares is not to H[FHHG,QGLDQ5XSHHV ³5V´ WKHFRPSDQ\ZLOOQRWHQJDJHLQWKHDFWLYLW\RI agriculture/plantation/dealing in real estate other than its development; and the FRPSDQ\ILOHVDGHFODUDWLRQZLWK5%,ZLWKLQGD\VRILWVLQFRUSRUDWLRQ´ 6HWKDQG Associates, 2007). The issue of non-involvement in land ownership and agricultural/plantation activities is an important one. As noted already in Part 4.1., these sectors are reserved for Indian nationals. But as long as the investment is solely directed into the winery operation, grape processing and distribution of the finished wine, the joint venture investment can proceed automatically without any need to obtain FIPB approval beforehand (Seth and Associates, 2007). Thus, the procedure for initiating a joint venture investment into the wine industry in India appears to be considerably more straightforward than would be the case for comparable investments into some other Asian locations. Wine industry in India 55

Every joint venture agreement should cover a number of important matters to avoid disputes arising between the partners once the winemaking joint venture is up and running. These might include the intended financial gearing of the company as between shareholders equity and external borrowings; confidentiality provisions, particularly where winemaking know-how is contributed to the joint venture from abroad; exit provisions should it be necessary to terminate the joint venture at some future point in time; and an ongoing dividend policy whilst the joint venture is up and running. Finally, Australasian winemakers considering making an investment into an Indian joint venture might find it worthwhile to structure the investment via a holding company in the Indian Ocean state of Mauritius. The combination of a favourable India/Mauritius double tax treaty, together with the corporate tax regime that operates in Mauritius itself, can eliminate the Indian tax burden on capital gains extracted from India by a non-resident shareholder ± when the time comes to dispose of equity in an Indian joint venture. To achieve this, it would be necessary for the winemaker in question to set up an intermediary company in Mauritius which would make the required investment into the joint venture company in India. This has nothing to do with reducing withholding tax on dividends remitted out of India, as the latter no longer imposes such tax (although the Indian joint venture company would still be required to pay a dividend distribution tax at the rate of 12.5 per cent when dividends are distributed to shareholders). Under the India/Mauritius double tax treaty, the right to tax capital gains becomes the prerogative of the recipient treaty country (in this case, Mauritius). But because Mauritius does not impose any capital gains tax whatsoever, the profit from the sale of shares in the Indian joint venture can pass through the Mauritian holding company and back to the Australian or New Zealand shareholder without any tax being imposed upon the (potentially substantial) capital gain ± either in India or Mauritius. So all in all, this represents an attractive tax planning scenario for investing into an Indian winemaking joint venture.

4.3. Safeguarding intellectual property

There is a risk, where winemaking technology or secret know-how has been contributed to the joint venture (whether by way of equity contribution, or licensing arrangement), that this form of intellectual property might be inadequately safeguarded in India and be leaked to a third party for one reason or another. As has been suggested in Part 4.2., appropriate confidentiality provisions should be inserted into the joint venture agreement (or licensing agreement) to try and safeguard against such an event. In addition, the foreign investor might endeavour to retain management control over the joint venture and its daily operations where possible. This could be achieved by way of a management agreement supplemental to the joint venture agreement. In some cases, the foreign side might be given the authority to appoint the joint venture board chairman with a casting vote, regardless of the equity percentages held by the respective parties to the joint venture. Having management control of the joint venture company (or other vehicle) would be a useful first step in safeguarding intellectual property relating to viticulture. 56 %XOOHWLQGHO¶2,9 (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

The greatest potential for loss of intellectual property by Australasian based winemakers may arise, however, where wine is simply exported to India - and the exporting winemaker does not have any legal presence in India through a joint venture or otherwise. Bearing in mind that India is now developing its own wine industry while at the same time importing branded wines from Australia, New Zealand and other countries, there must be some ongoing risk that wine labels could be copied or duplicated by unscrupulous competitors. It is pertinent, therefore, to review what steps can be taken in India to protect goodwill in Australasian wine labels. The most obvious course of action open to both exporters and investors is to register their wine labels or brands as trade marks in India. Under the Trade Marks Act 1999 (India), foreign persons/entities are able to register trade marks in India; and the effect of such registration is to confer exclusive rights to the use of such trade marks for a period of ten years. It is also possible to renew the registration for a further period at the expiry of the ten years. The statutory remedy for unauthorised use of a registered tradePDUNLQ,QGLDLVDQDFWLRQIRU³infringement´ ; and the maximum penalty under s 104 of the Indian statute for selling goods or providing services using a falsely applied trademark, is imprisonment for a period of up to three years and/or a maximum fine of Rs 200,000. In the event that a wine label or brand name is misappropriated in India but no trademark has been registered there, it would also be possible to mount a common law action in the tort of passing off. To be successful in such an action, an Australasian winemaker would need to prove three elements: x Reputation and goodwill in the label or brand in India; x A misrepresentation which has injured the business or goodwill of the Australasian winemaker; and x The likelihood of RQJRLQJGDPDJHWRWKHSODLQWLII¶s business and goodwill.

There have been a number of high profile passing off cases conducted in India, but they are often long drawn out and costly affairs. Success with a passing off action in India would normally result in the grant of an injunction and/or the award of monetary damages. Finally, it is noted that India has enacted its own Geographical Indications of *RRGV 5HJLVWUDWLRQ DQG 3URWHFWLRQ  $FW  WKH ³*,$´  ZKLFK HVWDEOLVKHV D system for registering both Indian and foreign geographical indications in relation to classes of goods (such as wine). The term ³geographical indication´ is defined in s 2 of the GIA as follows: Geographical Indication in relation to goods, means an indication which identifies such goods as agricultural goods, natural goods or manufactured goods as originating or manufactured in the territory of a country, or a region or locality in that territory, where a given quality, reputation or other characteristic of such goods is essentially attributable to its geographical origin and in case where such goods are manufactured goods one of the activities of either the production or of processing or preparation of the goods concerned takes place in such territory, region or locality, as the case may be. Wine industry in India 57

This definition is similar to that contained in Article 22.1 of the World Trade 2UJDQL]DWLRQ ³:72´  VSRQVRUHG $JUHHPHQW RQ 7UDGH-Related Aspects of ,QWHOOHFWXDO3URSHUW\5LJKWV ³75,36´ $VDPHPEHURIWKH:72DQGDVLJQDWRU\WR TRIPS, India enacted the GIA in 1999 to give effect to its obligation to protect the geographical indications of interested parties pursuant to Articles 22 and 23 of TRIPS. The GIA came into force on 15 September 2003. Under s 21, the registration of a geographical indication gives to the authorised user an exclusive right to use the geographical indication in relation to the relevant goods. According to one commentary on the GIA (LVVXHGE\WKH86(PEDVV\1HZ'HOKL ³E\UHJLVWHULQJD geographical indication in India, the rights holder can prevent unauthorised use of the registered geographical indication by others and promote economic prosperity of producers of goods produced in a particular region. Registration of the geographical indication is not mandatory as an unregistered geographical indication can also be enforced by initiating an action of passing off against the infringer. It is, however, advisable to register the geographical indication as the certificate of registration is SULPDIDFLHHYLGHQFHRILWVYDOLGLW\DQGQRIXUWKHUSURRIRIWKHVDPHLVUHTXLUHG´ Thus it should be possible to register distinctive names liNH³&RRQDZDUUa´ or ³Marlborough´ as geographical indications under the GIA and gain registered protection for them in India. On balance, WKHQ LWVHHPVWKDWZLQHPDNHUV¶ intellectual property rights are likely to be quite well protected in India ± taking into account the availability of trade mark and geographical indications legislation as well as the common law action in passing off. The fact that India has a British legal heritage and remains a member of the Commonwealth of Nations is also helpful in conveying a sense of familiarity in terms of legal process ± and any hypothetical risk in relation to the possible loss of goodwill in Australasian wine labels is probably less pronounced in India than in some other Asian locations which have quite different legal regimes.

58 %XOOHWLQGHO¶2,9 (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

5. CONCLUSION

There is a growing thirst for quality wine amongst the more affluent sections of Indian society. But India is not just a consumer of imported foreign wines ± it is also now home to a steadily developing wine industry of its own. As has been seen in Part 2, wines are being produced by three major Indian winemakers together with a growing army of smaller players. Although the governance and regulation of the wine industry in India is still in its infancy, it is apparent that self-regulation (as to quality) has been of a sufficiently high standard to make it possible for some Indian wine to be exported to developed country markets. As noted in Part 2.1., Chateau Indage has led the charge in this area. In many cases, the quality of wine produced in India has been enhanced by the contribution of imported technical skills. A common strategy used has been to incorporate international winemaking experts into the production process in India by entering into formal joint venture arrangements. It has been suggested in Part 4 that Australasian winemakers keen to get a foothold in the Indian domestic market should consider entering into joint ventures with local Indian industry participants. The rationale behind moving toward a joint venture relationship has been discussed, with the ultimate objectives being to achieve stronger market presence and increase profit overall. There might also be opportunities to license winemaking technology to a partly owned Indian joint venture in return for an ongoing royalty stream. A review of Indian law as it relates to joint venture activity has shown that a company with foreign invested capital is treated exactly the same as a local company, and no special regulatory approval is needed for a straightforward investment into an Indian wine processing and distribution venture. The important issue of safeguarding winemakers¶ intellectual property has also been considered in Part 4.3.; and it has been seen that India has effective trademark and geographical indications legislation in place. In addition, a common law passing off action could be mounted there. Thus, it has been concluded that intellectual property rights are quite well protected in India. In short, India offers exciting opportunities to Australasian winemakers ± not only as an export destination but also as a location in which joint venturing with a local wine producer may be an attractive option. If Australia and/or New Zealand succeed in concluding relevant free trade agreements with India in the future, then trade and investment opportunities might potentially improve further still. Perhaps, then, the best advice to Australasian winemakers at this early stage is carpe diem5 - and look to initiate export business and/or investment activity into India before too many competitors from other wine-SURGXFLQJ QDWLRQV JHW WKHLU ³feet in the door´ first.

5 A Latin phrase, popularly WUDQVODWHGDV³VHL]H WKHGD\´ Wine industry in India 59

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GURNEY Philip B. Joint Venture Investment in ASEAN. ISEAS Fellowship paper, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, New Zealand, 1983.

G.S. KARIBASAPPA, P.G. ADSULE, S.D. SAWANT and K. BANERJEE. Present Scenario of Wine Industry in India. (www.indianwine.com 2006)

Sudipto MITRA. Wine Industry in Maharashtra: an Analysis. Centre for Civil Society, 2003, p. 221-233.

Jancis ROBINSON (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Wine. UK: Oxford University Press, 2006 (3rd ed.).

Suchitra SETH and Associates. Wine Import India (www.sethassociates.com 2007).

Achyut YAGNIK and SHETH. The Shaping of Modern Gujarat ± Plurality, Hindutva and Beyond. India: Penguin Books, 2005, 328 p.

Other sources

Bharatbook.com report entitled ³Indian wine market witnesses tremendous growth´ (www.prlog/org/10101848 2008) Indian legislation website: www.commonlii.org/in/legis/num_act/ The Financial Express, India The Times of India US embasV\1HZ'HOKLUHSRUWHQWLWOHG³IPR Toolkit ± India´ http://newdelhi.usembassy.gov/iprgeoind.html 2007

:LQHPDNHUV¶ZHEVLWHV www.howlingwolveswines.com www.indagegroup.com www.groverwines.com www.sulawines.com

Indian governmental websites www.maharashtra.gov.in www.mofpi.nic.in

Law Framework Compilation on GMOs Cartagena Protocol Codex Alimentarius Australia United States European Union South Africa Argentina Brazil

Andrea CHARRY CORREA, Ignacio SÁNCHEZ RECARTE

International Organisation of Vine and Wine – OIV Economy and Law Unit 18, rue d’Aguesseau – 75008 Paris – France [email protected] [email protected]

KEYWORDS: Law, biotechnology, GMO.

This document is a working paper and cannot be interpreted as OIV's official position. 62 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949) trade. logies on how to logies on to how gical diversity. Itgical

in a uniform manner uniform in a manipulation and use ditation as well as the international otechnology that can have that can otechnology ation and use of all the all and use ation of icensing system, a low risk and requirements for foods, and requirements other related purposes. other related purposes. ons nable use of biolo ocusing specifically in the cross-border in the cross-border ocusing specifically es Living Modified Organisms (OVMs), Organisms es Living Modified principles and methodo at , f the Ethics and Community Committee.the Ethics and the safe transference, the safe ntarius Commission intended to guide and Commission intended ntarius certification and accre certification a risk evaluation, based security, tying a risk chnology nisms issued from modern bi nisms issued movement, transit, movement, transit, manipul adopted food standards presented adopted presented food standards aw frame to reconcile the respective to reconcile needs to protect aw frame nvolving gene technology and nvolving gene technology commerce and environment. and environment. commerce with GMOs, and establishes a l with GMOs, and establishes zation and, in doing so,facilitate to zation and, in doing

It is an international instrument that regul instrument It is an international movement. promotes the This agreement biote procedures and establishing scientific on solid carry out this evaluation, thus allowing, of OVMs. to cross-border It applies adverse effects for the conservati on and sustai l provides an international industry, biotechnological Collection of internationally by the Codex Alime and established to assist in their harmoni products issued from modern biotechnology modern from products issued Orga Living Modified resulting of definiti and promote the elaboration establishment Objective Objective Regulates all the dealings control procedure, the conditions for control procedure, the and Committee Advisory Technology Gene interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. 2003 06/21/2001 Regulates all the activities i Date Date 09/11/2001 09/11/2001 GMO Acts, Legislations and/or Regulations

1. 09/11/2003 09/11/2003 from Foods Derived Biotechnology Act Technology Gene 2000 Act / Legislation / Act / Legislation Regulation Food Labelling Technology Gene 2001 Regulations

This document is a working paper and This document isworking paper cannot be a Country / Organisation Cartagena Protocol CODEX Alimentarius Australia

Act / Legislation / Country Date Objective Regulation Regulates the introduction of organisms and products altered or produced trough Plant Protection Act 2000 genetic engineering which are “plant pests or which there is reason to believe are 2000 “plant pests”. Provides the legal requirements for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Federal Insecticide, registration process for all pesticides and covers regulation of new substances and Fungicide and 1996 DNA in plants when it is pesticidal in nature or whereas the pesticidal substance United States Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) produced by a plant has been genetically modified. Law Framework Compilation onGMOs

Federal Food, Drug and Amended Regulates the introduction of new foods, whether they are conventionally produced or Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) 2002 developed by genetic engineering. 63

This document is a working paper and cannot be interpreted as OIV's official position. 64 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949) for n the general an Food Safety an Food Safety lling of genetically unique identifiers unique oduced from GMOs. oduced from GMOs. feed safety in particular, in particular, feed safety procedures to underpin procedures to underpin slation, in particular Directive es, the means to provide a strong es, the means food and food and safety. It lays dow safety. It d establishes the Europe establishes ability measures and labe and measures ability ty of food and feed products produced from ty of food and feed products produced from containing ingredients pr containing iament and of the Council. of and iament

sms for food and feed use; sms for food and tation and GMO labelling. tation and GMO development and assignment of and assignment development to environmental risk;to environmental ganizational arrangements and nciples and responsibiliti nciples and release of GMOs into the placing of the e nvironment and sence threshold.

organisms, provided for in legi organisms, provided - Food and feed produced from or - Food and - The principles applying principles - The assessment; for risk methodology - A common mechanism; - A safety public consul - A mandatory - Genetically modified organi - Genetically feed containing GMOs; - Food and - Single authorization procedure; authorization - Single management; risk and - Assessment - Labelling; pre - GMO adventitious GMOs on the market. Establishes: Regulates the deliberate Objective Objective decision-making in matters of food and fee decision-making in matters of food level, and national at Community and Authority. science base, efficient or and in general, feed and governing food principles The Regulation applies to applies three types of product: The Regulation harmonizes the trace This Regulation modified organisms and the traceabili genetically modified Parl European of the 2001/18/CE a system for the Establishes It establishes common pri genetically modified organisms. Establishes: Establishes: interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. 10/17/2002 10/17/2002 Date Date 04/18/2004 04/18/2004 04/18/2004

of the

Directive 2001/18/CE Directive amended by 2008/27/CE European Parliament European of Council the and of amending 09/22/2003 Directive 2001/18/CE Regulation N° Regulation 1829/2003 of the Parliament European of Council the and of amended 09/22/2003, by Regulation 298/2008/CE of 03/11/2008 N° Regulation 1830/2003 N° 65/2004 Regulation 01/14/2004 N° 178/2002 Regulation 01/01/2005 This document is a working paper and This document isworking paper cannot be a

Organisation Organisation European Union

Act / Legislation / Country Date Objective Regulation

Environment Amended Provides measures to protect and controlled utilization of the environment and for Conservation Act, 1989 1997 matters incidental thereto.

Gives significant powers to the South African Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT) on biosafety issues. There are two acts that have a direct bearing on genetically modified (GM) crops: 1) The National Environmental Management Act, 1998, which provides for

National Environmental cooperative environmental governance by establishing principles for decision making Law Framework Compilation onGMOs 1999 Management Act 1998 on matters affecting the environment, institutions that will promote cooperative governance and procedures for coordinating environmental functions exercised by South Africa organs of state. 2) The National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, 2004, which provides for the management and conservation of South Africa’s biodiversity. Provides measures that promote a responsible development, production, use and Genetically Modified application of genetically modified organisms to ensure that all the activities involving December Organisms Act the use of GMOs (importation, transportation, production, release and distribution) is 1999 (Act N° 15 of 1997) carried out responsibly as to limit possible harmful consequences on the environment. Foodstuffs, Cosmetics Controls the sale, manufacture and importation of foodstuffs, cosmetics and and Disinfectants Act 01/01/1973 disinfectants; and provides for incidental matters. 1972 65

This document is a working paper and cannot be interpreted as OIV's official position. 66 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949) animal he evaluation process. he evaluation r the building, cultivation, r the building, cultivation, use as feed and/or food. and/or as feed use fied vegetal organisms. e as a feed and/or food. and/or food. e as a feed ied corn seed in t ied corn seed us experimental projects.experimental ort, transfer, import, research, e xport, storage, ort, transfer, of genetically modified genetically environment of ase into the and oversight mechanisms fo and oversight issued from GMOs for products issued from and/or nt of GMOs nt of genetically modi genetically nt of

ly modified animal on of genetically modif on of genetically d their derivates. d their derivates. Objective Objective Regulates the developme application. safety standards Provides production, manipulation, transp and rele trading, consumption organisms (GMOs) an interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. Date Date 2003 Regulates the developme 2003 Regulates the genetical 2003 Regulates the producti 2002 regarding its aptitude to be Regulates GMO evaluation 2002 to be GMO evaluation regarding its aptitude 1992 2005 Act / Legislation / Act / Legislation Regulation SAGPyA N° Resolution 39/03 SAGPyA N° Resolution 39/03 (amending 656/92, Resolutions 289/97) 837/93 and SAGPyA N° Resolution 57/03 Resolution SAGPyA N° by The 644/03. Applied Advising Technical Committee concerning GMO use CTAUOGM (SENASA) N° SENASA Resolution 412/02 Resolution SAGyP N° Resolution 656/92 Biosafety Law which 11.105/2005, replaces the 8.974/1995 Biosafety Law This document is a working paper and This document isworking paper cannot be a

Country Argentina Brazil

2. Definitions

Organisation Definitions

"Modern biotechnology" means the application of: - In vitro nucleic acid techniques, including recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and direct injection of nucleic acid into cells or organelles, or - Fusion of cells beyond the taxonomic family, that overcome natural physiological reproductive or recombination Cartagena barriers and that are not techniques used in traditional breeding and selection. Protocol Law Framework Compilation onGMOs "Living organism" means any biological entity capable of transferring or replicating genetic material, including sterile organisms, viruses and viroids. "Living modified organism" means any living organism that possesses a novel combination of genetic material obtained through the use of modern biotechnology.

“Modern Biotechnology” means the application of: - In vitro nucleic acid techniques, including recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and direct injection of nucleic acid into cells or organelles, or - Fusion of cells beyond the taxonomic family, that overcome natural physiological reproductive or recombinant barriers and that are not techniques used in traditional breeding and selection1. “Conventional Counterpart” means a related organism/variety, its components and/or products for which there is experience of establishing safety base don common use as foods. CODEX “Conventional Counterpart” also means: Alimentarius - A microorganism / strain with a known history of safe use in producing and/or processing the food and related to the recombinant-DNA strain. The microorganism may be viable in the food or may be removed in processing or rendered non-viable during processing; or - Food produced using the traditional food production microorganisms for which there is experience of establishing safety based on common use in food production. “Recombinant-DNA Microorganism” means bacteria, yeasts or filamentous fungi in which the genetic material has been changed through in vitro nucleic acid techniques including recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and direct injection of nucleic acid into cells or organelles.

1 This definition is taken from the Cartagena Biosafety Protocol under the Convention on Biological Diversity. 67

This document is a working paper and cannot be interpreted as OIV's official position. 68 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949) nucleic acid in vitro nucleic Legislation / Ref. / Ref. Legislation Gene Technology Act Technology Gene 2000 acid into cells or organelles. acid organism, or that nism, or that belongs nism, ied organisms; be genetically modified (the initial organism), (the initial m a GMO. rect injection of nucleic nucleic rect injection of tically modified aph (a) only because the human because the human aph (a) only

cation of genes or other genetic genetic material has been changed through through genetic material has been changed use of gene technology; or gene technology; use of netically modified orga netically modified ts from an organismts from regulations for the purposes of this Act. for the purposes regulations declared by the regulations not to means: means: n being is covered by paragr deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and di (DNA) acid deoxyribonucleic c cell gene therapy; or or c cell gene therapy; the initial organism beca the initial modified by gene technology; or technology; modified by gene regulations to be a ge the regulations not the regulations to be a gene netically modif to be ge netically ed by the regulations interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. means a plant, in which the the a plant, in which means means any technique for the modifi technique any means as a thing (other than a GMO) derived or produced fro derived a GMO) than as a thing (other does not include: means any biological entity that is: entity that is: biological any means to a class of things declar Viable; or or Capable of reproduction; Capable of transferri ng genetic material. in being traits that occurred Anything declared by the belongs to a class of organisms belongs to a class of organisms organisms. being has undergone somati being has A human being, if the huma A human being, An organism declared by Sexual reproduction; or Sexual reproduction; or Homologous recombination; or in the specified technique Any other been has that An organism An organism that has inherited particular trai inherited has An organism that

------Definitions Definitions but does not include: but does not include: “Organism” “Gene technology” material, but organisms” modified “Genetically “GM product” “Recombinant-DNA Plant” “Recombinant-DNA techniques, including recombinant including techniques, This document is a working paper and This document isworking paper cannot be a

Country Australia Law Framework Compilation on GMOs 69 Federal Food, Drug Act and Cosmetic (FFDCA) Legislation / Ref. / Ref. Legislation Plant Protection Act of Act of Plant Protection 2000 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Act Rodenticide (FIFRA) indirectly a, fungi, parasitic nt belong to any genera to any nt belong can directly or can ch as insects, viruses and to food and feeds, including to food and feeds, . This category also . This category also includes nce that is produced and used ants, and animals (and some ants, and animals (and some combinant DNA technology, or tered or produced through genetic ganism that is subjected to APHIS ganism that is subjected to APHIS

brate animals, bacteri brate animals, nerally Recognized as Safe”. Recognized as Safe”. nerally

under the EPA purview: under the EPA biopesticides

an the use of re an the use (Bt) toxins, and; and; toxins, (Bt) is a pesticidal substa is the likelihood of insects to develop a resistance to the is the likelihood of insects to develop ieved to be, a plant pest. plant pest. ieved to be, a protect the plant from pests, su protect the plant from cals produced by microbes, pl produced by microbes, cals are considered to be “Ge are is used to make reference used “GRAS” is ctor or vector age cipient organism, or ve ctor vector classes of GE plants fall ganisms, agents or substances, which substances, or ganisms, agents to be a plant pest. to be a plant pest. interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. to plants or parts thereof. egulated article”. is any organism which has been al Bacillus thuringiensis Plant Protection Act of 2000, an or 2000, Act of Plant Protection des produced by GE plants as des produced

is defined as any living stage of inverte is defined as any living stage or taxa designated as, or bel or taxa designated as, The article is deemed The article is deemed Plants containing Plants containing Plants expressing resistance to viruses. viruses. to resistance Plants expressing The donor organism, re The donor

- - - - “regulated article” “plant pest” GE foods and GE feeds, which GE foods minerals). To date, only two To date, only minerals). Definitions Definitions pestici EPA classifies other naturally occurring chemi the term policy, Under FDA’s engineering if: engineering A However, under the modify living to modify organisms. (GE) genetic engineering is called a “r regulations A APHIS uses the term “ biotechnology ” to me APHIS uses “Plant-incorporated protectant (PIP)” protectant “Plant-incorporated fungi. management” “Insect resistance bioengineered plant. by the living plant, typically to damage or cause injury or cause injury damage plants, viruses; or any or plants, viruses; or any and This document isworking paper cannot be a Country United States 70 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949) Legislation / Ref. / Ref. Legislation Regulation N° Regulation 1829/2003 of the Parliament European of Council the and of 09/22/2003 Directive 2001/18/CE Directive 2001/18/CE ut not containing ut not containing s not occur naturally s not occur naturally y be used as food or used as food y be he exception of human vector system and their system vector nism of heritable materialnism macro-injection and micro- macro-injection and tion of new combinationstion of of through the fusion of two or through ng of or produced from GMOs. from produced ng of or es produced by whatever means means es produced by whatever

replication or of transferring genetic or of transferring replication sation techniques where live cells with sation techniques means a GMO that ma means they do not naturally occur they they do not naturally but in which means an organism, with t means including micro-injection, including micro-injection, rect into an orga introduction tion of nucleic acid molecul ast fusion) or hybridi techniques involving the forma thods that do not occur naturally. naturally. not occur thods that do table genetic material are formed table means food containing, consisti food containing, means host organism in which host means derived, in whole or in part, from GMOs, b GMOs, or in part, from in whole derived, means interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. recombination. the production of food. the production of food. ntinued propagation; propagation; ntinued genetic material has been altered in material has been altered a way that doe genetic means any biological entity capable of any biological means Recombinant nucleic acid Recombinant nucleic acid Techniques involving Techniques the di Cell fusion (including protopl virus, bacterial plasmid or other virus, bacterial organism, into any outside an genetic material by the inser incorporation into a are capable of co prepared outside the organism prepared outside the encapsulation; encapsulation; me of more cells by means new combinations of heri new combinations

- - - ‘Genetically modified organism for food for food use’ organism modified ‘Genetically Definitions Definitions from GMOs’ ‘Produced or consisting of GMOs. food’ modified ‘Genetically “Organism” material. as a source material for as a source “Genetically modified organism (GMO)” modified organism “Genetically beings, in which the by mating and/or natural by mating and/or terms of this definition: the Within and This document isworking paper cannot be a Country / Organisation European Union Law Framework Compilation on GMOs 71 of

heterologous proteins Genetically Modified Modified Genetically Organisms Act (N° 15 of 1997) Law Nº 11.105 03/24/2005 Legislation / Ref. / Ref. Legislation a live cell, or which contains which contains rrant ones) into . ans in order to lism, replication, 2 genetic material of material of which – de live cells through de live cells through ducing or transferring ducing or not have independent not have ugh mating or natural or ugh mating are no longer under any processes that do not contain GMOs, , genetic material a corresponding meaning. meaning. a corresponding acters to progeny. acters to progeny. or by physical me or by physical

nts that can multiply in multiply nts that can GMO that does that does GMO genes (to replace abe udes a microorganism. udes a microorganism. nvironment by whatever means, where where nvironment by whatever means, ve and be disseminated. and be disseminated. ve ular, capable of metabo at may be made known. may at n a viable form of a GMO viable n a hat is capable of repro hat is capable multiplication; DNA/RNA synthetic segments DNA/RNA synthetic multiplication; ses th lecules manipulated outsi lecules , an organism the genetic , an organism the genes or , an organism ” es not occur naturally thro naturally not occur es nipulating DNA/RNA recombinant molecules. molecules. recombinant DNA/RNA nipulating ssible hereditary char bstances obtained by biological llular or non-cell ned by and any system of barriers c modification” shall have c modification” shall y genetic engineering technique. engineering y genetic ribonucleic acid – RNA” netically modified vector

organism is likely to survi likely to organism is ng genetic material and incl one that does not contai one interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. , the activity of ma , the activity of NA/RNA are also considered. are NA/RNA refers to a product obtained from a from obtained product to a refers , the introduction of GMOs into the e , a biological entity, ce entity t every biological , each and chemically defined pure su defined chemically

reproduction or of transferri reproduction or of of a ge living cells by means genetically alter the living cell. “Genetically modified organism (GMOs) organism modified “Genetically which has been modified in a way that do been modified in a way which has “geneti and recombination or both, “Gene release” delivering functional for , a technique “Gene therapy” the organisms are no longer contai so that the person’s control, information about transmi determining , mo DNA/RNA molecules” “Recombinant “Genetically modified organism (GMOs)” organism modified “Genetically changes made to natural to natural or synthetic DNA/RNA segme changes made this yet, DNA/RNA molecules resulting from D to natural equivalent “Genetic engineering” by an has been modified DNA/RNA “GMO derivate” capacity for reproduction or capacity for Definitions Definitions “Organism” “Organism” acid - DNA, “Deoxyribonucleic genetic material, including virus and other clas genetic material, including virus GMO derivates do not include the 2 and This document isworking paper cannot be a or recombinant DNA. Country South Africa Brazil 72 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

Legislation / Ref. / Ref. Legislation Resolution SAGyP N° Resolution 656/92 SAGPyA N° Resolution 39/03 (amending 656/92, Resolutions 289/97). 837/93 and SAGPyA N° Resolution 57/03 SAGPyA N° Resolution by 644/03. Applied Advising The Technical Committee concerning GMO use CTAUOGM (SENASA) N° SENASA Resolution 412/02 ction, macroinjection, rited preparation outside preparation rited hat combination does nothat combination does ce a new combination of ce a new combination al plasma or other vector al plasma or other vector ich anyone of its genes or ich anyone of selection, identifying it from characteristic. characteristic. owing techniques of modern owingof techniques techniques used in traditional techniques by means of the applicationby means of

asmatics. asmatics. , any vegetal organism that owns a organism that owns any vegetal , in vitro fertilization, implying genetic )” in c material inhe c material y, that overcome natural physiological natural y, that overcome ti combinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and (DNA) and acid combinant deoxyribonucleic produced by any method outside that virus, outside by any method produced d genetic material. d genetic material. an organism which t , that one organism in wh , that one ganism, by direct microinje into cells or organelles, or into cells or organelles, r system, in such a way to produ modified by means of the foll to be inserted in which will be inhere which c matter that has been obtained c matter that has on, by any method, of a virus, bacteri on, by any method, interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. been transformed. been transformed. combination barriers and that are not combination barriers means the gene that confers the GMVO new confers the GMVO the gene that means

, , means the one gene allowing the GMVO the one , means nucleic acid techniques, including re techniques, acid nucleic In vitro direct injection of nucleic acid direct injection of nucleic breeding and selection. Fusion of cells beyond the taxonomic famil cells beyond the taxonomic Fusion of reproductive or re transformation of a euka ryotic cell. that organism; use Where the recombinant DNA molecule is The insertion in an or gene of or other means, microencapsulation

- - - - Definitions Definitions “Modern Biotechnology”: genetic material which is able group of nuclear genomes and citopl genomes nuclear of “Vegetal genome” group Organism” Modified “Genetically has been genetic material nucleic acid molecule that has been system of a vecto plasma or other bacterial biotechnology: the inserti biotechnology: “Marking gene” “Marking and within happen naturally organisms that have not not organisms that have gene” “Principal “Genetically Modified Vegetal Organism (GMVO Organism Vegetal Modified “Genetically new combination of geneti modern biotechnology: modern biotechnology: This document is a working paper and This document isworking paper cannot be a Country Argentina Law Framework Compilation on GMOs 73 N/A Exceptions Depends on each country’s legislation Threshold level of GMO f f s s nt for ry measures to to ry measures the safe handling, his purpose, includinghis purpose, safe handling, storage, handling, storage, safe as food or feed, or for as food or feed, for fied organisms within the onal introduction into the introduction into the onal

modified organisms and are not modified organisms and are not this Protocol applicable to the applicable this Protocol on, no later than two years after years after on, no later than two requirements for requirements on accompanying: on accompanying: information, including the name and the including information, rther information and, as appropriate, and, as appropriate, information rther om the living modified organisms are om ter; and contains a declaration ter; and contains that the living modified organisms; specifies theliving specifies modified organisms; rules and standards. es serving as the meeting of the Parties to of the Parties es serving as the meeting led requirements for t other living modi any requirements for the any requirements for rvation and sustainable use of biological diversity, rvation and e subject to intentional transb oundary movement d, packaged and transported under conditions o transported and d, packaged GMO Labelling

characteristics, any on into the environment, as well as a contact poi re that documentati 3. human health, each Party shall take necessa Party human health, each interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. that are intended for direct that are use ty with the requirements of ty with the requirements es that they "may contain" living contain" es that they "may rce of this Protocol; tion relevant international tion relevant international ned for contained use clearly identifies them a ganisms that are desti ned for contained organisms that are intended for intenti modified organisms that ar Living modified organisms Living modified or Living modified storage, transport and use, the contact point for fu point use, the contact storage, transport and the name and address of importer expor environment of the Party of import and any environment of the Party movement is in conformi exporter. scope of the Protocol, clearly identifies of the Protocol, them as scope and/or relevant traits identity and processing, clearly identifi intended for intentional introducti further information. The Conference of the Parti further shall take a decision on the detai this Protocol unique identificati any identity and of their specification of entry into fo the date living modified organisms; and specifies for further point the contact use, transport and to wh and institution individual the address of consigned; and

a) b) c) Each Party shall take measures to requi Each Party shall take measures safety, taking into considera into safety, taking Mandatory In order to avoid adverse effects on the conse are handle this Protocol of scope within the taking also into account risks to into account risks taking also require that living Labelling

This document is a working paper and This document isworking paper cannot be a

Country / Legislation Cartagena Protocol 74 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

medicines medicines Pharmaceutical and/or products. Products with present signs Products proportion non of GMO in a superior to 0.9%. the to destined Products feeds foods or direct use as or for transformation, with or technically accidental traces of GMO smaller to 0.9%.

Yes Yes N/A Yes Yes a) b) c) Exceptions

1% 1% Depends on each country’s legislation Threshold level of GMO ≤ 0.9% ≤ 0.9%

ntains

ning GMOs,

offered to the final ption with respect to with respect to ption ngredient at the time of ngredient at the time as mixes or combination, must as mixes or combination, must organisms” or “This product “This product organisms” or organisms” or “This product “This product organisms” or interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. containing GMOs, the words “This product co “This GMOs, the words containing genetically modified modified [name of genetically contains a label; on organism(s)]” appear For pre-packaged products consisting of, or products For pre-packaged products For non-pre-packaged contains product “This consumer the words genetically modified [name of modified genetically contains appear on, or in connection organism(s)]” shall product. display of the with, the

Mandatory feeds and foods sold All declare the percentage of consum the weight or volume of each i food. and/or of the feed the elaboration N/A Voluntary Labelling Mandatory ≤ Mandatory For products consisting of or contai ensure that: shall operators a) b)

the

and feed and

This document is a working paper and This document isworking paper cannot be a Country / Legislation Legislation Country / Codex Alimentarius Australia Act 2000. Gene Technology Regulations Technology Gene 2001. United States Act 2000. Plant Protection European Union Directive 2008/27/CE amending Directive 2001/18/CE. N° 1830/2003 Regulation and concerning the traceability labelling of genetically modified organisms and of food traceability products produced from GMO. from products produced

Threshold Country / Legislation Labelling Exceptions level of GMO

Yes a) The following ingredients of a foodstuff need not be named in Mandatory the list of ingredients: - Constituents of an ingredient which have become temporarily These Regulations establishes a separated during the manufacturing process and are later labelling guideline for: reintroduced in their original proportions; a) Foodstuff obtained through - Any substance other than water which is used as a solvent or Law Framework Compilation onGMOs certain techniques of carrier for a food additive or nutrient and which is used in an genetic modification amount that is consistent with good manufacturing practice; South Africa (different in respect to the - Water or other volatile ingredients evaporated in the course of composition, nutritional manufacture; Regulations Relating to value, mode of storage, - The constituents of a compound ingredient in a case where the the Labelling of preparation or cooking, compound ingredient would not be required to bear a list of Foodstuffs Obtained allergenicity or human or ingredients if it were itself being sold prepacked as a foodstuff. Through Certain ≤ 5% animal origin)3; Techniques of Genetic b) The following foodstuffs need not be labelled with a list of Modification, which b) Foodstuff obtained through ingredients: came into force the certain techniques of - Water to which no ingredient other than carbon dioxide has 01/16/2004. genetic modification may been added and the name of which indicates that it has been bear a claim with regard to carbonated; improved with regard to - Vinegars which are derived by means of natural fermentation improved or enhanced exclusively from a single basic product and to which no other characteristics such as ingredient has been added; or composition, nutritional - A dairy product to which no ingredient other than milk, a starter value and reduced culture or rennet has been added; causation of allerginicity. c) All ingredients of a mixture, compound or blend as well as foodstuffs for which compositional standards have been laid down under the Act or any another Act, shall be exempt from the

3

For more detailed information about the labelling requirements see point (2) of the Regulations Relating to the Labelling of Foodstuffs Obtained Through 75 Certain Techniques of Genetic Modification in the Annexe.

This document is a working paper and cannot be interpreted as OIV's official position. 76 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949) which Agricultural ses of a catering ses of a catering by regulation. by regulation. t the purchaser is t the purchaser nes, goats, sheep, cts Act, 1989 (Act N°.cts Act, 1989 ons to appear on the ons to tions of foodstuffs that tions of ng to the specification on ng to the specification ruit which have not been not ruit which have shall be indicated on the shall be indicated on the at of bovines, goats, sheep, at of bovines, such, shall, unless otherwise such, shall, se provided the package except for an for an package except the t been prepacked; prepacked; t been exempt from the requirements exempt from (Act N° 119 of 1990); of 1990); (Act N° 119 vant trade documents reflecting documents vant trade to be consumed within to 24 hours bulk other than by retail and bulk other than by retail amounts in which the ingredients ssed meat of bovi premises of preparation; premises he provisions of the Act; of the he provisions diate consumption; and sold on the premi and sold and where health statements/health and where health statements/health of animal or fish; animal of d by these regulati 1) of the Act relati 1) of the Act

of manufacture. of manufacture. establishment for imme establishment por transparently-packed Unpacked or in is sold Any foodstuff which all particulars require or foodstuff; label of a prepacked intended Flour confectionary pigs and poultry which have no pigs and poultry on the are sold as snacks by rele which is accompanied Unprocessed fish, unprocessed me Unprocessed fish, unprocessed to identify the contents of able of the type indication Any foodstuff prepared pigs and poultry prepacked in such a way tha a way such in prepacked pigs and poultry Hens' eggs and ostrich eggs; eggs and ostrich Hens' the contains Provided that where the drink 60 of 1989): "tartrazine", colourant these facts prescribed, warning are t label in accordance with Fresh, unprocessed vegetables and f Fresh, unprocessed vegetables mixed; and for prepacked Wheaten products which are not Produ to in the Liquor referred Any drink Unprocessed fish, unproce terms of the in terms exist standards compositional 1990 Act, Product Standards

------provisions of section 3( the label of proportions or otherwi are present, unless explicitly as sold d) The following foodstuffs, provided in be these regulations, regarding labelling: interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. This document is a working paper and This document isworking paper cannot be a

Threshold level Country / Legislation Labelling Exceptions of GMO

Argentina Resolution SENASA N° 412/02. Argentinean Foodstuffs Code (Código Alimentario Argentino - CAA). Resolution MERCOSUR, Chapter V “Labelling Voluntary N/A N/A and Advertising Food Regulations”. Law Framework Compilation onGMOs MERCOSUR Technique Regulation concerning food labelling (MERCOSUR/GMC/RES. Nº 26/03).

Mandatory Brazil The label on the packaging or the container should state, in the main panel and together with a “T” symbol printed Decree n° 4.680 of 04/24/2003, which in a yellow triangle that stands for “transgenic”, one of regulates the right to information, provided by the following expressions depending on the case: the Law N° 8078 of 09/11/1990, Foods and ≤ 1% N/A food ingredients for human consumption or a) "(Product name) transgenic"; animal feed containing or produced from b) "Contains (name of ingredient or ingredients) genetically modified organisms without transgenic(s)"; or prejudice to the other standards. c) "Product produced from (product name) transgenic."

77

This document is a working paper and cannot be interpreted as OIV's official position.

Law Framework Compilation on Organic Production Codex Alimentarius Australia United States European Union South Africa Argentina

Andrea CHARRY CORREA, Ignacio SÁNCHEZ RECARTE

International Organisation of Vine and Wine – OIV Economy and Law Unit 18, rue d’Aguesseau – 75008 Paris – France [email protected] [email protected]

KEYWORDS: Law, organic production.

This document is a working paper and cannot be interpreted as OIV's official position. 80 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949) ods with a view to ods with a delines are intended to delines for the Production, ducts placed on the market duced under organic or bio- duced Foods in view of the c products at the international c products at the international teria for the substances allowed in teria for the substances s and Territories. s and Territories. The requirements ate organically produced fo duction concept and the scope of the and the scope duction concept establish national to governments wishing establish ng of Organically Pro products in transition/conversion); products in transition/conversion); Labelling developed the Gui developed Labelling ng misleading claims. The Gui claims. ng misleading nimum requirements for pro implies been pro they have on of requirements for organi on of requirements processing aids; Production; Labelling; storage; Transport and Preparation; Preservation; and Use of additives Packaging. General sections describing organic pro General the Description and definitions; and definitions; Description (including and claims Labelling Rules of production and preparation, including cri including preparation, and of production Rules systems; Inspection and certification Import control. text; organic production;

Objective Objective concern:        The Codex Committee on Food stipulate mi These Standards or which states with labelling systems for the Commonwealth, St dynamic Processing, Labelling and Marketi growing production and international trade in international growing production and preventi facilitating trade and facilitate the harmonizati provide assistance level, and may also in this area. regulations include: The Guidelines       interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. Date Date 1999 1992 Acts, Legislations and/or Regulations

1. Act / Legislation / Act / Legislation Regulation Guidelines for the Guidelines Processing, Production, Marketing and Labelling Produced of Organically Foods Standard The National and Bio- for Organic Dynamic Produce This document isworking paper and a cannot be Country / Organisation Codex Alimentarius Australia

Country / Act / Legislation / Date Objective Organisation Regulation Organic Foods This Act establishes national standards governing the marketing of certain agricultural Production Act of products as organically produced product; assures consumers that organically produced 1990, Title XXI – 11/28/1990 products meet a consistent standard; and facilitates interstate commerce in fresh and Organic Certification processed food that is organically produced. of the 1990 Farm Bill Law Framework Compilation onOrganicProduction

United The National Organic Program Final Rule establishes and /or includes: States  The National Organic Program (NOP) under the direction of the Agricultural Title 7, Part 205, Marketing Service (AMS), an arm of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA);  National Organic 12/21/2000 A national-level accreditation program to be administered by the AMS for State Program; Final Rule officials and private persons who want to be accredited as certifying agents;  Requirements for labelling products as organic and containing organic ingredients;  Provides for importation of organic agricultural products from foreign programs determined to have equivalent organic program requirements. This Regulation establishes a new legal framework for organic products and provides Council Regulation the basis for the sustainable development of organic production while ensuring the (EC) N° 834/2007 of effective functioning of the internal market, guaranteeing fair competition, ensuring 06/28/2007 on consumer confidence and protecting consumer interests. organic production 01/01/2009 It establishes common objectives and principles to underpin the rules set out under this and labelling of Regulation concerning: organic products and  repealing Regulation All stages of production, preparation and distribution of organic products and their control; European (EEC) N° 2092/91  The use of indications referring to organic production in labelling and advertising. Union Commission Regulation (EC) N° This Regulation lays down specific rules on organic production, labelling and control in 889/2008 of respect of the following products: 09/05/2008 laying  01/01/2009 Live or unprocessed agricultural products; down detailed rules  Processed agricultural products for use as food; for the  Feed; implementation of EC  Vegetative propagating material and seeds for cultivation. N° 834/2007 81

This document is a working paper and cannot be interpreted as OIV's official position. 82 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949) red ecological, ing to organic production and external markets of and external ducts that are conside apply to the following products which following products the to apply ng the Authority of application and and application ng theof Authority er: ction 15 of the Agricultural Product Standards Standards Product ction 15 of the Agricultural fication conditions. fication om, organic production methods. organic production methods. om, development of internal of development ry, descriptive labelling referr ry, descriptive rtain agricultural products, agricultural rtain human consumption; human consumption; organic products and foods. nected therewith. nected therewith. c and establishes certi Plants and plant products; plant products; Plants and Live animals; bee keeping; from Products Processed products for fr Inputs influencing, or resulting The sale and export of ce and export of The sale products; imported agricultural of certain The sale products; Other related

The ministry of Agriculture has under se has of Agriculture The ministry which these Regulations, added 1990, Act of carry, or are intended to car methods:      establishi N°25.127, It regulates the Law promotion and the promulgates or biological ecological, Objective Objective This Act provides legal measures to control ov to control legal measures provides This Act    matters con and for pro describes identifies and defines, This Law biological or organi interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. Draft Draft Resolution Date Date 09/01/1991 09/01/1991 09/08/1999 Act / Legislation / Act / Legislation Regulation Regulations DRAFT: Regarding Control of Over the Sale Organically Produced in the Products Republic of South Africa Decree Law N° 97 01/25/2001 Agricultural Product of Act Standards 1990 Law N°25.127 concerning Ecologic or Organic Production This document isworking paper and a cannot be Country South Africa Argentina Law Framework Compilation on Organic Production 83 establish raw materials, he requirement of he requirement ecological, biological ecological, organic production of organic ration, packing, ration, packing, ration, solving on the on the ration, solving ganic products to avoid ganic products to avoid finished products and by-finished products and e, Fishing and Feeding ol); ol); previously obtained the previously obtained the words or companies that will words or companies -products under the ecological, the ecological, under -products cal, Biological or Organic Product Biological or Organic Product cal, nts, including t nts, including National Service of Health and Agro- Service of Health National , biological or , biological ganic food elabo mary production, elabo mary production, prevent disloyal competition. at of Agriculture, Cattl of application the Law N °25.127 will and r to obtain the denomination of r to obtain the organic vegetal production and organic vegetal ials, intermediate products, ials, intermediate on Program (PRONAO). on Program (PRONAO). in food processing).in food of farming origin, lization of products farming zers and Enhancers); zers and Enhancers);

c denomination that have not the incorporation of marks, pass the incorporation of marks, cturing plants and identification; identification; plants and cturing allow the clear identification of ecological and to the consumers to damages the practices that raw mater that raw the practices or stamped official Will dictate, following a proposal by the Will Quality, the norms alimentary products should follow in orde or organic. Registry regulate the National of Ecologi Will Organizations. Certifiers instrume and establish the procedures Will (SAGPyA): ANNEX C (allowed products C (allowed ANNEX Control systems; Fertili A (allowed ANNEX disease contr and for plague products B (allowed ANNEX Scope of Application; Scope of Application; Concept; Importation; pri Transition, on Norms of Production: division and manufa d products and by and intermediate products, finishe d products organi biological or Prohibits the commercia certification. corresponding Creates the Organic Producti Creates the that the Secretari Establishes

  

3. 1.     Establishes a normative frame for frame a normative Establishes animal origin. and or of production Regulates the norms following points:     Objective Objective 2. interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. 06/03/1992 06/03/1992 Date Date

Act / Legislation / Act / Legislation Regulation Decree Law N° 206 Decree Law N° 206 02/16/2001 Resolution SAGyP N° 423/92 This document is a working paper and This document isworking paper cannot be a Country Argentina 84 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949) 1992 part 1992 rd mpany Registry for mpany Registry 1992 on plague and on plague 1992 rd assuring objectivity in assuring explicit nomination to the to explicit nomination Contracts or Contracts of Contracts or of Contracts 1992, including products products including 1992, rd Organic Product Certifiers for Organic Product Certifiers ontrol System contemplated in ontrol System oduction creates, indicating the the indicating oduction creates, agriculture.

ding the Minimum Requirements of Requirements of ding the Minimum oduct Certifiers; the fixed term for the application of the the fixed term for application ached to their control. June 1992. 1992. June rd solution IASCAV June 3 solution N° 82 of organic 3 ganic Product Certifying Co ganic Product c Product Certifiers; c ution SAGyP N° June 3 423 of ate in their objectives the rtification of organic products rtification garding the Registry of garding n SAGyP N° 423 of June 3 of June n SAGyP N° 423 ns established within the C ns established Committee Committee for Organic Pr the cases, the Statutes, Social Social the cases, Statutes, r inscription procedures; of the Registry. of the Registry. market, and specifies th e following points: specifies market, and ct to the operators att the operators ct to renovation, establishing for plague control in for plague nts of new recruits; recruits; nts of new approves the annexed regulation regar approves the annexed regulation adds to part 3 of the ANNEX of Re of the ANNEX to part 3 adds Concerns of the Authority of Application. of the Authority of Concerns General requirements fo requirements General Specific requireme Creation of the Registry for Organi Creation of the Registry of Organic Pr Registry the nature of Obligatory

   surcharge and/or the loss and/or surcharge Determines the tariff for the National Or for the National tariff Determines the annual inscription and exportation and internal   Approves the norm annexed re Advisory Technical Creates the Article 5 of Resol b) of Amends part Resolutio Updates ANNEX B of Art. 1° faculties of the same. faculties and integration coordination, Objective Objective disease handling. disease handling. based on pheromones based 3.8 indicating that, for all 3.8 indicating that, for have to contempl constitution will inspection and/or ce functions of their function with respe SAGyP N° 423 of 1° of Regulation the Art. Art. 2° Mea Precautionary Control and interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. 06/03/1992 06/03/1992 06/03/1992 06/03/1992 11/05/1992 06/04/1993 03/04/1994 08/04/1994 Date Date

Act / Legislation / Act / Legislation Regulation Resolution SAGyP SAGyP Resolution N° 424/92 Resolution IASCAV IASCAV Resolution N° 82/92 IASCAV Resolution N° 62/92 SAGyP Resolution N° 354/93 IASCAV Resolution N° 116/94 IASCAV Resolution N° 331/94 This document isworking paper and a cannot be Country Argentina Law Framework Compilation on Organic Production 85 Guidelines for the Guidelines Production, Production, Processing, Labelling and Marketing of Organically Produced Foods Legislation / Ref. / Ref. Legislation

tic or for ng into “organic” “organic” ogical activity. It activity. ogical or accomplished by using, accomplished by using, rms of pollution thereto rms of pollution produced in accordance with in accordance produced which promotes and enhances Guidelines for the Production, for the Production, Guidelines of the land, and type of crops crops of the land, and type version, the appropriate length version, the appropriate “biologic” .

certification body or authority. or authority. body certification ction Methods have been also established been also have ction Methods turn nutrients to the land, thus processing methods in order to maintain order to maintain processing methods in at all stages; all stages; at icultural systems; sent working paper). sent working paper). ical cycles, biol ical and soil , “ecologic” adapted systems. This is r as well as minimize all fo well as minimize r as chanical as opposed to using synthe chanical methods, the Foreword of the the Foreword tion management system tion management Definitions

emphasis on careful emphasis ng farm through a period of con a period ng farm through denotes products that have been products that have denotes 2. ocally organized agr of Organically Produced Foods Produced of Organically is designed to: is designed specific factors such as the history as the factors such specific nt practices in prefere nce to the use of off-farmnt practices inputs, taki certified by a duly constituted l qualities of the product l qualities of the interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. ng biodiversity, biolog function within the system. function within the system. and animal origin in order to re and animal origin definition for the terms definition for the is a holistic produc ical activity; activity; ical Guidelines (see Annex of the pre Guidelines is a labelling term that is a labelling n the whole system; diversity withi n the biological Enhance Increase soil biolog long-term soil fertility; Maintain of plant Recycle wastes minimizing the use of non-renewable resources; resources; non-renewable the use of minimizing resources in l Rely on renewable Promote the healthy use of soil, water and ai Promote the healthy that may result from agricultural practices; practices; agricultural from that may result Handle agricultural products with Handle agricultural the organic integrity and vita and the organic integrity Become established on any existi of which is determined by site- of which is determined and livestock to be produced. be produced. and livestock to “organic production system” production “organic

        production ecologic”. ecologic”. production The Rules of Production and Preparation for Organic Produ Preparation and of Production The Rules the 4 of under Section “ However, the following terms are defined in Marketing Processing, Labelling and “Organic” and organic production standards “Organic agriculture” agroecosystem health, includi agroecosystem manageme emphasizes the use of conditi ons require locally account that regional where possible, cultural, biological and me any specific materials, to fulfill An There is not a specific There Definitions Definitions This document is a working paper and This document isworking paper cannot be a Country / Organisation Codex Alimentarius 86 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949) The National The National for Organic Standards and Bio-Dynamic Produce Legislation / Ref. / Ref. Legislation Organic Foods Production Act of XXI – 1990, Title of Organic Certification Bill Farm the 1990

uce

to Steiner’s as otherwise requirements to an requirements to an n the Organic Foods Foods n the Organic for all organic export applied during the 3 during the applied agricultural product, an product, an agricultural export certificate. export certificate. cated by Rudolf Steiner and Steiner and cated by Rudolf oped according oped s and operator practices as s and not be produced on land to be produced not c Certification of the 1990 Farm c Certification produced and handled in accordance in accordance handled and produced specific additional additional specific icals, have been icals, from practical application, experience application, and practical from th or phytosanitary th or phytosanitary for Organic Production withi organic plan agreed to by the producer and agreed to by the producer organic plan n

ure, not artificial. ure, not artificial. ans organic farming system organic farming ans ment derived derived ment of 1990, Title XXI – Organi ctices that emphasize the: ctices that emphasize hancement, while producing optimum quantities of prod quantities hancement, while producing optimum labelled as an organically produced including synthetic chem including the application of preparations indi of preparations the application chemicals, except synthetic chemicals, use of without the harvest of the agricultural products; harvest of in this title and excluding livestock, means the natural activators devel the natural means is the official govern ment certificate required interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. fertilizer or synthetic chemicals. fertilizer or synthetic chemicals. means an agricultural product that is agricultural an means include any other official heal official other include any means an agricultural system that introduces an agricultural system means means the application of pra application the means means existing or formed by nat means existing or formed Use of renewable resources; resources; Use of renewable soil and water; energy, of Conservation Environmental maintenance and en without the use or artificial use or artificial without the Have been produced and handled Have been produced and provided in this title; provided Except as otherwise which any prohibited substances, which any prohibited substances, Be produced and handled in compliance with a handled Be produced and years immediately preceding the years immediately and certifying agent. product handler of such

      described in theses Standards. in theses Standards. described “Organic produce certificate” not does consignments. It “Organic” “Organic management me practices” research based on these preparations. preparations. research based on these “Bio-dynamic preparation(s)” original indications. “Natural” organic system. These are based organic system. These are based on for manage developments subsequent “Bio-dynamic” Produced” “Organically Bill. Standards to the and according National Therefore, Act of 1990, to be sold or Production agricultural product shall: with the Organic Foods Production Act with the Organic Foods Production Definitions Definitions This document isworking paper and a cannot be Country Australia United States Law Framework Compilation on Organic Production 87

Title 7, Part 205, Organic National Rule Program; Final Legislation / Ref. / Ref. Legislation EC N° 834/2007 on 834/2007 EC N° organic production and labelling of organic products and repealing 2092/91 EEC N°

”

1

2 promote ecological promote ecological ricultural product is ricultural ts or food group(s)) with the Organic Foods with the Organic Foods ents of part 205; ents of d in accordance with the d in accordance General Principles and the Principles General product. A non-agricultural n, which is extracted from,n, which is extracted c conditions by integrating sold, labelled, or represented labelled, sold, agricultural, such as a mineral agricultural, such as a oduce thod compliant with the rules thod compliant with the rules will be considered. will be neral, plant, or animal matter and Rule. Therefore, and according to and according Rule. Therefore,

2(21) of the Organic Foods Production §205.101 or §§205.202 through through §§205.202 §205.101 or paration and distribution. (specified ingredien (specified cycling of resources, cycling of resources, in §205.101 or §§205.270 through §§205.270 through in §205.101 or , see Chapter I of the Regulation. , see Chapter I of the Regulation. managed in accordance , citric acid, or pecti , citric acid, spond to site-specifi ent in an agricultural ll other applicable requirem wastes products of any organism. organism. of any products wastes present Regulation of the present definition, the the present definition, of of production, pre of regulations in this Final any agricultural product that is “made with organic lated to organic production. cultural product so that the identity of ag practices that foster practices that foster requirements specified specified requirements ss as defined in section 650 , or : a substance that is not a product of interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. isolated, or fraction. or fraction. isolated, : a substance that is derived from mi from : a substance that is derived

Regulation (EC) N° 834/2007 means the use of production me means biodiversity. biodiversity. “organic” , that is used as an ingredi , : the remains, residues, or : the remains, residues, or

to an agricultural product pr term that refers to an : a labelling means coming from or re coming from means , Title II, Article 4. , Title II, Article Despite the above and for the effects the above and for Despite : Handled in accordance with the Handled in accordance 205.207 or §§205.236 through 205.239 and a 205.239 through §§205.236 205.207 or of this part 205. requirements other applicable all 205.272 and e requirements specified in requirements with th e Produced in accordance Production established by “100% organic”

balance, and conserve balance, cultural, biological, and mechanical cultural, biological,  : a production system that is “Organic production” inAct and regulations this part Production to re “Organic matter” unrecognizable in the exact, unrecognizable (natural)” “Nonsynthetic a synthetic proce not undergo does Act. “Organic” NOP Final Rule, section 205.102 of the as must be:  or a bacterial culture gum as such includes any substance, product also of an agri isolated from, or a fraction the Act and Organic Foods Production “Nonagricultural substances” “Nonagricultural “Organic” at all stages in this Regulation, established “Organic production” Definitions Definitions NOTE Norms of Production equally established in the Norms of Production equally This document is a working paper and This document isworking paper cannot be a Council Regulation 834/2007 To see the Norms of Country / Organisation United States European Union 1 2 88 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

Law 25.127 on Law 25.127 Biological Ecological, or Organic Production Legislation / Ref. / Ref. Legislation “Draft” Regulations “Draft” Regulations Regarding the Control of Over the Sale Organically Produced Products s s ntain ogen and and ogen systems, by systems, by l, thus minimising l, thus minimising allow them to express cated in these regulations cated in these regulations the time. These the time. lify as fully organic. Provided red to these regulations for at red to these regulations for at of the farm-land, and type of of of the farm-land, and type version, the appropriate length version, the appropriate em and its corresponding agro-em and its corresponding provide the nutrients destined to nutrients to the soi duced, processed and/or handled in handled and/or duced, processed biological diversity; biological icultural systems; covering its physiological and ecological needs. and ecological covering its physiological cattle conditions that will cattle conditions that products, not animals and animal products. animals and animal not products, r as well as minimise all forms of pollution thereto pollution of all forms well as minimise r as sources and avoiding the use of chemical synthesi chemical use of avoiding the and sources ements. ements. of organic compounds. organic compounds. of c management practices indi practices c management effect for human health, must: for human health, must: effect gin in order to return : all farming production syst farming : all as such but which does as such but which not qua cific factors such as the history as the factors such cific processing methods in order to mai on careful processing methods in emphasis ng farm through a period of con a period ng farm through ocally organised agr ocally organised h biological cycles in order to h biological cycles systems, capture and hunt, viable in hunt, viable and systems, capture fertility of grounds and grounds fertility of l qualities of the product at all stages; all stages; product at l qualities of the within the whole system; within the interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. of their innate behavior, of their only to plants and plant plants and only to means chemical compounds containing carbon combined with hydr compounds containing chemical means or "Organic" means a product which has been pro has which a product means "Biologic" , means produced by the specifi means crops and livestock to be produced. be produced. to livestock crops and of which is determined by site spe of which is determined Offer healthy products; Offer healthy products; increase the Maintain and/or resources; Conserve hydric or intensify eart Present/display and animal life; vegetal cultures and vegetal systems, to natural Provide characteristics the basic Enhance biological diversity Enhance biological Increase soil biological activity; fertility; soil improve long term and Maintain of plant and animal ori Recycle wastes use of soil, water and ai Promote the healthy practices; from agricultural that may result products with Handle agricultural the use of non-renewable resources; resources; non-renewable the use of resources in l Rely on renewable vita and the organic integrity Become established on any existi

     means of the rational handling of natural re handling of natural the rational of means potential poisonous products and others of “Organic” "Ecologic" which are designed to: which are       the chemistry means “Organic chemistry” “Organic compounds” well as the harvesting as industry,   Definitions Definitions often also with oxygen, nitrogen and other el and nitrogen with oxygen, often also means a production system which has adhe means conversion” “Organic in compliance with these regulations. least one year and has been certified term is applicable that the “Organic product” This document isworking paper and a cannot be Country South Africa Argentina Law Framework Compilation on Organic Production 89 ; lling and lling and “biological” , Guidelines , may refer to organic neral Standard for the neral Section 4 of the documents, the product, documents, the product, the production the or most the product or its ingredients “biodynamic” ganic production methods where,ganic production methods , d plant products d plant

“organic” the requirements of the requirements to a method of agricultural production; of agricultural to a method thods. an operator who is subject to the inspection is subject to the inspection who an operator rdance with the Codex Ge ments laid down in Section 7 of the Section 7 down in laid ments Guidelines; sing material or commercial the country where the which, in the country diminutives including

indications referring to or referring indications Guidelines for the Production, Processing, Labe Production, for the Guidelines e operator who has carried out carried has operator who e

accordance with accordance Foods establishes that: Foods establishes unprocessed plants an unprocessed plants he name and/or code number of the officially recognized inspection the officially code number of he name and/or rket, suggests to the purchaser that ation is subject. is subject. ation described by terms described the aims, including adverti aims, including garded as bearing Labelling into account, the into account, or imported under the require

, or words of similar intent of similar , or words 3.

The product was produced or imported by was The product The labelling refers to t to which th or certification body recent processing oper recent processing Such indications show clearly that they relate clearly show Such indications The product was produced in was The product measures laid down in Section 6 of the down in Section 6 of laid measures Guidelines Guidelines

 Organic products should be labelled in acco Organic products should of and claims The labelling  production methods only where: production methods   Labelling of Prepackaged Foods. of Prepackaged Labelling interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position.

A product will be re in the labelling or cl Organically Produced of Marketing 1. 2. or its ingredients, is production me to organic according obtained were above Taken the “ecological” product is placed on the ma Labelling

Guidelines for the Guidelines Processing, Production, Marketing and Labelling Produced of Organically Foods Legislation / Ref. / Ref. Legislation This document is a working paper and This document isworking paper cannot be a

Organisation Organisation Codex Alimentarius 90 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

or officially or officially ration to treatments ration to treatments such indication is such indication ts intended for human intended ts 8, Member Countries can Countries can Member 8, Annex 2, Table 4 of the Annex : ng containing more than one more than one ng containing agricultural production and are production and agricultural or are derived from, products derivedor are from, products or imported under the erator who has carried out the erator who has carried y where: ucts containing less than 95% 95% less than ucts containing agricultural origin not listed in Annex Annex in listed not agricultural origin their territory: territory: in their marketed §1.1(b) ; ; in question, unless in question, and in 3.5 (95%) on the basis of the basis the (95%) on and in 3.5 only salt and water); l ingredients excluding only salt from an organic and non-organic origin; origin; non-organic and from an organic an operator subject to the regular inspection regular to the subject an operator ubstances not listed in ubstances not listed organic ingredients tion methods onl tion methods been subjected during prepa during been subjected Guidelines ingredient of non- in accordance with Section with Section in accordance ducts referred to in l origin of the product are, l origin of the product hat they relate to a method of hat they relate ; c labelling provisions for prod with in transition/conversion labelli with in transition/conversion name and/or the code number of the official number code the name and/or processed agricultural crop produc crop agricultural processed Guidelines in Section 7of the Guidelines in Section operation is subject. operation with the requirements of Section 4, with the requirements st of ingredients; cultural origin (instead of al origin cultural cultural ingredients; cultural icultural origin. icultural Guidelines with regard to pro with regard may refer to organic produc ; products containing 95% of products containing

The development of specifi of The development The marketing of product The marketing The calculation of the percentages in 3.4 (5%) 3.4 in of the percentages The calculation ingredient of agr ingredients of agri ingredients of agri Such indication show clearly t show Such indication All the ingredients of agricultura any not contain should The product derived not be shall ingredients The same not have ingredients or its The product prepared or imported by was The product The labelling refers to the involving the use of ionizing radiation or s involving the use of linked with the name of the agricultural product the agricultural linked with the name of clearly given in the li obtained in accordance down laid arrangements the 2, Table 3 of Guidelines these 6 of Section set out in system as which the op to body or authority recognized certification most recent preparation

The labelling and claims of and claims The labelling Labelling of Labelling consumption           interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position.

3. Labelling Pending further review of the Pending further consider the following 4.

Guidelines for the Guidelines Processing, Production, Marketing and Labelling Produced of Organically Foods Legislation / Ref. / Ref. Legislation This document isworking paper and a cannot be Organisation Organisation Codex Alimentarius Law Framework Compilation on Organic Production 91

may only ally of organic of organic

organic” on the organic” on ngredients; style of lettering style of (f) and (g); ority of the country ority of the ngredients including ngredients including the list of i duction using organic methods duction using organic methods m farms and/or farm units ber countries may consider the of the product; of the product; in a colour, size and in a colour, size and

Guidelines for the Production, Processing, Processing, the Production, for Guidelines aphs 3.3(c), (d) (e), aphs 3.3(c), he same colour and with an identical style he same colour and ntage of the total i ntage of the total specified in paragraph 1.1 should meet the should meet specified in paragraph 1.1 sion do not mislead the purchaser of the the purchaser of not mislead sion do be labelled as “transition to be

pted by the competent auth by the competent pted uch as “product under conversion to organic under conversion as “product uch than 95% of organic less than 95% products containing rsion to organic production methods production organic to rsion appear on the front on the should only appear duction methods ons in the list of ingredient.ons in the after 12 months of pro after 12 months of he sales description he sales thority to which the operator who has carried out the who has the operator which to thority for products containing 95% and 70% containing 95% for products

nce from products obtained fro products nce from to in paragraphs 3.2 and 3.3 are fully satisfied; 3.2 and 3.3 are to in paragraphs name and/or the code number of the official or offici of the official number code the name and/or descending order (mass/mass) in in order (mass/mass) descending requirements of paragr requirements of ed the conversion period; ed the ingredients appear in t ingredients appear Organically Produced Foods. Produced Organically Annex 3, paragraph 10 of the paragraph 3, Annex rdance with the paragraph above, mem :

The product satisfies the The product The indications referring to organic pro to organic referring The indications in The ingredients appear in the list of Indications referred The requirements Foods composed of a single ingredient may of a single Foods composed The indications referring to transition/conver referring The indications Such indication take the form of words, s take the Such indication The labelling refers to the panel as a reference to the approximate perce the approximate to panel as a reference and water; but excluding salt additives and size of lettering as other indicati lettering and size of appear and must is marketed, where the product which is not more prominent than t than which is not more prominent product regarding its differe product regarding which have fully complet acce words or phrase similar or farming”, display panel; principal approved certification body or au is subject. preparation most recent

In developing labelling provisions from provisions from labelling In developing Products of farms in transition/conve in of farms Products Labelling of non-retail containers containers Labelling of non-retail ingredients in acco in particular following elements ingredients be labelled to organic” as “transition providing that:          interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position.

5. Labelling 6. The labelling of non-retail containers of product of containers non-retail The labelling of Marketing of and Labelling 7. in requirements set out

Guidelines for the Guidelines Processing, Production, Marketing and Labelling Produced of Organically Foods Legislation / Ref. / Ref. Legislation This document is a working paper and This document isworking paper cannot be a

Organisation Organisation Codex Alimentarius 92 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949) not

3 , must be , must dients not ngs are subject to ngs are treatments involving , can be used as food food used as , can be production methods only production methods able. Any ingre must appear in the same appear must The National Standard for Standard The National foreign matter), or products matter), or products foreign method of production that of production method The National Standard National The The National The National Standard . ingredients listed in the ingredients logo/trademark; ng paper. ng be used if avail nding order (m/m) in the list of nding order (m/m) in the c or bio-dynamic wealth, State/territory law. State/territory wealth, operator whose undertaki The National Standard The National nditions apply: nditions apply: not have been subject to have been subject not The National Standard and must and the include ved certifying organisation, ng requirements of of ng requirements ly that it relates to a , address, and/or been enclosed at the end of present working paper.

the certified operator; as detailed in Section 6 of in Section 6 of as detailed duct specified in Section 1 of duct specified ng X-rays used for detection or detection ng X-rays used for , may refer to organi , may refer and size of lettering as the other as the and size of lettering

4 y derived ingredients must be derived from an organic/bio-dynamic source, and a source from an organic/bio-dynamic be derived in the Appendix III of in the Appendix III nts as required by Common nts as in the ingredients lists. ulation, or nanotechnology. nanotechnology. ulation, or r relative levels appear in desce r relative nts of this standards; nts of on/processing or handli on/processing or complete text, which has has complete text, which The National Standard. The National text has been enclosed at the e nd of present worki

interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. satisfies the requireme satisfies by an prepared been produced or have The products Such labelling and/or advertising shows clear shows advertising and/or Such labelling The final product, or any of its ingredients, must ingredients, must or any of its The final product, The approved certifying organisations name certifying organisations The approved The name and address, or number of or number The name and address, Other labelling requireme Other labelling The same ingredient may not The same ingredient may complying with Organically or Bio-Dynamicall the producti satisfying identical style and with an color and processing aids. additives clearly indicated as such clearly indicated as such with of the ingredients that comply The wording ingredients list. thei The ingredients and ingredients. listed Only those substances an inspection and certification system certification an inspection and the use of ionising radiation (excludi radiation the use of ionising genetic manip subject to

 The labelling and advertising of a pro The labelling and advertising   Product labels must be authorised by the appro must be authorised labels Product the following co the and 2 above, 1 In addition to points       Organic and Bio-Dynamic Produce Bio-Dynamic Organic and where:  following on the label: following on the label: 

Standards: 1. Labelling 2. 3. and Bio-Dynamic Produce nic and Bio-Dynamic Produce

The National Standard Standard The National and Bio- for Organic Produce Dynamic Legislation / Ref. / Ref. Legislation The National Standard for Organic This document isworking paper and a cannot be The National Standard for Orga See 3 4 Country Australia Law Framework Compilation on Organic Production 93 combined

nic” or “bio- nic” or ng salt and water) of s, the calculation should be should be s, the calculation the finished product the liquid organic/bio- hed product. finished product. ume of all organic/bio- t) of the organic/bio-dynamic the organic/bio-dynamic t) of represented as “orga added to a product (see below). added weight (excludi and sal fluid volume of fluid volume Dividing the fluid vol Dividing the of the ingredients and dients and the weight of dients and ons in both solid and liquid form: Dividing the form: liquid and solid in both t may be labelled or t may be labelled entage in the Final Product: Product: Final the entage in

, or reconstituted from concentrate from , or reconstituted t and water) by the total lowing calculations should be used: be lowing calculations should salt and water) by the 70% or more water has been or more water has 70% ients are liquid: are ients liquid: weight (excluding water and salt) of the finis and salt) weight (excluding water net weight (excluding water Dividing the total net weight (excluding

interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. If any ingredient is a concentrate By weight: If the product and ingred For products containing ingredients containing products For Special conditions apply where Special ingredients by the total (excluding salt and water). and water). salt (excluding dynamic ingredients (excluding ingredients (excluding dynamic weight of the solid organic/bio-dynamic ingre the solid organic/bio-dynamic weight of sal ingredients (excluding dynamic product. the finished

    Organic or Bio-Dynamic Ingredient perc Bio-Dynamic Ingredient Organic or of product tha the percentage To calculate dynamic” in a composite product, the fol in a composite dynamic” Labelling NOTE: concentrati of single-strength basis made on the The National Standard Standard The National and Bio- for Organic Produce Dynamic Legislation / Ref. / Ref. Legislation This document is a working paper and This document isworking paper cannot be a Country Australia 94 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949) ≥ 70% ≥ 70% 100% 100% Threshold level of Organic Ingredient ≥ 95% ≥ 95%

The National The National Bio-Dynamic” must above and the following: the above and c” or “bio-dynamic” provided c” or “bio-dynamic” . tional Standard . tional Standard processed agricultural product with “organic” or “bio-dynamic” or “bio-dynamic” with “organic” c or bio-dynamic production; c or bio-dynamic c or bio-dynamic production; c or bio-dynamic ; and/or ; and/or Standard The National The National Standard for Organic and for Organic Standard The National sourced in sufficient quantities in quantities sourced in sufficient sourced in sufficient quantities in quantities sourced in sufficient “100% Organic or “100% Organic e. ing/processing requirements of ing/processing requirements organic or bio-dynamic production; organic or bio-dynamic anic or Bio-Dynamic Ingredients: Ingredients: or Bio-Dynamic anic ; and/or ; and/or ganic or Bio-Dynamic: or Bio-Dynamic: ganic ded the conditions indicated in lled or represented as “organi uid volume, 100% raw or ve and the following: gredients are from organi gredients are from organi ed with the statement made ed with the statement Of agricultural origin, and cannot be origin, and cannot Of agricultural of with the requirements accordance of The Na the Appendix III listed in Substances Of agricultural origin, and cannot be origin, and cannot Of agricultural Substances listed in the Appendix III of The Na the Appendix III listed in Substances accordance with the requirements of with the requirements accordance Bio-Dynamic Produce

- - - - interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. The specified ingredients are from The specified the in of At least 70% The remaining ingredients are: At least 95% of the in of At least 95% The remaining ingredients are:

     Standard for Organic and Bio-Dynamic Produc and Organic for Standard Produced labelled 100% Or Produced or represented as sold, labelled, Products by weight or by fl contain, handl the production and that fulfils Labelling Bio-Dynamic: labelled as Organ ic or Produced labe may be sold, A product Org with made as labelled Produce A product may be labell ingredient/s) provi (specified the conditions indicated abo indicated the conditions

Legislation / Ref. / Ref. Legislation The National The National Standard for Organic and Bio-Dynamic Produce This document isworking paper and a cannot be Country Australia Law Framework Compilation on Organic Production 95 ≤ 70% ≤ 70% Threshold level of Organic Ingredient

that The The y be included in the y be included in the The National The National to be sold, labelledto be sold, or fore, any in-conversion fore, nding order (m/m) in the nding order (m/m) in the same color and with an same color and with an identifying marks may marks identifying rcentage shall be listed per ngredients used are sourced ngredients used are sourced gredient(s) that satisfy : added in concentrations greater in concentrations added The National Standard for National Standard The which satisfy y with y with mic Produce he other ingredients listed in the ingredients listed in he other 70% by volume of a product: of a product: 70% by volume

Organic or Bio-Dynamic Ingredients: Ingredients: or Bio-Dynamic Organic , must appear in the , must appear on product must not mislead the purchaser mislead not on product must hose ingredients the organic ingredient pe c or bio-dynamic production. ative levels appear in desce ative -conversion product. There product. -conversion th the exception that i products, where water is products, ve apply for any products that are ve apply o-dynamic production methods can onl production methods o-dynamic nction with the name of the in nction with the name acent to and in the same color, shade and size as the word

interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. ingredients list; or trademark other logo The certifying organisations identical style and size of lettering as t identical style and size of lettering list of ingredients; of the ingredients that compl The wording Produce Organic and Bio-Dynamic The ingredients and their rel The ingredients and Standard. only be used in reference to t only be used

   Produce Containing less than 70% than Containing less Produce Reference to organic or bi conju in ingredient list, Organic and Bio-Dyna Standard for National Labelling labelled as in-conversion: Produce The conditions indicated abo represented as in-conversion, wi organi to farm in-conversion from to in-conversi referring The indications the product is other than in of water is in excess where Labelling For other than reconstituted of the product volume than 70% product volume. total indications must be adj indications “bio-dynamic”. “organic” or

Legislation / Ref. / Ref. Legislation The National The National Standard for Organic and Bio-Dynamic Produce This document is a working paper and This document isworking paper cannot be a Country Australia 96 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949) ediately contiguousediately splayed, presented, dual facing the principal principal dual facing the ckage and are defined as ckage and are the information panel because wn in their common and usual wn in their common and usual likely to be di be likely to splay panel, information or panel, shape with one usable surface). with one usable shape as observed by an indivi by an as observed conditions of display for sale. conditions of on of the label on of the label is designated as . Part of a label that is most . Part of a label on beside indicate position on pa on beside indicate position attributes (e.g., irregular (e.g., attributes . Any other than the principal di other than the principal . Any order of predominance. order of predominance. . Part of the label of a packaged product that is imm of a packaged the label . Part of

- Principal Display Panel

- Any Other Panel - Any - Information Panel - Information

interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position.

Letters codes of the informati of the Letters codes follow: follow: PDP Labelling of package size or other package of package size or other IP display panel the principal of the right to to and display panel, unless another secti shown, or examines under customary customary under examines shown, or IS – Ingredients Statement . The list contained in a product sho names in the descending OP ingredients statement. The National Organic The National Program Final Rule, Title 7, Part 205 Legislation / Ref. / Ref. Legislation This document isworking paper and a cannot be Country United States Law Framework Compilation on Organic Production 97 100% 100% Threshold level of Organic Ingredient

. ohol, Tobacco, and Tobacco, ohol,

he name of the ingredient, of the ingredient, he name . Water and salt included . Water and salt 6 ingredients, not counting counting ingredients, not duct name. (PDP/IP/OP) duct name. s or telephone number. (IP) or telephone number. s etc.), the statement: “Certified “Certified etc.), the statement: the name of the Certifying Agent. the name of Certifying satisfy this requirement. (IP) satisfy this requirement. word, “organic” in conjunction word, “organic” with t

y and Inspection Service; or the Bureau of Alc handler (producer, bottler, distributor, (producer, bottler, handler

fying agent seal(s). (PDP/OP) (PDP/OP) fying agent seal(s). and Labelling Alcohol Beverage Containers Alcohol and Labelling 5 entified as organic. (IS) entified as organic. ood Safet when the product consists of more than one ingredient than product consists of more the when rganic” to modify the pro

contain 100% organically produced produced organically 100% contain show: show: show:

interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. defined below the ingredient statement. defined below the ingredient The USDA organic seal and/or certi seal organic The USDA addres The certifying agent business/Internet as ingredients must not be id not as ingredients must Below the name and address of the of the and address Below the name importer, manufacturer, packer, processor, packer, processor, importer, manufacturer, followed by phrase, organic by…” or similar used to may not be seals Agent Certifying An ingredient statement An ingredient statement The term “100 percent o The term ingredients the organic to identify “organic” The term is

Labelling Packaged Products       Your label MAY Your label Labelling statement): (or similar Organic” “100 percent must Your product MUST Your label added water and salt. water added y produced, in the ingredients statement, use the y produced, in the ingredients empt Food and Drug Administration; USDA,empt Food and Drug Administration; F

or label approval requirements. Legislation / Ref. / Ref. Legislation The National Organic The National Program Final Rule, Title 7, Part 205 These requirements do not pre ingredient as organicall To identify an 5 6 and This document isworking paper cannot be a Firearms labelling regulations regulations Firearms labelling or an asterisk other reference mark which

Country United States 98 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

Threshold level of Organic Ingredient ≥ 95% . 7 anic labelling is shown labelling anic ntified as organic. (IS) ntified as organic. by 7 CFR 205.605. by 7 CFR 205.605. not counting added water and added water counting not s or telephone number. (IP) or telephone number. s the name of the Certifying Agent. the name of Certifying etc.), the statement: “Certified “Certified etc.), the statement: ingredients which are not not ingredients which are satisfy this requirement. (IP) satisfy this requirement. he handler (producer, bottler, distributor, (producer, he handler nts”. (PDP/IP/OP) nts”. (PDP/IP/OP) dients must not be ide not dients must ing yeast, allowed the product name. (PDP/IP/OP) the product name. ganic ingredients, in organic form; and/or and/or in organic form; as “organic” when other org as “organic” and/or certifying agent seal(s). (PDP/OP) (PDP/OP) and/or certifying agent seal(s). organic ingredie nt statement; nt statement; contain added sulfites. sulfites. added contain not Nonorganically produced agricultural Nonorganically produced available commercially Other substances, includ contain at least 95% or at contain

contain up to 5% of: up to contain

- - interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. List the organic ingredient List the organic Show an ingredie Show an Must salt. Must May Show below the name and address of t address Show below the name and packer, processor, importer, manufacturer, followed by phrase, similar organic by….” or used to be may not seals Agent Certifying modify “Organic” to The term or “X% “X% organic” Organic seal The USDA addres The certifying agent business/Internet Water and salt included as ingre Water and salt

          Your label MUST: MUST: Your label “Organic” (or similar statement): statement): (or similar “Organic” Your product: Labelling Your label MAY show: MAY show: Your label

Legislation / Ref. / Ref. Legislation The National Organic The National Program Final Rule, Title 7, Part 205 This document isworking paper and a cannot be Ibis. 7 Country United States Law Framework Compilation on Organic Production 99

Threshold level of Organic Ingredient ≥ 70%

. 8 name of the Certifying name of the er, distributor, importer, ntified as organic. (IS) ntified as organic. food groups)”. (PDP/IP/OP) groups)”. food

by 7 CFR 205.605. by 7 CFR 205.605. nished product, the statement: nished product, the statement: s or telephone number. (IP) or telephone number. s , wine may contain added sulfur sulfur added , wine may contain ed to satisfy this requirement. (IP) ed to satisfy this requirement. (IP) ents, not counting added water and added water counting ents, not nic seal. c” when other organic labelling is shown labelling other organic c” when

cultural ingredients; and/or cultural ingredients; and/or ss of the handler (bottl of the handler ss dients must not be ide not dients must ngredients”. (PDP/IP/OP) ngredients”. (PDP/IP/OP) ing yeast, allowed ing yeast, s” (or similar statement): statement): s” (or similar nic (specified ingredients or ingredients nic (specified processor, etc.) of the fi processor, etc.) of nce with 7 CFR 205.605. with 7 CFR nce ent statement. ent statement. contain added sulfites; except that sulfites; except added contain Nonorganically produced agri Nonorganically produced Other substances, includ contain at least 70% organic ingredi least 70% organic at contain

contain up to 30% of: of: 30% up to contain

- - interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. Show an ingredi Show an “organi ingredients as List the organic salt. salt. Must not in accorda dioxide May Must Water and salt included as ingre Water and salt addre Show below the name and manufacturer, packer, manufacturer, “Certified organic by….” or similar phrase, followed by the followed phrase, “Certified organic by….” or similar may not be us seals Agent Agent. Certifying “Made with orga The term or “X% organic i “X% organic” (PDP/OP) The certifying agent seal(s). addres The certifying agent business/Internet

          Your label MUST: MUST: Your label “Made with Organic Ingredient Organic “Made with Your product: Labelling Your label MUST NOT show the USDA Orga MUST NOT Your label Your label MAY show: MAY show: Your label

Legislation / Ref. / Ref. Legislation The National Organic The National Program Final Rule, Title 7, Part 205 This document is a working paper and This document isworking paper cannot be a Ibis. 8 Country United States 100 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949) Threshold level of Organic Ingredient ≤ 70% ≤ 70% . . when % 9 nts are identified in nts are identified in nts must not be identified not nts must dients statement added water and salt. added water

dient statement. (IS) dient (IS) statement.

c” in the ingre c” in the cultural ingredients; and/or cultural ingredients; and/or organically produced ingredie organically organically produced ingredie organically the word organic is used. word organic the dients, not counting counting dients, not out being limited to those in 7 CFR 205.605 to those in 7 CFR limited out being and salt included as ingredie included as and salt

gredients in the ingre gredients in the ingredient statement. (IS) statement. gredients in the ingredient tement when the word organic is used. word the tement when (for Alcohol Beverage Containers): Containers): Alcohol Beverage (for (for Alcohol Beverage Containers): Containers): Beverage (for Alcohol contain: show Nonorganically produced agri Nonorganically produced Other substances, with

- - interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. Less than 70% organic ingre Less than 70% organic Over 30% of: ingredient sta Show an “organi ingredients as Identify organic organic is displayed. Water as organic. (IS) (IS) as organic. An ingredient statement when An ingredient statement “X% organic ingredients” when ingredients” “X% organic (IP) the ingredient statement. The organic status of in status of The organic “X% organic ingredients” when ingredients” “X% organic (IP) the ingredient statement. The organic status of in The organic organic contents. to reference Any other Organic seal. The USDA The Certifying agent seal.

            The product has some organic ingredients: organic ingredients: The product has some Your product may Packaged Products): MUST (for Your label Labelling show MUST show Your label Your label MAY show (for Packaged Products): (for Packaged MAY show Your label Your label MAY Your label Your label MUST NOT show: show: MUST NOT Your label

Legislation / Ref. / Ref. Legislation The National Organic The National Program Final Rule, Title 7, Part 205 This document isworking paper and a cannot be Ibis. 9 Country United States Law Framework Compilation on Organic Production 101

Threshold level of Organic Ingredient ≥ 95% “eco” “eco” e the he ingredients of he ingredients of materials. materials. indication “product under under “product indication icultural origin; icultural the control body or control body or control the control d in weight, of t d in weight, of the model picked up in Annex XI of the model Regulation N° 834/2007. N° 834/2007. Regulation

ts ingredients or raw ts ingredients esse ze and style of lettering which is not lettering which is not style of ze and entire indication the entire indication on of the product, that certifies the product; the product; certifies that

ingredient of agr must be easily must visible in the package and ast 12 months before the harvest has been complied has been the harvest before months ast 12 provided that: provided that: ant origin may bear the or commercial documents, it may appear the terms appear it may documents, or commercial place of origin of the raw materials that materials compos raw the of place of origin organic product organic to be ecological. be ecological. to ducts of plant origin ducts of plant to characterize an organic product, i an organic to characterize

interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. The reference of the control organism The reference of the control The communitarian logo which will adjust to The communitarian (EC)Regulation N° 834/2007; of the The indication product. more prominent than the sales descripti sales the than more prominent shall have the same size of letters; contains only one crop The product code num ber of is linked to the The indication referred to in Article 27(10) of as authority A conversion period of at le with; in a colour, si shall appear The indication “bio”

       Labelling publicity In the labelling, and of an The labelling contain: 95%, expr at least foods, For transformed agrarian origin, have conversion to organic farming” In-conversion pro In-conversion products of pl In-conversion Legislation / Ref. / Ref. Legislation Regulation Council of (EC) N° 834/2007 06/28/2007 repealing Regulation 2092/91 (EEC) N° Commission Commission (EC) N°Regulation 889/2008 of laying 09/05/2008 down detailed rules for the implementation of Regulation Council (EC) N° 834/2007 on organic production and labelling of organic regard products with to organic production, labelling and control. This document is a working paper and This document isworking paper cannot be a Country European Union 102 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

100% 100% , , or or thods thods ging or containers ging or containers gular inspection may be labelled as icultural origin; icultural origin; shall appear on the shall appear e for the production production e for the oducts are covered by the oducts are of the following: of the following: subject to the provisions of the provisions of subject to "organically produced" "organically referring to "organic" and referring in process of conversion" , cate the name and address of the cate the name and address of minent than the rest of the of the the rest than minent referring to "organic", having the having the "organic", referring to

covered by the re covered which are not in final packaging packaging final are not in which gredient from agr gredient from of the same size, type and colour and size, type and colour of the same iod of 12 months. Provided that: iod of 12 months. Provided that: which are in final packaging shall are in final which in appropriate packa ganically produced products from plant plant from products ganically produced operator responsibl "organic" , plant and animal origin the approved certifying organisation. certifying organisation. the approved ntified to include all d certifying organisation d certifying organisation , indicating that the pr , indicating abelling of animal products. abelling legislation, also indi legislation, also oved certifying organisation. oved certifying organisation. or similar expression or similar ble for of the products or the production or preparation or with a similar expression similar or with a cally produced products. Provided that, Provided cally produced products. be indicated on the l be indicated on the labelling of or indicated on the the expression is indicated in letters the product contains only one crop in the product the word "organic" may not be more pro may not the word "organic" expression;

transported to other premises only transported to other premises - - registered distinctive mark distinctive registered may not origin in conversion after a conversion per after a conversion origin in conversion or preparation of the products; the or preparation of an appr arrangements of may be The name and address of the certified The name and address The name of the product; The name of the product; product; by the carried The certification is the product that specifying An indication interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position.

Products covered by these regulations regulations by these covered Products A Products covered by these regulations by these covered Products       Organically produced products from Organically produced products The indications "produce of organic agriculture The indications

"organic in conversion" "organic in "conversion", having the same meaning, "conversion", 2. organic" "certified "product of organic "product of organic agriculture" same meaning. 3. 1. inspection scheme of an approve labelling of organi Labelling regulation 2, no labelling of a product m ay refer to organic production me 2, no labelling regulation without indicating a distinctive mark of a distinctive without indicating 4. labelled and ide adequately which are subject to any other applicable other subject to any responsi certified operator operator. of the certified number the certification 5. may be DRAFT: Regulations Regulations DRAFT: Regarding Control of Over the Sale Organically Produced in the Products Republic of South Africa Legislation / Ref. / Ref. Legislation This document isworking paper and a cannot be Country South Africa Law Framework Compilation on Organic Production 103 ≥ 95% ≥ 95% Threshold level of Organic Ingredient . Provided . Provided may be labelled may status thereof or status the operation the operation ngredients of the products are of organic agricultural agricultural are of organic

e approved certifying e ganic in conversion as indicated in as indicated ganic in conversion -confirm the organic -confirm the organic not be included in the percentage not be included in the percentage he ingredients used on ry the distinctive mark of the approved ry the distinctive mark of y produced ingredients y produced

been produced organically as indicated in Annex organically been produced confirms with th that the balance of the i of balance that the icultural origin as indicated in Annex VII; in Annex as indicated icultural origin abelled as organic or 95% of the ingredients of the 95% Ingredients of non-agr have not Ingredients which evaluates t regularly The operator X; against the criteria in Annexure I to re in Annexure criteria against the organic status of better are that alternatives to identify possible that the operator re further are changed. i ngredients when organisation

, products may be l , products

- - - interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. Where a minimum of Where a minimum

Products containing partly organicall containing Products may only be: may only be: certifying organisation. Provided Provided certifying organisation. subregulation (1) and (2) and shall car shall (2) and (1) and subregulation  origin

6. in the following way (raw material weight). shall potable water and salt NOTE: Added of organic ingredients. calculations Labelling Legislation / Ref. / Ref. Legislation DRAFT: Regulations Regulations DRAFT: Regarding Control of Over the Sale Organically Produced in the Products Republic of South Africa This document is a working paper and This document isworking paper cannot be a Country South Africa 104 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949) ≤ 70% ≤ 70%

≥ 70% ≥ 70% the the , the may create a ingredients of t than the rest of t than the status thereof or to status thereof nic ingredients; igin or composition of of igin or composition ients”, "with organic (in ients”, "with organic (in sion may only appear insion may only appear fied organic origin fied organic method of expression that ovided that the production and ingredients which have and ingredients which products in conversion shall of the ingredients are of are ingredients of the organic status. Provided organic status. Provided ns. Provided further that the ns. further that the Provided the principal display panel only the principal cation creates or cation creates stinctive mark of the approved

e approved certifying e . to "organic" in any way except for for way except to "organic" in any minent than the rest of the of the the rest than minent or more prominen products may only be products may only ingredients used on the operation the operation ingredients used on confirm the organic indicated in Annex X; proportion of the orga proportion such as Participatory Guarantee System, System, Guarantee Participatory such as tters of the same size, type and colour size, type tters of the same confirms with th hlet indicating that the system is based on that the system is based indicating hlet les, may not refer as indicated in Annex VII as indicated in Annex natives that are of better natives that are of better and organicallyand produced on, depiction or any other ng the quality, nature, class, or ng the quality, nature, class, n or directly or by impli n or rements of these regulatio with organic (in conversion) ingred quired by these regulations. quired by these regulations. Pr of such products. of such products. on. Provided that: on. Provided ents and appearing with the di ents and appearing

the word “organic” may be used on the word less than 95% but not less than 70% than 95% but not less less less than 70% of the ingredients are certi less than 70% The balance of the ingredients of the of the ingredients The balance The operator regularly evaluates the the evaluates regularly The operator There is a clear statement of the There is a clear statement of The expression is indicated in le The expression non-agricultural origin non-agricultural against the criteria in Annex I to re- criteria against the that the operator re further are changed ingredients organisation when not been produced organically as organically not been produced alter identify possible the word "organic" may not be more pro may not the word "organic" expression;

- - - - interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. Where Where

indication that an ingredient is organic or in conver that an ingredient indication the ingredient list.   organic origin “made in expressions like conversion) ingredi certifying organisati No wording, mark, illustrati mark, No wording, Any non-certified production system, production non-certified Any constitutes a misrepresentatio 7. princip on organic based although writing in the shall not be larger word "organic" misleading impression regardi impression misleading products organically produced be marked on a container 8. on a pamp a written explanation system is based on the requi the writing "organic principles" as re DRAFT: Regulations Regulations DRAFT: Regarding Control of Over the Sale Organically Produced in the Products Republic of South Africa This document isworking paper and a cannot be

South Africa South Africa Law Framework Compilation on Organic Production 105 ≥ 95% ≥ 95%

sible place and a from the chemical from c agriculture”, and c agriculture”, and ents, the word spective Registry; s that do not appear in not do s that the ingredient list. its ingredients produced produced its ingredients d that they are they are d that ted in article 9 of Decree agrarian origin, produced, agrarian e to be put under e to be put under as well as the number of the of the as well the number have to be specified in the have to be specified conventional products. conventional ical treatments. ical

trites. Dyestuffs, synthetic trites. Dyestuffs, synthetic ar in decreasing order of ar in decreasing labels, in a vi labels, iculture” when it corresponds to the iculture” when it corresponds nts of agrarian origin that do not nts of agrarian origin that do oducts are allowed to contain, within contain, oducts are allowed to of organic of ingredi corresponding its re duced organically. organically. duced duct issued from organi from issued duct uded. The water that is used in the system the system that is used in uded. The water regulation, provide regulation, include products originated

er each ingredient, in er each ingredient, to the present regulation. ms in the country on ms in “conventional". s not contain the totality of totality the contain not s weight, ingredie establishes the following.establishes like sulfites, nitrates or ni like sulfites, nitrates origin and processing; and origin y can not be pro y can not y will contaminated with heavy neither include products ents that are not organic will will not organic ents that are ngredient list that will appe will ngredient list that , in accordance with the stipula avors are also excl ferably potable and without chem without ferably potable and onizing radiations, nor contain substance nor contain onizing radiations, using the word using the

interpreted as interpreted OIV's official position. ingredient list final product or in the i weight; aft only be mentioned “organic” can organically, the ingredi imported or obtained according according imported or obtained necessary, and that the synthesis industry. The and/or pesticides, metals preservatives and fl will have to be pre the maximum limit of 5% in limit the maximum of the present fulfill the requirements treatments with i C. Annex Organic products will not be able to The mention "Product issued from organic agr from issued "Product The mention number of Identification and number name company’s Certifying less than 95% For the products containing product doe organic When an not be abl well as the ingredients, will as The products contain only contain ingredients of must The agrarian product Notwithstanding this first point, agrarian pr agrarian first point, this Notwithstanding

         single front the following: lot that identifies its origin which 1992) 423/92 (SENASA, forms and/or adhered have to will The packages nor also fulfill the effective They will Conditions: Elaboration show the inspection organ label and the record number, show the inspection organ label The products must have the mention “Pro mention the have must The products Labelling Legislation / Ref. / Ref. Legislation Resolution SAGyP N° Resolution 423 of 06/03/1992 This document is a working paper and This document isworking paper cannot be a

Country Argentina 106 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

Bibliography

Organic Food, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_food

Codex Alimentarius, Guidelines for the Production, Processing, Labelling and Marketing of Organically Produced Foods, http://www.codexalimentarius.net

Argentina

InfoAgro.com: http://www.infoagro.com/agricultura_ecologica/ecologia_argentina/ley25127/ley2 5127.htm

Australia

The National Association for Sustainable Agriculture Australia (NASAA) website: http://www.nasaa.com.au/

Organic Federation of Australia (OFA) website: http://www.ofa.org.au/

Food Standards Australia New Zealand: http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/links/foodlaw.cfm

Australian Government, Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry http://www.daff.gov.au/agriculture-food/food/organic-biodynamic http://www.daffa.gov.au/aqis/export/organic-bio-dynamic

Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service: http://www.aquis.gov.au/organic

United States

U.S. Department of Agriculture: http://www.nal.usda.gov/afsic/pubs/ofp/ofp.shtml

Organic Agricultural Information website: http://www.organicaginfo.org/

Beyond Pesticides website: http://www.beyondpesticides.org

Organic Trade Association: http://www.ota.com/pp/legislation/backgrounder.html

Electronic Code of Federal Regulation; Title 7, Part 205, National Organic Program, Final Rule: http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text- idx?c=ecfr&rgn=div5&view=text&node=7:3.1.1.9.31&idno=7#7:3.1.1.9.31.1

This document is a working paper and cannot be interpreted as OIV's official position. Law Framework Compilation on Organic Production 107

South Africa

National Department of Agriculture: http://www.nda.agric.za

South African Organic Certifying Body (Organic Standards): http://www.afrisco.net/

Organic S.A.: http://www.organicsouthafrica.co.za//

South African Organic Cosmetic Company: http://www.esse.co.za/

American Site set up by the government to educate consumers on the foods they consume: http://www.foodnews.org/

Organic Research information: http://www.organic-research.com/

International Organic certifying Body: http://www.soilassociation.org/ http://www.sqs.com/

health24.com: http://www.health24.com/natural/Go_organic/17-673,22723.asp

European Union

European Union Activities: http://europa.eu/scadplus/leg/es/lvb/l21118.htm

Organic Agriculture – Europe: http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/organic/home_es

Authorities and/or Organisms of Control and Certification

Organisme de contrôle et de certification - ECOCERT France: http://www.ecocert.fr/Mise-a-jour-de-la-liste-des.html

Go-organic, Organic Directory: http://www.go-organic.co.za

Organic Food Directory, Australian Organic Certifiers: http://www.organicfooddirectory.com.au/organic-answers/what-is- organic/australian-organic-certifiers.html

Euro-Lex, Official Journal of the European Union: http://eur- lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2007:035:0009:0032:EN:PDF

The National Organic Program: http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/ams.fetchTemplateData.do?template=Templa teJ&navID=NationalOrganicProgram&leftNav=NationalOrganicProgram&page=NOP ACAs&description=USDA%20Accredited%20Certifying%20Agents&acct=nopgeninf o

This document is a working paper and cannot be interpreted as OIV's official position. 108 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

Annex: Rules of Production and Preparation

1. Organic production methods require that for the production of unprocessed plants and plant products:

a) at least the production requirements of Annex 1 of the Guidelines for the Production, Processing, Labelling and Marketing of Organically Produced Foods should be satisfied; b) in the case where (a) (above) is not effective, substances listed in Annex 2, Tables 1 and 2 of the Guidelines for the Production, Processing, Labelling and Marketing of Organically Produced Foods, or substances approved by individual countries that meet the criteria established in Section 5.1 of the Guidelines for the Production, Processing, Labelling and Marketing of Organically Produced Foods, may be used as plant protection products, fertilizers, soil conditioners, insofar as the corresponding use is not prohibited in general agriculture in the country concerned in accordance with the relevant national provisions.

2. Organic processing methods require that for the preparation of processed agricultural crop intended for human consumption derived from unprocessed plants and plant products:

a) at least the processing requirements of Annex 1 of the Guidelines for the Production, Processing, Labelling and Marketing of Organically Produced Foods, should satisfied; b) substances listed in Annex 2, Tables 3 and 4 of the Guidelines for the Production, Processing, Labelling and Marketing of Organically Produced Foods, or substances approved by individual countries that meet the criteria established in Section 5.1 of the Guidelines for the Production, Processing, Labelling and Marketing of Organically Produced Foods, may be used as ingredients of non-agricultural origin or processing aids insofar as the corresponding use is not prohibited in the relevant national requirements concerning the preparation of food products and according to good manufacturing practice.

3. Organic products should be stored and transported according to the requirements of Annex 1 of the Guidelines for the Production, Processing, Labelling and Marketing of Organically Produced Foods.

4. By derogation of the provisions of paragraphs 4.1 (a) and 4.2 (a), the competent authority may, with regard to the provisions on livestock production at Annex 1 of the Guidelines for the Production, Processing, Labelling and Marketing of Organically Produced Foods, provide for more detailed rules as well as for derogations for implementation periods in order to permit gradual development of organic farming practices.

This document is a working paper and cannot be interpreted as OIV's official position.

Revue signalétique des périodiques Current awareness of periodicals

Revue signalétique 111

ECONOMIE / CONSOMMATEURS N° 28 407

STEVEN S. CUELLAR, DAN KARNOWSKY AND FREDERICK ACOSTA Sonoma State University, Department of Economics, 1801 East Cotati Avenue, Rohnert Park, CA 94928, USA [email protected] The Sideways Effect: A Test for Changes in the Demand for Merlot and Pinot Noir EN Journal of Wine Economics, 2009, vol. 4, n°2, p. 219-232.

KEYWORDS: USA; wine movie; consumer behaviour; Merlot; Pinot Gris

This paper examines the effect of the movie Sideways on US wine consumption. Specifically, we examine the affects of the movie on the consumption of Merlot, which is derided in the movie and the affect on Pinot Noir, which is praised. We examine the trends in consumption before and after the movie and perform statistical tests for structural changes in consumption. We also test for changes in consumption of each varietal by price point.

ECONOMIE / CONSOMMATEURS N° 28 408

JULIE ANNA GUIDRY, BARRY J. BABIN, WILLIAM G. GRAZIANO, W. JOEL SCHNEIDER Louisiana State University, 101 Agricultural Administration Building, Baton Rouge LA 70803-5606, USA Pride and prejudice in the evaluation of wine? EN International Journal of Wine Business Research, 2009, vol. 21, n°4, p. 298- 311.

KEYWORDS: wines; country of origin; France; USA

Purpose: The region where a wine is produced is a factor that influences consumers' preferences and price perceptions. For most consumers, a wine from an established place like France would be preferred over a wine from less established place, like Texas. However, a consumer's identity with their home area (not well known for wine) may override such an effect. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to determine whether a wine's geographic origin influences wine preference and price perceptions and, if so, whether identity with a place and/or wine expertise moderate this relationship. Methodology: A total of 257 students from a Texas university sample and rate two identical wines – yet one is labeled as from France and the other as from Texas. Findings: The paper finds that a wine's country of origin has a strong effect on consumers' preferences and price perceptions. Specifically, consumers prefer the French wine over Texas wine and are willing to pay more for the French wine. Consumers' identification with Texas does not significantly mitigate the effects of country of origin; those who score low on Texas identity as well as those who score high had similar ratings for the wines. Similarly, no moderating effects for wine expertise are found.

112 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

ECONOMIE / CONSOMMATEURS N° 28 409

K.A. LATTEY, B.R. BRAMLEY AND I.L. FRANCIS The Australian Wine Research Institute, PO Box 197, Glen Osmond, Adelaïde, SA 5064, Australia Consumer acceptability, sensory properties and expert quality judgements of Australian Cabernet Sauvignon and Shiraz wines EN Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research, 2010, vol. 16, n°1, p. 189- 202.

KEYWORDS: consumer liking; preference mapping; red wine; sensory descriptive analysis; winemakers

Background and Aims: This study aimed to determine what sensory attributes most drive consumer and expert acceptance for Cabernet Sauvignon and Shiraz wines. Methods and Results: The sensory attributes of a set of commercial wines were quantified by a trained panel. A subset was assessed blind for liking by 203 consumers and for quality by 67 winemakers. For the total group of consumers, wines with low levels of 'bitterness', 'hotness', 'metallic', 'smoky' and 'pepper' were preferred. In addition, four consumer clusters were identified, each with different sensory drivers of preference, with the attributes 'red berry', 'floral', 'caramel' and 'vanilla' aroma, 'acidity', 'green' flavour and astringency being of importance in distinguishing the different clusters' acceptance scores. The winemakers' quality scores had little relationship with consumer response, although both groups gave low ratings to wines with Brettanomyces- related flavour. Conclusions: A relatively small set of sensory attributes were of greatest importance to consumer liking, and these generally dominate varietal differences. Winemakers' quality concepts do not closely align with those of the consumers. Significance of the Study: This study identifies sensory properties of red wines which could be maximised as well as those which should be reduced, allowing producers to better meet consumers' preferences.

Revue signalétique 113

ECONOMIE / MARCHÉ S N° 28 410

YOUNGJAE LEE, P. LYNN KENNEDY AND BRIAN M. HILBUN Louisiana State University AgCenter, Department of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness, 101 Agricultural Administration Building, Baton Rouge LA 70803-5606, USA [email protected] A Demand Analysis of the Korean Wine Market Using an Unrestricted Source Differentiated LA/AIDS Model EN Journal of Wine Economics, 2009, vol. 4, n°2, p. 185-200.

KEYWORDS: Korea; wine market

An unrestricted source differentiated LA/AIDS model was used to estimate Korean wine demand. In doing so, this study tested the null hypotheses of product aggregation, block separability and substitutability. The test results show that the unrestricted source differentiated model is significantly different from the aggregated model, separated model, and restricted source differentiated model at the conventional level. By using this system-wide model, this study estimated price and expenditure elasticities to identify the price effect on Korean wine consumption.

114 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

ECONOMIE / MARKETING N° 28 411

LARRY LOCKSHIN, DAVID KNOTT University of South Australia, Wine Marketing Research Group, City West Campus, SA 5001 Adelaïde, Australia [email protected] Boozing or branding? Measuring the effects of free wine tastings at wine shops EN International Journal of Wine Business Research, 2009, vol. 21, n°4, p. 312- 324.

KEYWORDS: wines; Australia; consumer behaviour; retailing; promotional methods

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to focus on both the sales effects of free wine tastings and the effects on attitudes towards future purchases four weeks after the tastings.

Methodology: Store scanner data for the four weeks before and after each of ten wine tastings are used to measure the effect tastings had on sales. A total of 170 consumers, who attended a free tasting in wine shops across 4 cities, are interviewed as they leave the store and 37 of these consumers respond to a call back survey one month after the free tasting.

Findings: Scanner data shows a 400 per cent increase in sales of the wines tasted on the day of tasting, and a small but significant effect on sales during the four weeks afterwards. The survey shows that there is no difference in purchasing between those attending a tasting with the intention to purchase and those just stopping by. Both groups purchase at about the same rate. Only about 33 per cent of the attendees purchase; the other two-thirds are boozing.

Research limitations/implications: Free tastings boost immediate sales just like most price promotions, but the effect on the intention to purchase is stronger for those who made a purchase. The study is conducted in one country among a small number of buyers, which limits its generalisability.

Practical implications: The results and implications of this research can be used by retailers and wine companies to make more informed decisions about free tastings. From this small study, attracting the maximum number of tasters to increase sales and long- term purchasing intentions would be recommended.

Revue signalétique 115

ECONOMIE / MARKETING N° 28 412

DANIEL STEICHEN, CHRISTOPHE TERRIEN Université de Picardie, IUT de Laon, 2 rue Pierre Curie 02000 LAON [email protected] ; [email protected] A model of demand in a repeated purchase situation: A simulation of the Champagne wine market EN International Journal of Wine Business Research, 2009, vol. 21, n°4, p. 354- 372.

KEYWORDS: consumer behaviour; France; repeat buying; simulation

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to propose a model for consumer demand for vertically differentiated products. The approach is resolutely dynamic. Consumers are especially placed in situations of repeated purchases. They may reflect their past purchases in their decision. The suppliers adapt to the demand by amending their offer price. A simulation of the model of consumer behavior is made on the Champagne wine market. It results in a stable market that validates the theoretical choices. Methodology: The methodology used is multi-agent simulation. It is little used compared to cross-cutting approaches such as multiple regression, joint analysis and constrained optimization. The multi-agent simulation is a metaphor of the real world that makes virtual agents (consumers and suppliers) compete; these agents are provided with features that can vary over time and with predetermined behavior. This longitudinal approach allows in particular the capture of the effects of time on the choices observed in the habit phenomena, and also allows a description of nonlinear relationships. Findings: The use of a variable personal capital leads to the creation of a simple dynamic model of consumer behavior and fulfils the simulation of the demand in a market of vertically differentiated products. Originality/value: The originality of this work is based both on the formalization of the dynamic decision process and the methodology used, based on multi-agent simulation. It helps to explore the evolution of the behavior of agents in the long term by taking into account past experiences. The simulation allows us to show that, in situations of repeated purchase, habits and involvement put into perspective the impact of salient cues of choice (reputation, price).

116 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

ŒNOLOGIE / ARÔ MES N° 28 413

C. THIBON1, S. SHINKARUK2, M. JOURDES1, B. BENNETAU3, D. DUBOURDIEU1, T. TOMINAGA1 1. Université de Bordeaux, UMR Œnologie, INRA, F-33000 Bordeaux, France 2. Université de Bordeaux, ENITAB, CS 40201, F-33000 Bordeaux, France 3. Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, UMR 5255 ISM, F-33405 Bordeaux, France

Aromatic potential of botrytized white wine grapes: Identification and quantification of new cysteine-S-conjugate flavor precursors EN Analytica Chimica Acta, 2010, vol. 660, n°1-2, p. 190-196.

KEYWORDS: aroma precursor; Botrytis cinerea; cysteine-S-conjugate; GC derivatization; sweet wine; Vitis vinifera

Sweet wines made from botrytized grapes contain much higher concentrations of volatile thiols, especially 3-sulfanylhexan-1-ol (3SH), than dry white wines. Three new specific volatile thiols (3-sulfanylpentan-1-ol (3SP), 3-sulfanylheptan-1-ol (3SHp), and 2-methyl- 3-sulfanylbutan-1-ol (2M3SB) were recently identified in Sauternes wines. Like most volatile thiols, these compounds were almost totally absent from must, mainly being formed during alcoholic fermentation. In this work, we describe the identification and quantification of three new cysteine-S-conjugate precursors in must made from Botrytis- infected grapes. S-3-(pentan-1-ol)-l-cysteine (P-3SP), S-3-(heptan-1-ol)-l-cysteine (P- 3SHp), and S-3-(2-methylbutan-1-ol)-l-cysteine (P-2M3SB) were identified by direct GC- MS analysis of their derivative forms obtained by silylation of an enriched fraction, isolated from must by affinity chromatography. Concentrations were considerably higher when Botrytis cinerea had developed on the grapes. In botrytized must, the mean levels of P-3SP, P-3SHp, and P-2M3SB were in the vicinity of 700, 50, and 500 nM, respectively, whereas concentrations in healthy must ranged from 0 to 50 nM. This indicated that these three new sulfanyl alcohols, responsible for the characteristic aroma of botrytized wines, were formed by the yeast metabolism during alcoholic fermentation from the corresponding non-volatile cysteine-S-conjugate precursors. Moreover, these results highlighted the predominant role of botrytization in developing grape aroma potential.

Revue signalétique 117

ŒNOLOGIE / MÉTHODES D'ANALYSE N° 28 414

M.UGLIANO, P.A. HENSCHKE The Australian Wine Research Institute, PO Box 197, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia Comparison of three methods for accurate quantification of hydrogen sulfide during fermentation EN Analytica Chimica Acta, 2010, vol. 660, n°1-2, p. 87-91.

KEYWORDS: detector tubes; fermentation; hydrogen sulfide; nitrogenius® kit; wine; yeast

Two analytical approaches for the rapid measurement of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) have been compared to a reference method for their potential application as a rapid procedure for the quantification of H2S formed during alcoholic fermentations. In one case, silver nitrate, lead acetate, and mercuric chloride selective detector tubes for the analysis of H2S in air were investigated. In the other case, a commercially available kit for the diagnosis of nitrogen starvation in wine fermentations, which is based on the detection of H2S, was investigated. Both methods exhibited excellent linearity of response, but the mercuric chloride tube was found to suffer from interferences due to the concomitant presence of mercaptans, which resulted in erroneous H2S quantification. A comparative study between the two methods studied and the cadmium hydroxide/methylene blue reference method commonly used to monitor H2S indicate that the two new methods displayed better recoveries at low H2S concentrations, besides being more rapid and economical. The two new methods were successfully used to quantify production of H2S in different grape juice fermentations. The suitability of each method for the study of specific aspects of H2S production during fermentation is discussed.

118 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

ŒNOLOGIE / MÉTHODES D'ANALYSE N° 28 415

REBI`E RE L.1, CLARK A.C.1, SCHMIDTKE L.M.1, PRENZLER P.D.1, SCOLLARY G.R.2 1. National Wine and Grape Industry Centre, Charles Sturt University, Locked Bag 588, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia 2. School of Chemistry, The University of Melbourne, Vic. 3010, Australia A robust method for quantification of volatile compounds within and between vintages using headspace-solid-phase micro-extraction coupled with GC-MS - Application on Semillon wines EN Analytica Chimica Acta, 2010, vol. 660, n°1-2, p. 149-157.

KEYWORDS: gas chromatography-mass spectrometry; internal standard; Semillon; solid-phase micro-extraction; volatile compounds; white wine

A headspace-solid-phase micro-extraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HS- SPME-GC-MS) method has been developed to quantify a range of volatile compounds in Hunter Valley Semillon wines. The fibre selected for the method was a 50/30 μm divinylbenzene/carboxen/polydimethylsiloxane fibre, a three-phase fibre that allows extraction and desorption of a wide range of volatile compounds of different chemical functionalities and polarities. Four internal standards, methyl isobutyl ketone, n- dodecane, 4-methyl-2-pentanol and ethyl nonanoate were used to monitor the SPME fibre extraction efficiency and integrity. Fibre integrity was monitored by plotting the ratio of the peak area for each internal standard divided by the sum of the peak area for all internal standards as a function of analysis number. The advantage of using four internal standards for better quality control of the fibre integrity is described. The identity of twenty-one volatile compounds was ascertained by comparison of their chemical characteristics (retention indices, mass spectra) with reference compounds using two columns of different polarities. Quantification was achieved using calibration curves constructed for each compound with linear regression equations having correlation coefficients (R2) ranging from 0.9717 to 0.9999. The method was applied to two Semillon wines (recent vintage and aged) representative of the Hunter Valley styles. As is typical of white wines, 3-methyl-1-butanol was quantified as the most concentrated volatile compound (83 and 66 mg L-1 for the 2006 and the 1996 wines, respectively). The study highlights the use of well-defined procedures to ensure integrity of quantitative data where several fibres may be required during an extended study over one or more vintages.

Revue signalétique 119

ŒNOLOGIE / MÉTHODES D'ANALYSE N° 28 416

S. MARCHAND, G. DE REVEL UMR 1219 Œnologie, ISVV, Université de Bordeaux, 210, Chemin de Leysotte, CS 50008, 33 882 Villenave d'Ornon Cedex, France A HPLC fluorescence-based method for glutathione derivatives quantification in must and wine EN Analytica Chimica Acta, 2010, vol. 660, n°1-2, p. 158-163.

KEYWORDS: HPLC fluorescence-based method; glutathione derivatives; must; wine

A simple and automated high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method for the separation and quantitative determination of γ-glutamylcysteine and reduced glutathione (GSH) in wines is reported. This technique involves the use of a pre-column derivatization with 2,3-naphthalenedialdehyde (NDA), an isocratic separation in presence of β-cyclodextrine and a fluorimetric detection. The quantification of oxidized glutathione (GSSG) has also been studied, for the first time in wines, using an additive pre- derivatization step for reduction using glutathione reductase. The method has been designed for use in laboratories with limited equipment. The assay has been optimized and presents very good performances in terms of sensitivity and selectivity. Then, it has been validated for linearity, LOD, LOQ, precision and accuracy.

ŒNOLOGIE / MÉTHODES D'ANALYSE N° 28 417

L.M. GONÇALVES, J.G. PACHECO, P.J. MAGALHÃES, J.A. RODRIGUES, A.A. BARROS REQUIMTE - Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 687, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal Determination of free and total sulfites in wine using an automatic flow injection analysis system with voltammetric detection EN Food Additives and Contaminants, 2010, vol. 27, n°2, p. 175-180.

KEYWORDS: analysis; method validation; polarography; stripping voltammetry; sulfite; wine

An automated flow injection analysis (FIA) system, based on an initial analyte separation by gas-diffusion and subsequent determination by square-wave voltammetry (SWV) in a flow cell, was developed for the determination of total and free sulfur dioxide (SO2) in wine. The proposed method was compared with two iodometric methodologies (the Ripper method and a simplified method commonly used by the wine industry). The developed method displayed good repeatability (RSD lower than 6%) and linearity (between 10 and 250 mg l-1) as well as a suitable LOD (3 mg l-1) and LOQ (9 mg l-1). A major advantage of this system is that SO2 is directly detected by flow SWV.

120 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

ŒNOLOGIE / MÉTHODES D'ANALYSE N° 28 418

P.A. GRANT-PREECE1, K.H. PARDON2, D.L. CAPONE2, A.G. CORDENTE2, M.A. SEFTON2, D.W. JEFFERY2, G.M. ELSEY1,2 1. School of Chemistry, Physics and Earth Sciences, Flinders University, P.O. Box 2100, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia 2. Australian Wine Research Institute, P.O. Box 197, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia Synthesis of wine thiol conjugates and labeled analogues: Fermentation of the glutathione conjugate of 3-mercaptohexan-1-ol yields the corresponding cysteine conjugate and free thiol EN J. Agric. Food Chem., 2010, vol. 58, n°3, p. 1383-1389.

KEYWORDS: chiral analysis; diastereoisomers; elution order; fermentation; GC- MS; HPLC-MS/MS; synthesis; varietal thiols; wine thiol precursors

Synthesis of the putative wine thiol precursor 3-S-glutathionylhexan-1-ol (Glut-3-MH) has been undertaken to provide pure reference materials for the development of HPLC- MS/MS methods for precursor quantitation in grape juice and wine, and for use in fermentation experiments. Labeled thiol conjugates were also prepared for use as internal standards. Purification and fermentation of a single diastereomer of Glut-3-MH with VIN13 (CSL1) yielded not only the (R)-enantiomer of the wine impact odorant 3- mercaptohexan-1-ol (3-MH) but also the cysteine conjugate intermediate as a single (R)- diastereomer, as determined by HPLC-MS/MS. Chiral GC-MS was used to quantify the total amount of (R)-3-MH released from the ferments, resulting in a molar conversion yield of the glutathione conjugate of about 3%. Enzymatic degradation of the single (R)- Glut-3-MH diastereomer with a γ-glutamyltranspeptidase confirmed the stereochemical relationship to the related cysteine conjugate. This is the first demonstration that Glut-3- MH can liberate 3-MH under model fermentation conditions, where the cysteine conjugate is also formed in the process. This furthers our understanding of the nature of wine thiol precursors and opens avenues for additional studies into formation and interchange of wine thiols and their precursors.

Revue signalétique 121

ŒNOLOGIE / MICROBIOLOGIE N° 28 419

M. CIANI, F. COMITINI, I. MANNAZZU, P. DOMIZIO Dipartimento S.A.I.F.E.T., Sez. di Microbiologia Alimentare, Università Politecnica Delle Marche, via Brecce Bianche, 60131 Ancona, Italy Controlled mixed culture fermentation: A new perspective on the use of non-Saccharomyces yeasts in winemaking EN FEMS Yeast Research, 2010, vol. 10, n°2, p. 123-133.

KEYWORDS: fermentation technology; mixed fermentation; non-Saccharomyces; wine quality

Mixed fermentations using controlled inoculation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae starter cultures and non-Saccharomyces yeasts represent a feasible way towards improving the complexity and enhancing the particular and specific characteristics of wines. The profusion of selected starter cultures has allowed the more widespread use of inoculated fermentations, with consequent improvements to the control of the fermentation process, and the use of new biotechnological processes in winemaking. Over the last few years, as a consequence of the re-evaluation of the role of non-Saccharomyces yeasts in winemaking, there have been several studies that have evaluated the use of controlled mixed fermentations using Saccharomyces and different non-Saccharomyces yeast species from the wine environment. The combined use of different species often results in unpredictable compounds and/or different levels of fermentation products being produced, which can affect both the chemical and the aromatic composition of wines. Moreover, possible synergistic interactions between different yeasts might provide a tool for the implementation of new fermentation technologies. Thus, knowledge of the Saccharomyces and non-Saccharomyces wine yeast interactions during wine fermentation needs to be improved. To reach this goal, further investigations into the genetic and physiological background of such non-Saccharomyces wine yeasts are needed, so as to apply '-omics' approaches to mixed culture fermentations.

122 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

ŒNOLOGIE / TECHNOLOGIE N° 28 420

C.A. STEFENON1,2, M. COLOMBO1, C. DE M. BONESI1, V. MARZAROTTO2, R. VANDERLINDE1,3, M. SALVADOR1, J.A.P. HENRIQUES1,4 1. Instituto de Biotecnologia, Universidade de Caxias do Sul, Caxias do Sul, RS, Brazil 2. Laboratório Randon Ltda, Rua Bento Goncalves, 3365 /114, 95020-412 Caxias do Sul, RS, Brazil 3. Laboratório de Referência Enológica, Caxias do Sul, RS, Brazil 4. Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Luterana do Brasil, Canoas, RS, Brazil Antioxidant activity of sparkling wines produced by Champenoise and Charmat methods EN Food Chemistry, 2010, vol. 119, n°1, p. 12-18.

KEYWORDS: antioxidant; DPPH•; phenolic compounds; Saccharomyces cerevisiae; sparkling wine

The objective of this study was to evaluate the antioxidant activity of 19 Brazilian sparkling wines produced by Champenoise and Charmat methods. All sparkling wines tested showed significant antioxidant activity, both in vivo and in vitro assays. In general, the Charmat brut possessed more antioxidant activity than Charmat demi-sec and Champenoise samples. In most of the sparkling wines studied, the majority compound found was gallic acid, although trans-resveratrol, (+)-catechin, (-)- epicathechin and procyanidins B1, B2, B3 and B4, were also identified. Significant differences were observed in the concentrations of these compounds, when considering the assemblage used and the production methods. The wine industry around the world uses similar oenological technologies and the wines are divided into categories, for example, in relation to sugar concentration or elaboration methods. The findings of this study would help the wineries to determine the sugar contents and time to mature (sur lie) appropriate for sensorial characteristics desired by the winemakers and consumers. Furthermore, the data can offer an improvement in the biological properties of the sparkling wines.

Revue signalétique 123

ŒNOLOGIE / TECHNOLOGIE N° 28 421

C. CILINDRE, G. LIGER-BELAIR, S. VILLAUME, P. JEANDET, R. MARCHAL Laboratoire d'Oenologie et Chimie Appliquée, Université de Reims, URVVC-SE UPRES EA 2069, BP 1039, 51687 Reims Cedex 2, France Foaming properties of various Champagne wines depending on

several parameters: Grape variety, aging, protein and CO2 content EN Analytica Chimica Acta, 2010, vol. 660, n°1-2, p. 164-170.

KEYWORDS: aging; Champagne; Champagne tasting; CO2; effervescence; foaming properties; protein; yeast

A comparison of the foaming parameters of various Champagne wines was undergone with two well distinct methods: (i) a classical gas-sparging method providing standardized but artificial effervescence conditions (the so-called Mosalux), and (ii) a computer assisted viewing equipment (CAVE), much closer to the real champagne tasting conditions. The latter one is the only apparatus which enables a thorough descriptive analysis of foam behavior, during the pouring process of a sparkling wine, and from the end of its pouring. Various Champagne wines elaborated from two grape varieties (Chardonnay and Pinot Meunier) and having experienced different aging-periods (15 months and 5 years) were analyzed and compared to a model sparkling wine, elaborated from a model base wine (devoid of grape colloids). The CO2 and protein content was also investigated to discuss the foaming behavior of these wines. A significant loss of the CO2 content during aging was observed and might be the reason for the worse foaming properties of the old champagnes, as determined with CAVE. It is worth noting that contradictory foaming parameters were obtained through the Mosalux method, which is indeed more intrusive than the CAVE, and finally far from the real champagne tasting conditions, since it requires filtration and champagne degassing prior experiment.

124 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

SANTÉ / ALIMENTATION N° 28 422

N. BABIO, M. BULLÓ, J. BASORA, M.A. MARTÍ NEZ-GONZÁ LEZ, J. FERNÁ NDEZ-BALLART, F. MÁRQUEZ-SANDOVAL, C. MOLINA, J. SALAS-SALVADÓ Human Nutrition Unit, Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Rovira i Virgili University, Spain Adherence to the Mediterranean diet and risk of metabolic syndrome and its components EN Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases, 2009, vol. 19, n°8, p. 563-570.

KEYWORDS: metabolic syndrome; mediterranean diet; PREDIMED study; olive oil; legumes; red wine

Background and aims: The role of diet in the aetiology of metabolic syndrome (MetS) is not well understood. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the relationship between adherence to the Mediterranean diet (MedDiet) and MetS. Methods and results: A cross-sectional study was conducted with 808 high cardiovascular risk participants of the Reus PREDIMED Centre. MetS was defined by the updated National Cholesterol and Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III criteria. An inverse association between quartiles of adherence to the MedDiet (14-point score) and the prevalence of MetS (P for trend<0.001) was observed. After adjusting for age, sex, total energy intake, smoking status and physical activity, participants with the highest score of adherence to the MedDiet (≥9 points) had the lowest odds ratio of having MetS (OR [95% CI] of 0.44 [0.27-0.70]) compared to those in the lowest quartile. Participants with the highest MedDiet adherence had 47 and 54% lower odds of having low HDL-c and hypertriglyceridemia MetS criteria, respectively, than those in the lowest quartile. Some components of the MedDiet, such as olive oil, legumes and red wine were associated with lower prevalence of MetS. Conclusion: Higher adherence to a Mediterranean diet is associated with a significantly lower odds ratio of having MetS in a population with a high risk of cardiovascular disease.

Revue signalétique 125

SANTÉ / CANCER N° 28 423

M. MIKSITS, K. WLCEK, M. SVOBODA, O. KUNERT, E. HASLINGER, T. THALHAMMER, T. SZEKERES, W. JÄGER Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Diagnostics, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria Antitumor activity of resveratrol and its sulfated metabolites against human breast cancer cells EN Planta Medica, 2009, vol. 75, n°11, p. 1227-1230.

KEYWORDS: Breast disease; cancer; phenols; resveratrol; antineoplastic agent

Resveratrol (3,4',5-trihydroxy-trans-stilbene) is a naturally occurring polyphenolic compound found in grapes, wine and medicinal plants with a variety of biological and pharmacological activities including pronounced anticancer properties. These effects are observed despite its extremely low bioavailability and rapid clearance from the circulation due to extensive sulfation and glucuronidation in the intestine and liver. In order to determine whether its metabolites demonstrate any cytotoxic properties, three major human sulfated conjugates of resveratrol were synthesized and their anticancer activity evaluated against three breast cancer cell lines (two hormone-dependent: MCF-7 and ZR- 75-1; one hormone-independent: MDA-MB-231) and one immortalized breast epithelial cell line (MCF-10A). We found that, in contrast to resveratrol, all three sulfated metabolites were less potent against MCF-7, MDA-MB-231 and ZR-75-1 cells (trans- resveratrol 3-O-sulfate < trans-resveratrol 4'-O-sulfate < trans-resveratrol 3-O-4'-O- disulfate) indicating that any conjugation of the phenolic groups with sulfuric acid strongly affecting the cytotoxicity. Interestingly, all sulfated metabolites were reduced about 10-fold, but showed nearly equal cytotoxicity towards nonmalignant MCF-10A breast cells (IC50s: 202-228 μM). In summary, in contrast to resveratrol its sulfated metabolites showed poor cytotoxicity in human malignant and nonmalignant breast cancer cell lines. However, the in vitro activity of the metabolites may not necessarily reflect their in vivo function, given the fact that the ubiquitously existing human sulfatases could convert the metabolites back to resveratrol in humans.

126 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

SANTÉ / CANCER N° 28 424

L. GAO, M.N. WECK, C. STEGMAIER, D. ROTHENBACHER, H. BRENNER Division of Clinical Epidemiology and Aging Research, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany Alcohol consumption and chronic atrophic gastritis: population-based study among 9,444 older adults from Germany EN International journal of cancer, 2009, vol. 125, n°12, p. 2918-2922.

KEYWORDS: chronic atrophic gastritis; alcohol consumption; Helicobacter pylori

Moderate alcohol consumption has been suggested to facilitate elimination of Helicobacter pylori infection which is a key risk factor for chronic atrophic gastritis (CAG) and gastric cancer. The aim of our study was to assess the association of alcohol consumption with CAG among older adults from Germany. In the baseline examination of ESTHER, a population-based study conducted in Saarland, serological measurements of pepsinogen I and II (for CAG definition) and H. pylori antibodies were taken in 9,444 subjects aged 50-74 years. Moderate current (<60 g/week) and lifetime (≤51,376 g, lowest quartile) alcohol consumption were found to be associated with significantly reduced CAG risk compared to alcohol abstinence with adjusted odds ratios of 0.71 (0.55-0.90) and 0.73 (0.55-0.96), respectively. Inverse associations with CAG were observed for moderate alcohol consumption from both beer and wine, and were slightly attenuated after additional adjustment for H. pylori infection. Our results are consistent with the hypothesis that moderate alcohol consumption may be inversely related to CAG, partly through facilitating the elimination of H. pylori. However, the observed patterns suggest that other mechanisms are likely to contribute to the association as well.

Revue signalétique 127

SANTÉ / CANCER N° 28 425

C. CHAO, R. HAQUE, S.K. VAN DEN EEDEN, B.J. CAAN, K.Y. POON, V.P. QUINN Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California, Pasadena, CA 91101, USA [email protected] Red wine consumption and risk of prostate cancer: the California men's health study EN International Journal of Cancer, 2010, vol. 126, n°1, p. 171-179.

KEYWORDS: prostate cancer; red wine; alcohol; alcoholic beverage

Red wine contains polyphenol antioxidants that inhibit prostate cancer development in animal studies. We investigated the effect of red wine intake on the risk of prostate cancer using data prospectively collected in the California Men's Health Study (CMHS). CMHS is a multiethnic cohort of 84,170 men aged 45-69 years who were members of the Kaiser Permanente Southern and Northern California Health Plans. Information on demographic and lifestyle factors was collected using mailed questionnaires between 2002 and 2003. We used Cox models to estimate the effect of red wine on prostate cancer risk, adjusting for potential confounders. A total of 1,340 incident prostate cancer cases identified from Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Result-affiliated cancer registries were included in the analyses. We did not find a clear association between red wine intake and risk of prostate cancer. Hazard ratio (HR) estimates for consuming <1 drink/week, ≥1 drink/week but <1 drink/day and ≥1 drink/day were 0.89, 95% confidence interval (0.74-1.07), 0.99 (0.83-1.17) and 0.88 (0.70-1.12), respectively. Further, we observed no linear dose response. The lack of association for red wine intake was consistently observed when we restricted the analyses to those with and without a history of PSA screening. In addition, we also did not observe any association with prostate cancer for beer, white wine, liquor or combined alcoholic beverage intake (HR for combined alcoholic beverage intake of ≥5 drinks/day = 1.16 (0.83-1.63). Neither red wine nor total alcohol consumption were associated with prostate cancer risk in this population of moderate drinkers.

128 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

SANTÉ / CARDIOVASCULAIRE N° 28 426

B.S. ROCHA, B. GAGO, R.M. BARBOSA, J. LARANJINHA Faculty of Pharmacy, Center for Neurosciences and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Health Sciences Campus, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal Dietary polyphenols generate nitric oxide from nitrite in the stomach and induce smooth muscle relaxation EN Toxicology, 2009, vol. 265, n°1-2, p. 41-48.

KEYWORDS: wine; polyphenols; cardiovascular; nitrite; nitric oxide; diet; stomach; muscle relaxation

Nitrite, considered a biological waste and toxic product, is being regarded as an important physiological molecule in nitric oxide (•NO) biochemistry. Because the interaction of dietary phenolic compounds and nitrite would be kinetically (due to the high concentrations achieved) and thermodynamically (on basis of the redox potentials) feasible in the stomach, we have studied the potential reduction of nitrite by polyphenols present in several dietary sources. By measuring the time courses of •NO production in simulated gastric juice (pH 2), the efficiency of the compounds studied is as follows: Epicatechin-3-O-gallate>quercetin>procyanidin B8 dimer>oleuropein>procyanidin B2 dimer>chlorogenic acid>epicatechin>catechin>procyanidin B5 dimer. The initial rates of •NO production fall in a narrow range (ca. 1-5 μMs-1) but the distinct kinetics of the decay of •NO signals suggest that competition reactions for •NO are operative. The proof of concept that, in the presence of nitrite, phenol-containing dietary products induce a strong increase of •NO in the stomach was established in an in vivo experiment with healthy volunteers consuming lettuce, onions, apples, wine, tea, berries and cherries. Moreover, selected mixtures of oleuropein and catechin with low nitrite (1 μM) were shown to induce muscle relaxation of stomach strips in a structure-dependent way. Data presented here brings strong support to the concept that polyphenols consumed in a variety of dietary products, under gastric conditions, reduce nitrite to •NO that, in turn, may exert a biological impact as a local relaxant.

Revue signalétique 129

SANTÉ / CARDIOVASCULAIRE N° 28 427

A. DÁVALOS, G. DE LA PEÑA, C.C. SÁNCHEZ-MARTÍ N, M. TERESA GUERRA, B. BARTOLOMÉ, M.A. LASUNCIÓ N Servicio de Bioquímica-Investigación, Hospital Ramón y Cajal, Carretera de Colmenar km. 9.1, E-28034 Madrid, Spain [email protected] Effects of red grape juice polyphenols in NADPH oxidase subunit expression in human neutrophils and mononuclear blood cells EN British Journal of Nutrition, 2009, vol. 102, n°8, p. 1125-1135.

KEYWORDS: endothelial cells; gene expression; grapes; leucocytes; NADPH oxidase; polyphenols

The NADPH oxidase enzyme system is the main source of superoxide anions in phagocytic and vascular cells. NADPH oxidase-dependent superoxide generation has been found to be abnormally enhanced in several chronic diseases. Evidence is accumulating that polyphenols may have the potential to improve cardiovascular health, although the mechanism is not fully established. Consumption of concentrated red grape juice, rich in polyphenols, has been recently shown to reduce NADPH oxidase activity in circulating neutrophils from human subjects. In the present work we studied whether red grape juice polyphenols affected NADPH oxidase subunit expression at the transcription level. For this, we used human neutrophils and mononuclear cells from peripheral blood, HL- 60-derived neutrophils and the endothelial cell line EA.hy926.Superoxide production was measured with 2'7'-dichlorofluorescein diacetate or lucigenin, mRNA expression by real- time RT-PCR and protein expression by Western blot. Each experiment was performed at least three times. In all cell types tested, red grape juice, dealcoholised red wine and pure polyphenols decreased superoxide anion production. Red grape juice and dealcoholised red wine selectively reduced p47phox, p22phox and gp91phox expression at both mRNA and protein levels, without affecting the expression of p67phox. Pure polyphenols, particularly quercetin, also reduced NADPH oxidase subunit expression, especially p47phox, in all cell types tested. The present results showing that red grape juice polyphenols reduce superoxide anion production provide an alternative mechanism by which consumption of grape derivatives may account for a reduction of oxidative stress associated with cardiovascular and/or inflammatory diseases related to NADPH oxidase superoxide overproduction.

130 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

SANTÉ / CARDIOVASCULAIRE N° 28 428

L. BROWN, P.A. KROON, D.K. DAS, S. DAS, A. TOSAKI, V. CHAN, M.V. SINGER, P. FEICK School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia The biological responses to resveratrol and other polyphenols from alcoholic beverages EN Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 2009, vol. 33, n°9, p. 1513- 1523.

KEYWORDS: alcoholic beverages; nonalcoholic constituents; polyphenol; resveratrol; cardiovascular disease

Although excessive consumption of ethanol in alcoholic beverages causes multi-organ damage, moderate consumption, particularly of red wine, is protective against all-cause mortality. These protective effects could be due to one or many components of the complex mixture of bioactive compounds present in red wine including flavonols, monomeric and polymeric flavan-3-ols, highly colored anthocyanins as well as phenolic acids and the stilbene polyphenol, resveratrol. The therapeutic potential of resveratrol, firstly in cancer chemoprevention and then later for cardioprotection, has stimulated many studies on the possible mechanisms of action. Further indications for resveratrol have been developed, including the prevention of age-related disorders such as neurodegenerative diseases, inflammation, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. These improvements are remarkably similar yet there is an important dichotomy: low doses improve cell survival as in cardio- and neuro-protection yet high doses increase cell death as in cancer treatment. Fewer studies have examined the responses to other components of red wine, but the results have, in general, been similar to resveratrol. If the nonalcoholic constitutents of red wine are to become therapeutic agents, their ability to get to the sites of action needs to be understood. This mini-review summarizes recent studies on the possible mechanisms of action, potential therapeutic uses, and bioavailability of the nonalcoholic constituents of alcoholic beverages, in particular resveratrol and other polyphenols.

Revue signalétique 131

SANTÉ / CARDIOVASCULAIRE N° 28 429

H. BERROUGUI, G. GRENIER, S. LOUED, G. DROUIN, A. KHALIL Research Center on Aging, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada A new insight into resveratrol as an atheroprotective compound: inhibition of lipid peroxidation and enhancement of cholesterol efflux EN Atherosclerosis, 2009, vol. 207, n°2, p. 420-427.

KEYWORDS: atherosclerosis; resveratrol; antioxidant; cholesterol efflux

Resveratrol, a polyphenolic constituent of red wine, is known for its anti-atherogenic properties and is thought to be beneficial in reducing the incidence of cardiovascular diseases (CVD). However, the mechanism of action by which it exerts its anti-atherogenic effect remains unclear. In this study, we investigated the relationship between the antioxidant effects of resveratrol and its ability to promote cholesterol efflux. We measured the formation of conjugated dienes and the rate of lipid peroxidation, and observed that resveratrol inhibited copper- and irradiation-induced LDL and HDL oxidation as observed by a reduction in oxidation rate and an increase in the lag phase (p<0.05). We used DPPH screening to measure free radical scavenging activity and observed that resveratrol (0-50 μM) significantly reduced the content of free radicals (p<0.001). Respect to its effect on cholesterol homeostasis, resveratrol also enhanced apoA-1-mediated cholesterol efflux (r2=0.907, p<0.05, linear regression) by up- regulating ABCA-1 receptors, and reduced cholesterol influx or uptake in J774 macrophages (r2=0.89, p<0.05, linear regression). Incubation of macrophages (J774, THP-1 and MPM) with Fe/ascorbate ion, attenuated apoA-1 and HDL3-mediated cholesterol efflux whereas resveratrol (0-25 μM) significantly redressed this attenuation in a dose-dependent manner (p<0.001). Resveratrol thus appears to be a natural antioxidant that enhances cholesterol efflux. These properties make it a potential natural antioxidant that could be used to prevent and treat CVD.

132 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

SANTÉ / CARDIOVASCULAIRE N° 28 430

M.M. DOHADWALA, J.A. VITA Evans Department of Medicine and the Whitaker Cardiovascular Institute, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA Grapes and cardiovascular disease EN The Journal of nutrition, 2009, vol. 139, n°9, p. 1788 S-1793 S.

KEYWORDS: fruit; nutrition; cardiovascular disease; grape

Epidemiological studies suggest that consumption of wine, grape products, and other foods containing polyphenols is associated with decreased risk for cardiovascular disease. The benefits of wine consumption appear to be greater than other alcoholic beverages. Experimental studies indicate that grape polyphenols could reduce atherosclerosis by a number of mechanisms, including inhibition of oxidation of LDL and other favorable effects on cellular redox state, improvement of endothelial function, lowering blood pressure, inhibition of platelet aggregation, reducing inflammation, and activating novel proteins that prevent cell senescence, e.g. Sirtuin 1. Translational studies in humans support these beneficial effects. More clinical studies are needed to confirm these effects and formulate dietary guidelines. The available data, however, strongly support the recommendation that a diet rich in fruits and vegetables, including grapes, can decrease the risk for cardiovascular disease.

Revue signalétique 133

SANTÉ / ENDOTHÉ LIUM N° 28 431

K. KARATZI, E. KARATZIS, C. PAPAMICHAEL, J. LEKAKIS, A. ZAMPELAS Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Harokopio University, 50 Promitheos str., Glyfada, 16674, Athens, Greece Effects of red wine on endothelial function: postprandial studies vs clinical trials EN Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases, 2009, vol. 19, n°10, p. 744-750.

KEYWORDS: red wine; endothelial function; FMD; alcohol; antioxidants

Aims: There are several epidemiological studies suggesting that moderate daily consumption of red wine may reduce cardiovascular risk. Additionally, results from a great number of in vitro studies indicate that constituents found in red wine are responsible for quite a few beneficial effects on endothelial cells. However, comparison of postprandial studies and clinical trials concerning red wine consumption leads to controversial results about its effect on endothelial function and especially flow-mediated dilatation (FMD). Endothelial function is an early indicator of atherosclerosis and vessel damage and at the same time, it is an independent prognostic factor for cardiovascular risk. Therefore, it is very important to investigate the known acute postprandial effects of red wine consumption, which is highly advised by dieticians and doctors, especially in high-risk populations, such as patients with coronary artery disease (CAD). Data Synthesis: This is a review of studies investigating acute and short-term effects of red wine on endothelial function, as well as relevant in vitro studies. Conclusion: Analysis of all data about the acute effects of red wine constituents on endothelial function, is inconclusive and it is obvious that new studies are necessary in order to elucidate this matter. Undoubtedly, one should be very careful in suggesting red wine consumption in high-risk populations, as its acute postprandial effect is not yet clear.

134 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

SANTÉ / MALADIES DÉ GÉ NÉ RATIVES N° 28 432

J. BOURNIVAL, P. QUESSY, M.G. MARTINOLI Department of Biochemistry and Neuroscience Research Group, Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières, Trois-Rivières, QC, G9A 5H7, Canada Protective effects of resveratrol and quercetin against MPP+ -induced oxidative stress act by modulating markers of apoptotic death in dopaminergic neurons EN Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology, 2009, vol. 29, n°8, p. 1169-1180.

KEYWORDS: apoptosis; resveratrol; quercetin; neuroprotection; oxidative stress

Reactive oxygen species produced by oxidative stress may participate in the apoptotic death of dopamine neurons distinctive of Parkinson's disease. Resveratrol, a red wine extract, and quercetin, found mainly in green tea, are two natural polyphenols, presenting antioxidant properties in a variety of cellular paradigms. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of resveratrol and quercetin on the apoptotic cascade induced by the administration of 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium ion (MPP+), a Parkinsonian toxin, provoking the selective degeneration of dopaminergic neurons. Our results show that a pre-treatment for 3 h with resveratrol or quercetin before MPP+ administration could greatly reduce apoptotic neuronal PC12 death induced by MPP+. We also demonstrated that resveratrol or quercetin modulates mRNA levels and protein expression of Bax, a pro-apoptotic gene, and Bcl-2, an anti-apoptotic gene. We then evaluated the release of cytochrome c and the nuclear translocation of the apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF). Altogether, our results indicate that resveratrol and quercetin diminish apoptotic neuronal cell death by acting on the expression of pro- and anti-apoptotic genes. These findings support the role of these natural polyphenols in preventive and/or complementary therapies for several human neurodegenerative diseases caused by oxidative stress and apoptosis.

Revue signalétique 135

SANTÉ / POLYPHÉ NOLS N° 28 433

N. HALEAGRAHARA, A. RADHAKRISHNAN, N. LEE, P. KUMAR Division of Human Biology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Flavonoid quercetin protects against swimming stress-induced changes in oxidative biomarkers in the hypothalamus of rats EN Eur J Pharmacol., 2009, vol. 621, n°1-3, p. 46-52.

KEYWORDS: wine; nutrition; polyphenols; stress; quercetin; oxidative stress; antioxidant; hypothalamus

Quercetin is a bioflavonoid abundant in onions, apples, tea and red wine and one of the most studied flavonoids. Dietary quercetin intake is suggested to be health promoting, but this assumption is mainly based on mechanistic studies performed in vitro. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of quercetin on stress-induced changes in oxidative biomarkers in the hypothalamus of rats. Adult male Sprague Dawley rats were subjected to forced swimming stress for 45 min daily for 14 days. Effect of quercetin at three different doses (10, 20 and 30 mg/kg body weight) on serum corticosterone and oxidative biomarkers (lipid hydroperoxides, antioxidant enzymes and total antioxidants) was estimated. Swimming stress significantly increased the serum corticosterone and lipid hydroperoxide levels. A significant decrease in total antioxidant levels and super oxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and catalase levels was seen in the hypothalamus after stress and treatment with quercetin significantly increased these oxidative parameters and there was a significant decrease in lipid hydroperoxide levels. These data demonstrate that forced swimming stress produced a severe oxidative damage in the hypothalamus and treatment with quercetin markedly attenuated these stress-induced changes. Antioxidant action of quercetin may be beneficial for the prevention and treatment of stress-induced oxidative damage in the brain.

136 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

SANTÉ / POLYPHÉ NOLS N° 28 434

S.C. FORESTER, A.L. WATERHOUSE Department of Viticulture and Enology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA Metabolites are key to understanding health effects of wine polyphenolics EN The Journal of nutrition, 2009, vol. 139, n°9, p. 1824 S-1831 S.

KEYWORDS: alcoholic beverage; nutrition; wine; health; metabolite

Phenolic compounds in grapes and wine are grouped within the following major classes: stilbenes, phenolic acids, ellagitannins, flavan-3-ols, anthocyanins, flavonols, and proanthocyanidins. Consumption of foods containing phenolic substances has been linked to beneficial effects toward chronic diseases such as coronary heart disease and colorectal cancer. However, such correlations need to be supported by in vivo testing and bioavailability studies are the first step in establishing cause and effect. Class members from all phenolic groups can be glucuronidated, sulfated, and/or methylated and detected at low concentrations in the bloodstream and in urine. But the majority of phenolic compounds from grapes and wine are metabolized in the gastrointestinal tract, where they are broken down by gut microflora. This typically involves deglycosylation, followed by breakdown of ring structures to produce phenolic acids and aldehydes. These metabolites can be detected in bloodstream, urine, and fecal samples by using sophisticated instrumentation methods for quantitation and identification at low concentrations. The health effects related to grape and wine consumption may well be due to these poorly understood phenolic acid metabolites. This review discusses the known metabolism of each major class of wine and grape phenolics, the means to measure them, and ideas for future investigations.

Revue signalétique 137

VITICULTURE / GÉNÉ TIQUE N° 28 435

KEIKO FUJITA, MAMIKO SHIMAZAKI, TERUMI FURIYA, TSUTOMU TAKAYANAGI AND SHUNJI SUZUKI Laboratory of Fruit Genetics Engineering, The Institute of Enology and Viticulture, University of Yamanashi, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-0005 Japan Genetic Variation among Koshu (Vitis vinifera L.) Accessions Generated by Retrotransposon Insertion into Genome EN American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 2009, vol. 60, n°4, p. 490-496.

KEYWORDS: retrotransposon; IRAP; Vitis vinifera; Koshu; genetic variation

Koshu (Vitis vinifera L.) is indigenous to Japan, where it is the most popular cultivar for white winemaking. Koshu grapevines have not been systematically classified according to yield, fruit quality, morphologic phenotype, and genetic variation. We report here the genetic variation among Koshu accessions classified by the region where they were cultivated. Eight retroelements were selected for inter-retrotransposon amplified polymorphism (IRAP) analysis and 16 retrotransposon-specific primers were designed. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using 136 primer sets amplified 731 PCR bands. Thirty- five polymorphic bands among Koshu accessions were identified by PCR using 24 primer sets. Individual grapevines from the same accession exhibited monomorphic band patterns for the primer sets. Cluster analysis based on polymorphic band patterns identified by IRAP analysis demonstrated that the Koshu accessions tested might be classified into three genetic groups. Results indicate that genetic variation among accessions might be generated by retrotransposon insertion into the Koshu genome.

138 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

VITICULTURE / GÉNÉ TIQUE N° 28 436

P.C.S. LEÃO1, S. RIAZ2, R. GRAZIANI2, G.S. DANGL2, S.Y. MOTOIKE3 AND M.A. WALKER2 1. Embrapa Semi-Árido, BR 428 km 152, Zona Rural, Caixa Postal 23, Petrolina, CEP. 56.302-970 Brasil 2. Department of Viticulture and Enology and Foundation Plant Services, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA 3. Departamento de Fitotecnia, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Av. Peter Henry Rolfs, s/n, Viçosa, CEP. 36.570-000, Brasil Characterization of a Brazilian Grape Germplasm Collection Using Microsatellite Markers EN American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 2009, vol. 60, n°4, p. 517-524.

KEYWORDS: Vitis; SSR markers; parentage; genetic diversity

Two hundred and twenty-one grapevine accessions from the Embrapa Semi-Árido, Juazeiro, Bahia, collection in Brazil were fingerprinted at seven SSR loci: VVS2, VVMD5, VVMD7, VVMD27, VVMD31, VrZAG62, and VrZAG79. Of these, 187 accessions had reliable allelic profiles allowing them to be divided into three groups. Group 1 consisted of 86 accessions that were correctly identified; group 2 consisted of 30 accessions that were incorrectly named, but matched the reference profile of a different cultivar; and group 3 consisted of 71 accessions with SSR profiles that did not match any available reference profile. Group 3 contained 11 accessions that did not match their internationally validated reference and 60 accessions for which international reference profiles did not exist. The profiles of group 3 may then serve as references for those accessions. The SSR allelic profiles from the reported parents of 19 of the group 3 accessions were used to determine whether the accessions were correctly named and six were confirmed. These profiles can now serve as references for this group of important Brazilian cultivars.

Revue signalétique 139

VITICULTURE / GÉNÉ TIQUE N° 28 437

ALBA M. VARGAS, M. TERESA DE ANDRÉ S, JOAQUÍ N BORREGO AND JAVIER IBÁ ÑEZ Instituto Madrileño de Investigación y Desarrollo Rural, Agrario y Alimentario (IMIDRA), Finca El Encín, Carretera A-2, PK 38,200, 28800 Alcalá de Henares, Spain Pedigrees of Fifty Table-Grape Cultivars EN American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 2009, vol. 60, n°4, p. 525-532.

KEYWORDS: chlorotype; genotyping; microsatellite; parentage analysis; Vitis vinifera L.

Information on the origin of elite table-grape cultivars is essential for breeding programs. A parentage study on table-grape accessions based on analysis of 25 nuclear and five chloroplast microsatellite loci was carried out. The pedigree of 50 cultivars was analyzed, including morphology studies when necessary. The chlorotypes clarify the direction of the crosses in the majority of cases, while likelihood ratios indicate high reliability of the proposed crosses. Nineteen new pedigrees are proposed for varieties from highly diverse geographical origins, such as Circé, Imperial Roja, Misket Vratchanskii, Mistress Hall, and Pizzutello Nero. Mistakes were also detected in previously described pedigrees for 13 cultivars, including Delizia di Vaprio and Madeleine Angevine. Alternative parents were identified for these 13 varieties. For another 18 varieties the previously proposed pedigree was confirmed. The cultivars Muscat of Alexandria, Afus Ali, Muscat Hamburg, and Chasselas were the most frequent parents of these 50 varieties.

140 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

VITICULTURE / MALADIES ET RAVAGEURS N° 28 438

M.A. JACOMETTI1, S.D. WRATTEN1 AND M. WALTER2 1. Bio-Protection Research Centre, PO Box 84, Lincoln University, Canterbury 7647, New Zealand 2. Plant & Food Research, PO Box 51, Lincoln, New Zealand Review: Alternatives to synthetic fungicides for Botrytis cinerea management in vineyards EN Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research, 2010, vol. 16, n°1, p. 154- 172.

KEYWORDS: biological control; Botrytis cinerea; habitat manipulation; induced resistance; mulch; sustainable viticulture

Botrytis cinerea, the causal agent of botrytis bunch rot, is an important disease of grapevines worldwide, with canopy management and the prophylactic use of fungicides being the most common control methods. The latter has resulted in fungicide resistance and is increasingly raising concerns regarding residues in wine and effects on human and environmental health. Research-led alternatives to this practice are beginning to emerge, including a range of biotic and abiotic treatments that induce vine resistance to B. cinerea and inundative applications of biological control agents such as Trichoderma, Bacillus, Ulocladium and Streptomyces species. Also, habitat manipulation techniques that aim to improve the effectiveness of naturally occurring biological control are being developed using mulches brought into the vineyard, as well as mulched cover crops. These can accelerate decomposition of botrytis mycelium and sclerotia on the vineyard floor in winter. The challenges of these different techniques and the prospects for habitat manipulation for this fungal disease are discussed. Extensive tables on synthetic fungicides, biofungicides, essential oils and plant extracts effective against B. cinerea are included.

Revue signalétique 141

VITICULTURE / PHYSIOLOGIE N° 28 439

M. CARMO VASCONCELOS1, MARC GREVEN1, CHRIS S. WINEFIELD2, MIKE C.T. TROUGHT1 AND VICTORIA RAW1 1. The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited, Marlborough Wine Research Centre, PO Box 845, Blenheim 7240, Marlborough, New Zealand 2. Lincoln University, PO Box 84, Lincoln 7647, Canterbury, New Zealand The Flowering Process of Vitis vinifera: A Review EN American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 2009, vol. 60, n°4, p. 411-434.

KEYWORDS: variability; carbohydrates; nutrition; growth regulators; water relations; genetic control

The flowering of Vitis vinifera spreads over two seasons. Tendrils and inflorescences have a common origin known as anlage or uncommitted primordia. The fate of the uncommitted primordia depends on the cytokinin-gibberellin balance, with cytokinins promoting transition to flowering and gibberellins inhibiting it. High temperature and high light are induction stimuli for flowering. Neither photoperiod nor vernalization is very relevant for flowering induction. Inflorescence primordia development in latent buds stops after the formation of secondary and tertiary branches, approximately one month before shoot periderm formation. Buds resume growth after dormancy, with further branching of inflorescences before differentiation of individual flowers. Warm weather at budburst favors further inflorescence differentiation, resulting in more clusters per shoot, while cool weather favors differentiation of more flowers per clusters and fewer clusters per shoot. Environment and cultural practices influence flowering, either directly or indirectly via their impact on photosynthesis and nutrient availability. Cultural practices encouraging light penetration into the canopy favor flower initiation, while practices resulting in shading have a detrimental impact. Flower formation occurs through a series of sequential steps under hormone-mediated genetic control. The first genetic change involves the switch from the vegetative to the floral state, in response to different environmental and developmental signals, through the activity of floral-meristem identity genes. Second, the floral meristem is patterned into the whorls of organ primordia through the activity of floral-organ identity genes. Third, the floral-organ identity genes activate downstream effectors that specify the various tissues which constitute the different floral structures. The flowers are hermaphroditic and most are self-pollinated but cross-pollination also occurs. Fertilization is hindered by cool rainy weather and favored by warm dry weather.

142 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

VITICULTURE / PHYSIOLOGIE N° 28 440

JASON P. SMITH AND BRUNO P. HOLZAPFEL National Wine and Grape Industry Centre, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia Cumulative Responses of Semillon Grapevines to Late Season Perturbation of Carbohydrate Reserve Status EN American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 2009, vol. 60, n°4, p. 461-470.

KEYWORDS: carbohydrate reserves; postharvest period; vegetative growth; fruiting; water stress; overcropping

The response of grapevine carbohydrate reserves and seasonal growth and development to defruiting at the onset of ripening or complete defoliation at commercial harvest was examined at four sites in two hot, inland regions of New South Wales, Australia. Early defruiting over two consecutive seasons increased total nonstructural carbohydrates (TNC) in the roots, and to a lesser extent in the wood, and resulted in yield increases of up to 60% in the third season when fruit was allowed to remain on the vine until harvest. In contrast, defoliation at harvest caused a decline in TNC concentrations and reduced fruit production by up to 22% following one season of treatment and by 50% following two seasons. The higher yields developed after the two proceeding seasons of early defruiting were associated with depletion of the initially high carbohydrate reserves between budbreak and harvest, and reserve restoration did not take place until after harvest. However, in the lower yielding, previously defoliated vines, carbohydrate reserves were restored before fruit maturity. These findings show that carbon demands of ripening fruit, and photoassimilation capacity after harvest, can both limit the restoration of carbohydrate reserves to preseason levels. Marked differences between sites in the seasonal maxima of nonstructural carbohydrate concentrations in perennial tissues and aspects of floral and vegetative development are attributed to water deficits. The interaction between carbohydrate reserves and fruit and shoot growth suggests a feedback process whereby homeostasis, following environmental or cultural perturbations, is restored to a level determined by the capacity of the grapevine to assimilate and store carbohydrates.

Revue signalétique 143

VITICULTURE / PHYSIOLOGIE N° 28 441

J. JREIJ1, MARY T. KELLY1, A. DELOIRE2, E. BRENON3, A. BLAISE1 1. UMR 1083 "Sciences pour l'Oenologie et la Viticulture" Centre de formation et de Recherche en Œnologie, Faculté des Sciences Pharmaceutiques, 15 Av. Charles Flahault, 34093 Montpellier, France 2. Department « plant sciences » Montpellier-SupAgro, 2 Place Viala, 34060 Montpellier, France 3. VIVELYS, Domaine du Chapitre, 170 boulevard du Chapitre, 34750 Villeneuve-lès-Maguelone, France Combined Effects of Soil-applied and Foliar-applied Nitrogen on the Nitrogen composition and distribution in water stressed Vitis Vinifera L. cv Sauvignon blanc Grapes EN Journal International des Sciences de la Vigne et du Vin, 2009, vol. 43, n°4.

KEYWORDS: Sauvignon blanc; water-stressed; soil and foliar applied nitrogen

Aims: The aim of this work is to test the effects of soil-applied nitrogen (N) at budbreak and subsequent foliar-applied N at veraison on the N composition and partitioning in berries of water stressed Vitis vinifera L. cv. Sauvignon blanc vines. Methods and results: N fertilizer was applied to the soil at budbreak at doses of 30 or 60 kg N/ha, while the control did not receive any treatment. This did not increase N content of leaves and the vines showed symptoms of N deficiency from the beginning of the season. In order to overcome this deficiency, N foliar sprayings were applied at veraison at doses of 2.5 or 5 kg N/ha to vines having received 30 or 60 kg N/ha of soil- applied N, respectively. Total N of berry flesh responded to N foliar fertilization more than that any other berry part, whereas amino acids in skins were the more affected by N foliar fertilization than those of other berry parts. Only the 60 soil/5 foliar N treatment produced a measurable increase in the total, assimilable and amino N in berry juices at maturity. Assimilable N was a better indicator for N summer uptake by the vine than total N. Of all amino acids, arginine showed the highest increases following N fertilization and could be considered among the better indicators to distinguish between N summer fertilization treatments. Conclusion: In conditions of severe water deficit and N deficiency, fertilization at a dose of 60 kg/ha soil-applied N combined with 5 kg/ha foliar-applied N improved fruit fermentability. Results support the use of foliar fertilization at veraison as a tool for enhancing grape quality and to a certain extent the style of wine. Significance and impact of study: This work helps to provide insight into the effect of N soil fertilization along with foliar fertilization on water-stressed vines. This may be useful in fertilization programs in the Mediterranean area and may help to choose the type and the rate of the N fertilization in case of severe vine water deficit. Also, we provide information of utmost importance on the distribution of summer foliar-applied N in grape tissues.

144 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

VITICULTURE / PHYSIOLOGIE N° 28 442

H.R. SCHULTZ1,2 AND M. STOLL1 1. Institut für Weinbau und Rebenzüchtung, Forschungsanstalt Geisenheim, von-Lade Str. 1, D-65366, Germany 2. Fachhochschule Wiesbaden, Fachbereich Geisenheim, von-Lade Str. 1, D- 65366 Geisenheim, Germany Some critical issues in environmental physiology of grapevines: future challenges and current limitations EN Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research, 2010, vol. 16, n°S 1, p. 4-24.

KEYWORDS: aquaporins; cover crops; efficient water use; CO2; environmental stress; isotopic signatures; mesophyll conductance; remote sensing; stomatal conductance

The rapidly increasing world population and the scarcity of suitable land for agricultural food production together with a changing climate will ultimately put pressure on grape- producing areas for the use of land and the input of resources. For most grape-producing areas, the predicted developments in climate will be identical to becoming more marginal for quality production and/or to be forced to improve resource management. This will have a pronounced impact on grapevine physiology, biochemistry and ultimately production methods. Research in the entire area of stress physiology, from the gene to the whole plant and vineyard level (including soils) will need to be expanded to aid in the mitigation of arising problems. In this review, we elaborate on some key issues in environmental stress physiology such as efficient water use to illustrate some of the challenges, current limitations and future possibilities of certain experimental techniques and/or data interpretations. Key regulatory mechanisms in the control of stomatal conductance are treated in some detail and several future research directions are outlined. Diverse physiological aspects such as the functional role of aquaporins, the importance of mesophyll conductance in leaf physiology, night-time water use and respiration under environmental constraints are discussed. New developments for improved resource management (mainly water) such as the use of remote sensing and thermal imagery technologies are also reviewed. Specific cases where our experimental systems are limited or where research has been largely discontinued (i.e. stomatal patchiness) are treated and some promising new developments, such as the use of coupled structural functional models to assess for environmental stress effects on a whole-plant or canopy level are outlined. Finally, the status quo and research challenges around the 'CO2-problem' are presented, an area which is highly significant for the study of 'the future' of the grape and wine industry, but where substantial financial commitment is needed.

Revue signalétique 145

VITICULTURE / PRATIQUES VITICOLES N° 28 443

MICHAEL J. COSTELLO Cooperative Extension, University of California, 1720 S. Maple Ave., Fresno, CA 93702, USA Growth and Yield of Cultivated Grape with Native Perennial Grasses Nodding Needlegrass or California Barley as Cover Crops EN HortScience, 2010, vol. 45, n°1, p. 154-156.

KEYWORDS: Vitis vinifera; vineyard; Nassella cernua; Hordeum brachyantherum ssp. Californicum

Two California native perennial grasses, nodding needlegrass [Nassella cernua (Stebbins & R.M. Love) Barkworth] and California barley [Hordeum brachyantherum Nevski ssp. californicum (Covas & Stebbins) Bothmer, N. Jacobsen & Seberg], were compared with a conventional grass cover crop, ‘Blando’ brome (Bromus hordeaceus L.), as well as resident (weedy) vegetation and a clean cultivated control for effects on growth and yield of cultivated grape (Vitis vinifera L. cv. Barbera). Statistical analyses did not reveal yield differences between treatments with floor vegetation (the native grasses, ‘Blando’ brome, and resident vegetation) and clean cultivation, the cover crop treatments (the native grasses and ‘Blando brome’) and clean cultivation, nor the native grass treatments versus treatments with non-native floor vegetation (‘Blando’ brome and resident vegetation). However, there was a significant difference between the two native grasses with the average yield of nodding needlegrass 26.2% higher than that of California barley. Treatments did not differ in °Brix, berry weight, or pruning weight. At the end of the study, vine trunk diameter was 7.1% higher under the cover crop treatments than resident vegetation. Given these results, in vineyards where a neutral effect on growth or yield is desired, nodding needlegrass would be suitable as a permanent cover crop, whereas California barley would not.

146 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

VITICULTURE / RAISIN DE TABLE N° 28 444

LIPING KOU1, YAGUANG LUO2, WU DING1, XINGHUA LIU1 AND WILLIAM CONWAY2 1. College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, 28, Xinong Road, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China 2. Produce Quality and Safety Laboratory, USDA ARS, 10300 Baltimore Avenue, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA Hot Water Treatment in Combination with Rachis Removal and Modified Atmosphere Packaging Maintains Quality of Table Grapes EN HortScience, 2009, vol. 44, n°7, p. 1947-1952.

KEYWORDS: hot water; microbial growth; sensory; chlorine; packaging; table grapes; sulfur dioxide

Alternatives to sulfur dioxide to maintain quality of table grapes, including various combinations of rachis removal, chlorinated wash, hot water treatment, and modified atmosphere packaging, were explored in this study. Grapes were prepared by cutting off the rachis 1 to 2 mm from the fruit or by keeping the clusters intact. After initial preparation, short-stem and cluster grapes were subjected to chlorinated wash and/or hot water (45°C, 8 min) treatment and packaged in plastic trays sealed with a gas- permeable film. The treated grapes as well as the commercially packed grapes (COM) in their original packages were stored at 5°C for up to 4 weeks. Hot water treatment resulted in significantly (P < 0.05) higher oxygen retention and lower carbon dioxide accumulation in package headspaces, maintained a firmer texture, higher overall visual quality, lower decay rate, and lower microbial populations than other treatments or COM during the entire storage period. Grapes that were cut from the rachis and treated with hot water and chlorine maintained the highest quality for 4 weeks with the least decay among all treatments. A chlorine prewash treatment significantly (P < 0.05) reduced microbial populations on cluster grapes and maintained better overall quality. Conventional COM grapes developed dark decay and lost turgidity and were of unacceptable quality at 28 days of storage.

Revue signalétique 147

VITICULTURE / RAISIN DE TABLE N° 28 445

S. LURIE, R. OVADIA, A. NISSIM-LEVI, M. OREN-SHAMIR, T. KAPLUNOV, Y. ZUTAHY, H. WEKSLER AND A. LICHTER Departments of Postharvest Science and Ornamental Horticulture, ARO, The Volcani Center, Israel Abscisic acid improves colour development in 'Crimson Seedless' grapes in the vineyard and on detached berries EN The Journal of Horticultural Science & Biotechnology, 2009, vol. 84, n°6, p. 639-644.

KEYWORDS: Crimson Seedless; abscisic acid; colour development

‘Crimson Seedless’ is a high quality, red, table grape (Vitis vinifera) cultivar, which may fail to develop adequate red colour in warm climates. In addition, most bunches contain some green berries when the rest of the bunch has become red. Abscisic acid (ABA) is a plant hormone which increases in grape berry skin at the onset of maturation and is involved in the regulation of anthocyanin accumulation. A commercial formulation, S-ABA (ProTone®), was sprayed at 400 mg l-1 or 800 mg l-1 in a vineyard at the beginning of veraison, or 200 mg l-1, 400 mg l-1, or 600 mg l-1 S-ABA was applied to detached berries or to small bunches (five-to-six berries) in the laboratory by spraying or by allowing uptake through the pedicel. In the vineyard, the application of S-ABA affected berry colour, changing the red berry colour of the control [hue angle (h°) = 3.6] to black for S- ABA-treated clusters (h° = –45°). Ripeness parameters (soluble solids content, titratable acidity, and berry size) were not affected by S-ABA treatment, but treated berries were less firm (250 g mm-1) than untreated control fruit (335 g mm-1) using a compression durometer. Anthocyanin accumulation in berries treated with 400 mg l-1 S-ABA was almost double that of control berries, although the anthocyanin compositions were similar. Storage of grapes at 0°C for 3 weeks, with no protection from decay, indicated that S-ABA did not increase their sensitivity to fungal infection. Green or breaker-stage detached berries, or bunches, developed a red colour by spraying with S-ABA or by uptake through the pedicel. Detached berries may therefore serve as an efficient system with which to test the effects of S-ABA and its interactions with other factors which influence colour development.

148 Bulletin de l’OIV (Vol. 83, n°947-948-949)

VITICULTURE / RAISIN DE TABLE N° 28 446

M.E. AMIRI, E. FALLAHI AND M. MIRJALILI University of Idaho Research and Extension Center, Parma Research and Extension Center, Parma, USA Effects of abscisic acid or ethephon at veraison on the maturity and quality of 'Beidaneh Ghermez' grapes EN The Journal of Horticultural Science & Biotechnology, 2009, vol. 84, n°6, p. 660-664.

KEYWORDS: abscisic acid; ethephon; veraison; Beidaneh Ghermez; berry color

Vitis vinifera ‘Beidaneh Ghermez’ is one of the most popular seedless table-grape cultivars grown in the Middle East, but it usually has a poor berry colour. The impact of abscisic acid (ABA) or ethephon, applied at four rates (0, 100, 200, or 300 μl l-1) at 20 – 30% of verasion, on berry quality in ‘Beidaneh Ghermez’ was studied over two seasons (2007 – 2008). Application of ethephon or ABA did not significantly affect berry yield compared to untreated controls, but berry size increased as the rate of ethephon increased. Neither treatment affected soluble solids concentrations (SSC), titratable acidity (TA), or juice pH. The highest SSC and TA values were recorded in the untreated controls. Total anthocyanin contents of berry skin increased with each incremental increase in ABA or ethephon. The relationship between anthocyanin content and berry skin colour was linear. Berries that received ABA were firmer than the untreated controls, or those treated with ethephon. Ethephon reduced berry firmness compared to control and ABA-treated grapes. All ABA-treated grapes had better overall berry quality than those which received no treatment or ethephon.

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PRIOR R.L., WU X., SCHAICH K. Standardized methods for the determination of antioxidant capacity and phenolics in food and dietary supplements. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2005, vol. 53, n°8, p. 3101-3113.

ANTONACCI D. Sotto controllo i residui di fitofarmaci nella viticoltura da tavola pugliese. Rivista di Frutticoltura, 2003, vol. 4, p. 52-57.

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PRIOR R.L., WU X., SCHAICH K. Standardized methods for the determination of antioxidant capacity and phenolics in food and dietary supplements. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2005, vol. 53, n°8, p. 3101-3113.

ANTONACCI D. Sotto controllo i residui di fitofarmaci nella viticoltura da tavola pugliese. Rivista di Frutticoltura, 2003, vol. 4, p. 52-57.

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