The concept of'joy' in Old and Middle English A semantic analysis

Malgorzata Fabiszak

Wyzsza Szkola Biznesu Pila 2001 CONTENTS

Introduction...... 1

Chapter One. Linguistic approach to lexical semantics 3 1.1. Introduction. . ~ 3 1.2. Semantic fields. . 3 1.3. Componential analysis. . 5 1.4. The criticism and defence of componential analysis 6 1.5. Semantics and generative grammar 11 1.6.Cognitive semantics 16 1.7. Conclusion 18

Chapter Two. Approaches to emotion 19 2.1. Introduction 19 2.2. The concept of emotion: its definition and structure. . 19 2.3. Emotions in general psychology 24 2.3.1. Universality vs. culture-specificity of emotions 24 2.3.2. Emotions as cognitive phenomena 27 2.3.3. The developmentof emotion conceptsin children 28 2.4. The linguistic approach to emotions 29 2.4.1. Emotions in historical linguistics 29 2.4.2. Emotions within Natural Semantic Metalanguage 29 2.4.3. The linguistic constructionist approach to emotions 32 2.4.4. Cognitive semantics and emotion concepts 34 2.4.5. Verbs of emotions as experiencer verbs 37 2.5. The historical approach to emotion 39 2.6. Conclusion 41 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' ChapterThree. A semantic analysis ofjoywords in Old English .43 3.1. Data and method 43 3.2. Analysisof words 44 Bliss 44 Blipe 46 Dream 48 Glaednes 50 Gefea 52 Liss 54 Mirh]i 55 Wynsumnes 57 INTRODUCTION 3.3. The structureof the concept of 'joy' in Old English 58 3.4. The scenariofor the concept of 'joy' in Old English 63 The aim ofthiswork is to arrive at a description ofthe semanticstructureof the concept of,joy' in OE and ME periods as well as to pinpoint changesthat the ChapterFour. The concept of'joy' inMiddle English 67 concept underwent over this time. The concept of'joy' is here understood as a 4.1. Introduction:scope, methods and a general background 67 mentalrepresentation ofthemeaningofa lexicalfield. In the presentstudyonlythe 4.2. Analyses of words 68 core members ofthe field will be analysed for OE. These have been identified as Bliss 68 bliss, blioe, dream, glcednes, liss, mirho and wynsumnesse. Blithe 70 The development ofthesewordswillbe tracedon intoME, evenifthewords Cheer 71 show signs offalling out ofthe field of'joy', i.e.I will in this respectbe adoptinga Delight , 73 semasiologicalapproachto the changeofmeaning.New wordsborrowedintoME Dream 75 to designatethe conceptof'joy', such as cheer, delight, gay (gainess) andjoy, will Gainesse(gay) 76 alsobe investigated, I willthusalsobe incorporating anonomasiological perspective. Gladnes (gladschipe,gleadung, glad) 76 The choiceofthisparticularfieldisbasedonthesuggestionthatitisrelatively Joy , , 78 poorlydescribedinthehistoryoftheEnglishlanguage(cf Strite1989 on OE,Diller Lisse 79 1992). A number of workshave been devoted to other emotion words, 'gloom' in Mirth 79 particular(forexample: Lochrie 1986, Magennis 1986). Thosestudieswhichhave Wynn 81 dealt with 'joy', however,have either investigated it with a differentaim in mind 4.3. The evolution of the semantic field of 'joy' in Middle English 81 (Ostheeren 1964) or focusedon other lexical items (Fell 1982-83). The presentstudyconsistsoffour chaptersand a conclusion. Conclusions 88 Chapter One is a review ofmethods and theories in lexical semantics. The reviewis intendedasanattemptto finda commoncoreinthe competing theoriesso Bibligraphy 96 thatthe analysis ofthedatacanbebasedonwidelyaccepted, thoughoftenvariously Sources 96 labelledmethods. Thischapterbeginswitha surveyofthebasictenetsoflexical field Other Works 97, theory and compositional analysis, devotes some space to those approaches to semanticsstemmingfromgenerative transformational grammar, andfinishes with a discussionofcognitive semanticsas advocatedby the Berkeleyschool. ChapterTwopresents anumberofstudies devotedto emotions fromanumber ofdifferent perspectives: psychological, linguistic andsocio-cultural. Thegoalofthis chapteristoprovide awiderbackground formy study. Emotions havebeenaresearch 2 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 3 concernin psychologyforalmostahundredyears.I therefore believethatproblems identifiedwithin this discipline, as well as attempts at solvingthese problems, can serve as referencepointsforthose studyingemotions from a differentperspective. An interestin emotions in socialhistory, on the otherhand,is arecentdevelopment, but thisthrivingresearchfieldcanalsocontributeto ourunderstanding ofemotions and,inparticular, changesin emotions. The first part ofChapter Three is devoted to an analysis ofOE words for 'joy'. The Microfiche Concordance to OldEnglish (henceforthMCO£) serves as CHAPTER ONE a source ofdata. The second part presents the results ofthe analysis which is an LINGUISTIC APPROACH attemptto constructthescenario for 'joy' in OE andto identifythemetaphorswhich. governit. TO LEXICAL SEMANTICS. Chapter Four contains an analysis ofME terms for 'joy'. This chapter not onlyusesthemethodology developed in ChapterThree,butalsoutilisesitsresultsin 1.1.Introduction. both the analysis and interpretation ofdata. The data come from a number of concordances, supplemented withliterarytextsasindicatedintheBibliography. The Diachronic lexical semantics stemsfrometymology, whichhasbeenaninterest chapter ends with anoutlineofdevelopmentsbetweenthe OE and ME periods. oflinguistically oriented philosophers atleastsincePlato. In itsmostcommonformit Thethesisendswithconclusions which summarises theresultsofthe study. wasbasedonabeliefthatwordshaveatruemeaning(theidealinthePlatonic sense) The ReferenceSectionconsistsoftwo parts:the sourcesandreferencebooks andthat the role ofaphilosopheris to fmdthismeaning.In modem timesthe quest employed,andthe literature quotedinthe thesis. fortheonlytruemeaningwas oftenunderstoodas finding the Latinor Greeksource wordandtracingitsdevelopment inotherEuropeanlanguages (MalkieI1993). This modeloflinguistic inquiryhasa strongresonanceinthefolktheoryoflanguageand manifests itselfin vehement public discussion on the deterioration and decay of language, itslexical meanings andgrammatical form. With thedevelopmentofhistorical linguistics, abetterunderstanding ofthemechanisms oflanguage changediscredited such views as non-scientific.The approachto the study ofthe change ofmeaning alsoevolved.

1.2. Semantic fields.

Trier(1934)was one ofthe first scholars,working within the frameworkof field theory,topointouttheweaknesses ofatomistic approaches tomeaning. Studying wordsinisolation leads toaneglect ofimportant generalisations. Asapost-Saussurean structuralist,he advocated an analysis ofwords as parts ofa system, a word-jield. In his influentialstudy ofthe conceptual fieldofknowledge andunderstandingin Middle High Getman, he pointed out that a changein meaning ofone lexicalitem influences themeaningoftherelateditemsandthestructure ofthesystemitself The organisation ofa lexicalfield,as conceivedofby Trier, wasbasedonparadigmatic relations. Otherscholars, notablyPorzig(1934),understoodsemanticfields as sets 4 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 5 ofwords standing in syntagmatic relations, arranged in terms ofcollocations and 1.3. Componential analysis. selectional restrictions. Another approachto lexicalsemantics,stemming from structurallinguistics, Trier has been criticised for making some ungrounded assumptions, for and often used in combinationwith the semantic field framework, is componential structur~ exampleforpostulatingthemosaicstructureoflexicalfields. Sucha implies analysis. Itisbased on the assumption that words in a lexicon constitutea structure that all the possible meanings within a conceptual field are expressed lexically, or ofsystematically related elements which themselves are further decomposable. It to put it in other words, that the whole semantic space is covered by the meanings aims at determining a particular word's place in this structure by delimiting the p~oved oflexical items. This position has been criticised by Lehrer (1974), who distinctivefeatures thatrecur in the meaning ofrelated items. They are oftenheld in that this is not the case in many lexical fields. Following the results ofBerhn and binary or n-tuple oppositions which weave into a complex net ofparadigmatic Kay's (1969) research on colour terms, she suggested that lexical fields consist.of relations. Moreover,binaryoppositionis consideredto be "one ofthemostimportant a set ofbasic terms and less clearly delineatedperipheral terms. Componential principles govemingthe structureoflanguages" (Lyons 1977:271). analysis ofbasic terms determines the dimensions or parameters st~c.mring the lexical field. Parameters or components weave into the senses ofexistmg terms, Bendix (1966), following Stem (1931) rejected the idea that words may be thu~ cre~ti~g but not all possible combinations ofthe components are lexicalised, studied in isolation.Hence he constructed a set ofnuclear sentences ofthe form "A d~e t~ extral~ng~Istlc, lexical gaps in the field. The lack oflexicalisation is often has B", "A gives B to C", etc. to establish what relations verbs in such sentences pragmatic factors oflanguageuse. Only ifa need for a new lexical Itemanses illthe create. One ofthe bases ofhis theory was that to describe the meaning ofa sentence speech communityis a lexicalgap filled.The driveto internal symmetry or analogy isto supply its closestpossible paraphrase.Thus he subjected contrastingsentences plays no role in filling the gaps. .. with the verbs under studyto native speaker's judgements. From these he extracted ~n partlcul~r Apart from the meaning components common to the words a criterialcomponentsofmeaning.Thenhe deviseda setofconversionruleswhich,in semanticfield,thesewords,especiallybasicterms,oftensharesyntacticstructures ill a quasi-logical form, presented a defmition ofmeaning ofa given word. Finally,he which they can appear, as illustrated by Zwicky's (1971) analysis ofmanner-of- presented the results in a table ofcomponents for the whole domain. speakingverbs. .. The methodofcomponentialanalysisintegratedwith the fieldtheoryhasbeen These two characteristic features oflexical fields, I.e. semantic parameters further refined and tested in numerous semantic studies conducted by the linguists ofwo~d~ creating lexical gaps, and common syntactic behaviour belonging to:he from the Tiibingen School ofStructural Semantics. The framework, as originally sanlefield endowfieldtheorywitha certainexplanatory andpredictive power. Lexical ~o item~ inventi~~ developed by Coseriu (1962, 1967) under the name oflexematics, is basically gaps help explainthe extensionofmeaning oflexical and the and paradigmaticand employsdecompositionintothe meaning-differentiating features. bon-owing ofnew items.The sharedsyntacticbehaviourpredictsthe collocabilityof A lexical field, accordingto Coseriu (for an excellent summary see Geckeler 1981, the new items added to the lexical field. 1988),consistsoflexemes analysable by meansofsemes (minimaldistinctive features organised in oppositions along a dimension characteristic for a single field) and The theory of semantic fields has been successfully applied in lexicographic classemes(units fimctioning across linguistic fields, determining syntagmatic relations, dI~tlO~~ry research, for example in constructing RogetsThesaurus (1962) and the oftengrammaticalised). The contentofthewhole lexicalfieldis expressedby means ofabout500Germanverbs,designed asareference forteachersatGermanumversmes ofan archilexeme, a generallabeldeterminingthe scope ofthe field,which may but preparingcoursesandtextbooks in Germanasa foreignlanguage(Ballweg-Schramm need not be lexicalised in a particular language (Geckeler 1988: 15, Lyons 1977: 1981).Itis also believed that semanticfieldsunderstood as sets ofcontrastl~eItems 296). are a necessary device for the organisation ofmemory, language learning and categorisation(Grandy 1987). Lehrer (1974) pointedto the contributioncomponentialanalysiscanmake to theunderstandingofthe dynamicnatureoflanguage.She emphasisedthe difference between general and salient components (similar to the markers and distinguishers 6 Matgorzata I.... "htc"''''oIr- The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 7 posited by Katz and Fodor (1963) - see below). Non-universal components of similarto componential analysis (points1and2) ordonotthemselves withstandthe meaning(distingushers) maybemoresalient forthemeaning ofa givenwordanditis samecriticism (point3). these that determine the metaphoric extensions ofwords. "Ifthere is no way of matching these features with anythingin the new field of discourse, there doesnot BalmerandBrennenstuhl (1981 a andb) rejectfeature analysis onthegrounds seem to be anypoint in usingthe words.Moreover,much ofthe rhetoricalforce of that the ontologicalstatusoffeatures is disputableandthat discoveringexhaustive using these terms in slightlynon-standard contexts is achievedby associatingthe lists offeaturesboth for the meaning ofa single word and for the entire lexicon is normal[salient-MF] component withanewreferent"(Lehrer1974: 116). Theability problematical. Theyproposea holistic approach to lexical analysis, that is starting ofthesecomponents toinfluence andextendthemeaningofwordsmodifiedby their with the analysisofthe entirelexicon andbreaking it down into smallerparts.The carriers, without themselvesbelonging to the specification ofthese words, aligns firstdivision theysuggest isthatintowordcategories, i.e.nouns, verbsandadjectives, themwithWeinreich's(1966)transferfeatures. adverbs and prepositions. Then they proceed to break up the verbs into smaller groups on the basis of two semanticrelations: similarity andpresupposition. This The basic tenets ofcomponentialanalysistreatedin a less orthodoxmanner leadsto the establishment of a verbgroup' , which seems to be nothing more than a than in the approaches presented above are also present in the contextual theory group ofsynonyms ofa classicalThesaurus,for instance: "verbgroup, e.g.tun jd 1 oflexicalmeaningdevelopedby Cruse(1986, 1988).Withinthis frameworkword etw2 (do), durchfiihrenjd 1etw2 (perform),machenjd 1etw2 (make),bastelnjd meaning is analysedinterms ofsemantic traits, which are derivedfromthe actual 1(work at as a hobby), schaffenjd 1(execute),tatig seinjd 1(bebusy)". The next andpotentialcontexts. Actualcontextishereunderstoodasthedata-derived context, step is to extracta title verb with the most generalmeaning (cf. athesaurus entry), whereaspotential context istheoneavailable tonativespeakers (including linguists), sothat theremainingverbsin a groupcanbe paraphrasedby meansofthe titleverb throughintrospection. The meaningofaword canbe derivedfromaninvestigation with a modifier.Verbgroup together with its title verb creates a verbcategory. On ofboth its syntagmatic(collocation) andparadigmatic(substitution) affmitiesand the basis ofsimilarityoftitle verbs these can, in tum, be grouped into verbmodels isunderstood asthe entirepatternofaword's contextualrelations. (cf. scripts, scenes, etc.). For example, the Individual/Object-Existence Model consists ofthefollowing verbcategories: NotExist-Come IntoExistence-Exist-Vanish­ 1.4. The criticism and defence of componential analysis. Have Existed(Balmerand Brennenstuhl 1981b: 421-422). Thequestion arises: whatisleftofthenovelapproachonceitis stripped ofthe Componential analysisin combinationwith semanticfieldtheory has been newlabels? Howdoesthismethoddifferfromthecommonlexicographic practice of utilisedin severalanthropological andlinguisticstudiesof,forexample, possession grouping synonymous words in thesauri and paraphrasing them in alphabetical verbs(Bendix1966), cooking verbs,beliefpredicates, container words, soundwords dictionaries? In factno differenceisdetectable. (Lehrer1974),judgingverbs (Fillmore 1971), semantic oppositions (Mettinger 1988a However, duetribute mustbepaidtotheauthors forpointing outcertain general andb), and the domainofhumans (Kleparski 1990). trendsin the organisationofverbmodels.They singledout three dimensionsalong Despiteitswideapplication thefeaturebased approachhasbeen criticisedon whichverbmodelsarestructured. These are:aktionsart, i.e.the lineararrangement thefollowing grounds: in the process phases; intensity ofthe process visualised by means ofa hat graph; 1.Semantic components areindeterminate, andtheirontological statusvague and interference (involvement, influence), i.e. degreeofsubjectagentivity. so that one cannot tell the differencebetween metalinguistic components and the Nevertheless, asfarasmethodologyisconcerned BalmerandBrennenstuhl's wordsofthe naturallanguage. approachseemsjust a notionalvariant ofthe lexicologicalapproach.Moreover,if 2. Binary oppositions do not allow gradability ofconcepts as revealed by we disregard the ontological status ofsemantic features, it is difficult to see the prototypeeffects. difference between a classical paraphrase, feature analysis and the Balmer and 3.The approachsuggests thatcertainconceptsaremorecomplexthanothers, Brennenstuhl method. Whattheyalldo isdescribe themeaningofawordindifferent whichis allegedly not supported bypsycholinguisticexperiments (seebelow). I Terms: verbgroup, verbcategory, verbmodel, title verb, hat graph follow the terminology and the spelling Thesuggested solutions tothesecriticisms, however, eitherlookconspicuously suggested by Balmer and Brennenstuhl. 8 Matzorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 9 metalanguages, one closerto natural language and the other attemptingto draw on not commit ourselvest? the philosophical implications adhered to by the author,it the artificallanguageoflogic. Inmost cases,however,both would pointtothe same ~roves to be a:rery efficient methodofsemanticanalysis (Fabiszak2000).Moreover, componentsofword meaning.For example: Itclearlyremainsoneofthebetterdeveloped andmorewidelytestedsemantic theories (seethe collection Goddard and Wierzbicka 1994). (a) 'mother' 1.Your mother is the woman who gave birth to you. (Collins Dictionary) The criticismof compo~enti~l analysis stemmingfromresearchonprototypes (b) 'mother' [female],[parent] should not be regarded as being aimed at discrediting the model but rather as an (c) 'mother' person giving birth (a possible definition within Balmer and important ~sight thatcanimprovethe existingtheory. Mostlinguists workingwithin Brennenstuhl framework) the ~elllantic fe~ture fra~ework incorporate theresultsofRosch's- experiments into their own studies, admit the existence offocus-periphery structure and introduce where 'woman' ofthe firstdefmition= 'female' ofthe second= 'person' ofthethird, prototypicality-basedorderingoflinguisticfeatures (Lehrer 1990,Lewandowska­ and 'who gavebirth to you'= 'parent' = 'giving birth' . Ofcourse, these defmitions Tomaszcz~k 1985, 1993). Nonetheless, it must be stressed that the theory of highlightslightlydifferentaspectsofthewordmeaning.The firstisthemostdetailed prototypes IS a theoryofconceptualisation andnot oflinguisticcoding. Theidea ofa one, but disregardsthe relationships between the defmed word and other words in prototyp~ as th~ centre ofa conceptual category is useful for semantic theory in as the lexicon;the seconddoesnot differentiatetherole ofthe female as opposedto the muchas Itprovides a referent,understood as a mental representation and not a real maleparent,butplacesthewordfmnly withinthenetworkofotherlexicalitems; and worldentity, for the lexicalitem (Wierzbicka 1985, 1990).The differe~ce between the third gives the highest superordinate ofthe defmed word thus disregardingthe themeaningofa lexicalitemanditsrealwordreferenthasoftenbeenunderestimated component 'female',butemphasising thelink: withalltheotherwordsdenoting human in prot~type ori~nt~d linguisticinvestigationsand has led to a misrepresentationof beings. These nuances ofmetalinguistic description, however, are too small to be selllantI~meanmg Interms offeatures characteristic ofthe referent, which do not regarded as a solutionto the problem ofthe ontological status ofsemanticfeatures. necessanly have to ~oincide with those ofa lexical entry (for detailssee Kastovsky 19~8). Encyclopaedic ~owledge oftheworldasperceivedandinterpreted by human A more viable solution is the one developed by Wierzbicka (1992, 1996) beI~gs shoul.d not be mistaken for the dictionary meaning ofwords. Definitions of who suggested that semantic components reflect semantic universals (primitives) ~eX1calm~anmgusuallyreferto encyclopaedic knowledge, buttheyalsoincludevital common to all humankind. The first step in semantic research should then be to informationon a word's expressive meaning, register affiliation and collocational HJ.~v"JlVH" produce a set ofsuch primitives through cross-linguistic research. The Natural J.""... (Cruse 1988, 1990). Semantic Metalanguage (NSM) as worked out by Wierzbicka and her colleagues Theeffect ofthetheoryofprototypes onlexical semantics isoftenoverestimated, +h.~ is very appealing,but has certaindrawbacks.The list ofthe proposeduniversalshas ",,",,-I strikingsimilaritiesbetween prototype theory and field theory overlooked. grown from 14(1972) to over 50 (1996).They are not mutually independentand it can be demonstrated by a comparison ofCoseriu's lexematics and prototype isdifficult toascertain theirpsychological reality. Moreover, indefining abstract entities, SenlantIcsas follows. Wierzbickaallowstheuse offeatureswhicharenot includedinthe list,foreconomy Althou~ ~he th~ory ofprototypesclaimsto examinethemeaningofconcepts, and ease ofdescription, on the assumption that these components are defmable cases It IS their lexic.al realisations that serve as inputs in psychological meansofprimitives. Interms ~:q)e,nLrrll\Xl·ti::'l. Hence, the baSIC level concepts and their superordinates posited by to employthehigherlevelitems.However,ifwe do so,our semanticanalysis . andarchilexemes, withahyponymic relation obtaining ~he t~e longer meet the requirement ofbeing based on universals and will not n'++O,"-rY'llli"'h unIty.of semanticcategory/fieldis determinedby its internal from classicalcomponential analysis, whoseonlymetalinguistic commitmentis which organise ItS structure and attributes/featuresand account for the the defining features should exhibit a higher frequency ofoccurrence, most contentofa word (forprototype theory see Russel andMehrebian 1977, determinedonlyby a linguist'sintrospection, thanthe definedterm. review of the theory of prototypes see Section 2.2. Nevertheless,ifwe treatNSM as a tool for the descriptionofmeaningand 10 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 11 for lexematicsseeGeckeler1988). In fact,attributes or elements usedasprompting fordecompositional analysis, which,by defInition, doesnot accountfor a changein cuesinpsychological experiments arenothingmorethansemantic features (Pullman meaning, whetherfromthediachronic perspective ofalanguage orthedevelopmental 1983, Lipka 1986). Their psychologicalreality is the same as that ofany meaning perspective ofanindividual language user, butconcentrates ondetermining themeaning component, thatistheyworkthroughtheirassociation withnaturallanguage words. ofthe words synchronically (Coseriu 1967). Consequently, the developmental This fact is used by Cruse (1986) in his contextual approachto lexicalmeaning to argument disputes one ofthe basic assumptions upon which the theory offeature circumvent theproblemoftheontological status ofsemantic features. Heemphasises analysisis founded, but cannotbe regardedas a challengeto itsmethodology. thatthe meaningof awordmanifestsitselfin itsrelations to otherwordsandshould be described intermsoftheserelations withoutcommitting himselfto anystatement 1.5. Semantics and generative grammar. onwhatmeaningreallyis. Semanticists coming from the Chomskyan tradition ofgenerative syntax Thethirdcriticism ofcomponential analysis, i.e., thatitpresupposes thatcertain attemptedto devisea semantictheory which proposedprojectionrules generating concepts are more complex than others, which, allegedly, is not borne out by themeaning ofsentences andphrases fromthemeaning oflexicalitems asrepresented psychologicalresearch,hasbeen put forwardby Chierchiaand McConnel-Ginnet inthe dictionaryof a particularlanguage(InterpretiveSemantics- Katz andFodor (1990: 360-368). They advance the Carnapian meaning postulate approach and 1963).Theirworkoften involved criticism ofthephilosophical implications ofprevious arguefor it as a more adequatetheory onthe basis ofthe acquisitionof meaningby approaches. Katz (1972), for instance,rejectsthe ideational, thereferentialand the children. Theirlineofreasoning runsasfollows: behaviouraltheoriesofmeaningas inadequate.Fodor (1977) disputesthe value of reductionist definitions as he believes that "the reduction ofone kind ofthing to Children acquire words like kill and die long before they learn words like'cause' and anothercanbe veryrevealing, butthere isno guaranteethatsuchareductionwillbe 'become'.... it is striking that whatwe have analysed as the relatively more complex possible for anyparticulargivenkind ofthing"(Fodor 1977: 43). Theproblemwith items semantically are apparently more directly salient for children. (...) Even at a less suchan argument is that any type ofscience is by its very virtue a hypothesis that abstract level we find the order ofthe acquisition frequently opposite to what relative humans, endowed with cognitive abilities, construct about the external world. complexity of proposed translations might predict. As Fodor (1987) p.161 observes Hypotheses as suchcanonlybe expectedtoholdforsomepartofrealityand,unless 'Children know about fathers long before they know about males and parents ....'( ...) theyarehighlygeneral,do not attemptto make claimsaboutevery "particularkind The decompositional approach suggests that the simple concept of 'father' that ofthing". children first acquire is different from, and perhaps ultimately replaced by,the complex Nevertheless, whenfacedwiththe questionofthe defInition oflexicalitems, one that they later built from 'male' and 'parent'. In contrast, the meaning postulate semanticistshad to yield to an atomistic (and hence reductionist) approach. For approach need only suppose an enrichment ofIPC [Intensional Predicate Calculus ­ KatzandFodor(1963)themeaning ofwordscanbeanalysed intosmaller components MF] to include basic expressions like 'male' and 'parent' and the concepts they andrepresented bymarkers anddistinguishers strikingly similartosemantic features designate along with meaning postulates connecting these later acquired concepts (foranilluminating discussion on similarities betweenmarkersanddistiguishers on to one another (Chierchia and McConnel-Ginnet 1990: 363). theonehandandclassemes andsemesonthe otherseeLyons1977: 327). Semantic markers areawardedauniversalstatus(seealsoWierzbicka'sNSM).Katz's (1972) The acquisitionargumentabove does not seem to have more bearing on the mostcherishedexampleis that of'bachelor' analysedas psychological plausibility ofcomponential analysis thanitdoesonmeaningpostulate approach. Itis quite obvious that the "simple concept of/atherthat children first bachelor: (Human)(Male)(Adult)[whohas nevermarried] acquireis differentfrom ...the complexone that they laterbuild." In factthewhole conceptual system of a child is different from that which evolves later,be it word where semantic markers areputinparentheses, anddistinguishers insquarebrackets. meaning, syntactic structures or more general cognitive skills (Gopnik 1983). However, iftheoriginal conceptis abandonedormerelydeveloped isnotofconcern 12 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 13

Another attempt todescribe lexical meaning withintheframework ofgenerative the basis ofemotional display, so the link between the cognitive module and the semanticswas that ofFillmore (1968) who developed a theory ofcase relations. It perceptualmodule(fordecoding emotional displays) andwiththemotormodule(for aimsat definingthe semanticstructureofverbsintermsofthe caserelationsoftheir encodingthem) isnot sufficient fortheunderstandingoftheseterms. They canonly arguments. These relations determine sentence syntax structure and explain the be understood and learned in terms ofshared and differentiating properties with combinationofverbs and their arguments.They also characteriserelations among other concepts. verbs,illproviding aparticularly neatmethodofrelatingcausative verbstotheirnon­ Nevertheless, the intermodule links can produce some interestingresults in causativecounterparts. Their specifications differonly interms ofwhich casemust definingemotionconcepts. Ifwe assumethat a lexicalentryforan emotionconcept be selected as their subject. Fillmore suggested six case categories: Agentive, includes linkstorepresentations ofthemostcommonperceptions andmotoractivities Instrumental, Dative, Factitive, Locative, Objective. The major contribution of relatedto experiencingemotions,then they can account for the dilemmaslinguists this approachis a more completespecificationofthe meaningofverbs.However, it encounterin determiningwhethera particularword belongsto the fieldofemotion wascriticised by Chomsky(1970)asnotabstract enoughandnotpreserving meaning terms or not. For example,Omondi(1997) observed that illDhouloit is difficultto relations. judge ifa given use of a word refers to emotion, physiological change within the Gruber (1965) formulated a theory ofthematic relations, which was based organismthat the emotionmighthave caused,orto the actionwhichisthe culturally on the assumption thatthe spatiotemporal domainistheunderlyingfoundation of all accepted means ofexpressing the emotion. Ifall three aspects are unified in one human reasoning. Itis the conceptual construct in tenus ofwhich more abstract conceptual structure thenitisonlynaturalthatlexicalitemsusedilloneofthedomains conceptsaregenerated. Accordingto thistheoryallverbs canbe analysedby means might be extended to the other related domain, through metaphoric or metonymic of thematic roles such as Agent, Patient, Theme, Source, Path, Goal. This extension. approach has been further developed by Jackendoff(1983, 1990) and Grimshaw Jackendoff(1992) postulates the existence ofbasic conceptual categories, (1990)3 among others. such as Object, Event, Place, Action, Property and Amount. These coincide with Jackendoffdevelops a full theory of semantics, starting with philosophical thesemanticprimitivessuggestedby WierzbickaforherNSM.For instance, Object assumptionsand fmishingwith detailedspecificationsofword meanings.For him, canbe translated as SOMETHING,Event as HAPPEN, Place asHERE, Action as word meaning is a part ofa conceptualstructure together with itsphonological DO,Propertyas GOOD,BAD,BIG, SMALLandAmountasONE,TWO,~ andsyntactic specifications. The conceptualstructureis connectedwithperceptual SOME, ALL.Thefactthatsemanticists workingwithindifferent frameworks arrived and motor modules ofthe mind, so that a lexical entry for physical objects also atsimilarresultsstrengthens theirconclusions. However, Jackendoffemphasises that includes a 3D (three-dimensional) model ofthe object as put forward by Marr theproposedcategoriesandthematic roles shouldnot be regardedaspsychological (1982),and lexicalentriesfor verbswould includeascenario determiningwhat the universals, but rather as "relational notions defined structurally over conceptual actionlooks like andwhat it feels liketo perform it. The major advantageof the 3D structure, with a status precisely comparable to that ofthe notions ofSubject and model is that: "[it] eliminate[s] the need for a plethora ofobjectionableconceptual Object illmanysyntactic theories" (Jackendoff1990: 47).Inthisrespectthesenotions features illfavourofgeometric representation ...[whichremains] invisible tosyntax." sharethe same status as the semantic features ofclassical componential analysis (Jackendoff1990: 33-34). Simultaneously, "referential linking is not allthere is to whichclaimno psychologicalrealitybut arepurely functional andintralinguistic ill word meaning" (Jackendoff1992: 59). nature (Kastovsky 1988,Mettinger 1988a and b). Toposit intermodulelinksbetweenconceptualstructuresandperceptualand Conceptual constituents, according toJackendoff, combineillarule-governed motormodalitiesis a very elegantsolutionto theproblemofthe defmitionofnatural fashionto generateword,phrase and,ultimately,sentencemeanings.Therules are kinds,but cannotbe appliedin specification ofmeaningsof abstractterms.Abstract integrated in Preference Rule Systems, which account for prototypical effects. terms, and emotion tenus in particular,do not have objective reference and hence "Preference Rule Systems statethatthe decompositional features ofa conceptcreate cannot be stored as 3D models. In most casesthey cannotbe determinedpurely on ahierarchical structure withthestereotypical instance occupying thetopmostposition withthelessstereotypical instances gradedillanorderlyfashion belowit"(Jackendoff 1990: 37).He alsonotesthat"fuzzinessof categorisation maybe somewhatstrange 3 See Section 2.4.5. 14 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 15 in a strictly digital conceptionofmental computation, but slightlyless strange in a structure toothersemantic structures anddetermining itsposition intheglobal structure system that contains the possibility ofcontinuously graded strengths ofcriterion ofthe lexicon(Pustejovsky 1996:58,61). Qualia structures and lis are the level of application"(JackendoffI992: 8). representation which hasbeentraditionally investigated insemantics, whereas argument In defining verbmeaning Jackendoff concentrates on the formalspecification and event structure have usually been dealt with by syntax. Pustejovsky (1996) of verbs' thematic roles, their selectional restrictions and their mappings to concentrates on explicatingthe organisationof qualiastructure.He stressesthatnot argumentstructure. Thematic roles can be divided intotwo tiers: the thematic tier allqualiaroleshavetobe specifiedfor everylexicalitem,And he derivestheirroots and the action tier. The thematictier deals with motion and locationand the action fromAristotle's notionofmodesofexplanation. Pustejovsky(1996: 85-86)proposes tierisresponsible forActor-Patient relations. Selectional restrictions determineverb thefollowing valuesforeachqualerole: argumentsand"shouldnotbe regardedas a conceptualconditionon the insertionof a verb. Rather, it is apart ofthe verb meaning" (JackendoffI990: 53). Thematic 1. CONSTITUTIVE: the relation between an object and its constituents or proper roles ofthe Lexical Conceptual Structure (LCS) are eventuallylinked to syntactic parts. structuresinthe syntactic module. i. Material In his conceptual theoryoflexicalmeaning,Jackendoffdrawsonthe fmdings ii. Weight offield theory.He stressesthat "to determine the boundaries ofexplanationrather iii. Parts and component elements than mere description,it is necessary to consider the behaviour ofeach individual 2. FORMAL: That which distinguishes the object within a larger domain. verb within a context ofthe overall class to which it belongs. The class as a whole i. Orientation and its place in the larger system must be examined in detail in order to layout a ii. Magnitude place ofaverb withinthe system" (JackendoffI990: 123). iii. Shape ConceptualSemantics alsosharescertainfeatureswith Cognitive Semantics. iv.Dimensionality They both attempt to describe human cognition and categorisation in terms ofa v. Colour representational theory ofconcepts andbelievethat spatialconceptsaretheprimary vi. Position basis for the development ofabstract concepts. They differ in that Conceptual 3. TELIC: Purpose and function ofthe object Semantics adheres to the autonomy ofsyntaxprinciple and is committed to the i. Purpose that an agent has in performing an act. formalisation of the theory. ii. Built-in function or aim which specifies certain activities. 4. AGENTIVE: Factors involved in the origin or "bringing about" ofan object. Another attemptto createa satisfactorysemantictheory,developedfrom the i. Creator Chomskyan tradition, is the generative lexicon theory proposed by Pustejovsky ii. Artefact (1996). He stressesthe importance ofthe link between meaning and structure and iii. Natural Kind maintainsthat lexicalmeaning cannotbe successfullyanalysedwithouttaking into iv. Causal Chain. account syntactic structure. This basic assumption underlies the structure ofthe generative lexiconwhich, he suggests, consists ofatleastfourlevels ofrepresentation: This explication can be the target ofmuch criticism. First ofall, as the very argumentstructure specifyingthe type and number ofarguments ofa given lexical definitions oftherolessuggestthroughtheuseoftheword 'object' ratherthan'lexical item; eventstructure (reminiscent ofaktionsart) determining whether the lexical item', it is difficultto see that qualia roles are indeed a part ofa specificationofthe itembelongsto STATE, PROCESSorTRANSITION; qualia structure , describing meaning ofa word and not a description ofits referent. Even ifwe assume that an item's predication in terms of FORMAL, CONSTITUTIVE, TELIC and Pustejovsky rejects the division between the dictionary and the encyclopaedic AGENTIVE roles; and lexical inheritance structure (lis), relating every semantic meaning, thevalueshe puts forwardhave littleto do with a folktheoryoftheworld, andinmanycases woulddemandasignificant scientific knowledge fromthelanguage 4 For examples see Section 2.4.5. user. Ofcourse, Pustejovsky admits that not all the values have to be defined for 5 Qualia structure is a term introduced by Pustejovsky to cover the propositional component of word meaning. 16 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak The concept of 'joy' 17 each lexicalconceptualparadigm (lcp),but it remains unclear whether the values been questioned and discredited, the contemporary theories retain Piaget's major remain unspecified when they do not apply,or when they are difficultto determine claimin itsweakerform: "whateverinnatecomponentwe invokeitbecomespart of due to a lack ofknowledge on the part ofthe speaker. ourbiological potential onlythrough theinteraction withtheenvironment" (Karmiloff­ Smith1992: 10)andrepresentations develop through "interactionwithboththeexternal 1.6. Cognitive semantics. enviromnentand[thebrain's]internalenvironment." In his attemptto graspthemeaningoflinguistic expressions, Langackerrejects Thetheoryofcognitive semantics willbe discussed hereasithasbeendeveloped neat formalism and advocates an eclectic approach. One ofhis assumptions is that by Langacker(t983, 1991)and alsoby Lakoffand Johnson (1980), Lakoff(1987) rules ofdifferentdegreesofgeneralisationand lists ofexpressions(even ifthey are andJohnson(1987). Bothapproaches stressthe experiential basisofhumancognition regular and canbe expressedby the rules) coexist inhuman semantic structure.He and reject objectivism. They describe meaning in terms ofcognitive structures alsobelieves thatlinguistic structures canretaincomponentiality eveniftheyareusually determined by interaction between a human being and the world but not identical treated as unitary entries (Langacker 1983,1: 76-98). Space grammar posits the with it. Human cognition influenceshuman perception, hence rendering objective existence ofthree basic types oflinguistic structure: semantic, phonological and description ofthe 'teal' worldimpossible. Thusthereferentiallinkoflexicalmeaning symbolic,the lattercombiningthe othertwo. isdeniedany significance. Semantic structureis understood as being a realisation ofcognitivestructure regulatedby therequirementsoflinguisticconventions. The meaning ofa linguistic Langackerianspacegrammar, laterrenamed cognitive grammar, stemsfrom expression is not determined by the situations obtaining in the real world, but by dissatisfactionwith the existingmodelsofsemantic structure.The criterialattribute human conceptualisationand interpretationofthese situations.The differentiation model is found inadequate,as it cannotaccountfor the factthatthereis no featureof between encyclopaedic and dictionary meaning is not retained (for arguments a categoryallmembersshare,andthatthereexistmemberswhichlackcertaincriterial supporting this approach see Kovacses 1989),hence the meaning ofa lexical item properties. Spacegrammarattempts toreconcile thefmdings ofcognitive psychologists canbe related to the entireconceptualsystem.This assumptioncannotbe borne out (mainlyRosch)withthe descriptionofhuman linguisticcapacities, which shouldbe in practice, thus, for descriptive convenience, lexical items are defined by only a regardedas an aspectofhumanbehaviourin general.As Langackerputsit:"Wecan portionoflinguistically relevantconceptualstructure, delineation ofwhichisamatter furtherobservemany capabilities figuring in linguisticperformancehavefarbroader ofdegree. Consequently, word meaning can be represented in relation to one or behavioural significance: memory, problemsolvingability, planningstrategies, stylistic more domains constitutinga word's matrix. For example, 'knuckle' can be defined and aestheticjudgement, and so on. Here too it seems plausible to regard linguistic inreference to domain 1:[finger], domain 2: [processofbending], domain 3: [part! phenomena as integralfacets ofabroader psychological matrix" (1983,I: 99). whole relation] (Langacker 1983,II: 55). Spacegrammaris alsobasedon a criticismofgenerativegrammar, as it denies Accordingto LakoffandJohnson (1980),laterdevelopedby Johnson (1987), theautonomyofsyntaxhypothesis. Langackerbelievesthatitispossible toconcentrate human cognitionhas experientialbases. The embodied imagination,which plays a on the phonetic shape ofanutteranceand ignore the semanticsand vice versa,but a crucialroleinourunderstanding oftheworldiscommonto allhumans,asitoriginates naive speaker is unable to isolate the syntactic structure from its meaning and from their everydaybasic experience oftheir bodies, and is a source ofparallels in pronunciation(1983,I: 35).Moreover, lexiconandgrammarareclaimedto be based the semanticmappingsofthe world.Meaningofwordsis definedin termsofmental on conventional imagery. Theimageryis groundedintheuniversalhumanperceptual concepts and the structure ofthe vocabulary reflects human conceptual structure. experience,mainly focusingon spacerelations(hencethe name: spacegrammar), Lakoffdescribes the latter in terms ofIdealised Cognitive Models: "each ICM is a This assumptionis supportedby research in developmentalpsychology. The complex structured whole, a gestalt which uses four kinds ofstructure principles: forefather ofthediscipline, Piaget(1970), claimedthathumancognitive development propositional structure...,image-schematic structure...,metaphoric ...[and]metonymic issecondarytomotordevelopment, anditisthroughactiveinteractionwiththeobjects mappings..." (Lakoff1987: 68).He alsomakessuggestions concerning theprinciples in the world that human conceptualisationdevelops. Although the orderofconcept oflinguistic organisation, which consists ofthe distinction between central and development and the assumptionthatthe human brain is a tabularasaatbirth have peripheralmembers, withbasiclevelobjectsatitscentre, conventional mentalimages 18 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 19

andknowledge aboutthem,imageschematransformations, metonymyasappliedto mentalimageryaswellasdomains ofexperience and,finally, metaphors, whichmap domainsto otherdomains(Lakoff 1987: 110)6 .

1.7. Conclusion.

The review ofthe literatureon lexical semantics suggests that lexicalitems should be studied in context, as their meanings reside in their paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations. Wordsremain parts ofa system ofinterrelated items. The CHAPTERTWO systemmaybeviewedasa semanticfield, a semanticrepresentation of a conceptual APPROACHES TO EMOTIONS domain, or anetwork ofconcepts.These structuresexhibitprototypicaleffects,so thattheymaybedifferentiated intodifferent levelsofsubordination. Themostsalient 2.1.Introduction. terms constitute the basic level and can be regarded as the central members ofa category.The less typical concepts are regarded as the peripheral members ofthe In this chapter we shall first discuss developments in the definition ofthe category. Themeaningofa singlelexicalitemcanbe describedintermsofmeaning concept ofemotion. In the overview ofW. James's work the main questions, components. The recurrent components shared by the most basic terms structure whichare stillbeinginvestigated withinthepsychological frameworktodaywillbe thelexical field. Themembers ofthesamefieldalsosharesimilar syntactic behaviour. indicated.These are: New itemsintroduced intothefieldwillfollowthesyntactic behaviourofthecentral - the statusofemotionsandtheircategorisationaspsychological or social members. Themostsalientfeatures ofmeaningdetermine metaphoric extensions of phenomena; a given item. Argument structure and thematic roles ofverb arguments shouldbe - theuniversality vs.culture-specificity ofemotion, andrelatedto it: treatedas integralpartsoftheirmeaning(theydeterminecollocationalrestrictions, - primitivevs. secondaryemotions. i.e. syntagmatic relations). Themeaning ofalexical itemcanberegarded inconnection These problems will be discussed in detail in a section devotedto emotions withtheentireconceptual system, thoughina semantic analysis itismoreplausible to within generalpsychology. restrictthe investigationto the most immediaterelations. The expressivemeaning, Section 2.4. will then deal with the treatment ofthe topic ofemotions in register, styleanddialectof aword influenceitscollocational restrictions andhence linguistics. Herewewillconcentrate onlexical semantics andomitmorphopragmatic contribute to itsmeaning. (e.g. Dressler-Barbaresi 1994) and pragmatic (e.g. Kryk-Kastovsky 1997) approaches toemotions, sincetheyarebeyondthescopeofthepresentwork. Finally, thechapterwillclosewithanaccountofrecentinvestigations intoemotions fromthe pointofviewofsocialhistory,

2.2. The concept of emotion: Its definition and structure.

William James (1913) addresses all the points outlined above. Many ofhis statements areveryinsightful andpresuppose the. fuzziness oftheconcept ofemotion. Jamesdoes not draw a strictlinebetween emotionsand other cognitiveprocesses. For example, he defines "belief' as a psychic state akin to emotion (1913: 283­ 285).He alsoconcedesthattheborderlinebetweenemotions,ontheone hand,and

6 An example of an analysis of the concept of 'anger' in American English will be provided in Section 2.3. whathe callsinstincts, ontheother, is fuzzyaswell: 20 Malgorzata Fabiszak The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 21

withinaphysiological theoryofemotions: In speaking ofthe instincts it was impossible to keep them separate from the emotional excitements that go with them. (...) ... Our mental life is knit up with our corporeal frame, in the strictest sense ofthe term, Instinctive reactions and emotional expressions thus shade imperceptibly into each Rapture, love ambition, indignation and pride, considered as feelings, are fruits of other. Every object that excites an instinct excites an emotion as well (James 1913: the same soil with the grossest bodily sensations of pleasure and of pain (James 442). 1913: 467).

James classifies romantic love, parental love, jealousy, modesty, shame, The'coarseremotions' are distinguishedfromthe'subtleremotions', which emulationor rivalry, pugnacity, anger,resentment,sympathyand fear as instincts. he definesas"themoral,intellectual and aesthetic feelings" (James 1913: 468),and Forhim,fearandanger, forinstance, areinstincts ofselfpreservation inthematerial whichdonotfmdanybodilyexpression, butare"genuinely cerebral forms ofpleasure sense, andhe placesthem in a single categorywithhunting,the acquisitive, home­ anddispleasure" (James 1913: 468).Withthismentionofthemoralaspectofcertain constructing andtool-constructing instincts (James 1913: 308). In addition, hestresses emotions, he introduces theproblem,oftenaddressedinpresentday emotionology, thatnotonlyisitpointless totry to establish sharpdistinctions betweenemotions and ofthemoralbasesofemotionalevaluationofsituations. otherpsychological processes, but also"the internalshadingsof emotionalfeelings Despitetheinsistence oncalling hisdefinition "physiological", Jamespointsto ...merge endlesslyinto eachother" (James: 1913:448). thefactthatemotions arebothbodilyandmentalintheirnature. Otherpsychologists, Perhapsthoseemotionswhich are alsotermed instinctsshouldbe viewed,in presentdayterminology, asbeingbothprimary/primitive anduniversalemotions, as such as Wundt (1912/1924) and Solomon (1977), regard emotions as basically thefollowing passageonthe"instinctofmodesty"indicates: mentalphenomena. Some,notablyWatson(1919),consideremotionasbehaviour, or,eventually, asa strictly physiological activity(Wenger 1950). ... Everywhere reserve must inspire some respect, and ... Persons who suffer every These atomisticapproacheswere soon discreditedas not allowinga holistic liberty are persons whom others disregard. Not to be like such people, then, would approachto emotional experience, andledto allinclusive defmitions suchasIzard's be one ofthe first resolutions, suggested by social self-consciousness to a child of (1972: 51): "... emotionis a complex process that has neurophysiological,motor­ nature just emerging from the unreflective state (James 1913:437) [emphasis mine­ expressive and phenomenological aspects." Unfortunatelythis is too general and MF]. allowsoneto labelallhumanexperience: 'emotion'. Onthe otherhand,empiricallyorientedpsychologists, disillusioned withthe Jameshimselfuses the term 'primitive emotion' andinstantiates itwith self­ lack ofprogress in establishing an acceptable definition, resorted to operational complacency, self-satisfaction, rage andpain (James 1913:307). definitions, equating emotions withgalvanic skinresponse (GSR) andsimilar concepts, A certaincontradiction arises whenJamesstresses thattheonlypossiblevalid which are,however, ofnouse in lexicalsemantics. classification of emotions isonebasedon ananalysis oftheircausesratherthantheir expression, while at the same time he also states that a determinant ofa primitive Those who persisted in a conceptual analysis ofthe nature of emotions emotionis itsphysiognomical, or aswe would saytoday, facial, expression. discovered thatemotions canbe studiedonthreebipolarscales: pleasure-displeasure, Thisbringsus tothedefmitionofemotion, Accordingto James,emotions can dominance-submissiveness and the degree ofarousal (Kurcz 1976; Russel and be excitedby objects, in a general, ontological, senseoftheword,whicharethyfoci Mehrebian 1977). Thesewritersclaimthatthethreedimensions canbe regardedas of instinctive(bothinnateandacquired) interestfor a givenspeciessuchastheprey "necessary and sufficient features to describe a large variety of emotional states" ofthe speciesoritsfood, enemies, sexualmatesandyoung. Thetriggers ofemotions (Russel and Mehrebian 1977: 291). They also believe that the three scales are can be either related to those four basic groups or to self-preservation and self­ independent ofone another.This is disputed by Krzeszowski (1997: 180ft) who satisfactionin awidersense. stressesthat the mostprimmy and salientscaleis the positive-negative (good-bad) Finally, James attempts todefine emotions (inhisownterms "coarser emotions") Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concent 23 22 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' scaleandthatallothersarederivedfromit.He pointsoutthatdominant, higharousal concepthas fuzzyboundaries andexhibitsprototypicalstructure: and pleasure can be generalised as positive; submissiveness, low arousal and displeasure asnegative. Heconvincingly argues fortheprimacy ofthepositive-negative ... t1~e·concept of emotion [appears] at the topmost, or superordinate, level. At the scale throughout his book (cf. Inchaurralde 1997, who also supports this view). middle level might appear such familiar types ofemotion as anger, fear, love happiness, Thesetwoconflicting stands canbereconciled withintheframework ofLangackerian sadness and the like... [and] less prototypical emotions as pride, envy, courage, lust. cognitive grannnar. Indeveloping histheoryofconceptual domains, Langacker (1983, Each middle level category might be further subdivided at a subordinate level: anger I:78)claimsthatalthough somestructures areinnateandserveasinputintocognitive subdivided into wrath, annoyance, rage fury, and indignation; fear subdivided into operations, the results of these operations i.e. the secondary structures can in time apprehension, panic dread, and alarm; love divided into filial love, romantic love ... become internalisedto an extent that they areno longer perceived as consistingof (FehrandRusseI1984: 467). functions on inputstructures, but asnon-divisible entities, thusbecoming"primary" secondarystructures. (Thisview is alsosupportedby neuropsychological research. They furtherarguethat"...membershipin the conceptofemotionis a matter Luria (1966) reports that new experiences reshape the human brain and nervous ofdegree ...and no sharpboundary separatesmembers from non-members"(Fehr system.)Inthiswaythethreescalesused forthe descriptionof emotionscanbe seen and Russel 1984: 464). Hence, as with all gradable concepts, the lexical field of as mutually uncorrelated despite being developmentally derived from the basic emotionmay notbe analysedexhaustively, sincelanguageuserswilldisagreeon the axiological scale. membershipofnon-prototypical examples. The three dimensionscanbe used to structurethe semanticfield of emotion, FehrandRusselalsoclaimthattheideaofprimary/basic/fundamental emotions althoughthey must be appliedwith caution.Apparently,the degreeofarousaldoes whichrecursinmuchofthepsychological literature may originate intheexistence of not have to be inherent in an emotion, but can change, depending on contextual prototypical emotions at the basic level. Still,despite their significantsaliencyin a factors, as indicatedby the discrepancy in the results of the two studies conducted . given social community,they are culture specific. Furthermore, they may vary in by Russel and Mehrebian (1977: 290): degreeofbasicness/prototypicalityandthe groupmembership. According to Fehr and Russel (1984), and Bullock and Russel (1986), the In the first study, friendliness and social affection... both contained small, negative categorisation and labelling of novel emotions as representative ofa given type is arousal components, whereas in the second study, "friendly" and "affectionate"... performed on the basis of their resemblance to idealised concepts (what Abelson both contained high arousal components. 1981, calls scripts; Lakoff1987, Idealised Cognitive Models; Langacker 1983, abstractdomainsor,inhis earlierworksfunctionalassemblies; andothersvariously RusselandMehrebiansolvetheproblemby concludingthatfriendliness is an referto asframe, scenario, schemata). Theseidealised concepts consist ofprototypical emotionforwhichthe degreeofarousalisnotperceivedas a determinantandhence causes,appraisals of situations, physiological reactions, feelings, facialexpressions, can occurwith both high and low degree of arousal. actions, and consequences (Bullock and Russel 1986: 210). The source ofthese Surprisingly, a similar discrepancy appeared withthepleasure-displeasure scale. conceptsisthe folktheoryof emotionsadheredto by themembersof a givenspeech RusselandMehrebian, however, decidedto dismiss "aggression", theproblemterm, community. Naturally, thereisindividual variation inwhatstimulus triggers anemotion as anemotionterm,ratherthanquestionthevalidityofthe scale. Takingintoaccount andwhat emotionaldisplaythe bearerofthe emotionwill employ, thatthey analysed151 terms,this exclusionoftheproblematical itemseemsa sound Emotional display, aswellastheconceptualisation andcategorisation ofemotion, decision. likeanysocially shapedphenomenon, isculture-specific (Geertz 1959; Lofland1985; Lutz 1988; Heelas 1996; Omondi 1997). Moreover, some researchers question Withthediscovery ofprototypicality effects (Rosch1973aandb, 1975, 1978), even the universalityof the emotionconceptas such, sincethere are languagesthat psychologicalresearch intothe nature of emotionsbegan to utilise the new theory, do not have a cover term for the field, or to put it in a different way, they do not Fehr andRussel (1984),forexample,arguedfor aprototype-baseddefmitionofthe recognisementalstatesas separatefi..om physiological reactionsor socialbehaviour concept of emotion, In a series ofpsychologicalexperimentsthey showedthat the (Lutz 1988 on Ifaluk; Omondi 1997 on Dhoulo). Specific terms for emotions are 24 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 25 embedded in a language culture, and reflect the moral and ethical values ofthe andb) claims thatthequestion itselfdoesnothavemuchvalidity, asitisnotemotions community. (Heelas 1996;Steams and Knapp 1996;Krzeszowski 1997;Omondi themselves thatmightbebasicbuttheconcepts thataidourunderstanding ofemotional 1997). states. He points out that ifwe take prototypical emotions as the basic ones, their However, linguists working withinthefieldtheoryofsemantics combined with basicness shouldonlybeunderstood asthebasisforidentifying newmembersofthe componential analysis havesuggestedthatthe generaltermfor a fieldmay,butneed category and not endowingthese specific emotions with any fundamentalimport not be, lexicalisedin a language.For example, Coseriu (1967)pointed out that an (thus anger, fear and grief should not be regarded as of more weight for the archilexeme is not alwaysrealised lexically,and Lyons (1977),when devising an understanding ofhumanemotional systemthanpride,hopeandguilt). He alsonotes abstract model ofa hierarchically organised vocabulary, left the beginning node that conceptswhich may be termedbasic at amore general level ofcategorisation unlabelledto indicatethat: "thevocabulary, andindeedanyparticularpartofit,may (e.g. anger as a labelfor all aggressivebehaviour) ceaseto displaythis featureat a be structuredhierarchically froma pointwhich itselfis not associated with an actual more specificlevel(anger as opposedto anxiety, rage, ire, fury and exasperation). lexeme" (Lyons 1977:297). The lack ofa label for a lexical field, then, does not The use of the same labelat two differentlevelsofclassificationcauses confusion necessarily deny its existence,as the unity ofthe field is determinedby its internal when the issue ofbasicness is addressed, hence it is beneficial to dispose ofthe dimensions, anotionusedbothinlexematics (Geckeler 1988) andcognitive psychology notionofbasicnessaltogether. Thelastargument Averill putsforward isbasedonthe (Russel and Mehrebian 1977),which organise its structure and its semes/features factthatemotions canbe viewedascomplexphenomenaconsisting ofseverallevels which, in tum, accountforthe non scalarcontentofwords. ofdescription suchasbiological, socialandpsychological. Differentemotions canbe consideredbasicdepending ontheperspectiveoneemploys.Thischoice,however, 2.3. Emotions in general psychology. isarbitrary anddoesnothavemuchvalidity. Toput itsuccinctly, Averill believes that "because an emotionalconceptisbasic within some classificationscheme,it does The 1980s and 1990shave witnessed a new surge ofinterest in emotions. notfollowthatthecorresponding emotionissomehowmore fundamental thanother Some ofthe main issues addressed by the researchers follow the tradition going emotions" (Averill 1994a: 7).Whatthisapproach emphasises isthedisparity between backtoJames,although theemphasis hasoftenbeenshiftedto lesswell-investigated emotions as such and the human construction ofemotions. It follows from this problems. For example,the question about the existence ofuniversal emotions is observationthathypothesesaboutconceptualisation and the linguisticlabellingof now often rephrased as a question concerning what exactlyuniversal means, and emotionsmay not hold for the descriptions ofemotionper seundertakenfrom, for what degrees or typesofuniversalitycan be expectedofemotions. example,thephysiological perspective. Averill (1994c)restrictstherole ofbiology Secondly, withthe developmentofcognitivesciences, anotherpopularissue toprovidinghumanswitha capacityforemotions, buttherealisation orinstantiation has become the question ofthe degree, to which emotions are mental, and hence ofemotion is culture-driven. He draws a striking parallel between language and partly consciousphenomena,as opposedto purely instinctivereactionsdeveloped emotion: by the species to speed up reaction times and avoid the time-consuming mental processing ofstimuli. The capacity for language is a biological adaptation; but any specific language Thefinalissuementioned inthissectionwillbe thedevelopment ofemotional (English, say, or Chinese) is the product ofsocial, not biological evolution. Similarly, behaviourinchildren. Thisdiscussion willaimatdetermining towhatdegreeonecan emotions presume biological capacities, but any specific emotion (anger, say, or talkofthe acquisition of a sociallyshapedsystemasopposedto thedevelopmentof liget) is the product ofsocial, not biological evolution (Averill1994c: 269). an innatesystem.An answerto this questionmay shedsomelightonthe othertwo. Scherer (1994a) emphasises thefactthattheverbal labelling ofemotions reflects 2.3.1. Universality vs, culture-specificity ofemotions. onlythe consciouspart ofthe emotionsystemandmay focus on one ofits aspects, forexample, theevaluation ofthesituation, expression, oractiontendencies. He also One ofthe questions psychologists have been trying to answer is whether notesthatverballabelling playsanimportant communicative andevaluative function basic(universal, primitive) emotions exist. Theissueraises muchdebate. Averill (1994a insocialinteraction. 26 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 27

Shweder(1994)avoidsgivinga straightforward answertothe questionofthe characteristics - and culturally specific - due to differences in values, practices, existence ofbasicemotions, stressing thatpresentresearchisnotsufficient toaddress history, interactionpatterns,demography, climate,economy, and socialstructure" theissue. Heviews emotions ascomplexnarrative structures whichmakeouremotional (Scherer 1994b: 175,hisitalics). WhereasEllsworth(1994a)notesthatwhatmight experience meaningful andhelpindividuals tounderstandtheirpositionintheworld. be cross-culturallyuniversalis whetherthe stimulus evokes a positiveor negative Hesuggests thatdifferent cultures maysharecertainuniversal components ofemotion response and not a more specific emotion. This view is supported by research in scripts, suchastherelation betweentheegoanditsenvironment, withsubcomponents developmental psychology whichsuggeststhatinfantsdonot differentiate between suchasstatuslossandstatus gain, success andfailure, protection andthreat, blocking complexemotioncategories, butcanonlycategorise emotions asnegative orpositive ofthegoal, andnovelty; bodilyreactions, forinstance fatigue andagitation; behavioural (Dunn 1994). strategies likeattack, withdrawal, hiding,confession, repair. Theideaofemotions as narrative structures hasbeenfurther developed inlinguistic researchby,forexample, 2.3.2. Emotions as cognitive phenomena. Bamberg (1997a and b, see 2.4). Levenson (1994) alsoaddresses theproblem oftheuniversal vs.culture-specific Theissue ofthelinkbetween emotion andcognitionhasalso metwithsignificant status ofemotions. He advocates a biocultural model. According to this model interest. Clore (1994) defines emotion as a mental state, so that for him the role emotionsarise frominteractionbetweenthe organismand its externalandinternal cognition plays inemotion issubstantial bydefinition. Thisdefinition, however, excludes environment. In thefirststage,thestimulusisappraisedinrelationtotheorganism's conceptssuchas 'abandoned' sincethisrefersto an externalsituationratherthanto well-being, long-term plansandimmediate goals, andaprototypical emotion concept amental state, 'tired' asreferringto a bodilystate,and 'faithful' asnotreferringto a is identified. At stage two, the prototype determines response strategies.Cultural state at all. This approach is in an apparent contrast with that ofScherer (1994a), learninginfluencesboth the appraisalofthe situationand the choiceofexpressive who stresses that in the process ofconceptualisation only one ofthe aspects of behaviour. emotion, for example the evaluation ofthe situation, may be the target ofverbal Ekman (1994) observes that there might exist certain universal antecedent labelling.Yet, as evaluationis a mental activity, Scherer's defmitioncan in factbe eventseliciting emotions, andsuggests thefollowing cause-emotionpairs: viewedascomplementarytothatofClore, whoclaims that"goodexamples ofemotion terms do notrefer directlyto events,bodilyreactions,feelings, orbehaviour, but to An actual or threat ofhann for fear. The loss ofan object to which one was attached mental events in relevance to all these feelings" (1994: 184). Ortony, Clore and for sadness. An event that is either unexpected or contrary to one's expectations for Collins(1988)develop aCognitive ModelofEmotions,inwhichevents, actions and surprise. Something that is repulsive, to the senses or to one's beliefs, for disgust. objectsareappraised intermsofone's goals,standardsandattitudes andresultin an Disapproving or feeling morally superior to someone for contempt. For anger we emotion.Accordingto Clore(1994: 187), suggest five antecedents: frustration resulting from interference with one's activity; a physical threat; an insult; seeing someone do something that violates one's values; All emotions can be seen as differentiated forms of... [the] three general another person's anger directed at oneself. For happiness we suggested four affective reactions (1) beingpleased or displeased at the outcome ofevents antecedents: sensory pleasure; excitement; praise; reliefwhen something unpleasant that are appraisedas desirable or undesirablefor one sgoals, (2) approving or has ceased (Ekman 1994: 146-147). disapproving ofthe actions ofagents appraisedas praiseworthy or blameworthy with respect to one sstandards, and (3) liking or disliking the attributes ofobjects Ekmandoesnotsay, however, thatactualinstantiations ofstimuli foremotions appraised as appealing or unappealing with respect to one stastes or attitudes maydifferfromculture to culture, sincethevalueofobjects, beliefs, morality, andthe (hisitalics). defmition ofunpleasantness, whichallappearamongthetriggers, areculture specific. Thismayquestionthevalidityoftheproposed, allegedlyuniversal, stimuli. Scherer Thismodelunderscores the factthatemotionisa partofa largerinformation­ (1994b),unlike Ekman,phraseshis claimforuniversalityin more cautiousterms: processingsystem. "Emotionantecedentsituations are both universal-withrespectto many structural Less cognition-oriented psychologists admitthatcognition playssomerolein 28 Malzorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The conceot of 'joy' 29 producingemotion, butallowalsoforinstinct-based emotional reactions. Cognition allow evaluation ofthe emotional situation and enable the bearers ofemotion to isnecessary to assign alabel totheemotion and"therealisation ofanameundoubtedly controltheirreactions andexpressthem in a sociallymeaningfulway. As suchthey changes thefeeling, simplifying andclarifying" (Ellsworth 1994b: 193). shouldbe understoodasperformativedevicesinthe Austiniansense(Bodor 1997; Bamberg 1997a).In this contextit must be stressedthatthe causesofan emotional 2.3.3. The development of emotion concepts in children. display must be transparent to the decoder to reinforce the correct interpretation (Bodor 1997;Ollerand Wiltshire 1997). Developmental psychology hasalsocontributedtotheunderstanding ofemotion. The earlyresearchers suggestedthatthe expressionofemotionisinnateandcanbe 2.4. The linguistic approach to emotions observed already in very young infants.This hypothesis has met with subsequent qualification (Drum 1994): although infants dohavequite anarray offacial expressions, Most linguisticresearch on emotions, with the notable exception ofDiller they areused indiscriminately, so that all the categorisationthat infantsseem to be (1994), has been devoted to modem data. Wierzbicka (1988a and b, 1992, 1993, capableofis distinguishing betweenpositiveandnegativestimuli, whereasspecific 1996)has carriedoutlarge amountofcrossculturalresearchintoemotionsaswell emotions appear as a result oftheir social development. Infants as young as 10 as presented a coherent system for the description ofselected emotion words in months recogniseandinterprettheir mother's facial expressionto guide their own English. Bamberg (1997a andb),dissatisfied withtheNatural Semantic Metalanguage reactions (Klinnert, Campos, Sorce, Emde and Svejda 1983;Bodor 1997).They approach developed by Wierzbicka, has suggested a social-constructionist approach use the technique ofsocial referencing as a help in deciding on their behaviour toemotions, which,however, bearsconsiderable similarity to herproposals. Lakoff (approachor withdrawal) whenexposedto a new situation. Itseems,however,that andKovecses(1987),laterincludedin Lakoff(1987),have examinedthe meaning allthatinfantscanactually inferisthenegativevs.positivefactor? . oftheconcept of'anger'inAmerican English withinthetheory ofcognitive linguistics. In theprocessofsocialisation humaninfantslearnhowtoorganise, categorise The fact that emotion verbs require an Experiencer theme has attractedthe andinterpretemotions oftheselfandother, andbecomeanadultofa specific culture attentionofgenerativists, whohaveresearchedthe syntactic behaviourofwhatthey (Geertz 1959; Bullock and Russel 1986). Children between 2 and 4 years ofage callpsych-verbs ingreatdetail. Fromtheirworkonlythatby Jackendoff(1990) and starttoassociate expressions withthecontext inwhichtheyoccurand, simultaneously, Grimshaw(1990)willbe presentedbelow. acquirethe languageof emotion.Graduallythey imposea temporaldimensionon eventsandeventually construct generalised scripts forthecategorisation ofemotional 2.4.1. Emotions in historical linguistics. behaviour(socialdimension) andemotional experience (psychological dimension). Camras (1994)suggeststhat two aspectsofthe emotionprocess changeas a Diller(1994)hasmadeanattempttocapture themeaningofangerandrelated resultofachild'spsychological development: theappraisal oftheantecedent situation, words in Chaucerusing a schemadevelopedby the culturalanthropologistWhite. and expressive behaviour, both ofwhich are culture-dependent. Only with the Diller(1996)develops a scenariofortheconsistent studyofemotiontermsinwhich development ofthese do a child's emotions become more discrete and clearly he emphasisesthe importanceofthe causeof emotion,the expressionofemotion, interpretable. Thelanguage ofemotion facilitates thecategorisation ofemotional states andthe socialaspectof emotion(isit individualor sharedby others?).He alsotags and allows a childto participatein the shared culturalconceptsofemotionoftheir themwith positiveornegativevalue.His analysisaccentuates theconsequences of particularworld" (Dunn 1994: 355). variationinthedistribution oftermsacrossliterarygenres. The development ofemotion concepts is not finite. It does not lead to an acquisition ofa fixed taxonomy ofemotion, but should be viewed as a constant 2.4.2. Emotions within Natural Semantic Metalanguage. process ofconceptualisation and labelling ofhuman experience. Yet linguistic expressionsof emotionsshouldnot be viewed as mere labelsof inner states.They Wierzbicka (1992, 1993, 1996)has also carried out research into emotion terms.Sherejectstheclaimthattherearebasicemotionsandemphasises ratherthat

7 On the basicness of the positive-negative axiological scale see also Krzeszowski 1997. theyareculturally embedded. Shesuggests thateventheemotionalinterpretation of 30 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak The concept of 31 facialexpressionsis not universalbut culture-specific. That is, evenif some facial byvirtue ofbeingtheprimitives ofhertheory butbecause theyare"intuitively intelligible expressions' arecross-culturally similar, thelabelling oftheemotiontheyarebelieved andself-explanatory" (Wierzbicka 1993: 5),andshouldbeunderstood asthebuilding to express willimposeaninterpretation thatisdependent ontheculture andlanguage blocksofthe languageof thought. This claimseemsratherdifficultto defendas an ofthe 'face-reader'. Sheagrees,however, thatthe componentsofemotionsmaybe analysis ofthefollowing exampleattemptstoprove: universal, butWains againstequatinga singlecomponentwiththeemotion, whichis a complexmentalconcept. Sheproposes thatemotionconceptsshouldbe described Iamangry> intermsof"prototypical scripts or scenarios, formulated intermsofthoughts, wants (a) I think something like this (ofsomeone) andfeelings" (Wierzbicka 1992: 539)andposits thefollowing frame forthedescription (b) this person did something bad ofemotion terms: (c) I don't want this (d) I want to do something because ofthis X feels something (e) I want this person to feel something bad because ofthis sometimes a person thinks something like this: (f) when I think this, I feel something bad This analysis corresponds to a considerable extent to that proposed by O&T [Ortony and Turner 1990] (although the fact that they don't use the standardised semantic metalanguage prevents any precise comparison). because of this, this person feels something Component (a) in the explication above indicates the presence ofa thought (O&T X feels something like this appraisal); (b) indicates a negative evaluation of something that someone (or a (Wierzbicka 1996: 182). personified machine, such as a car or a washing machine) did (cf. O&T reference to "the agent who is blamed for what has happened"); (c) and (d) indicate the This proposal stresses the role ofcognition 'think' in the interpretationand experiencer's active attitude" (O&T resolve to take some action, to remove the labelling ofour emotional experiences (cf. Ortony, Clore and Collins 1988; and source ofgoalblockage); (e) corresponds to O&T's "desire or a tendency to aggress Clore 1994). against the agent"; and (f) shows that experiencer's attitude is an emotion, that is As Wierzbicka's major research concern has been to devise a culture­ that it includes a feeling that is causally linked with the appraisal ofthe situation independenttoolforsemanticanalysis, sheinsiststhat defmitions of emotionterms (Wierzbicka 1993:12). shouldbe explicatedin terms ofher NSM (Natural SemanticMetalanguage). The lexical primitives ofNSM,Wierzbicka believes, aresufficientto describe themeaning In thisexcerptWierzbicka is comparing her defmition withthatofOrtonyand ofemotion concepts. Nevertheless, it seems to me that although they can indeed Turner (1990), using natural language tomediate betweenthetwo. Hencethedefinition servetheaimoffinding whatisuniversal inhumanemotions, theyallowonlyforthe ofthe word'anger' appearsin three different translations.Itis quite clearthat the mostgeneralcategorisation ofemotions alongthethreecontinua: positive-negative, NSM definition might be a useful tool for cross-cultural comparison with their degreeofsubmissiveness, and degreeof arousal(RusselandMehrebian 1977); or, translationalequivalents, suchasthe Ilongotword 'liget', the Ifaluk 'song', andthe asWierzbicka wouldhaveputit:I feelsomething good- I feelsomething bad,I want Yankunytjatjara 'pika' (see Wierzbicka 1988a and b), and this is certainly an to do something- I don't want to do anything;and I want to do something- I want advantageitoffersovertheotherdefinitions, Itishardtosee,though, how,orindeed to dosomething verymuch.Thefinerdistinctions ofmeaningcannotbesatisfactorily if,itissuperior infacilitating theunderstanding ofthedefinition, i.e. itisaself-explanatory reducedto semanticprimitives, andattemptsto do so wouldproducevery longand language ofthought. Afterall, whenweformulate ourthoughts andgivethemlinguistic awkwarddefinitions. Wierzbicka's method seems to be a very useful analytictool expression, it is not in the NSM, but in the language or languageswe can actually fora cross-cultural comparisonofgeneralterms,emotionsincluded, butmaynotbe speak. For a semanticistto use the NSM one must learnthe primitivesand how to equallyadequatefor developing a detailedanalysis of a semanticfield. operate them and reduce thoughts to NSM. This, it seems to me, needs as much Wierzbicka alsoclaimsthat the lexicalprimitives ofNSM areindefinable not trainingastranslating natural language intoanyLogicalCalculus, andhenceNSM is 32 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 33 nomore"intuitively intelligible andself-explanatory" thananyother formalised language ofangersinceitemploys anon-prototypical sentencestructure withaweakeningof usedin semantic explications. thetopicalfocus. Theconstruction ofboththeseemotions intheexplanatory genrediffers from 2.4.3. The linguistic constructionist approach to emotions. that in the firstperson genrein being more detachedandhence without an explicit attemptatpassing a moraljudgement on the 'wrongdoer'. The accountsprovided Bamberg(1997b) devises a linguistic-constructionist approach to emotions in by childrenin the explanatorygenre, it must be noted, are strikinglysimilarto the which he concentrateson the role the expressionofemotion plays in constructing schemas in NSM (Natural Semantic Metalanguage) suggested by Wierzbicka. discourse, andemphasises thefactthatthisconstruction isaimedatarousing empathy Compare,forinstance: in the audience, in a sense, to secure their co-operation. Analysis ofdata from experimentswithfourgroupsofchildren(meanagefor eachgroup: 5;2,6, 7;3,9;1) you are angry at someone ledhim toformulate thefollowing "grammarofbeingangry" inthefirstpersongenre: because they did something to you and you didn't like (i) a highly individuated agent... and a highly individuated undergoer; (ii) marking what they did the action as highly transitive (often elaborating on visible or otherwise empirical (Bamberg 1997b:330) effects ofthe action); (iii) positioning the T' as the experiencer and the target ofthe action in the direct object slot; and (iv) the 'other' (the agent) in subject slot (Bamberg and 1997b:328). Anger This contrasts with the "grammar ofbeing sad" in the first person genre: X feels something sometimes a person feels something like this: (i) positioning the 'other' in subject position, ... accomplishing the construct of this person did something bad inagentive happening [for example] I don't want this it was when I was about 5 or 4 years old because ofthis, I want to do something my biggest sister got into a car accident I would want to do something bad to this person so she died because ofthis, this person feels something bad because of a car accident X feels like this (Wierzbicka 1992: 569). and I was really sad for a few weeks ... (ii) positioning the 'I' in the subject slot, accomplishing the construct of an As can be seen, the phrasing and the structure ofthe framework elicitedby undesired state, as inexample (10): BambergfromAmericanchildreninthepsycholinguistic experiInent coincides with (10) I was in Charlton the defmitionframesdevelopedby Wierzbicka. Thathisresultsshouldsupporther and I moved to Worcester claimsisparticularly ironicinthelightofBamberg'scriticism ofWierzbicka: "oneis and I couldn't see my neighbours and their dogs (Bamberg 1997b: 328)8. leftwonderingwhetherWierzbicka'sratherundertheorisedview ofthe cognition­ languagerelationship has anythingto contributeto how people in actualdiscourse Bambergnotesthatalthoughangerismorecomplexin itsdiscursive function settings talk..." (Bamberg 1997b: 314).Wierzbicka's definition includes anelement becauseitaimsatbothwinningempathyandallocating blame(sadness isaimedonly ofrevengeabsentfromthedefinition inBamberg, but sheherselfstresses (1992: 569 ateliciting empathy), thelinguistic construction ofsadness ismorecomplexthanthat s note 9) that angercallsfor further investigationsince it is not clearwhether "the angry person wishes that'something bad should happen' to the target person or 8 The examples provided by Bamberg are the narratives children constructed as one of the tasks in the ratherthat the targetpersonshould 'feel bad"'. experiment. 34 Malaorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 35

Bamberg also discusses the status ofdual or simultaneous emotions and this framework was an analysis ofthe concept of'anger', which was conducted comes to the conclusion that "itis the verbal account that gives rise to the illusion of together with Kovecses and published as a chapterin Lakoff(1987)9. The analysis the actual possibility ofholding more than one emotion at the same time" (Bamberg starts with a presentation ofthe folk theory ofangerwhich describes anger in terms 1997b: 320). Such an account ofemotions presupposes that they are dear-cut ofits physiological effects, such as bodyheat, increased internal pressure (blood categories, so that two or more distinct emotions can occur simultaneously or, as pressure, musculartension), agitation and impairment ofaccurate perception (Lakoff argued by Bamberg, sequentially. Howeverpsychologists working on the human 1987: 381). This folk model leads to a series ofmetonymies for anger, for example: categorisation ofemotion claim that emotion categories overlap to a large degree Body heat: and have fuzzy borders (Bullock and Russel 1986: 206). Ifthis is the case, the confusion ofemotion terms on the part ofyounger children, as well as descriptions They were having a heated argument. ofdual emotions which Bambergbelieves "cannotbe derived from two concurrent Redness in face and neck area: feeling states" (1997b: 320), are not so much a result ofthe "linguistic ability to view a situation for two discursive purposes" (1997b: 320), but a consequence of She was scarlet with rage. the fact that emotions, like many abstract concepts, escape easy categorisation. He got red with anger. Reports ofsimultaneous emotions seem to be yet another piece ofevidence of human attempts to impose order on the surrounding chaos attempts to classify Agitation: and label the variety ofexperience in a systematic way by means oflanguage. She was shaking with anger. These attempts aim at reducing humanpsychological states to the rigours oflinguistic expression, and as is the case with any reduction, they leave a residue ofthe He was quivering with rage. inexpressible. This residue forces the speaker to use different discourse techniques Interference with accurate perception: to convey as much as possible through the linguistic channel. She was blind with rage. Bamberg has also found that younger childrenthinkthat to equate being sad with crying is a sufficient defmition ofthe emotion. He is convinced that this is due I was beginning to see red. to the fact that the cause ofemotion is less clear to younger children, or, to put it in other words, the linkbetweenthe stimulus ofthe emotion and the labelling ofthe emotion is more difficult to determine than the link between the label and the These metonymies result in a central metaphorANGERIS HEAT which, when emotional display connected with it. An interesting question arising from this applied to fluids, is specified as ANGERIS HEAT OF A FLUID IN A CONTAINER interpretation is whetherthe fact that childrenhave biggerproblems with perceiving and when applied to solids as ANGERIS FIRE. Forinstance: the first linkthan with perceiving the second, is cognitively-based or results from ANGERIS HEAT: the type oflinguistic input providedby their caretakers. Itcould be the case that the input takes the form of"Why are you crying? Areyou sad?" (the display-label Billy is a hothead. linkexplicitly accentuated) more oftenthan"Whyare you crying? Has your brother Don't get hot under the collar. taken your toy?" (the cause-emotion link expressed). Further research wouldbe ANGERIS HEAT OF A FLUID IN A CONTAINER: needed, ofcourse, to show this. You make my blood boil.

2.4.4. Cognitive semantics and emotion concepts. She was seething with anger.

Lakoff(1987) has also testedhis cognitive linguistic theory ofthe Idealised Cognitive Model in the field ofemotions. One ofthe frrst analyses conductedwithin 9 The full analysis of the concept was first published in Kovacses (1986). 36 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 37

ANGERISFIRE: physiological effects ofanger, metonymies basedonthesephysiological effects, and a system ofmetaphors which are derived from such domains as HEAT(with the He was blazing with rage. subdomains HEAT OF A FLUID IN A CONTAINER and FIRE), INSANITY, She was going to flare up in anger. STRUGGLEand DANGEROUSANIMALS. The metaphor ANGER IS HEATOF A FLUID IN A CONTAINERis also Thisapproach isofsignificance toallsciences attempting todescribe thehuman relatedto amore generalmetaphorBODY IS A CONTAINERFOREMOTIONS, conceptualisation ofemotion,as it attemptsto examineandpinpointthemetaphors as indicatedbythefollowing examples: in terms ofwhich humans are trying to make sense oftheir emotionalexperience. He was filled with anger. These metaphors can shed light on the inferences humans make about emotional states,as theseinferencesdepend on the systemofmetaphorsa person employsto She couldn't contain her joy. enhancetheirunderstanding ofthesituation. The ANGER IS HEATOF A FLUID IN A CONTAINERmetaphor can be Unfortunately themethodwasdesigned to dealwithlargerchunks ofdiscourse, furtheranalysed intothefollowing schemataformappings: i.e. idioms, and can be used in lexical semantics only in so far as a given word actuallyappears inidioms. In thiscasethedetermining ofmetaphoric mappings and Target: Anger Source: Heat offluid in a container sourcedomainscanenhancethe descriptionofthe meaningoftheword. ontological correspondences: 2.4.5. Verbs of emotions as experiencer verbs. The container is the body. The heat offluid is anger. Verbsofemotions such as like.fear.please, andfrighten have also been of Explosion is loss ofcontrol. interest toresearchers comingtotheareafromtheperspective ofgenerative grammar. These psych-verbs, together with verbs ofintellectualjudgement such as regard, and many others (for a detailed analysis see Lakoff 1987: 380-415). These concern, worry, and verbs ofphysical force in their abstract meaning e.g., strike, correspondences can be related to stages ofthe anger scenario,which consists of areallsubsumedunderthetermexperiencer verb,astheyallexhibit asimilar argument the Self(= the experiencer ofthe emotion), the wrongdoer, the offending event, structurewiththe experiencerrole inthe specification. Accordingto theirsyntactic retribution(= anger)and an attemptto controlanger. behaviourtheseverbsmaybe dividedintotwogroups: oneplacestheExperiencer in ApartfromthecentralmetaphorANGERISHEAT, theangerscenariois also the oblique position, as in the case of'please.fear and strike; and the other places understoodintermsof other,peripheralmetaphorssuchas: the Experiencerin the subjectposition,as in the case oflike. Jackendoff(1990)proposestoregardthe ExperiencerasPatient. Thisallows ANGERISINSANITY: him to analysetheseverbsintermsofan action tier (Agent-Patient differentiation). She was raving mad, when she heard about it. Experiencerinthe obliquepositionisunderstoodasthepersonaffectedbythe State or Event, while in the subject position it is understood as a person reacting to a ANGERISANOPPONENT stimulus. Jackendoff suggests a set ofthree parameters for the definition ofthese She was fighting to control her anger. verbs: theposition oftheExperiencer; theaffect/reaction differentiation; andtheState/ ANGERISADANGEROUS ANIMAL Event differentiation. Both affect(AFF)andreaction(REACT)can assumeone of thethreevalues: positive(e.g., 'like'), markedas "+", negative(e.g., 'fear'), marked He unleashed his anger. as"-", orneutral(e.g., 'strike'), markedasn. Thisproposalcanbe instantiated with The above analysissuggeststhat the Idealised CognitiveModel ofanger in thefollowing analysis (Jackendoff1990: 141): Americanculture consists ofthescenario ofanger, conventional mentalimages ofthe 38 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 39

(44) a. X pleases Y. [StateAFF+ ([x], [y])] (C) Agentive psychological causative (frightenclass) b. X displeases Y. [State AFF- ([x], [y])] (Agent(Exp)) c. X (suddenly) frightened Y. [EventAFFn([x], [y])] 1 2 d. X strikes Y as crazy. [State AFFn ([x], [y])] e.g.Billfrightened thechildren. e. X matters to Y. [StateAFFn([x], [y])] (45) a. Y likesX. [StateREACT+([y], [x])] The syntacticanalysisofExperiencer verbs suggeststhat they can focus on b. Y fears/hates X. [State REACT- ([y], [x])] oneofthe twoperspectives ofanemotional scenario: onewhentheattention centres c. Yregards X as crazy. [StateREACTn ([y], [x])] on the experiencer ofthe emotion; and another when the attention focuses on the causeofemotion,be it a personifiedAgent or a nature-relatedTheme. Jackendoffstressesthe factthatthe actiontierwas initiallydevelopedforthe analysisofforce-dynamic verbs,e.g., 'hit', 'throw', 'enter', andwas subsequently 2.5. The historical approach to emotion. extendedtological verbsand-psych-verbs. Thissuggests thatboththeforce-dynamic verbs on the one hand and the logical and psych-verbs on the other share similar The basicpremiseassumedby historiansdealingwith changein emotionsis structural configurations inconceptual structure. This, intum, mayindicate thathumans that emotions can be regarded as social as well as psychological phenomena. A tendtounderstand theirinternal, psychological livesintermsoflessabstract physical purely psychological vantage point was most usually assumed by historians relations!"; inJackendoff's words: "verbsoflogicalrelationexpress an abstract form concentrating onwriting biographies, whooftenstressedtheuniversal nature offeelings of force-dynamic interaction, not too distantlyrelatedto verbsthatexpresspushing underlying humanbehaviour atallperiods inhistory, soastofacilitate theunderstanding aroundthings in space" (1990: 141). ofhistoricalpersonagesby modem readers.On the otherhand,historianswho deal Grimshaw(1990)suggests thattheassignmentoftheExperiencer todifferent with socialratherthanbiographicalhistorytend to focuson changein emotions. In positions in a sentence depends on the verb's aspectual properties. She divides fact, attempts to analyse emotions froma socio-historical perspective arearelatively Experiencer verbsintotwoclasses: thefear class, inwhichtheExperiencer ismapped recent endeavour, sothatpractitioners ofthisdiscipline havefound ithelpful topostulate ontothe subjectposition; andthefrighten class,inwhichtheExperiencerismapped adichotomybetweenwhattheycallemotional experience andemotionology. Stearns ontotheoblique position. Sheproposes thefollowing aspectual andthematic analysis and Steams (1988: 7) claim that "it becomes increasingly obvious that emotional for these two classes:II standards - what the editors [i.e. Steams and Steams] have urged be labelled "emotionology"- changemorerapidlyand completelythan emotionalexperience (a)Psychologicalstate(fearclass) does". Emotionology ishereunderstood asthesetofbeliefs,scenarios orfolktheories (Exp(Theme)) sharedby a communityaboutthe meaning and role ofemotions.These beliefs are 1 2 tightly linked to the valuesthe community adheres to such as emotions and value e.g. Childrenfeardarkness. judgements about other people, objects and the position ofthe selfin the world. These judgements are reciprocally related to emotions as emotions affect value (b)Psychological causative (frighten class) judgements andare,intum, affected bythem. Withhistorical changes intheeconomic (Exp(Theme)) and social structure ofa society, the nature ofrelations between people and the 2 1 hierarchy of values they recognise also undergo a change. The change in socially e.g.The stormfrightened the children. approved values androles available tocommunity members influences theperception, apprehension andcognitive structureofemotionalscripts. Carol Stearns(1988: 57)pointsto amajor shiftinthe constructionof therole

10 This thesis has also been elaborated by cognitive semanticists in terms of experiantialism (see Lakoff and oftheselfinemotions whichtookplaceduringtheEnlightenment. According to her, Johnson 1981 BODY AS MIND metaphor, further employed by Sweetser 1991). earlymodern society(late 16thand 17thc.)was characterisedby apervasivesense II The example sentences are mine. 40 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 41 ofuncertainty concerningsatisfactionofeven the basic life sustainingneeds. The themiddleandupperclasses. Asthesewomenyieldedtothesociallyenforced ideals Enlightenmentbroughtanincreasing beliefinthepowerofhumankind anditsability ofpassionlesspurity,they oftenbecame ratherpassionlesswives. Theirhusbands to discoverorderinthesurrounding worldand,eventually, to controlthisorder. This would seekthe satisfactionoftheir sexualdesireswith lower classwomen,further viewcontributed to agradual changeintheperceptionoftherelation betweenfeeling reinforcing the bourgeois separation of"true love", understood in terms ofpure and behaviour. Emotions ceased to be regarded as uncontrollablepassions, and it emotion, fromsexuality, definedasphysicallust. slowlybecame aresponsibility ofexperiencers to controltheiremotions. PeterStearns (1988)analyses the changeintheperceptionofsiblingjealousy Gillis (1988: 89) stresses the importance ofdescribing the emotions ofour that took place in the early 20th c. The emotion is largely disregarded in parents' ancestors in terms in which they themselves would have understood them and of manualsofthe 19thc. If it appearsat all,it is subsumedunder the headingof anger, avoiding a modem bias (cf. Wierzbicka's emphasis on a culture-independent orlackofobedience orgenerosity onthepartofchildren. Thelabeljealousy appears perspectivein emotionology). He alsodiscussesthe issueofthe independentstatus onlywith referenceto the feelingthat might appear among adolescents,e.g.when oftheconceptofemotion addressed byLutz(1988) andOmondi (1997), andsuggests twobrothersarecourtingthesamegirl.Theideaof siblingrivalryformaternallove that: doesnot constitute aproblemtillthe 1920s,when itbecomesamajor issuein child­ rearingmanuals. P. Steamsstresses, however, thatthefeeling itselfdoesnotoriginate ...early modem people were less likely to make the distinction between action and all ofa suddenwith the beginning ofa new century. Itis evident in 19th.c. letters. feeling. It would not have occurred to them to dig deep into the emotions. "Feeling" Whatchanges isthesocial apprehension oftheemotion. Withtheincreasing popularity still meantboth physical and internal sensation; and, at a time when medical authorities ofFreudian psychology, anynegative strong feeling experienced inearlychildhood is made no sharp distinction between psyche and soma, anger and love were seen as viewedas a potentialdestructive forceforfutureadultlife. having an actual physical presence in the "cold stare" or the "warm embrace".... Love was treated more like a script than a drive, something to be negotiated, acted The findings ofC. Steams, Gillis and P. Steams emphasise the relationship out, worked on, with a public as well as a private dimension (Gillis 1988: 90-91). between the generaloutlook on lifeprevalent at a given time and the construction andunderstandingofemotions.They identifytwo major forcesbehind changesin In hisresearchontheconceptofloveanditsexpression, Gillis discovered that particularemotionconcepts. Oneis changeintheeconomicsituationinfluencing the in the 16thand 17thc.thepredominant viewoflovewas oneofmutualco-operation social structure which affects the perception ofthe role ofselfin the society.The and physical sharing.Itwas expressedin such courtingand wedding rituals as the positionof selfandothers,andtherelationship betweenthem,is oneofthedefining mutual exchange ofgifts andjumping the petting stone" performed both by the features ofemotions, andwhenthisrelationship changes, sodoestheconstruction of groom andthebride.It wasthe peers andnot the familythatplayedthe main role at emotions. Theotherforceisthe changeinthe sociallyacceptedhierarchyofvalues, abigwedding, whereritualjokingandteasing wereanoutletfortheemotional tension whichmaybe linkedto socio-economic changesororiginatefromdevelopments in brought aboutby the removalof any singlepersonfromthe pool of eligiblemates. religion,philosophyor science.Valuejudgements, ashas been pointed outbefore, The new conceptofidealloveanda quietweddingwhichno longerinvolved areintricately linkedtoemotions, andachange intheconceptualisation ofoneinevitably thewholecommunity, but onlya smallcircleoffamilyandinvitedfriends, emerged exertsan impacton the other. withthenew,bourgeois division oflabourandthenewroleitassignedtowomen.As men became the sole breadwinners, the idea ofco-operation between the future 2.6. Conclusion. spouses weakened andwas slowlyreplacedby the activerole ofthe male suitor as opposed to the passive role ofthe woman, who was no longer allowed active Thischapterhaspresentedresearchintoemotionsfroma numberofdifferent participationinthecourtingritual. TInsledto a subsequent idealisation ofwomenin perspectives: psychological, linguistic andsocio-historical. Theories presented inthese fieldsoftensupportedone another.

12 The petting stone was a barrier, such as a stone or a stone or wooden bench, placed in the door of the church Bothpsychologists andlinguists agreethatemotions, or atleasttheirlabelling or in the church gates symbolising the first obstacle that the newly-weds had to conquer together after their and categorisation, arecognitivephenomena. Wierzbicka'scross-cultural research marriage: 42 Malgorzata Fabiszak The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 43 supportspsychologists' claimsthat,althoughthe capacityfor emotionisuniversal, particularcategorisation, labelling andexpressionofemotionareculture-specific. Russel and his associates claim that the concept ofemotion is structured prototypically, withsuperordinate level, basiclevel (oftenovergeneralised asuniversal), and subordinatelevelcategories. The conceptis characterised by fuzzyboundaries and overlapping categories, and is organised along three dimensions or scales: pleasure-displeasure, dominance-submissiveness and the degree of arousal. Categories are recognised and labelled according to scripts which consist of, at CHAPTERTHREE least,thecause,thebehavioural display(facialandverbalexpression), theinnerstate (the feeling),andthe physiologicalreaction(notrelevantto linguistics). Classical, A SEMANTIC ANALYSIS feature based lexical semantic approaches can playa role in attempting to defme OFJOYWORDS IN OLD ENGLISH prototypicalscriptsandin arranging them alongthethreedimensions. The idea ofprototypical scenarios for emotion concepts has been further 3.1. Data and method. developed by Lakoffand Kovacses, They start their analyses by positing a folk theoryorscenario ofanemotion andthen, through anexamination oflinguistic patterns, ThegroupofOldEnglishwordsdenotingtheconceptof'joy' analysed inthis go on to discoverthe metaphoric structureofthe concept. chapterconsistsofbliss, blibnes (blijJe), dream, gefea, glcednes(gleed), liss, mirho Bamberg emphasisesthe social role ofemotions, as do Bodor, Camras and and wynnsumnes. The choice ofthe field members is based primarily on those Dunn, suggestedinthe Old English Thesaurus (henceforth OE1)under08.01.01.03 Good Jackendoffand Grimshaw concentrate on the role ofthe experiencer ofan feeling,joy, happiness. OETgives 17wordsasthemembers ofthefield core. However, emotion,andonthe grammaticalexpressionofthisrole. eadwela, estnes, fcegennes, gefeannes, gefeohtsumnes, gliwstcef, hyhtwynn, Gillis, asocial historian, agrees withWierzbicka ontheimportance ofaculturally reotu and gescelignes appear in rather negligible quantities in the Microfiche unbiased approachto data. Concordance to Old English (1-17),which doesnot allowus to hypothesiseabout C. Steams and P.Steams stress the link between emotions and a society's differences in their use and meaning. I have replaced blipness with blioe and socio-economic situationandhierarchyofvalues. wynsummungby wynnsumnesse, as the second form is better represented in the MCOE. I havealsosupplemented thefieldwith mirho, which,althoughnotpresent in the OETunderthisheading,occurredinmany similarcontextsto the other 'joy' words in MCOE. The analysis isbasedon a carefulexamination ofthecollocational patternsof these words. The adjectival phrases into which the joy words enter reveal what attributesareassociated withthem.Verbphrasesanswerquestions concerning how to achievejoy andwhatactivities itmay assistorresultfrom. Nounswhichco-occur with the 'joy' wordsor standin oppositionto them givean indicationofwhat other concepts 'joy' isrelated toinOE.I donotmakeanyclaims concerning theSYnonymity ofconcepts. "Relation"ishereunderstoodin itsweak,cognitivesense. Whendealing withcollocations inwhatfollows I sometimes giveanumberin brackets to signalthe frequencyofoccurrence. These numbers are intended as an indication ofdominating trends incollocability. Whennonumbers aregiven(oftenin case ofverbs) it means that none ofthe verbs quoted dominates in the phrases, or 44 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 45 they appear only once or twice. The OE words quoted in the running text andthe 'sorrow', sal"'suffering', unrotnes 'sadness'. People experiencing bliss (brucan quotations are in italics. The translations are given in single quotation marks. The 'enjoy') receive it from God (becuman 'get', begitan 'get'). God bestows it on source is given according to the abbreviations in the MCOE. The translations provided people (gifan 'give', bringan 'bring', gegearcian 'prepare'), brings people to it after the longer quotations are mine. The word under investigation is replaced with (geleedan), or takes it away (ascirian 'separate'). People themselves can either three hyphens (- - -) in the translations to avoid biasedreading ofthe context. The earn it (geearniani or lose it (linnan) through their conduct, for example, words in parentheses are those that would appear in a word-for-word translation, but are not necessary for the understanding ofthe modem version. The words in ba wearb heora bliss awend to ban mcestan sare:for ban heora ... sorh bib endeleas square brackets' are not in the OE original but have been added to the modem 'Then their - - - turned to the greatest pain, therefore their sorrow will be endless' AC version to facilitate understanding. Wider contexts are analysed to posit the causes Hom I 15.222.24 and experiencers ofthe emotions, where possible. for pi is nu selre cristenum mannum beet hi mid earfoonyssum and mid geswince The results ofboth analyses, ofcollocations and oflonger stretches oftext, are geearnian beet ece rice andba ecan blisse mid gode and mid eallum his halgum employed in an attempt to create a general model ofthe OE concept ofjoy. An 'Therefore it is now better for Christian men that they with earthly suffering and indicationwill be given ofwhichwords are employedto express certainparts ofthe hardship earn this eternal kingdom and everlasting --- with God and all his Saints' model most effectively.A hypothesis concerning the conceptual metaphors according AECHomI, 19270.2 to which the model is structured is also offered. In conclusionthe relations between we ... sceolon herian urne drihten on eallumpam oingube he for ure lufe gefremede the members ofthe field will be clearly indicated to determine the degree ofthe us to alyssednysse andto ecere blisse 'we should obey our Lord in all things, that he overlap ofmeaning. for the love ofus committedus to redemption and eternal- --' AECHom1,244.1. I realise that the majority ofthe extant texts are religious in theirnature and, hence, present the conceptual system advocated by the Church. Nevertheless, Heavenly bliss is stronglycontrastedwiththe hardships and sorrows oflife on descriptions ofearthlyjoys also appear, ifonly to be condemned as undesirable. earth and, especially, with the joyaroused by bodilypleasures, as in: This negative perspective does not appearin poetry, where, for example in Beowulj, the social role ofinducingjoyis well described. Bearing these reservations in mind, it ... ne sio hehste blis nis on pam flceslicum lustum 'the highest - - - does not lie in is thus possible to posit the structure ofthe concept ofjoy for Old English. The bodily desires' Bo 33.74.20. hypothesis concerning this structure, however, is not claimedto be exhaustive. Nevertheless, bliss may be caused by some earthly experiences, such as 3.2. Analysis ofwords. somebody's arrival, return or travel:

BLISS after pysum gecyrde ypolitus to his hame and mid godes blisse his hiwan gecyste and hi ealle gehuslode 'after this returned Hypolitus to his home and with God's 200 forms ofbliss (bliss, blyss, blis and the inflected forms) were analysed. - - - kissed his family and administered to them the sacrament' AECHom 1,29.430.30. The most prominent sense ofbliss is that ofthe heavenlyjoy achieved after Maurus oaferde midmycelre blisse and his gefarad samod to Francene rice 'Then death. In this meaning it collocates with ece 'everlasting' (12), a buton ende 'endless' Maurus rode with much --- together with his companions to the Kingdom of the (2), soolic 'true' (2), syngal 'exceptional' (2) swiolic 'very, strong' (4), micel 'much' Franks' AELS (Maur) 90. (13), on heofonum 'inheaven', heofonlice 'heavenly' (6), godes 'God's' (1), engla 'angels-Gen.' (4), halgena 'saints-Gen.' (3), gastlic 'spiritual' (4), hlcefordes Bliss mayalso arise from singing: 'Lord's' (1). It co-occurs with such words as sibb 'peace, love, happiness' (4), liss 'joy, grace, mercy' (4), bleed'prosperity, happiness' (2),vrynn 'joy' (2), lufu 'love', sungen midmycelre blisse 'sang with much - - -' AELS (Eugenia) 35. gefea 'joy', mcerhp 'glory', mirhp 'joy, mirth'. It is contrasted with sorg (sorh) 46 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 47

Bliss also co-occurs with gratitude: & hrcedlice nyoer astah &pone ceorl beclypte & midswiolicre lufe ongann midhis earmum hine clyppan & cyssan & him swioe pancian. ' ... when Constantine heard He pancodeba gode midgastlicra blysse 'Then he thanked God with spiritual- --' that, he [was] soon so - - -, that he left the lantern he was carrying and came hastily AELS (Basil)454. down and embraced this man with much love and took him in his arms and kissed him to thank him very much' GD 1(H) 16.46.27. It may be expressed in words (clyppodan midblysse 'talk... ', cwepan mid blysse 'speak...', talian midblysse 'tell, pronounce ...'). These two quotations also indicate that blioe can be expressedby kissing and Bliss also collocates with beorht 'bright' (3) andhluttor 'light' (1). embracingpeople. Itcan also be accompaniedbylaughter and a characteristic facial expression tblioe anwlitanj. This is the only description ofthe social expression of BLIDE13 joy. Analyses ofother words did not contribute much to this element ofemotion. They suggested that 'joy' is associated with a characteristic facial expression, but 200 examples ofblioe were analysed. did not give any details. Blioe as a religious emotion falls into the familiar pattern displayed by other Othersituations from which the state ofbeing blioe arises are fmding a wife, joywords in this sample. In this meaning it collocates with such verbs as: lcedan return, or seeing somebody dear, return home, a victory, feasting or music. For 'lead' (2), gelcedan 'bring to', gefceran 'go, experience', gejindan 'find', on blioe example, wunian 'to live on - - - " eardian 'inhabit', andforlc:etan 'lose'. The only intensifier blioe collocates with is swiGe 'strong, very' (16). Phrases with unendlice 'never Se casere ba and ealle wceron swioe blioe his ongeancymes 'The emperor and ending' and heofonlice 'heavenly' arerare. This emotion may arisein people departing everybody else were - - - on his return' LS 8 (Eust) 292, fromthis life: ... hie blioe weeronforoon sige ... ' ... they were - - because ofthe victory...' LS 13 (Machutus) 28.12.16, ... & heo sona unforhte & blioe underhnigon ... deao burh pone heo ne tweodon ... he wolde swyoe lytel drincan, peah he mid gebeorum blioe weere. 'he wanted to ferende beon to pcem ecan rice heora sawla. 'They soon unafraid and with - - ­ drink little, though he was - - - with beer' Leof23, underwent death because they did not doubt their souls were going to the eternal & blioe mode heo sang on bcem cantice 'and with - - - heart he sang the song' Hom kingdom' Bede 4.18.308.24. U 18(BlHom 1)54.

Nevertheless blioeseems to be linked predominantlywith earthly experiences. The returning-home motifreappears in the collocation blibe ham'- - - home', Itresults most oftenfrom social interaction such as meeting somebody, talking (7) wherejoyis attributed to its source ratherthanthe experiencer, and hearing goodnews: Blioeco-occurs with such other emotion and emotion-related words as.fcegenes 'joy', myrho 'joy', gefean 'joy, symbel 'feast', eadignys 'prosperity' and milde Da se halga egidius geherde beet he wunede on swylce life eal swa he selfwilnode 'meek, mild'. Gratitude is also associated with blioe (mid blioepancan 'to thank an to drohtnigenne, pa wearo he swa blioeba: he cleopode pone godesmann and with - - -'). gecyste hine myd mycelre lufe. 'Then Saint Egidius heard that he lived such a life An interesting construction in which blioeappears is the one describing persons that he himselfalways wished to lead [literally: dwell together, convert to], then h.e as the sources ofblioe, for instance, lareow blioe '- - - teacher' - Christ, blioe was so - - - that he embraced this good man and kissed him with much love' LS 9 bingestre '- - - maiden' - Virgin Mary" . (Giles)96 ...Constan tinuspapis gehyrde, he sona swioe blioe forlet a leohtfatu, be he behwearf,

13 Blioe is here interpreted as a label for a "state of being blioe", 14 Bliss also enters into this construction as in blisse drillten '- - - lord' God. 48 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 49

DREAM the body' Guth A,B 2. Opel' him pas eorpan wynne, lceneunter lyfte ondba longan godherede on heofonum, 167 examples ofdream and its inflected forms have been analysed. peer haligra sawla gesittao in sigorwuldre dryhtnes dreama 'Besides him the earthly Dream is often used in religious contexts, where it refers to an eternal (ece, joy transitory under the sky and the eternal god, the hearer in heaven, where the unhwilen (13)), heavenly (heofonlice, on heofonum.bces heofonlican lofes (9)), souls ofthe holy ones sit in the triumphant glory ofthe Lord's - - -' Guth A,B 119. holy (halgig (6)), perpetual (singal (2)) emotion experienced primarily by God (drihtlic, Godes, dryhtnes (5)), the angels (engla (5)) and the holy ghost (haliges However, ifwe accept Menner's (1945) claim that contradictory senses rarely, gastes (1)). Christ's followers, such as saints (halige menn) or priests (se heofonlic ifever, coexist synchronically, then we wouldhave to posit that it was not so much begnung 'those in the heavenly service') mayjoinGod's noble retainers (dugup) the dream itselfwhich had contrasting senses, but rather that it was so general that it and obtain (agan (7)) this privilege: did not carry any valuejudgements, which were determined instead by modifiers. This lack ofa defmite identity ofdream may reflect the medieval dichotomy between heo mid wuldorcyninge wunian moton ... agan dreama dream mit drihtne gode bodyand soul introducedby the Christian thinkers ofthe periodbetweenthe 7th and 'they with the glorious king to live will be allowed ... (will) obtain the - - - of-- - with 12th centuries (Le Goff1997: 131-150) and evident in the quotation below: the Lord God' (Sat 309). Swa tealte syndon eorpan dreamas, and swa todceleo lie ond sawle 'So unreliable The experiencers ofthis emotion are mostlypassive: they obtainit (agan (7), (unstable) are the earthly - - - , and so separate the body and soul' Hom S 40.3 forgifan (1)), dream is created or sent by God (sceopan 'create', delan 'distribute', (McCabeVercHom 10) 323. onsendan), in one case: wodan dream, it is sent bythe devil. People maybe guided towards it (lcedan (2)), or, rarely, they can ascend to it through their own suffering Dream also has the sense of'music' and appears in this meaning in 17% of (aspringan). The 'heavenly' dream maybe bestowed on the meek, butit may also quotations, for example, be taken away (bedalan (4), bidreosen (3), biscyrian (2), beniman 'deprive' (1)) from those who tum away from it (ahwerfan (1)). ... Dauid mid his hearpan, and pone heofonlican dream, ealle singende, beet seo To lose the 'heavenly' dream is easy, as the borderbetweenthe acceptable sawulgehyre heora ealra stemma... 'David with his harp, and the heavenly - - -, all earthly dream teorban (5), woruld(2) 'worldly', eorplic (1) and the doomeddream singing, that the soul could hear the voices ofthem all' AE Hom 2870. (lcene 'sinful, transitory' (3), tealt 'unstable' (3), dol 'foolish') ofthe hell-dwellers (hellenweras (2)) is not clearly indicated. For example, the unspecified earthly In some cases it is difficult to ascertain whether dream means 'joy' and the pleasures ofthe nextpassagebring those who had enjoyed them to hell: noises accompanying the festivities or music proper, as in:

Hie pcere snytro so gelyfdon lytle hwile, oopat hie langing beswac eoroan dreamas beet he dogora gehwam dream gehyrde hludne in halle, peer wees hearpan sweg, eces rcedes, peet hie cetsioestan sylfe forleton drihtnes domas, curon deofles craft swutol sang scopes 'that he each day heard the loud - - - in the hall, there was the 'They, who believed for a short while in the true Wisdom, until the weariness, earthly sound ofa harp and the clear poet's song' Beo 88. - - - overcame the eternal wisdom, so that they themselves finally abandoned God's laws, chose the devil's power' Dan 28. Such cases may suggest a link betweenjoy resulting from music, which accompanied many feasts, and the merry noise ofa feast itself. Eventhe same author canuse dream with contradictory senses: Summing up, dream carries ameaning of'joy' unspecified for moraljudgement and hence used both in reference to spiritual joy and bodily pleasures. It has a Ofgiefeb his pas eorpan wynne, forlceteb pees lcenan dreamas, ond his wi]: pam lice secondary sense ofmusic. gedceleo 'He resigns from earthly joy, rejects transitory (sinful) - - -, and parts with 50 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 51

GLAEDNES ... oa gyngran mid ealre glcednysse hyrsumion heara [pes yldrana] htesum 'the youth with all- - - obey their [elders'] orders' (ChrodR 180.33). Only 31 examplesofglaednys(glaednesse, glaednys,glaednysse, glaednis) appearintheMCOE. Thehypothesis aboutitsmeaninghastherefore beenadditionally Glcednes is expected to assist good deeds, such as helping the weak, giving supportedby an analysisoftherelatedadjectivesglaed in its differentspellingsand presentsormakingsacrifices: inflectionalforms,glaedmod, and the deadjectivalnoun glaedmodnesse,which all together add further61 examples. And seo clcene lac, beet is mcegohad, sceal beon Gode mid glcednysse geoffrod, na In 18% ofcases the adjective gleed is used in the meaning 'bright, shining'. midneadlunge cenigrehcese. 'And this chaste gift, that is virginity, should be offered For example: to God with - - -; and not under a compulsion ofany order' AEHom 2050.

SWIne up on morgentid... glad ofer grundas 'the sun up in the morning time ... bright Inthis senseglcednys may be interpreted as generosity or willingnessand is over the earth' (Brun 10); regarded as a desirablefeature in a leader. gleedseo!for 'shining silver' (Gen A,B 27 19); gleed midgold 'shining with gold' (Rid 63 1). Ongan ba dugupa hleo, glcedmod gode leof, geongran retan, ... 'The lord of the nobles, - - - loved by God, began to comfort the young ones, ...' Guth A,B 1061. Itretains its visual aspect in such collocations as glade onsiene '- face' (3), glade anwlita '-face' (2),glcedmod ongesihpe '-face', gleed hiw '-appearance', The meaningof generosityis furthersupportedby collocationswiththe verb heo cer gladu weere on to lociende 'earlier they were to - - - look at'. In this sellan 'give'. contextgleedmaybetranslated eitheras 'bright,radiant, beaming'or 'radiant, beaming Furthermore,glcednes appearsamongthe eightChristianvirtues: withjoy' or, finally, 'joyful, happy'. The last translationis furthersupportedby the exchangeability ofgleed with otherjoy words, such as eadwela,bliss,wynsumlic, Bonne syndon eahta healice mcegnu purh. Godes mihte mannum gescyte: oeet is wlitig. rumheortnys & sylfernys, clcennes & modwcernes, glcednes & anrcednys, sybgeornes Glcednes seems to be related semantically to bleed 'prosperity, enjoyment' & edmodnes. 'There are the eight holy virtues assigned to men through the power of andbancnung 'gratefulness'. Gleed beon is often a result ofreceiving gifts, both God: generosity and moderation, purity and meekness, - - - and diligence, the love of material,asin, peace and humility' WHom 1065.

Beo wip Geatas gleed, geofena gemyndig 'Be - -- with the Geats, mindful ofgifts' Inthissenseitgoestogetherwithsmyltnes'tranquillity, peace', contrasts with (Beo 1173), costnung 'temptation', and carries overtones of peacefulness, which is most pronounced whengleednysseemerges from sleep. and more abstract,suchas profoundunderstanding: The last sourceofglcednes is the down-to-earthpleasure ofdrinking:

Him mceg beon peglcedre his hearte, pe he sum pingherofundergyte 'His heart may & siooan hi ofbeoderne gan drincan innan heorafyrhuse tuwa oooepriwa locahu be the - -- , when he may understand some ofthis ' (Byr M 1 (Crawford) 114.28). bonne seo gesetnis vel glcednyss beo, huru btzt peer druncen ne rixie. 'And then they began to drink in their warm house twice or thrice, see how then there is will or It is also a reaction to receiving an invitation or good news. The sense of - - -, at least that the drunken ones do not rule' ChrodR 134.12. gratitudemay alsobe colouredwiththefeelingofwillingness asin: However,glcednes appears only once in this context. 52 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 53

GEFEA God gives it (gifan) to those who follow him, but the unrighteous will be deprived (beniman) ofit or will have it destroyed (jorwyrcan): 200 examples ofgefea were analysed. Gefea in its religious sense often collocates with bliss (21), heofonrices ba massepreostas beoobonne on unriht awendefrom Gode; and heora ellen beoo 'heavenly kingdom's', heofonlice 'heavenly', engla 'angels", hlcefordes'Lord's' gebrocene; & heora bliss & heora liss bui eall to tcelnesse gebeoded; and heora (together 10), micel 'much' (19), ece 'eternal' (30), lang 'long' (4), sooan 'true' gefea gewiteo &forwyroeo 'these clergymen turned away from God to sin, and their (4), ce 'divine law' (5), sib 'peace, love, happiness' (7), rest 'rest' (4) and lufu zeal wore off, and their [religious] joy and their learning are all liable to reproof, and 'love' (4). Thesecollocations indicatethatheofonricegefea is an everlasting(ece), their- - - departs and vanishes' HomU6 (FoerstVercHom 15). intense(mice/) feeling, relatedto peace(sib),loveandrest(lufu, sib). In thismeaning it contrasts with unrotnys 'sadness' (11), untrymnys 'weakness' (2), sar 'sorrow' People can come to gefea (cuman), find it (gemetan), enjoy it (brucan) or (2),pistru 'darkness' (2), woruldsorg 'worldly sorrow' (1), adl 'illness' (1) and simplyhave it (habban). wite 'torment' (1).The oppositionbetweenthesetwo groupsoffeelingisrepeatedly Gefea may alsobe induced by such earthly experiences as the birth ofa son: employed in a prevalent discoursepattern,where the positive experiencesthat will be bestowedupontherighteous inheavenarecontrastedeitherwithearthlyhardships andpin wifElizabetpegebere]: sunu, ... & PE biobonne hyht & gefea 'andyour wife, or,lessfrequently, withthepunishmentwhichwillbe wroughtonthe followers ofthe Elisabeth, will bear you a son, ... and you will have happiness and - -,- ' LS 12 devil: (NatJnBat) 75.

swa swa cristforseah: forpan oe we gewilniaopat we rice beon on his rice on pam The birth ofChrist, the saviour (hcelend), also awakens gefea, but ofa more ncefd adl ne untrumnyss ne unrotnyss ne deao ncenne stede: ac peer is ece scelo and abstractnature.Thismore abstractfeelingmay appearalreadyon earthandremains eadignys gefea buton ende mid ecum welum 'as Christ renounced, we want that we relatedto religiousexperienceas in: are strong in rank in his kingdom where we will not have [suffer from] disease or weakness or sadness or death in any place: but there is the eternal dwelling and he us fcegran gefes bringe oferba nibas be we nu dreogao 'he will bring us the happiness, --- without an end with eternal prosperity...' ACHorn 1,31 460.11. beautiful - - - after the hatred that we now suffer' Guth A,B 46 ond on pam ecan life pe after bysum cymo bid pam rihtwisum forgifen rest and & hig gebiddende hig gehwurfon on Hierusalem mid mycelum gefean 'and having gefea, undpam unrihtwisumba ecan wita 'and in the everlasting life which comes prayed they turned to Jerusalem with much ---' Lk(WSCp) 24.52. after this life will the righteous be granted a mild [quiet] rest and - - -, and the unrighteous [will suffer] the eternal torture' AELS (Cecilia) 149. Gefea alsoresultsfrom success,such as finding somebody, or victoryin war, Dar bio lifbutan deape & god butan ende & yld butan sare & dceg butan nihte; asm: andpeer bio gefea buton unrotnesse & rice butan awendednesse 'There is life after death, welfare (good) without end and old age without suffering and day after night ... se casere com to Rome mid sigefceste gefean & mid blisse 'emperor and there is - - - without sadness and the kingdom [ofGod] without change' HomS4 came to Rome with victorious - - -' HornS I (VercHom 5) 67. (FoerstVercHom 9) 150. Itmay also be caused by somebody's return, by giving help, a wedding or The verb phrases in which gefea appears indicate that it may be a goal of another festivity. Finallyit may referto unspecified,but condemnedby the Church human desires (gefea habban willan 'desire', tohopian 'hope for'). Itmay arise unnyte gefean 'vain - - - '. from a man's experiencesuchas miraculoushealing ofthe sick orbeing savedfrom The collocationsofgefea with leoht 'light' (14),beorhtness 'brightness' (4), evil (aweaxan 'awake', aspringan 'rise to', ariran 'liftup', astigan 'move up to'). torhtness 'brightness' (2) and wlite 'light' indicatethatlight as opposedto darkness A person may be filledwith gefea tgefullianior led to it by God (gelcedian,faran). is animportantelement. Itseemsthatthe sightoflightmay enhancepositivefeelings. 54 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 55

Gejea is also strongly related to the concepts ofprosperity and reward. Itco­ Lifde siooan and lissa breac Malalehel lange, mondreama her, woruldgestreona. occurs with med 'reward' (3), eadignys 'prosperity' (3), lean 'reward' (2), giefu 'Then lived Malalehel and long enjoyed - - -, the joy ofmen in this life, this worldly 'gift' and wela 'prosperity' (1). wealth.' Gen A,B 1175.

LISS I wouldbe inclined to suggest that such indeterminate occurrences indicate the linkbetweenthe two senses, so that a personwho enjoys life's favour also experiences Liss appears only 57 times in the MCOE. Nevertheless, the existing collocations JOY· allowus to posit certain suggestions concerning its meaning. Like otherjoywords liss in its meaning ofreligiousjoyappears supportedby MIRlID the presence ofbliss (4), as in: 138 examples ofmirho were analysed. The following spellings were taken eeghwylc eelda bearna forleete idle lustas, leene lifes wynne, fundige him to lissa into account: myrho, myriho, mirho, murhoand the related adjective murig(myrig). blisse, forleete hetenipa gehwonne sigan mid synnafyrnum, fere him to pam sellan Mirho often appears in stronglyreligious contexts, where it enters patterns rice'each ofchildren ofmen should abandon vain desires, the joy ofthis transitory similar to bliss and otherjoy words. It collocates with heojonan 'heaven's' (16), life, and aspire to the bliss of- - -, should abandon wickedness accompanying the heojonlice 'heavenly' (9), micel 'much' (11), ece 'eternal' (38), neorxena wanges crimes ofsin, should conduct him to this happy kingdom' Orw 98. 'ofthe fields ofParadise, (3), midGode 'with God' (4), midhalgum werum 'with holymen' (3) and bliss 'bliss' (15). Itappears in verb phrases with libban 'live' (3), In this sense it collocates with biddan 'ask, pray', sohtan 'seek', standan wunian 'live' (5), midmyrhoe onwunian 'continue'. One can be led into heojonlice 'uphold, continue', lengdan 'lengthen', lean 'reward', lifigend 'living', liffrean 'the mirhoe (Lcedan 'lead'(2), gelcedan 'bring to' (5),jaran 'conduct' (2)), travel there lord oflife'. (sioian) or enter it (becyman into (6)) andbe surroundedby it (behalban), as in: However, it seems to co-occurwith luju 'love' (6) more oftenthanwith bliss. Itthen collocates with suchwords as pancan 'thank for' (3), lcenan 'grant, lease', beethi cetsomne sioian moston ofoisum earfoonyssum to ecere myrhoe 'so that they miltse 'mildness, favour' (2), arstcej'favour'. In this use liss tends to mean 'mildness, must travel together from the hardships ofthis earth to eternal- - -' AECHom II, 10 favour, grace', as indicated in the following examples: 90.317.

ac him neesgetipodbcere littan lysse 'but him [Lazarus] was not granted this small God prepares the mirho for his followers gegearwian (4) and gegearcian

u - [ofgetting a drop ofwater]' AECHomI, 23.330.28 (2); mirho is considered as a reward (lean, edleane, med) Godwill give iforgifan beet ic pe hneaw ne was landes and lissa 'that I was not mean to you in lands or - ­ ,give', sellan 'give') ifthey earnit through their conduct on earth (geearnian (14)): - ' Gen A,B 2824. ... us sylfe mid godan gebance on worde & on weorce· wenian to rihte & In some cases it is difficult to determine whether liss shouldbe interpreted as geearnian ba myrhoe mid Godes fylste be oam is gegearwod oe Gode wel 'joy' or 'mercy' as in: gehyrao & his lage healda po hwyle pe hy libbao ' ... we ourselves with good grace in word and deed should get used to the right way of life and earn - - ­ btet he peer brucan mot wonges mid willum, and welan neotan, lifes ond lissa, with God's help, which is prepared for those who listen to God and obey His Iondes freetwa, obbcet he pusendebisses lifes, wudubearwes weard, wintra gebide]: law while they live' Whom 10c 196. 'that he was allowed to enjoy the world with delight, and make use ofwealth, life and - - - , the riches ofthe land until he lived thousands ofwinters, the protector oftree Those who do not follow God's law will be deprived ofmirho tbenceman groves, endured winters [years]' Phoen 147. 'deprive', asceajan 'separate', adrafan 'get separated' (5),jorwyrnan 'deny' 56 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 57

(2), aweorpan 'cast away', ascyrian 'separate' (2), gesyndrian 'separate'). The mirho ofthis world is by no means comparable to that ofheaven: WYNSUMNES

peas woruldpeah oe heo myrige hwilitudum gebuht sy: nis heo hwceore be gelicre 76 examples ofwynsumnes were analysed. pcere ecan worulde:be is sum cweartern leohtum dcege. 'this world sometimes may Wynsumnes appears in contexts which suggestthat one ofits senses is that of seem - - - , however it is not like the eternal world, it is like a prison to a bright day.' the religious joyexperienced in heaven. In this sense wynsumnes co-occurs with ABCHomI, 10 154.16, bliss (4) andgefea (3) and collocates with mycel 'much' (6), heofonlice 'heavenly' and a buton ende 'endless'.It appears in verb phrases withfaran (in wynsumnes as it was created by the devil himself: faran) 'travel', wunian (on wynsumnes wunian) 'live'(2), libban 'live', belcedan 'lead',geearnian 'earn' andgegearwian 'prepare' andscypan 'create' with God Acbe deofol hcefdepeah mid leasungepurh his syncrefte middaneardes murhooe & as subject. God is regarded as the source ofwynsumnes, as in: all woruldlice fegernesse togcedere cethiwod. 'But the devil had with deception through his sinful skills the - - - ofthe middle earth [the earth, as opposed to heaven God us lcero sibbe and wynsumnesse and deofol us lcero unsibbe and wrohte. 'God or hell] and all the worldly beauty together misshapen' HomU 1 (Belf10) 121. teaches us - - - and peace but the devil teaches us unrest (war) and hatred' Hom S6 (Ass 14) 111, Non-religious contexts,however, do not diminish the role ofthe earthlymirho. ... bider com se ordfruma sylfand scyppend eallra wynsumnesse 'thither came the Itco-occurs with such words as sib 'peace, love, happiness', lufu 'love', mcerho Creator himselfand Creator ofall- - -' Bede 5 13.430.22. 'glory' (8)15, gesibsumnes 'concord, peacefulness' as well as the very down to earth mete 'food', gamen 'games, social activities', hleahtor 'laughter' and rest Religiousexperiences inthisworldcan alsogiveriseto wynsumnes, forinstance, 'rest'. These contrast strongly with hungor 'hunger'.burst 'thirst', cele 'cold' and more general sar 'suffering',sorh 'sorrow',yfel 'evil',gedrecednys 'torture' and we magon cuman to pan Easterlican dcege be aa bio mid fullum glcedscipe & susl 'torment'. wynsumnysse & ecere blisse. 'We may come to this Easter day that has always been Mirho may arise from music: with all glcedscipe and - - - and everlasting bliss' ByrM 1 (Crawford) 140.28.

pone sang singende ... mid micelre myrhoepees mceran dreamas 'singing this song The strongest association that wynsumnes provokes, however, is with ... with a lot of- - - ofthis mighty sound' ABHom M8 (Ass 3) 475. perception. Inthis case the meaning ofwynsumnes seems to be 'so beautiful as to causejoy'. In this sense it co-occurs withfcegernes 'beauty' (4), and glcedscipe Yet,it is most closely linked with tactile rather than auditory perception, as in: 'fairness'. The wynsumnes ofnature may appeal to various senses, such as vision, smell and hearing, as indicated inthe following quotations: ... andpeer wees micelgcerson ocere stowe: myrige on to sittenne ' ... and there was a lot ofgrass in this place, - - - to sit on.' AECHom I, 12 182.11. Swylce eac swelcebeetleoht & seo biorhtnespees blostmiendanfeldes wees... gesewen in oeere stowe wynsumnesse. 'Such was the light and the brightness ofthis blooming It may also be attributed to a place when it seems to mean 'suitable for field seen in the - - - ofthis place.' Bede 5 13.430.22, something': peer wearo swa mycclu wynsumnespees cebelastanstences tostrogden 'there was so

much - - - ofthe noblest scent spread [around]' GD Pref4 (C) 15.282.18 16 , ... and wees se stede myrig to pam mynsterlife. ' ... and was this place - to monastic life.' ABHom 8 106.

15 The relatively high degree of collocability with nuerho may have not only conceptual but also stylistic 16 This collocation is repeated 11 times. Ten times in the same text, GDPref, and once in Mart. reasons, such as alliteration. 58 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 59

eal seo eoroe jxes sanges wynsumnesse and otes sweges swionesse wees gefylledo blisse 011 mode '- - - in mind/heart' 'all the earth was filled with the - - - ofthis song and the power ofthis sound' LS 21 blioe mode'- - - in mind/heart'. (AssumptTristr) 167. Thenounphrases inwhicha 'joy' wordcollocates withpartsofthebodysuch Wynsumnes in the meaning 'earthly joy' can accompany such actions as asheartormindsuggest that, although thewholebodycanbe filled withanemotion, speaking (mid wynsumnesse asecgan) and praising (mid wynsumnesse herian). thereareparticular organs whicharefavoured as seatsofparticular emotions. Often Wynsumnes alsocollocates withgefYllan 'fill' andbrucan 'enjoy,experience'. thenamesfortheseorgans canlaterdevelop secondary meanings related toemotions, as in cordial greeting or hearty laugh. 3.3. The structure of the concept of 'joy' in OE. TheOEwordmodisparticularly interesting inthisrespectasit isbelievedto bepolysemous andmean 'heart,mind,thought, feeling' (BY). Theextensions from The collocational behaviourofthewordsanalysedfallsintoseveralrecurrent 'heart'to 'feeling'andfrom'mind' to 'thought'follow thistendency. Thelinkbetween patterns'? .Thesepatterns mergeintoa numberofconceptual metaphors suchasUP 'heart' and'mind', ontheonehand,and'feeling' and'thought', ontheother, indicate IS GOOD, BODY IS A CONTAINER FOR EMOTION, EMOTION IS A that,intheconceptual systemadhered toatthetimetherewasnodistinction between CONTAINER (FOR THE EXPERIENCER), EMOTION IS A COMMODITY. reason and emotion.Withthe introductionofthe dichotomybetweenthe two the UP IS GOOD is represented by such verb phrases as wordunderwenta deterioration ofmeaning, sothatOE modig 'proud,courageous' « 'one who puts his heart and mind into his works') has changed into moody blisse astigan 'rise, ascend to - - -' 'indulging in moods of bad temper, depression' (Shorter Oxford English gefea astigan 'ascend to - - -' Dictionary). wynsumnesse astigan 'ascend to - - -' The EMOTION IS A CONTAINER FOR EXPERIENCER metaphor is mirho astigan 'ascend to - - -' supportedbytwoclusters ofcollocations. Oneinvolves motionwords whichsuggests to gefea araran 'lift up to - - -' that 'joy' may be regarded as a goal, a space to enter at the end ofajourney, for to gefea aspringan 'ascend to - - -' instance, gefea him upahafan 'he was elated with - - - '. cuman to blisse 'come to - - -' BODY IS A CONTAINERFOR EMOTION is demonstratedin: to mirho sioian 'travel to - - -' gelcedan into blisse 'lead into - - -' midblisse gefyllan 'fill with ---' gefea ingongann 'enter -- -' midgefea gefyllan 'fill with - - -' in gefea gelcedan 'lead into - - -' midwynsumnesse gefyllan 'fill with - --' to gefeafaran 'travel to - --' mid blioe affyllan 'fill with - --' to gefea cuman 'come to - - -' . dream bio in innan cwicra wihta '- - - will be inside this man's body' blisse on breostum '- - - in heart' (lit. in the breast) Staticverbsmeaning' live,inhabit'alsosuggestthat'joy' isconceptualised as blioe on breostum '- - - in heart' (lit. in the breast) a spaceto enter and stay in, for example, mid glcedre heortan 'with a - - - heart' gleed on mode'- - - in mind/heart'

17 Cf. Kovecses (1990: 153), who suggests that emotion concepts should be viewed as a set of cognitive l~odels, with a prototype in the centre. The prototype is base? on .conceptual ~eta~hors and metonymies, which are discovered on the basis of an analysis of the conventlOnahsed expressions In the language. 60 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 61

on blisse wunian 'to live in - - -' with light and music, provides the desired safety, comfort and rest. 18 It is both a blioe eardian 'to inhabit - - -' place which is a shelter from fear, war and death, being a seat ofa mighty leader, and on mirho wunian 'to live in - - -' a hall used for feasts. These two aspects -lackofworry and the merrymaking- are on wynsumnesse wunian 'to live in - - -' often the causes ofjoy" . on mirho libban 'to live in - - -' The present analysis of'joy' words has also indicated a strong link between on wynsumnesse libban 'to live on - - -'. the concepts of'joy' and 'light'. They co-occur in the following collocations:

Sceptics might argue that both the UP IS GOOD schema and the hluttor and bliss 'light and - - - ' EMOTION IS A CONTAINERmetaphor are not so much characteristic ofthe fceger and bliss 'fairness and - - - ' conceptualisation of 'joy' as such, but rather that they are linked to the beorht and bliss 'light and - - - ' conceptualisation ofparadise and appear in the context ofjoy onlyifit is a leoht and liss 'light and - - - ' 'heavenlyjoy'. Although I believe that the fact that Christian 'paradise' and leoht and dream 'light and - - -' leoht and gefea 'light and - - - ' 'joy' are concepts which are both assigned a positive value, and occupy the leoma and liss 'light and - - - ' same end ofthe axiological axis (for arguments see Krzeszowski 1997), which gleam and dream 'light, shining and - - - ' may facilitate a transfer ofconceptual metaphors between the two, one should gleow and dream 'light, shining and - --' not be regarded as more basic than the other. Lakoff(1987) and Johnson (1987) scima anddream 'light and - - - '. both stress that one ofour most salient experiences is that ofour BODY AS.A CONTAINER (to fill with food, etc.) and BODYIN A CONTAINER (getting Gleed, ofall the 'joy' words, seems to be most closelyrelated to the concept out ofbed, into the room, inside/outside the house, etc.). Krzeszowski (1997) of'light'. One ofits senses seems to be 'shining, bright', when it is attributed to the develops this idea positing that the primary experience for the CONTAINER polished surfaces ofgold and silver or to sources oflight, such as the sun. The schema is that ofliving in and later leaving the warmth, comfort and safety ofthe concept of'joy' is not only related to the shining oftreasures or to the light (ofthe mother's womb. He further claims that sun, or ofthe meadhall) as opposedto darkness, but it may also be linked to more metaphoric uses ofthe 'light' concept, as infaces beaming with joy (see also the The axiological ambivalence ofthe schema is grounded in the contradictory values analysis ofglcedscipei. Itseems that broad daylight, the meadhall with the firelight associated with being in or getting out ofthis original container. On the one hand, we reflected in the faces ofcompanions - faces, which mighthave, in fact, also been lit experience getting out ofthe container as being born and as gaining freedom. On the up with drink - constitute some ofthe nodes in a networkofconcepts contributing to other hand, getting out ofthe original container may be experienced as leaving the the model of,joy' in Old English. security of the protective confines of a shelter and as being exposed to various external dangers (Krzeszowski 1997: 142). 18 For details of Anglo-Saxon life and social structure see Girvan 1971, Blumenstengel 1964 and Hill 1995. 19 I believe that these two components constituted an integral part of the meaning of the OE concept of 'joy' even before the introduction of Christianity. Korn (1932: 101-126) claims that Christianity offered to the I would like to stress that the concept ofsafety in a container, unlike that of Anglo-Saxons a previously unknown joy that did not depend on the passing conditions of life. Although, no doubt, true, this claim seems to overlook the degree to which 'heavenly joy' was modeIled on the joy induced personal fi..eedom, is very close to the Anglo-Saxon mind. Two Old English elegies, by the basic pleasures of the meadhall: fraternity and togetherness with the companions and, most of all, the The Wanderer and the Dear Lament, clearly show that freedom, understood as presence of the safety providing leader. What the Christian missionaries did was not to offer an unknown type s of joy, but to extol the ultimate Lord, the king of kings, above all the earthly leaders and offer fraternity with the lack ofpersonal links, is a source ofgrief. A lordless person, i.e. one who does the heroes of the new faith: saints, and the followers of the new leader: angels. In spite of the fact that impermanence is an often emphasised feature of medieval life, I do not think that not belong to a group ofretainers, is suspect and undesirable. Only those who can before the introduction of Christianity Anglo-Saxons were dissatisfied with the joys and pleasures of the relate themselves to the leader, those who belong to the group, are allowed to enter meadhall. The need for eternal bliss had to be created by degrading the joys of this life as evidenced by the depiction of earthly pleasures in the Homilies (for details see the analysis of the religious sense of the 'joy' the meadhall and enjoy the company and the food and drink. The meadhall, filled words in this chapter). 62 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 63

Anotherpositivesensationco-occurringwith 'joy' ismusic.Singingandthe mirho edlean 'give .,', - as a reward' sounds ofvarious instruments may be stimuli for gefea, liss, bliss, blioe, mirho, edlean and mirho 'reward and - -- ' wynsumnes andmostofalldream. Inmany casesitis difficult to determine whether medand mirho 'reward and - - - ' dream isusedinthemeaning'joy arousedby music' or 'the soundofmusic,music' med andgefea 'reward and - - - ' (formore details seethe analysisofdream). lean and gefea 'reward and - - - ' Other sensesthat may participate in the experience ofjoy are smell and the lean and liss 'reward and - - - ' sense oftouch. Swetan stencas 'sweet smells' are a sourceof wynsumnes and also geofu andgefea 'gift and - - - '. ofdream and gefea. And grass may be myrigto sit on. 'Joy' ishereunderstood intermsofa commodity entering anexchange, where The EMOTION IS A CONTAINER metaphor can also be used as a itcanbe given,received, owned,lostor evenearned. When earned,itisregardedas conceptual linkallowing fortheattributing of 'joy' wordstonon-animate experiencers, a reward for obedience. all ofthem words denoting spaces. For instance, ocere stowe wynsumnesse, bliss Whenviewedfrom amore abstractperspective, 'joy' is a feelingassociated on burgum, blioe ham, blioe in burgum. withbestowing gifts andfavours (relatedtogenerosity) andwithreceiving them(linked to gratitude). In bothcasesit is stressedthatgivingandreceivingmustbeperformed Anotherwell developedmetaphorstructuringthe conceptof'joy' is JOY IS with freewill.Althoughbliss, blioeandgefea alloccurinthis context,it isglcednes A COMMODITY Itis expressedin such collocationsas (gleed) and liss that are most closely related to this conceptual model. (Fordetails see the analysesofthese two words). blisse gifan 'give - - - ' Theexchange ofgiftsis averyimportant conceptinAnglo-Saxon Englandas dreamforgifan 'give - - - ' itrepresentsSYmbolically the existingsocialrelationsandsocialorder" .It stresses mirhoforgifan 'give - --' the reciprocity between the generosity ofthe lord and the loyalty ofhis retainers. mirho sellan 'give - - - ' Both must be performedwith free will and, when performed to the satisfactionof glcednes sellan 'give - - - ' bothparties, willinducejoy. mirho gebycgan 'procure, buy - --' Gift exchange usually takes place during the feast in the meadhall, which blisse begitan 'get - - -' intensifies the feeling ofjoy. In this image the two metaphors EMOTION AS A mirho begitan 'get - -' CONTAINERandJOYAS A COMMODITYamplifyone another. Theycan also dream agan 'possess - - - ' be linkedthroughanotherconceptual pattern, i.e. emotionis a container - container blisse habban 'have - - - ' is space- space is the goal ofajourney - journey is work - work to achievejoy­ mirho habban 'have - - - ' joy ascommodity. Thesetwo association paradigms suggestthatevenif a conceptis dream habban 'have - - - ' structuredby seeminglyunrelated metaphors, when these metaphors are fed into gefea habban 'have - - -' images/scenarios it ispossibleto discoverhow one canfacilitatetheunderstanding blissefindan 'find ---' ofthe other. blisse linnan 'lose - - -' on huse blisse healdan 'keep - - - at home' 3.4. The scenario for the concept of 'joy' in Old English. blisse geearnian 'earn - - - ' mirho geearnian 'earn - - - ' As indicatedinChapterTwo, psychologists suggestthatifwe viewemotions gefea geearnian 'earn - - - ' asscenarios, these should consist of:thecause ofenlotion; appreciation ofthesituation; mirho leanian 'give - - - as a reward'

liss leanian 'give - - - as a reward' 20 See Hill (1995: 85-108 and 140-144). 64 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 65 categorisation andnamingoftheemotion; reaction totheoriginal stimulus, According talkingwithotherpeople blioe tothisparadigm, emotions havesocio-psychological characteristics inthatthereaction music/singing bliss, blioe, dream, displaymust be performedin accordancewith the schematarecognisedby a given mirho, wynsumnes community(the socialaspect),but the stimulusis experiencedand decodedon the pleasantsmell wynsumnes, gefea, dream basis ofthe personal past. Inan attemptto presentthe Anglo-Saxonconceptof'joy' the above pleasanttactileexperience myrige (mirho) paradigm may be reduced to cause - emotion (experiencer) - reaction. The bodilypleasureofunidentified character1 bliss psychological processes ofstimulus appreciation andcategorisation arenotofinterest victory blioe, gefea in the present work. The reaction,which belongs more to the realm ofpragmatics thansemantics, is alsooflimitedconcern. The analysis ofthe cause-emotion relationship and the conventionalised Thecollocability analyses of 'joy' wordsinOldEnglishsuggestthefollowing metaphors(section3.3)mostoftenemployedfor a givenemotionword suggestthe linksbetweencauseandtheemotion, i.e. theemotionaroused bythefollowing stimuli following grouping ofthesewords: would be labelledas shown in Table3.1. GROUP 1:emotionspredominantlyused in religiouscontexts:bliss,gefea, Table3.1.Cause-emotion relationships in OldEnglish. mirho,wynsumnes'? . The emotionsofhigh intensity(highcollocabilitywith micel andswide), CAUSE OE 'JOY' WORD GROUP 2: emotionsimportantfor building and sustainingsocialrelations: goingtoheaven bliss, blioe, dream, gefea, liss, mirho, blioe (also very intensive,but rarely religious),glcednes, liss (both closely linked wynsumnes withthe generosity/gratefulness patterns), dream. B!issandgefea alsoappearinthis context, though,atleastaccording to theexamineddata,theirfirstsenseseemstobe religious experience onearth gefea, wynsumnes thatofreligious experience. beingsavedfromdanger gefea GROUP3:emotions arising fromaperception-related pleasure: dream (mainly returnto health gefea music,but alsosmell), glcednes (mainlyvisual), wynsumnes(mainlyolfactory). finding awife blioe birth ofa son gefea This divisionis not a strict one. As shown in Table3.1., almost all the 'joy' return ofsomebodydear bliss, blioe, gefea words (with the exception ofglcednesi can be used to describe 'heavenly joy'. somebody'sarrival bliss Music is almost equallyindiscriminate in inducing bliss, blioe, dream, mirho and wynsumnes (5outof8 examinedemotions). Thepredominantly religious emotions meetingsomebody blioe may alsoarisefromexperiences inthislife. Nevertheless, Ibelievethatthisgrouping finding somebody gefea, bliss enables us to emphasisewhich ofthe 'joy' words are most closely related to each retumhome blioe, dream other,andwhich oftheirsensesseemsto dominate. hearinggoodnews blioe, gleed travel bliss As far as the socialdisplayofemotionis concerned(the reactionelementof receiving gifts gleed 21 LeGoff (1997) suggests that in early medieval Christianity bodily sin was understood as all the weaknesses gratefulness gefea, glcednes, liss of the body, such as gluttony, abuse of drink, sloth and sexual pleasure. Only later was it narrowed down to generosity gleed, liss sexual pleasure. Therefore, it is difficult to determine the exact nature of the fleschly lustas which are a cause of bliss. feast including drinking blioe, dream, gefea, glcednes On pleasure in Middle Ages see also Verdon 1996. n Though wynsutnnes simultaneously belongs to Group 3. 66 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 67 the paradigm), the data analysed allow us to posit the following' display-of-joy' scenario:joy has a characteristicfacial expression;when very intensive,itmay be conveyed by kissing and embracing the person involved in the stimulus situation (blioe); it maybe accompaniedby laughter. Joymay be expressedin words,and in this case it may performthe importantsocialfunctionofstrengtheningrelationsin kinshipandretainer groups. Whenjoy arises froma giftexchange betweentheleader andhis follower, itcreatesanemotionalbond ofmutualdependencybetweenthem. Toconclude, 'joy' plays an importantsocialrole inthe Anglo-Saxonworldwhere CHAPTER FOUR sharingjoy facilitates fraternityand friendshipamongthe warriors,aswell astheir THE CONCEPT OF 'JOY' loyaltytotheking. IN MIDDLE ENGLISH

4.1. Introduction: Scope, methods and a general background.

Thischapterdescribes theevolution intheuse ofsevenwordscontinuing from OE and denoting 'joy' and 4 words borrowed from OF with the same denotation. These are bliss, blithe, dream, gladnes, liss, mirth, wynn and cheer, delight, gainess (gay),andjoy. Thedatausedintheanalysis comesfromthreemajorsources: concordances, original texts, and the MED. The list ofconcordances and texts is providedinthebibliography. When discussing collocability ofthese words I have used PDE spellings wheneverpossible. Theoriginal spelling isretained inthelongerquotations. Thenthe sourceisgiveninbrackets. Translations areprovidedonlyforthemostdifficult words andgivenin singlequotationmarks. Words in squarebracketshavebeeninsertedin thequotations to facilitate theircomprehension. As with Chapter Three the analysis consisted oftwo stages: analysis of collocations andanalysis oflongertextparts.Thefirststageallowed usto identify the characteristic syntactic behaviour ofthe words in the semantic field of'joy' and show continuityin the use ofthesewords in OE and ME. Italsodemonstratedthat newwordsentering anexisting field followtheSYntactic behaviour oftheestablished members" . The second stage of analysisenablesus to posit the causesand means of expressionofthe emotionofjoy. Thispart ofthe conceptualstructureof 'joy' is closely related to the social life of the period, its entertainments and hierarchy of values. Itistherefore important todiscuss thosechanges insocialandcultural history mostpertinent tomyresearch. Forexample, withtheimprovement oflivingconditions betweenthe twoperiods,a groupofcloselylinkedwarrior-companions developed

23 Cf. the discussion of Lehrer (1974) in Chapter One. 68 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 69 intoaroyalcourt. Thisnewsocialgroupenjoyeddifferent socialactivities andshared Fornon-religious contexts, a sampleof49 occurrences ofbliss fromGower's differentsocialvalues. Inliterature, the genreoftheepicpoemdevotedmainlytothe Confessio Amantis and Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde, Romaunt ofthe Rose, life ofa brave warriorcameto be replacedby romances aimedat entertainingboth and The Canterbury Taleshas been examined.In most casesbliss inthese contexts men andwomen.Thechangeintopicsdealtwith in literature testifies to a changein is brought about by love between a man and a woman. Surprisingly, the same tastes andvaluesofthe speechcommunity. collocations areusedinthedescription of 'worldlyjoy' asinthedescription ofreligious In early Anglo-Saxonsocietyit was the relationshipbetweenthe leader and experience, for example: live in bliss (2), dwell in bliss (1), send to bliss (1), go his followersthat wasthe focusofsociallife.The leaderwas the providerofpeace into bliss (1), recover bliss (2), bring bliss (4), have bliss (2), perfect bliss (1), andriches, andthe'owner orbuilderofthemeadhall, theplaceforfeasts, thedominant sovereign bliss (1), and even heavenly bliss (4), as in entertainment. Thejoy ofhisretainers dependedontheirrelationship withtheleader. In Anglo-Normanliterature, onthe otherhand,there is a shiftof emphasisfromthe Me thenkth it [the singing ofmy beloved] is a blisse ofhevene (G CA 874); relationship with the leaderto the relationshipbetween a man and a woman. Love and sexual fulfilment become an important source ofjoy. Feasting does remain a and at the reunionoflovers, as in major source ofjoy, but the appearance ofnew entertainments such as games, tournaments, hunting and hawking, contributesto an increasein the number ofits o blisful nyght, ofhem so longe isought, ... lat hem in this hevene blisse dwelle, ... causes. (ChTCIII 1317-1322). Moreover,a lover couldcallhis beloved his bliss, as in 4.2. Analyses ofwords. First he gan hire his righte lady calle, his hertes lif his lust, his sorwes leche, his BLISS blisse, ... (Ch TCll 1065-1067).

A sampleof200 instances, concernedwithreligious experience, werechosen In OE only Christ couldbe calledthe bliss ofhis people. out of574 attested occurrences in Ancrene Wisse, Shorter Poems and Caxton's Prose for an analysisof collocations. The analysisrenderedsimilarresultsto those Although bodilypleasures arecondemned inreligious writings, andthisattitude for OE. Bliss entered adjectival phrases such as heavenly bliss (25), everlasting alsoappearsintheromances, as in The ende ofblisse [oflove]ay sorwe it occupieth; bliss (10), much bliss (2), sweet bliss (3). The EMOTION IS A CONTAINER (Ch TCN 836);the very same bodily pleasure is described as bliss, for example, metaphor underlies verb phrases such as lead to bliss (2), send to bliss (1), take into bliss (2), bring to bliss (18), come to bliss (3), go to bliss (6), abide/dwell in For joye he hente hire in his armes two. His herte bathed in a bath ofblisse. A bliss (5), as well as prepositionalphrases, such as in/into bliss (10). Interestingly, thousand tyme a-newe he gan hire kisse, and she obeyed him in every thyng That this metaphor,andtheUP IS GOODmetaphorrepresentedby suchcollocationsas myghte doon hym plesance or likyng (Ch CTWB 1252-1256) bliss above (4) and up to bliss (1), have become so deeply internalisedin ME that bliss has begun beingused as a synonymforheaven. For example,Fro blis that we and be not exielde (5.199.6 3) (37) and to restore to bliss (2) clearly refer to Adam andEve's banishmentfromheaven. Womman is mannes ioye and al his blis (Ch CTNP B 4356). The JOY IS A COMMODITYmetaphorisrepresentedbyverbphrasessuch Literarycritics suggestthatthe conceptionoftherelationbetweena loverand as have bliss (3), give bliss (3),jind bliss (1), grant bliss (2) and get bliss (2). his adoredladyin courtlylove,asdevelopedby theProvencaltroubadours andlater The OE phrase bliss drihten finds its continuation inKing ofBliss used in taken up by other medieval writers, is based on the relationship between a feudal reference to Christ and God (6) and Queen ofBliss used in referenceto the Virgin follower and his lord.However, althoughthe lady does indeed behave like a lord, Mary (7). puttingherknighttotrials,the languageusedto describe the emotionbetweenthem 70 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 71 isthatofreligious writings. Itseemsthatduringtheperiodinvestigated theconceptof And to the Rose anoon wente I, 'joy' has evolved from the pre-Christian (hypothesised) OE 'joy' ofa feast with And kisside it full feithfully. other warrior-companions, organised by a powerful leader, through Christian OE Thar no man aske if1 was blithe, and ME 'joy ofheaven' offered by Christ, regarded as the king ofkings, to thejoy Whanne the savour soft and lythe [smooth] oftheveryearthlyexperience ofromanticloveandsexualpleasure. The[malstageof Strok to myn herte ... (ChRR B 3759-3763). the development may be eitherconsidered as a semantic weakening ofthe concept of'joy' or an ameliorationofthe conceptofearthlypleasure and,inparticular,love. Blithe appearsin setexpressions alsoin this genre,for instance, bidsomebody An analysis ofexamples quotedintheMED allowsus to identifythe following blithe, Be blithe, Be glad and blithe and Be wroth and blithe. causesofbliss: returninghome, ruling,music, feasting,wedding andbeingwith the Thequotations fromtheMEDsuggestfurther causesofblithe:seeingsomebody beloved, but also a funeral: peer we hit [Severns ' body] sculled bi-burien mid dear, somebody's arrival, children, good news, favours and feasts. Blithe may be muchelere blisse (Lay.Brut. 10437)! This last cause for bliss should be understood expressed by laughter:pay lauged, & made hem blype... (Gawain 1398). The OE in the religious contextofChrist's teaching (especially the Sermon on the Mount), link: between gratitudefor gifts and blithe is retained as indicatedin such examples according towhichdeath isabeginning ofanewlife" . That alsoexplainsthe following as: use: Ofpis tybandis [grant] was he not blithe (Trental St.Greg.(2) 21) and Toba blisse ofmy deth daye... (3.124 63). The yifte [gift] ofal this worldes good Ne scholde have mad hir halfso blythe No wonder that pine blisse ne mei no wiht understonden (1.3 31). (GowerCA 8.929).

BLITHE The factthat blithe is slowlybecominga dead 'joy' word,appearingmostlyin polite expressions, is further supportedby the following use: His barounes bowed Blithe has much fewer occurrences than bliss. Itappears 25 times altogether hym to, blybe ofhis come (Cleannes 1706). in Ancrene Wisse and Shorter Poems and is not attested in Caxton's Prose. In Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, Troilus and Criseyde and Romauntofthe Rose and CHEER in Gower's Confessio Amantis it is attested 21 times. In religioustextsitretainsits0 E meaningof'religious ecstasy', whichcanbe MED givesthe followingsensesofchere" : causedby,forexample, redemption, orapromiseoflifeinheaven. Blithe accompanies singing.Itco-occurs,too,withglad(6)and appearsinthe phrase to make somebody 1. (a) The human face; .., the face or presence ofGod; (b) the face (ofa flower, blithe 'to entertain or please somebody'.It also appears in set phrases, such as be star); surface. blithe and bid somebody blithe. Thesefossilised collocations, togetherwitha general 2. The face as expressing emotion, attitude or character; facial expression, decrease in usage, canbe regarded as an indicationthat a word is becoming rare or mien; (b) maken chere... make faces, grimace. obsolete" and increasinglyappearsonly in traditionallyused set expressions. 3. A gesture or act indicative of an attitude or intention; (b) outward In romancesblithe resultsfrom dancing,singingor a reunionofloversor their appearance or show; display (of emotion); insincere show of affection. caresses as m: 4. The way in which one behaves; manner, bearing, behaviour, or an instance ofit; ... ; polite or courtly manner. 5. (a) Frame ofmind, state offeeling, spirit; mood, humour; ... (b) good cheer or humour; gladness, happiness, joy; ... (c) what chere? how do you feel? 24 The apparent reversal of positive and negative values in Christian ethics is discussed at length by Krzeszowski

(1997: 261-273). 26 Unlike in case of other words, the MED definition has been used to facilitate the analysis, as cheer, in the tll 25 OED indicates that noun blithe is obsolete, and the adjective in the meaning of 'joyous' - rare since the 16 c. sense of 'joy', appears an insignificant number of times in the examined concordances. 72 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' MalgorzataFabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 73

how are you? ... manner, behaviour' (45%); with the sense 'mood' (14%) when it collocates with 6. (a) Kindness, friendliness, sympathy, hospitality (as shown a visitor or change (5), amend (4) and comfort (1); with the sense 'entertain' (5%) and 'joy' friend)... (b) ungodli - - -, unkind reception or treatment (of a visitor). (5%); and with the sense 'hospitality, welcome' (4%). The remaining occurrences 7. (a) maken (sb.) chere, to treat (sb.) kindly or hospitably; welcome; entertain; are ambiguous." also to humour, amuse, or flatter (sb.)... In the sense of'entertainment' it most often appears with the concept of (MED) 'music', i.e.

MED also suggests the source ofthe word: "OF chier, cher(from L carum)". Fore tosyng and mak good chere (5.79A.7 2); The OED entry for cheer'joy, gladness' and the related senses identifies its Streke vp, harper, and make goode chere; (5.419.B.6 2). etymologyin the following way: "ME. chere, a. OF. chiere, chere face (= Pr., Sp., Pg. cara face): late L. cara face, countenance". In the sense of'joy' cheer co-occurs with such words as laughing, kissing andmeny. Both the etymology of the word and the senses suggest an interesting In 72 occurrences in Gower's Confessio Amantis it appears onlytwice with developmentofmeaning, i.e.: the sense of 'joy', collocating once with lose. Out of 49 occurrences in The Canterbury Tales, cheerhas the meaning of'joy' only 3 times, the emotion here face ~ facial expression ~ gesture ~ behaviour ~ state ofmind (emotion) ~ joy resulting from feasting, dancing and a lovers' reunion. In the Romauntofthe Rose face ~ facial expression ~ gesture ~ behaviour ~ hospitality ~ entertain. (22 occurrences), Legend ofGood Women (16) and Troilus and Criseyde (26) Scherer(1994a)Z7 suggests that an emotion term labelling a certain emotion cheer in the sense of'joy' appears three times and collocates withgreat, comfort mayreferto only one ofthe stages ofthe emotional process: stimulus; assessment of and love. the stimulus; physiological reaction; or social display ofreaction. In the case ofcheer, the label for the display ofemotion (facial expression) is first adapted from a general DELIGHT term for face, then develops the meaning 'mood, state ofmind',usuallypositive, and eventually isused to referto thepositiveemotion of'joy'.The development ofmeaning Unlikemost other 'joy' words, delight is rarely" used to denote religion­ toward 'hospitality' and 'entertain' seems to be a parallel development. Itis quite induced emotion. Even in such religious texts asAncreneRiwle, it denotes 'heavenly likely that the relation betweenthese two meanings goes along the lines: 'happyto joy' only 5 out of17 times. Then it collocates with the expected buton ende, waxen see a guest' ('joy')- 'hospitable' ('hospitality') 'willing to share the joywith the and the UP IS GOOD related come up and up toward. 12times it describes earthly guest' ('entertain'). Therefore the most commontriggers ofcheer 'joy' are feasting pleasures, such as blodi delite (in war or murder), delite infleschlische smealles, and social amusements as in: delite in leech erie, delite ofthe stinkinde lust, delit offul[foul] lust. In the meaning of'sexual pleasure' it is in apposition with uuelluue 'evil love'. All ofthese receive bey ete & dranke & made good schere. (Methodius (3) 765) strongly negative colouring by means ofthe metaphorDOWNIS BAD, the opposite and extreme ofthe bipolarvalue axis. This metaphorunderlies the phrasefall to delite. Ofsportis & ofchere, And ofothir myrthis. (Beryn 202). In Chaucer's Boece, delight appears 16 times, only twice in relation to 'heavenlyjoy', when it collocates with sovereign. When delight denotes'earthly InAncrene Wisse and Chaucer's Boece cheer is used 19 times, always with the meaning 'face'. 28 This distribution pattern is typical also of the other analysed texts. 29 This claim has been questioned by Prof. Ruta Naguckain her review of my Ph. D. thesis in the light of the Inthe ShorterPoems, cheer appears 122 times, mainly with the sense 'face, quotations from a 14th c. English mystic Richard Rolle. Having consulted MED which gives 7 examples of the use of delight in a religious sense (3 of which come from Rolle) versus 97 examples in the non-religious sense, and OED which does not mention the religious sense of delight, I still feel the right to claim that delight is

27 Cf. Chapter Two. rarely used in religious context. 74 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 75

pleasures' it is regardedas sinfuland leadingto sorrow, as in resoun refreynetli nat hisfoul delit (Ch CT (I) PS294). In Anglo-Saxon society, 'joy' performed theroleofstrengthening thebondscreatedby oaths andtheexchange But what schallseye ofdelyces ofbody, ofwhiche delyces the desirynges ben ful of ofgifts.Now,it seemsthat there is a discrepancybetween delight and reason, and anguissch, and thefullfillyngnes ofhem benfulofpenance? How grete seknesses and that, instead ofmutual dependence, one controls the other, as in Andthat youre how grete sorwes unsuffrable, ryght as a maner fruyt ofwykkidnesse, ben thilke resoun bridlede youre delit (Ch TC IV 1678). delices wont to beyngen to the bodyes offolk that usen hem (Ch Boece p 7 1-8). Delight most oftenresults from sexual pleasure and is synonymouswith it. For example bodily delight,foul delight (3),jleshly delight (2), vain delight and Inthiscaseitfalls togetherwithsuchotherpleasures asriches, position, power burning delight. Itco-occurswithjoy, gladness and glory, but not with bliss. This and glory. It then co-occurs with myrnesse and is described as desceyvable or andtheevidence fromverbphrases suggests that,although itmaystillberegardedas voluptuous. Delightusually receives negative colouring unlessitresults fromsinging. an emotion,it isverycloseto pleasureandmore generalgoalsatisfaction, which,in In Shorter Poems (12 occurrences) and Caxton's Prose (1 occurrence), strictterms, are causesfor emotion,sensualor other,andnot emotionsas such. delight is not used with such anegative evaluation.Itco-occurswithpleasure and Apart from sexualpleasure,delight may result from a widerange ofvarious joy and is used in such phrases as my heart is set inyour delight, to do something stimuli, suchasthefamiliar acquisition ofgoods,singing, drinking, eating, aswellas in/with delight and to please is my delight. The range of causes for delight is thenewentertainments, forexample, keepinghorses, painting. Finally, power, lying, widenedby love,pleasingothers, drinking andfishing. andbloodshed inwar or murdercouldalso leadto delight. In the romances (Gower's Confessio Amantis and Chaucer's Romaunt of An analysis oftheexamplesintheMED addsonemoresourceofdelight, i.e. the Rose, Troilus and Criseyde) and in The Canterbury Tales delight appears 96 one's children. times in the sense of'joy'. (It also appearsthree times in the RomauntoftheRose inthesense of 'beauty').Although delight appears withthebasiccollocations identified DREAM for the field of 'joy' such as to have delight (15), live in delighr", to befull of delight, it does not seem to enter into all the structures identified for the OE 'joy' OE dream wasretainedin ME. Withthe increaseinthe use ofdream'? in the words. It appears in verb phrases, such as to set chiere 'face' at no delight, to set sense of'avision experiencedin sleep', however, dream in the sense of'joy' has upon delight, to take delight in something, to hasten one s delight, to do becomeratherrare andneitherOED norMED give anyexamplesbeyondtheearly somethingfor delight, to accomplish lust 'will, desire, fancy' in delight, to do 13th c.Dream inthemeaning'music, noise,singing' surviveda centurylonger. something in delight ofone s thought, to perform delight, to fulfil delight, to TheonlyMEexamples ofdream 'joy' suggestthatitcouldresultfromfeasting accomplish delight. These phrases suggest that delight does not arise from an or startingajourney.Forinstance: unexpected event like somebody's return, a visit, or good news, but resultsrather from conscious choicesmade by the experiencer,who can perform actionswhich Heo ceten, heo drunken; drcem wes in burhen (Lay.Brut. 14286); leaddirectlyandimmediately to delight.Thesethenareactionswhichareunlikethe Ankeres heo updrogen, drem wes on uolken; (Lay.Brut. 25540). good behaviour or lifein accordwith God's lawwhich are firstjudged by Godand onlythenrewardedwitheternalbliss,forwhich,however, onemustwaittilltheLast Judgement and afterlife. Hence, delight is extremelyrarelyused inthe meaningof 'heavenlyiov'" , as indicated in our analyses ofthe religious and philosophical treatises.

Despitethis elementof'will' inthe meaningofdelight, it is oftenstressedin 32 BT, OED and MED all insist that there are no examples of dream in this sense in OE. BT and OED quote Kluge's hypothesis according to which dream in the sense of 'a vision in sleep' is derived from Gmc *draumo­ the textsunder analysisthatthe desireto fulfilone's delightis strongerthanreason: 'to lie or deceive'. For the sense of 'joy' both sources give the OE root draum-. MED suggests an ON influence and posits that dream 'vision' is a blend of OE and ON. Both OED and MED stress that despite lack of 30 Unlike live in bliss, which refers to the 'bliss of heaven', live in delight refers to 'love and sexual satisfaction'. evidence, dream in the sense of 'a vision in sleep' must have been present in OE, perhaps restricted to non­ 31 It never co-occurs with bliss, which seems to be primarily related to religious experience. literary register.' 76 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 77

GAlNESSE (GAY) IS A CONTAINER/SPACE metaphor, as in

Inthe concordances which I used as the primary source ofdata the nominal Past all despeyre and owte ofall gladenesse (4.165 4). form:gaines isnot attested, andthe adjectivalfOlmgay hasbeeninvestigated instead. Itappears in Confessio Amantis (5 times), Romauntofthe Rose (10 times), Troilus An analysisofthe Shorter Poems impliesthe following causes of'gladness': and Criseyde (1) and The Canterbury Tales (32 times). Itis predominantly used feasts, drinking, spendingtimewith friends,jesting, singingandmusic,ridinghorses, withreferenceto looksandclothes, where itmeans 'well-dressed,elegant'.Itappears newsora letter, somebody'svisitandhelpingsomebody. Theelementofaninteraction only 9times with'themeaning 'merry, joyous', and occurs in such phrases as lusty between people and the mutual dependence oftheir state is also indicated as in 'merry' andgay, gay and amorous, gay andfull ofgladness,fresh andgay and jollyandgay (4).Thisfeelingmay arisefrom dancingor loveand sexualintercourse. Whan she is mery pan am y gladde (4.171 11). Infact one ofthe senses ofgay is 'lewd, promiscuous', as inButin oure bed he was so fressh andgay (Ch CT WB (D) 508). In Confessio Amantis, The Canterbury Tales, Troilus and Criseyde, The In Caxton's Prose gay is used 4 times, once to describe the looks ofa woman Legend ofGood Women and Romaunt ofthe Rose, 43 occurrences ofgladness and 3 times in reference to rhetorically elegantphrases. andgladschipe and 20 ofgladhave been taken into account. Glad collocated with MED has an entry gaines with the senses cheer (2), eyes (1),jolly (1), light (1), merry (1), andjoyful (2). The element of mutual dependence ofemotions also appears: whan sche gladeth, he is glad(CA (a) frivolity, merriment, pleasure; love ofshow and luxury; 7.1897). Gladness is modified by blissful, light and wonderful, co-occurs with (b) brightness, showiness, beauty of appearance; also elegance of literary style delight (1), mirth (1), joy (2), play (1) and sweetness (1) and contrasts with hevynesse 'sorrow' (1) and bitterness (1). Itresults from meeting somebody dear, which suggestthat the deadjectivalnoun remained very closeto the meaning lovers' reunion, love, music or simply a walk on a nice spring day.Itappears in the ofthe adjective from which it was formed. following verb phrases: bathe in gladness and make somebodygladness (or glad) or do somebodygladness (or glad) which mean 'please' or 'entertain'. Gladness GLADNES (GLADSCHIPE, GLEADUNG, GLAD) may be expressedthroughdancing andjumping:

The twelve occurrences ofglead-nes, -schipe, and -0in Ancrene Wisse Whanne 1 mai hire hand beclippe, With such gladnesse 1 daunce and skippe, Me indicatethat itmaymeanboth 'heavenlyjoy' and 'earthlyjoy': gastelichgleadschipe thenkth 1touche noght thejlor (G CA 4. 2784). vs. gleadschipe ofhis uuelluue or eorolich gleadunge. The 'earthlyjoy' receives a negativecolouringas suggestedin: Gladness may be used as a label for emotion in the strict sense, i.e. as a reaction to a stimulus, present or remembered, but it may also be used to name a oat euch eorolich gleadunge is unwuro her to geine (2 24b 1). state, mood or disposition as in

In the Shorter Poems 121 various nominal and adjectival forms have been A man that is ioyous and glad in herte, it hym conserueth jlorisshynge in his age examined. The adjective glad most often co-occurs with blioe (14), merry (9), (CH CTML (B) 4264). jocund(2),joyjitl (1) andgame 'entertainment,joy' (1). The noun gladness appears together withjoy(5),comfort (3),felicity(2) and contrastswithsorrow and despair. The datainMED give furthercausesofgladness: hunting,the birth of a child, The adjective appearsin a setphrase ofgreetingBe glad! (10).Italso often refers to somebody else's failure,andmartyrdom.They also suggesta possibleexpressionof the looks ofa person andthen collocateswith chere 'face' or eyes (6),in which case the emotion,namelyspeechlessness: itusuallymeans 'bright'. Thenoun appearsinphrasessuggestingtheunderlyingJOY 78 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concent 79

For velY glad he wist not what to saye (Gener. (2) 1255). collocationtypeswhich determinethemetaphoricalstructureofthe conceptof'joy' that we established for OE. The BODY IS A CONTAINER FOR EMOTION The collocationgladsorwe glossed as state ofmixedor conflictingemotions metaphor isrepresentedby a verb phrase befull ofjoy. JOY IS A COMMODITY is indicates that already in the Middle Ages people conceived ofthe possibility of expressed by getjoy, give joy, lose joy, sendjoy to somebody and havejoy (11). experiencing different emotions simultaneously. ThisconceptiscriticisedbyBamberg JOY IS A CONTAINER is illustrated by be injoy (5), live injoy (3) and bring tol (I997b) (for more details see Chapter Two). out ofjoy(2).Theimportance oftheroleof selfis indicatedin suchcollocations aswin joy, to makejoy 'entertain, enjoy' (5) and seekjoy (3). Now it is not only God, or JOY even the beloved raisedto the status of God (lover = my life 'sjoy), but anybodywho may do or make somebodyjoy. The increase in the degree ofcontrol that one has 141 occurrences in Ancrene Wisse, Chaucer's Boece, The ShortPoems and overone's joy isevident. However,the ideaofthe transitoriness of 'earthlyjoys' also Caxton'sProsehavebeenanalysed. Thisanalysis provides aclearpicture ofadichotomy persists, as shown in: joye lasteth little while,joye ofworldly thyng ...shalflee, between'earthlyjoy' (idel ioies) andthatresultingfrom religiousexperience(ioie of worldlyjoye is soon ago I may not alway dure I ne lasteth I shal turn to sorrow. be hali gast,joye ofheaven). The former leads to pain, and it is wykkidmen [who] The non-religioussourcesofjoy are love, kissing and otherbodily pleasures, habounded in joye and gladnesse; (Ch Boece I p 4 307). The transitoriness and talking about the beloved, lovers' reunions, meeting or seeing somebody dear, worthlessness ofearthlyjoyis often stressedas in:pe ioie ofpiswrecchidworldis a generosity, prosperity, receivinggifts, havinga childandanotherperson'smisfortune. schortfeeste (3.13425) and This warldlyloy is onelyfantasy (9.167 1).The latter, Joy may be expressed through laughing, singing, loud behaviour, dancing, religion inducedjoy, isperdurable (1) everlasting (5), withoutend(9), endless (2), jumping, kissing,holdinghands andweeping. perpetual (3), eternal (1) and sweet (3). It co-occurs with bliss (35), mirth (17), The data from MED give three more causes forjoy: hunting, keeping horses gladness (6),plesaunce (4), play (2), glee (2), game (I),felicity (1), delight (1), andpossessingsomethingvaluable, andtwomoremeansofexpressingjoy:throwing sovereign good(1), comfort(8),peace(3),rest (2),health (3),honour(2),prosperity a feast and fainting, the latter usually performed by ladies either successful or (1), glory (2) and victory over enemies (1). It contrasts with pain (6), woe (5), unsuccessful inlove. sorrow (2), hevynesse 'SOlTOW' (1), torment (1). Joy in this meaning appears in the same verb phrases" as bliss: givejoy (1), havejoy (2), grantjoy (3),pay with joy LISSE (1),jindjoy (1), bringjoy to somebody (here joy often stands for good news that Christ was born), be injoy (3), live injoy (1), and befullofjoy (1). In ME lisse is increasinglyused in the sense of'relief' or 'remedy'. The sense 178 occurrences ofjoy in Confessio Amantis, The Canterbury Tales, The of'joy' has become increasinglyrare. According to MED (19 examples), it is used Book ofthe Duchess, Troilus and Criseyde, Legend ofGood Women and The in the following verb phrases: live inion lisse (4), sendlisse to sb, have lisse (3). It Romaunt ofthe Rose have been analysed. Itappears with the following positive co-occurs with related words such as bliss (7), rest (2), joy (2), love (1) and emotions and states: bliss (15), mirth (4), gladness (2),plesaunce (2), playing contrasts with pain and woe. I believe that the link between the two main senses 'entertainment' (1), delight (1),felicity (1), health (2), honour (3), rest (1), quiet goes along the following lines: pain - relief= lack ofpain-comfort, peace -joy. If (1) and contrasts with sorrow (12), woe (8), pain (7), distress (1), harm (1), this hypothesisis correctitwould illustrateone ofthe possible conceptualisations of hevynesse 'SOlTOW' (1),tribulations (1),grief(I). In most casesthe negativefeelings 'joy', i.e. as lack ofsuffering. are aroused by a disappointment in 10Ye, love itselfbeing by far the most com~on OED suggeststhat lisse inthe sense of 'joy' has become obsoleteby lateME. cause ofthe earthlyjoy. As this type ofjoy is brotil 'uncertain' it may become sovereign, endless, eternal [sic!], great, but also dreadful and piteous. MIRTH Joy is a loanword that entered English from OF, but it appears in all those 69 occurrences ofmirth inAncrene Wisse, Boece and Shorter Poems have 33 The relation of verb phrases to the metaphors identified as structuring the concept of 'joy' will be discussed at more length in the analysis of non-religious texts. been analysed. It co-occurs withjoy (17),play (3), glee (2), pleasance (I),game 80 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 81

(1),jollity (1), reverence (1), noblesse (1), goodness (1), comfort (1), bliss (1) Mirth maybe expressedthroughlaughterorby kissing. and contrasts with sorrow (1). Itis used in verb phrases withget,jind, have (3), MED also provides examples that imply that mirth may be used rather like live in (1) and make (14). The excerpt: And bryng vs to hys place where ys bliss in the sense of'heavenlyjoy'. It enters into collocationssuch as hevenriches myrthe andsolas (5.170.10 3) suggests that it might not be possible to treat mirth mirhte, soverain mirthe, bring to mirthelcomen/gon wenden to mirthe.forelesen/ as a synonymofheaven andendowitwith features characteristic of space. Itseems lesen/missen mirthe, in mirthe wunien. Itmay also be used as an epithet for God thathumans haveasignificant degree ofcontrol overmirth asindicated inthefollowing (lhesu, myrth ofherte). quotations: WYNN Andall with myrthe he myngydmy mode (9.97 34); With all the murpespotmon maiMinne (3.9626); Wynn appears 20 times in Ancrene Wisse and the Shorter Poems, and is Wi]: albe murbespatmen vise (3.10114). absent from the works ofChaucer and Gower. It appears in the following verb phrases: give wynne (2), ofearnen 'earn' wynne,forgo wynne (1), gitsen 'covet' Apart from rarely indicated religious experiences, mirth may result from wynne, thinkofwynne (3). It also appears with such prepositions as in (3) and to listening to musicandsinging. It mayalsobe expressedthroughsinging. (2), which are indicative ofthe EMOTION IS A CONTAINERmetaphor.These 19 uses ofmirth in The Canterbury Tales, Troilus and Criseyde and The collocationssuggestthatthe experiencerofVtrynn is largelypassive,and thatWynn LegendofGood Women have been examined.Itco-occurswithgladness,jolities, awakenedbyreligious experience ismoreofa statethanemotioninitsstrictsense" . play, revelery, comfort, lustygame 'merrygameortheatrical performance'. It appears The absenceofVtrynn fromthe works ofChaucerand Gowerimpliesthat by inthefollowingverbphrases: speak/tell/talk(oj) mirth'entertain, tellfunnystories', late ME the word became obsolete. live in mirth, do mirth to somebody and to have mirth. The most common causeof mirth isa sexualintercourse - make mirth may actuallymeantohavesex.Mirth may 4.3. The evolution of the semantic field of 'joy' in ME. alsoresultfromaninteraction withotherpeople, entertainments andfeasts. MED providesexamples ofanumberofentertainments causingmirth, andof The studyofthesemanticfieldof'joy' in OE identified thecoreofthefieldas mirthbeingregardedasanunspecified entertainment, mostcloselyrelatedto music: consisting ofeight words: bliss, blithe, dream, gefea, gladness, lisse, mirth and wynne. There were two criteria ofmembership. The first was the frequency of Alle manerofmerth andmynstralcy (Mandev.(4) 2713); occurrence, whicheliminated suchwordsas eadwela, estnes,fcegennes, gefeannes, bei take heede to noon opirpingpan to mirpis and games. (Orch.Syon. 292/35); gefeohtsumnes, gliwstcef hyhtwynn, reotu and gescelignes since they were either be lykynge mirbe ofknigthode pat is in lepyng, in rennyng, in rydinge .. ~ moste ben not attestedorinfrequent intheMCOE. Thesecondcriterion wascommonsyntactic vsed and assayed bifore in goupe, or in pe body be made sleupful. (AwntyrsArth. behaviour. This allowed us to posit the structure ofthe concept of'joy' and the 181); metaphors governing this structure. Two major and two minor metaphors were Lordes... Gentilmen... and other Comyners have used the occupation ofshotyngfor identified. The JOY IS A CONTAINER/SPACEand JOY IS A COMMODITY their myrthes andsportes. (RParl. 6.156a). metaphorsareresponsibleforthe bulk ofpatternsinwhichthe 'joy' words appear. Thetwo remaining metaphors wereBODY IS A CONTAINER FOREMOTIONS Mirthmay alsoresultfromthebeautyofnature,especially whenrelatedtothe and UP IS GOOD. concept ofthe land ofplenty, as in Themembership ofthefieldof 'joy' hasundergone significant changes bythe ME period. Gefea became rare in late OE and is not attested in ME sources. The Medewesper weoren brade ... per wes fisc, per wes fugel, andfieiernesse inoge. per remaining sevenOEwords areretained inME.However, fourofthemhaveundergone wes wude and wilde deor. wunder ane monie. per wes al ba murhoebe ceimon mihte ofpenche Brut 24269). (Lay. 34 Cf. OE gladness. 82 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 83 a considerable decrease in use. These are blithe, dream, lisse, and wynne. Blithe, cannot be reconciled with the spiritual experiences offered by religion. Moreover, although its form has survived till today, is marked as poetic. In ME, it remains delight rarely enters into the collocations characteristic ofthe field of'joy'. These relatively popular in comparison to the other declining words, but it still seems to two factors - rare use in reference to religious experience and rare occurrences in have become rather rare. Set phrases and fossilised expressions characteristic ofthe syntactic structures common to the other 'j oy' words - places delight outside the decline in creative use, constitute a considerable part ofthe data for blithe. Dream in core ofthe field. the sense of'joy' is used only in early ME and becomes extinct by the 13th c. This Gay and the deadjectival noun formed from it have two senses 'joy' and loss can be explained by the increase in the use ofdream in the sense of'avision 'good looks' (cf. OE glad and its meaning of 'bright', and OE dream and its seen in sleep' and ascribed to ON influence on English. Lissehas undergone a change sense of 'music'). It seems likely that the following link obtains between the 35 similar to that ofdream, in that one ofits senses gets intensified, while the other is two senses: rich -7 good 100king , well-dressed; rich and good-looking -7 gradually lost. The surviving sense oflisse is the one of'relief, remedy'; while the happy. sense of'joy' becomes extinctby late ME. Wynn undergoes a complete loss, so that Joy seems to be the only loanword which has been fully assimilated into eventhe form does not survive till present day. English already in the ME times and which therefore displays all the characteristic Newwords have also beenadded to the field, mainly from OF. Fourofthem, syntactic behaviour ofthe core words in the 'joy' field. Its collocations support all cheer, delight, gainess andjoyhave been investigated in this chapter. Others, such the metaphors posited for the structure ofthe concept. Unlike cheer, delight and as, for example, hilarity are not attested in sufficient numbers to be considered gay, it is as often used in relation to 'heavenlyjoy' as to 'earthlyjoy'. It is also commonin ME. Words such as game and play, although sometimes used to denote distinct from cheer and gay in that all its senses are related to 'joy' and it is not the emotion of'joy', mostoften refer to entertainment, i.e. a stimulus for emotionand used in othermeanings. not the emotion itself. In fact, cheer, delight andgainess can also be regarded as An analysis ofthe wider contexts in which the 'joy' words appear enables us similarborder cases, since their main ME senses are not 'emotion ofjoy', but the to positthe causes and means ofexpressingjoy. The relationship betweenthe causes related 'expressionofthe emotion'; 'pleasure' i.e. a cause ofemotion; and 'elegance, and the terms denoting them are presented in a table, similar to that in Chapter good looks'. Nevertheless, they have beenincluded in the sample analysed, as the Three. As dream, lisse and wynn are in decline they are not included in Table 4.1. sense of'joy' becomes predominant later. They also allow us to observe certain The drastic decrease in the number ofcauses with whichthese three words appear is interesting meaning developments typical of words denoting 'joy'. Cheer, not due to a shift oftheir meaning, but a complete loss ofthe sense of'joy' in the etymologically related to OF cara 'face', is borrowed into ME withthe sense 'face' meaning ofdream and lisse, and a loss ofthe lexical item vtynne. and 'facial expression'. This meaning is later generalisedto refer to other means of expression, such as gesture, behaviourand manner. As expression, facial or otherwise, Table 4.1. Cause-emotionrelationship in Middle English. is related to the state ofmind or the experienced emotion, the meaning ofthe word becomes extended to 'mood' and 'feeling'. Eventually it narrows down to 'joy'. No. CAUSE ME 'JOY' WORD (This picture ofthe development ofthe meaning ofcheer has, ofcourse, been somewhat simplified in order to facilitate the development ofhypotheses concerning 1. religious experience bliss, blithe, gladness, joy, mirth the sources of emotion words. The fact is that all the senses of cheer exist 2. martyrdom, death, funeral bliss simultaneouslyin ME usage.) 3. having a child joy The main meaning ofdelight is that of'pleasure'. Whether 'pleasure' is an emotion, as suggested by the MED gloss for delight, or a cause for emotion, is 4. children blithe difficult to ascertain. However, delight appears only extremely rarely in relation to 5. wedding bliss religious experience. This seems to result from the fact that the meaning ofdelight, in most ofits non-religious uses, is that of'bodily pleasure' or 'sensuous pleasure'. 35 The "General Prologue" to The Canterbury Tales proves that the looks and a persons social status are Because ofthe body-soul dichotomy introduced by the medieval church, this meaning closely related and transparent. The hypothesised link between high economic status and lack of worries, as well as the wider range of entertainments available, seems equally plausible. 84 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 85

6. seeingsomebodydear blithe,joy The causes of 'joy' presentedin Table4.1. may be dividedinto severaltypes: 7. somebody'sarrival blithe 8. somebody'svisit gladness TYPE 1:religiousexperiences(No. 1-2); TYPE 2: familylife(No. 3-5; 10); 9. meetingsomebodydear joy TYPE 3:interaction with othermembersofthe community(No.6-9); 10. returning home bliss TYPE 4: news (No. 11); II. good news or a letter blithe, gladness TYPE 5: ruling andpower (No. 12); 12. ruling, power bliss, delight TYPE 6: exchangeof gifts (No. 13-16); 13. receiving favours, gifts blithe, joy TYPE 7: entertainments (No. 17-27); 14. acquisition TYPE 8: romanticlove (No. 28-30); and possession ofgoods delight, joy TYPE 9: deedsof definitelynegativevalue (No.31-33). 15. helping somebody gladness Types 1-4 and 6-7 were represented already in OE. Types 1-4 and 6 have 16. generosity joy undergonelittleorno change. Type7,however, developed dramatically. Thesimple 17. entertainments (unspecified) mirth joysofeating, drinking andlistening tosinging inthesafety andwarmthofthemeadhall 18. feasting (drinking, eating) bliss, blithe, cheer, gladness, mirth havebeen supplantedby elaboratesocialactivities, suchasdancing; sports, suchas 19. spending timewithfriends gladness riding horses; and arts,such aspainting.This developmentis dueto changesin the 20. jesting gladness socialstructurebrieflyindicatedin the introduction tothischapter. 2I. mUSIC, smgmg bliss, delight, mirth Type5- rulingandpower,seemto be entirelynew causesfor 'joy'.Perhaps anAnglo-Saxon rulerfeltmoreresponsibility forhiscloselyrelatedkinandretainers 22. dancing cheer, gainess than a kingwho doesnotknow allhis subjectspersonally. Dangerspresentedinthe 23. keepinghorses delight, joy Germanicpoemsmayhaveappearedmorerealandimmediateandhencetherewas 24. ridinghorses gladness lessroomforenjoying power. However, amoreplausibleexplanation mightbe that, 25. hunting joy althoughthephenomenon oftheenjoyment ofpowerwasverywellknownallalong, 26. painting delight the attitudeto itchangedandcriticalcomments werevoicedonlylater, thatmeansin 27. admiring thebeauty the ME treaties devoted to abuses ofpower. ofnature; walking mirth, gladness Type8- romanticlove,is a completelynew sourceof'joy'. In Anglo-Saxon society love wasprimarilya bond, or an emotionofrespect andutter loyaltyto the 28. love joy leader,hencethe descriptionofHrothgaras leofe cyning. Ofcourse,we'cannotsay 29. talkingaboutthebeloved joy thatlovebetween menandwomen" didnot existat all,andthatit suddenlyappeared 30. lovers'reunion cheer,joy as a result ofthe Troubadour culture ofSouthern France, but we can state that 31. bodilypleasure(kisses, romantic lovewasatleastnotatopicofliterary works. Religious writing concentrated caresses,sexualintercourse) bliss, delight, gainess (gay),joy, mirth on the love ofGod andon morality;poems writtenfor entertainmentwere devoted 32. somebodyelse'smisfortune joy, gladness to heroicwarriorsdistinguishing themselvesin superhumanfightswithhumanand 33. lying delight supernatural enemies. Romanticlovehadno placein either. Onlywhena significant 34. spillingblood(murderorwar) delight 36 Krygier (personal communication), however, suggests that it is very likely that romantic love as a literary topic existed, but the writings did not survive. He stresses that there exist explicitly sexual lewd OE riddles. I am not sure, though, if they can be regarded as evidence for romantic love. 86 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 87 numberofrelativelyidlehigher-class women awaitingthe returnoftheirhusbands gifts type of cause, but this type was already known in OE. Gladness seems to be from wars and crusades developed as a group in need ofentertainment did the the most flexible,being applied to new entertainments, as well as developingthe theme ofromanticloveappearin literatureto meet the tasteofthenew audience. religion-relatedsense absentfrom OE data.The use of mirth in the religioussense Type9, liketype 5, seemsabsent from the OE data.The explanationfor this decreases (see the analyses ofthe word for OE and ME), and it is now applied to may run alongsimilarlines,that is religious andphilosophicaltreatisesofthe later the 'new' causeofsensualand sexualpleasure(see alsothe relationofOE mirth to time dealtwiththeissuein greaterdetail. tactile experience).The most unexpected developmentis that ofthe word bliss. It remainsattheverytop oftheUP-DOWN,POSITIVE-NEGATIVEhierarchy37 , as Grouping thewordsaccording totypeofstimulus for 'joy' givesaninteresting themostprototypical wordfor 'heavenlyjoy'. However, itsimultaneously comesto patternofmutualdependencies betweenthem. be used in connection with sexual pleasure" and power, both ofwhich arouse Type l v-rcligious: bliss, blithe,gladness,joy, mirth. It is surprisingthat the negativelycolouredemotionssuchasthe lowestinthe hierarchy, delight. word gladness, which in OE is the only word not used for religion-related 'joy', Thenewmembers ofthefield arepredominantly restricted tothenewconcepts, developeda senseitdid nothave formerly. such as power (delight), new entertainments (cheer, delight, gainess, andjoy), Type2-familylife:bliss, blithe,joy. and romantic love (cheer, delight, gainess,joy). In fact cheer is limited to three Type 3- interaction withtheothermembers ofthecommunity: blithe,gladness, causes: feasting, dancing, andlover'sreunion; andgainess totwo:dancing andsexual joy. In OEthereis alsoevidenceofbliss beingused inthisgroup. Gladness wasnot. intercourse. Delight isrelatively moreversatile andisusedwithasmanyassixcauses. Type4 - good news: blithe, gladness. Precisely as in OE. However,itoften seemsto carrynegativeconnotations. Joy is the most commonly Type 5 power - bliss, delight. used, not only among the loanwords,but in the whole semantic field in general.It Type 6 exchange ofgifts: blithe,joy, delight, gladness. Gladness, but not appears with as many as 13 causes, compared to 8 for bliss and gladness, 7 for blithe, was used withthistriggerin OE. blithe and 4 for mirth. Type7- entertainments: bliss, blithe, cheer, delight, gainess, gladness,joy, mirth. Althoughallthewordsdiscussedappearinthistype,a closerexaminationof The means ofexpressingthe emotion ofjoy have also become more varied particularvarieties ofentertainment revealsamorecomplicated pattern. Bliss, blithe andincluded: laughing, kissingandholdinghands(alreadyfoundin OE),aswell as and mirth occuronlywithfeastandmusic,whichwere alreadyknownin OE.From singing, dancing,jumping, loudbehaviour, speechlessness, weepingandfainting. therepertoire ofOE wordsonlygladnesswasflexible enoughtobeusedinconnection withnewtypesofentertainment. Whetherthisislinkedtothefactthatitdidnothave a religious meaning in OE is difficult to establish. Most ofthe new varieties of entertainment appear with the OF loanwords. Toclaim that new social activities calledfornewwordstodescribe newemotions theyarousewouldbeanunfalsifiable, buttempting, hypothesis. Type8-romantic love:bliss, cheer, delight, gainess.joy, mirth. As was the casewithtype 7,thenewlyintroducedconceptis most oftendescribedby meansof the new loanwords. Type9- deedsofdefmitelynegativevalue:delight, gladness andjoy. It must be stressedthat it is delight which is used with the most negativeconcepts. '

Generally, it seemsthatthe words continuingfrom OEretainedmost oftheir characteristic causes. Blith isthemoststableofthemall,whichmaybe relatedtothe 37 The hierarchy coincides to a large degree with the vertical placement of the causes in Table 4.1. factthatitwasdeclining increative use.UnlikeinOE,itappears inthe exchange-of- 38 Cf. footnote lOin Chapter Three. 88 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 89

Table 5.1. The specification ofthe scenario for 'joy'

CAUSE -7 EMOTION -7 REACTION

religious beliefs prototypical label: bliss, OE: verbal expression other labels: OE: blioe, or singing; ME: singing CONCLUSIONS dream, gefea, liss, mirho, wynnsumnes; 1. The present analysis ofthe semantic field of 'joy' in OE and ME has ME: blioe, gladness, suggested certain methodological implications for lexical semantics. First, it joy, mirth supportedLehrer's (1974) claimthatnewmembers ofa semantic field will assume the syntactic behaviourofthe core members. Secondly, it showedhow collocational familylife OE: blioe(prototypical), not specified analysis allows us to construct the basic metaphors structuring a concept. These also gefea; ME - a variety metaphors canunderlie not only idiomatic expressions and metonymies, but also collocations, which do not qualify even as deadmetaphors. This is particularlytrue ofwords: bliss, blioe.joy ofverb phrases, which seem to be the mosttelling evidence for metaphors. Using verb phrases as data for identifying conceptual metaphors is a development of interaction OE: blioe(prototypical), OE: kissing, embracing; Lakoffand Kovacses' (1987) method, which concentrated on the analysis of with others also bliss, gefea; ME loudbehaviour, idiomatic expressions only. ME: blioe, gladness,joy

2. At a more theoretical level, my work shows how Jackendoff's conceptual entertainment" OE: bliss, blioe, dream, ME: laughter semantics can be supplementedbythe cognitive approach advocatedbythe Berkeley school ofsemantics. Jackendoff(1990, 1994) introducedthe suggestion that there gefea, glcednes, mirho, exist intermodule links between conceptual structures and the motor and perception wynsumnes; ME: bliss, modules ofthe human mind. He therefore posited the existence ofa 3D model of blithe, cheer, delight, objects for lexical entries for nouns, and action scenarios for verbs. gainess, gladness,joy, I suggestthat lexical entries for emotionwords, regardless oftheir grammatical mirth category, consist ofscenarios which present a generalised (prototypical) picture of the cause-emotion-reaction chain. I believe that there is a single representation for all romantic love ME: the 'joy' words, as suggestedin Chapter Three. At the level ofactualisation ofcauses; bliss, cheer, delight, jumping, dancing, singing, emotions andreactions, however, there maybe alternative links, as will be shown gainess,joy, mirth speechlessness, kissing, below. Different lexical items might focus on different stages ofthe scenario or weeping, fainting represent various combinations of elements, but they all refer to the same representation. As my research indicates, the scenario could be specified in the followingway: 39 Although many entertainments do consist of interaction with others, in the technical sense used here the difference between the 'interaction-with-others' group and the 'entertainment' group lies in the fact that entertainments are usually planned activities, whereas interaction with others, as understood here, bears the element of unexpected. 90 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 91

scenario. First, a regroupingofthe causes for 'joy' seems necessary. Then feeling news OE: blioe, glad; not specified andreactioncanbe moreappropriately distributedovercategories. The seventypes ofcauses of'joy' can be regrouped into three new categories: ME: blithe, gladness Category1:religious beliefs; rulingandpower ME: bliss, delight not specified Category2: sociallife: interaction withothers,romanticlove,entertaimnent; Category3, which is actuallynot a coherent category. It rather groupsallthe exchangeofgifts OE: gefea, glad, not specified othertypes ofcauses,forwhichwe do not have any dataon reactioni.e.familylife, gladness, liss; news, exchangeofgifts,rulingandpower,and deedsofnegativevalue. ME: blithe, delight, The causes of 'joy' in Category 1 result in a powerful, often long-lasting joy, gladness (collocationswith much andswioe and the'everlasting' group),andquietemotion which might be metaphoricallyperceivedas a warm and safeplaceto enter. Such a deedsofdefinitely ME:joy, gladness, not specified representationofthe feelingimpliesthat it isvery closeto stateratherthan emotion negative value delight proper.This type of'joy' canbe expressedeitherverbally or by singing. 'Joy' resultingfromtheCategory2 stimuliis a positive,higharousalemotion whichprovokes theexperiencerto averylively expression ofemotion, suchasjumping, 3. What is missing from this scenario is the description (folk theory) ofthe dancingandloudbehaviour. emotionitself,i.e. a descriptionofwhat it actuallyis liketo feel bliss, blithe or 'joy' in general. Thereisno straightforward answerto this question, but itmaybe inferred 4. This study also shows how an analysis ofa somewhat neglected field of fromthe metaphors structuring the conceptof 'joy',from otherconceptswithwhich 'joy' inOE andMEhelpsusto drawamoredetailedpictureofsociallifeinmedieval 'joy' co-occurs, froman emotionaldisplayfollowing the experience of emotion, and England.On the one hand,the identificationofthe stimulifor 'joy' givesan idea of from the role ofexperienceras impliedby the verb phrases. what the most popular entertainments were in 0 E and how this part ofsocial life The metaphors: JOY IS A CONTAINER and BODY IS A CONTAINER developed in ME times. On the otherhand, the discovery ofmetaphors governing 40 FOREMOTION , as indicatedby the particularcollocations discussedin Chapters the conceptualisationof'joy' providesan insightintothe hierarchyofvaluesofthe ThreeandFour, resultinapicture of 'joy' whichisunderstood asapeaceful experience society. The JOY IS A CONTAINER metaphor stresses the need for safety and ofcomfort,rest and satisfaction. This is alsosupportedby the co-occurenceof 'joy' closerelationship withothermembers ofthegroup" . The JOY IS A COMMODITY withpeace, rest andsleep. In this casetherole ofthe experienceris eitherpassiveor metaphoremphasisesthatexchangeisthebasic conceptintermsofwhichallsocial underspecified. relations, includingemotional links, areunderstood. An analysis oftheexpression-of-the-emotion (reaction) elementofthescenario can also contribute to the description of the actual feeling. Reactions such as 5. The present work has also suggested word histories ofmood, cheer and speechlessness support the previous findings, according to which 'joy' is a quiet gay. The OE modmeant 'heart, mind, thought, feeling'. This polysemy has been emotion. Othertypesofreaction,suchaslaughing, singing,loudbehaviour, dancing explainedasthedevelopment ofthemoreabstractmeaningof ,thought' and 'feeling' andjumping suggest that the experiencer is very active. The experienced feeling fromthe lessabstract'mind' and 'heart'. It is alsohypothesisedthatthemeaning of shouldthereforebe classifiedas a positive,high arousalemotion. OEmodig 'courageous, proud' underwenta deterioration ofmeaningtoPDEmoody This contradiction suggests some necessary modifications ofthe original 'indulginginmoodsofbadtemper, depression'as aresultofthe dichotomy between

40 This claim is true only for 'joy'. The metonymies for 'anger' resulting from the BODY IS A CONTAINER 41 In this case the meadhalI, standing for the metaphoric container, is often juxtaposed with hostile nature FOR EMOTIONS metaphor are entirely different, as shown in Chapter 2. outside. 92 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 93 body (heart) and soul (mind)introducedby Christianity. Cheer andgay arewords socially accepted values. Thismayeithermeanthateventhecautious claimbyScherer whichdevelopthemeaningof 'joy' from 'face,facial expression' and 'looks'. These cannotbe fullydefended, or,more likely, thatthe levelofgeneralisation assumedin words, therefore,addto thepossible sourcesofemotionwords those wordswhich my studywas not abstractenoughto supporthis theory. label the expression associated with the emotion (cheer) or evidence for the These facts suggest the answer to the question as to whether emotions are accessibilityofsourcesof 'joy' (gay). universal orculture specific depends largely onthedegree ofgeneralisation (cf Averill 1994aandb).At acertain leveltheyundeniably areuniversal. Itisdoubtful, however, 6. Bliss alsounderwentan interestingdevelopmentofmeaning.Originally a whether suchalevel ofgeneralisationwouldallowustoconduct anyinsightful research word used prototypically ofreligious experience and occupying the top ofthe intothenatureofemotions, unlesstheidentification ofthemostgeneral coreofbasic evaluationaxis,inMEithasbeenappliedtothenew sourceof'joy' thatis 'romantic emotionswould enableus to assumethat allotherfeaturesare culture-specific and love'. Thisisrathersurprising asthis 'romanticlove' is alsoassociated withdelight, couldtherefore berestructured iftheyresulted inundesirable effects, suchastraumas whichoccupiesthe lowestlevelofthe evaluation axis. and depressions.

7. Thepresentsemantic studyof'joy' in OE andME canalsoshedsomelight 8. The social constructionist approachto emotions (Bodor 1997,Bamberg onissues raised inotherdisciplines researching emotions. Onesuchissueisthequestion 1997b),claimingthatemotionalexpressionis ameans of communicationaimedat ofuniversality vs. culture-specificity ofemotion. Ekman (1994: 117),who is a securing an audience's co-operation, is confirmed by the results ofmy research proponentofuniversality, wrote:"For happiness" we suggested four antecedents: concerningtheOEperiod. There,theexchangeofgiftsandthejoy displayedonthe sensorypleasure; excitement; praise; reliefwhensomething unpleasanthasceased". occasionperformedthe importantsocialfunctionofcreatingand/orstrengthening Two ofthe antecedents of'joy',claimedby Ekman to be universal, i.e. sensory thebondbetweentheleader ofthegroup andhisretainers. 'Joy' inthesecircumstances pleasure and relief (see in particularthe analysisoflisse in ChapterFour) are very was somethingtangible, anintegralpartofsocialcustom" . well represented in both OE and ME data. The sensory pleasure antecedentstake the form ofeating, drinking, sexual intercourse, nice smells, views and tactile 9. The socialrole of emotionsis alsostressedby the resultsofthe analysisof experiences, music,warmthandlight. Thewholeideaof 'heavenlybliss' isbasedon the 'joy' words in OE. Thesewords fallintothree groups:religion-relatedjoy,joy relieffromsuffering, hungerandotherearthly hardships. Ifwereinterpret givinggifts important forbuilding andsustaining socialrelations, andjoy arising fromperception­ asa formofpraise,thenthereis evidenceforthisantecedent aswell.However, such relatedpleasure.The secondgroupisparticularlyimportant, as it showstheroleof aninterpretation, itseems tome,isnotveryconvincing. Itisalsodifficult tosubstantiate 'joy' insociallife. the hypothesisthat excitementis a sourceof,joy'.I wouldbe inclinedto claimthat excitementmightbe areactionto a cause,ratherthana causein itself. In fact,itmay 10.Myresearchhas,moreover, contributedto the discussionofthe structure resultfroma widerangeof specificcausessuchasseeingthebeloved,ridinghorses ofthe concept ofemotions. Psychologists (Izard 1972, Fehr and Russel 1984) andbeingtorturedonbehalfofthetruefaith. Therefore itdoesnotseemtobe avalid working on this issuehave suggested that it is structured along three dimensions: label for a type of cause at all. degree ofarousal, degree ofsubmissiveness, and a positive-negative axis.As for Scherer(1994b: 175)claimsthat emotionantecedents maybe bothuniversal, degree ofarousal, 'joy' does not seem to be a coherent concept. I have already intheirstructure, andculture-specific, whenitcomestoparticular instantiations. This indicated above, inthediscussion concerning theactualemotional experience feltby viewfinds partial support inmystudy. Sixtypesofcauses for'joy' havebeenidentified the subject ofthe emotion, that it may vary significantly and ranges from quiet both in OE andME data.Theydifferonlyinthe specificformstheymighttake,and contemplation to a considerable motoractivity. Degreeofarousal, therefore, cannot these mirror the values adhered to in the two periods, However, in ME three new beregarded asadetermining factor for'joy' ingeneral. An attempt toarrange particular types have been discoveredwhichresult from changesin cultureand the systemof labelsfor 'joy' alongthisaxisis alsodoomedtofailure, becausethereisno evidence

42 I assume that Ekman's 'happiness' can be equated with our 'joy', as the two terms are often used interchangeably in psychological literature. 43 Cf. Gillis' (1988) results on love. 94 Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak - The concept of 'joy' 95

aboutbehaviouraldisplayformost ofthese words (cf. ChaptersThree and Four). degreeofsubmissiveness axiswe cannoticethatthe Churchfostered ratherpassive The degreeof submissiveness criterionwhen appliedto my data givesmore contemplation anddiscouraged activefulfilment ofthenaturalhumandesires. interestingresults.It canbe translatedinto linguisticterms as the degreeof control enjoyedby the experiencerof the emotion.It seemsthat onlythe extremevaluesof 11. Socialhistorians studying emotions emphasise thelinkbetweenmoraland this axis can be labelled. Bliss, as a prototypical name for religion-related 'joy', culturalstandardsadheredto at a giventime andthe conceptualisation ofemotions. marksthehighestdegreeof submissiveness, anddelight marksthehighestdegreeof My research,as showninthe conclusions to ChaptersThree andFour,supportsthe control". Thepositionof theremaining 'joy' wordsis difficult to establish withany hypothesis thatemotions areintricately interwoven withthesocial structure andvalues degreeofcertainty. Evensecondaryevidence,i.e.whethera particularword occurs ofa given community, andreflecttheirunderstandingof the outsideworld. Witha in apposition withbliss ordelight, isoflittlevalue,asmostofthemappearwithboth. changein socialstructure, culturalinterests andeverydayactivities betweenthe OE Thecriterion ofsubmissiveness allows us toemphasise a changeintheconcept andME periods, theconceptualisation of 'joy' alsounderwentchanges. Thenumber of 'joy' between the OE and ME periods. OE evidence on verb phrases ofentertainments resulting in 'joy' increased, andnew causes, suchasromantic love, predominantly concerned'heavenlyjoy', theexperiencerofwhichremainedrather ruling, and somebody else's failure were introduced. The degree ofcontrol an passiveand was describedmainlyas a recipientof'joy' or a person ledto, livingin experiencerhad over 'joy' alsoincreased. or,atmost,earningjoythroughgoodconduct. In thisperiodall 'joy' words,withthe exception ofgladness in the case ofwhich there were little or no data from verb phrases, entered these and similar collocations.In ME bliss, blithe,joy and mirth appearin the patternsidentifiedin OE.At the sametime blithe, mirth andgladness collocated with make and do, and delight with a significant number ofverbs not attestedin connectionwith 'joy' wordsin OE,suchas,for exampleaccomplish and perform'? . These verbs suggest a greater degree of control on the part of the experiencer. Wecouldthereforepositthat accordingto the availabledatatherewas a shift in the degreeofsubmissivenessof'joy' towards a greaterdegreeofcontrol between OE and ME periods. Wemust remember, however, that historical data, and OE datainparticular, arefarfromexhaustive. Consequently, itmaybe thecase that OE 'joy' words displayedsimilar patternsto those ofME, i.e. an experiencer had lesscontrolover 'heavenlyjoy' andmore controlover 'earthlyjoy'. Ifthiswere the case, then we would be dealing here with synchronic rather than diachronic variation. As far as thepositive-negative axisis concerned,'joy' is definitelya positive emotion. Theintroduction ofChristianvalues, however, created ahigherorderhierarchy which reversesthe valuesofthe lower order,placing sufferingand death for faith, very much againstnaturalinstinctsofself-preservation, at the top ofthe hierarchy. 'Earthlyjoys', on theotherhand, are assignednegativemoralvalue.In thisprocess 'joy' wordsdevelopaninternalpositive-negative evaluationscale,with bliss atthe top and delight at the very bottom ofthe scale. Ifwe compare this scale with the

44 This hypothesis is based purely on an analysis of collocations, in particular verb phrases. Native speaker intuitions could not be consulted. 45 For more data see Chapter Four. 96 MalgorzataFabiszak - The concept of 'joy' Malgorzata Fabiszak The concept of 'joy' 97

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