GOVERNING SYSTEM OF THE YIMCHUNGER NAGAS THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE NAGALAND UNIVERSITY IN FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY BY FRANCIS SEBASTIAN Ph.D. Regd. No.448/2012 UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF DR. TEMJENSOSANG DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES NAGALAND UNIVERSITY H.Q. LUMAMI 2015 CERTIFICATE This is to certify that this Ph.D thesis entitled, “Governing System of the Yimchunger Nagas” is an authentic and original work carried out by Mr. Francis Sebastian, Regd. No 448/2012, Date of Regd. 11th Nov 2009, based on his field study conducted under my supervision. This thesis fulfils all the norms of Ph.D Thesis under the rules and regulations of Nagaland University. To the best of my knowledge, the thesis has not been submitted to any University or educational institute for award of any degree or diploma. This may be placed before the examiners for evaluation. Dated: (DR. TEMJENSOSANG) Place: Supervisor DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES NAGALAND UNIVERSITY H.Q. LUMAMI Declaration of Candidate I hereby declare that the Thesis entitled, “Governing System of The Yimchunger Nagas,” is my original work, the contents of which have not been the basis of the award of any previous degree to me or to anybody else, to the best of my knowledge. This thesis has not been published or submitted by me to any other University for any other purpose. This Thesis is submitted for the award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Sociology, Nagaland University. Francis Sebastian Dr. Toshimenla Jamir Dr.Temjensosang Head of the Department Supervisor ACKNOWLEDGEMENT At the submission of my Thesis titled, ‘Governing System of the Yimchunger Nagas,’ I hold my hands in gratitude and honour to those who have been part of my endeavour to accomplish this special task. Godly wisdom and divine guidance have been my strength ever through. O God, I thank thee for the miles I have tread, scholars who guided me, books I have read, people I have met, knowledge I have gained and the pages I have scribed. I acknowledge and appreciate Dr.Temjensosang, Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, my Guide and Supervisor, for his utmost dedication, academic efficiency and brotherly concern. Thanks to Prof. P.K. Deka, Dean of Social Sciences, Prof. Rajendra Singh, HOD, and Dr.Toshimenla Jamir, the former HOD. I thankfully recall the Faculty Members, Staff Members and my colleagues who have been instrumental in my accomplishment. My arena of study covered many people and places. It was made possible with the untiring efforts of Rev. Fr. Kokto Kurian Yimchunger and Mr.Chimjiba Martin Yimchunger, contributing their time, energy and knowledge. Elders, leaders, youths, students and many others joyfully joined and made themselves available for responding to my questionnaire, interviews and other forms of data collection. I convey my thanks to Most. Rev. Jose Mukala & Most Rev. James Thoppil (Bishops of Nagaland) and other Missionary Priests of the Catholic Church, who anointed and facilitated my study in various ways. I place on record the encouragement and support received from St.Francis Community, Shamator and Queen Mary Parish, Mokokchung. I humbly acknowledge that my study was made possible by the resources made available in N.U. Library, Lumami, G.S.S. Library, Dimapur, St. Joseph College Library, Jakhama and NESRC Library, Guwahati. The evergreen love and care of my parents, friends and dear ones contributed beyond measure in the past five-year long studious effort. I gratefully cherish it forever. Francis Sebastian TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i TABLE OF CONTENTS ii LIST OF TABLES viii LIST OF FIGURES ix ABBREVIATIONS x GLOSSARY xi MAPS xiii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 01 - 37 1. 1 Conceptual Framework 02 1. 2 Statement of the Problem 06 1. 3 Review of Literature 09 1. 4 Objectives of Study 32 1. 5 Scope of the Study 33 1. 6 Hypothesis 34 1. 7 Area of Study 34 1. 8 Methodology 36 CHAPTER 2 SOCIO-HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE YIMCHUNGER NAGAS 38-63 2.1 The Term ‘Naga’ 40 2.2 Origin and Migration of Yimchunger Nagas 45 2.3 Founding of Yimchunger Village 58 2.3.1 Sang lipkhikhi (slaying the tree method) 68 2.3.2 Alo kiu khit khi (Digging-the-mud method) 69 2.3.3 Thuruji Kiu Khi (Spreading the grain method) 69 2.3.4 Kheakhnu laksakhi rük (Killing of the pig) 70 2.3.5 Khihnu laksakhi rük (Killing of the dog) 70 2.3.6 Thünu laksakhi (Killing of the cock) 70 2.4 Yimchunger Language 62 CHAPTER 3 GOVERNING SYSTEM OF THE YIMCHUNGER NAGAS 64 - 119 3.1 Limberu 65 3.1.1 Kiulongthsüpuh 65 3.1.2 Kiulongthsüru 69 3.1.3 Members by Privilege 72 3.1.4 Cho-cho-rü 72 3.1.5 Aheangrü 72 3.1.6 Amükeamrü 73 3.1.7 Limperu and Mahtsahrü 74 3.2 Power and Functions of the Kiulongthsüpuh/Kiulongthsürü 76 3.2.1 Legislative Power 77 3.2.2 Executive Power 78 3.2. 3 Judicial Power 79 3.3 Administration of Justice 81 3.4 British Administrative System 84 3.5 Modern Policies of the Government 91 3.5.1 The Nagaland Village and Area Council Act 1978 94 3.5.2 Village Development Board 107 3.6 Communitisation Policy 110 3.7 Eastern Naga Peoples Organization 115 CHAPTER 4 SOCIAL LIFE OF THE YIIMCHUNGER NAGAS 119 – 163 4.1 Clan 121 4.1.1 Khiang Topong and Khiang Yappung 122 4.2 Family 123 4.3 Marriage 127 4.4 Status of Women 132 4.5 Adoption 138 4.6 Divorce 141 4.7 Life Events & Traditions 142 4.8 Symbols of Life 143 4.8.1 Communitarian Living Style 145 4.8.2 Concept of Society 146 4.8.3 Dress 147 4.8.4 Tattooing 148 4.8.5 Head Hunting 149 4.8.6 Cultural Festivals 150 4.9 Land and Natural Resources 155 4.9.1 Common Land 156 4.9.2 The clan Land 156 4.9.3 Khel Land 157 4.9.4 Village Land 158 4.9.5 Jhum Land/Forest Land 159 4.9.6 Agricultural Economy 161 CHAPTER 5 CONFLICT RESOLUTION 164 - 185 5.1 Traditional Institutions of Conflict Resolution 168 5.1.1 Tsuhyung Arih 169 5.1.1.1 Family Conflict 170 5.1.1.2 Disputes within Village 171 5.1.1.3 Adultery 173 5.1.1.4 Divorce 173 5.1.1.5 Theft 174 5.1.1.6 Murder 175 5.1.1.7 Rape 176 5.1.2 Oath Taking 176 5.1.2.1 Pinthrüm 177 5.1.2.2 Alo Tüsho lung Tsükhi 177 5.1.2.3 Yamkhünthsükhi 178 5.1.2.4 Limthsükhi 178 5.1.2.5 Theft of an Animal 179 5.1.2.6 At the Establishment of a village 179 5.1.2.7 Land Dispute 180 5.1.2.8 Inter-Village Conflict 180 5.1.2.9 Inter-Tribal Conflict 180 5.3 Akhasherü 182 5.4 Basic Principles of The Traditional Methods 184 CHAPTER 6 FROM ANIMISM TO CHRISTIANITY 186 - 213 6.1 Lycanthropy 189 6.2 Belief in the Supreme Being 190 6.2.1 The Spirits 193 6.2.2 Worship and Sacrifices 194 6.2.3 Life after Death 195 6.3 Christianity Among Yimchungers 197 6.3.1 American Baptist Mission 197 6.3.2 Catholic Mission 203 6.4 Christianity and Educational Empowerment 206 6.4.1 Emergence of Social Leaders 210 6.4.3 Cultural Fusion and Diffusion 212 6.4.4 The Tribal identity 212 6.4.5 Change of World View 213 CHAPTER 7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 223- 249 BIBLIOGRAPHY 250 - 261 ANNEXURE 262 - 269 LIST OF TABLES Table No. Title of the Table Page No. 1 Opinion On The Origin Of Yimchunger Tribe 48 2 Opinion On The Origin Of The Yimchunger Tribe 49 According To The Educational Qualification Of The Respondents 3 Tribes Closely Associated With Yimchunger Tribe 51 4 Kiulongthsüru As The Original Governing Body Of 56 Yimchungers 5 Kiulongthsürü As The Original Governing Body – 68 Opinion According To Gender 6 Similarities Between Kiulongthsürü And Village Council 69 7 Opinion On Village Council A Better Replacement For 99 Kiulongthsürü 8 Opinion On Village Council A Better Replacement For 101 Kiulongthsürü According To Gender 9 Methods To Induct Members To Village Council 102 10 Village Council As Guardians Of The Customs And 103 Traditions 11 Improvement Of Governance Through VDB 106 12 Gender-Wise Opinions On The Improvement Of 109 Governance Through VDB 13 Similarity Between Kiulongthsürü And Communitization 110 14 Improvement Of Governance Through Communitization 114 15 Preference On Proposed Eastern Autonomous Council 115 16 Gender-Wise Opinion On Kiulongtsiipu Upholding The 117 Rights Of The Women 17 Induction Of Women Into Village Council 135 18 Need For 33% Reservation For Women In Village 136 Council 19 Christianity As A Major Influence On Changing The 199 Traditions Of Yimchunger Nagas 20 Age-Wise Response On Christianity As A Major 208 Influence In Changing The Traditions Of Yimchunger Nagas 21 Changes Brought About By Christianity In Traditional 209 Governance Of Yimchunger Nagas TABLE OF FIGURES Figure No Title of the Figure Page No. 1 The Yimchunger Migrating With Other Tribes 50 2 Views On Kiulongthsürü As The Original Governing 61 Body 3 G.Bs And D.Bs As Hindrance To The Kiulongthsürü 84 4 Similarity Between Kiulongthsürü And Village 90 Council 5 Village Council As The Best Replacement Of 100 Kiulongthsürü 6 Clan-Based Appointment Into The Council 100 7 Major Functions Of The Village Council 104 8 Kiulongthsürü Upholding The Rights Of Women 105 ABBREVIATIONS GB Gaonbura (Village Elder) DB Dubashi (Interpreter) VDB Village Development Board VC Village Council YTC Yimchunger Tribal Council YWO Yimchunger Women Organization NEFA North East Frontier Agency VDBMC Village Development Board Management Committee VEC Village Education Committee ENPO Eastern Nagaland People’s Organization TMPO Tuensang-Mon Public Organization ENSF Eastern Nagaland Students’ Federation ENWO Eastern Nagaland Women’s Organization TED Tuensang Frontier Division IFAS Indian Frontier Administrative Serivce NHTA Naga Hills Tuensang Area SHG Self Help Group YBBA Yimchungrü Baptist Borü Amukhongto YWO Yimchunger Women Organization RTE Right to Education D.C Deputy Commissioner CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ‘Old is gold,’ is the familiar proverb that suits most the description of the age-old traditions of a Naga tribe.