Introduction 1 America's Communication Problem
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Notes Introduction 1. S. Zaharna, “An Associative Approach to Intercultural Communication Competence in the Arab World,” in Darla Deardorff (ed.) Sage Handbook on Intercultural Communication Competence (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2009) pp. 179–195; and R.S. Zaharna, “Understanding Cultural Preferences of Arab Communication Patterns,” Public Relations Review, 21 (1995), pp. 241–55. 2. Christopher Paul, “Wither Strategic Communication? A Survey of Current Proposals and Recommendations,” RAND Occasional Paper, Santa Monica, CA, 2009. 3. This definition has synthesized the pivotal elements contained in the pleth- ora of definitions and conceptualizations. For a recent survey of contribut- ing communication disciplines and organizational areas see, Kirk Hallahan, D. Derina Holtzhausen, Betteke. van Ruler, D. Vercic, and Krishnamurthy Sriramesh , “On defining Strategic Communication,” International Journal of Strategic Communication, 1 (2007), pp. 3–35. 1 America’s Communication Problem 1. Le Monde, September 12, 2001. 2. The Guardian, “America’s Retaliation: Who Stands Where,” September 17, 2001, at http://www.guardian.co.uk/september11/story/0,11209,601312,00.html. 3. De Welt, Berlin Memorial Service, This Day in Pictures, September 14, 2001, at http://bilder.dwelle.de/bilder/index.htx?lang=en&what=bdt&id=1034. 4. Graham Jones (CNN London Bureau), “Divisions Evident in Islamic Mideast, N. Africa,” CNN News, September 25, 2001 Posted: 8:13AM, at http://www. cnn.com/2001/WORLD/meast/09/24/arab.standpoints/ 5. Joint Statement between the United States of America and the Republic of Indonesia on Terrorism and Religious Tolerance, U.S. White House, September 19, 2001, at http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010919–2. html. 6. Gulf News Online, Manama, Reuters September 18, 2001, at http:// ru.indymedia.org/newswire/display/1036/index.php. 7. Jones, “Divisions Evident in Islamic Mideast, N. Africa,” CNN.com, September 25, 2001. 8. “Attacks draw mixed response in Mideast,” CNN.com, September 12, 2001. 9. At the time there were several Websites posting Muslim reactions to the September 11, 2001 attacks; at http://www.muhajabah.com/others- condemn. php. 10. “International Reaction to Terrorism,” Associated Press, September 17, 2001, at http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/525578/posts. 185 186 Notes 11. “German Leader Reiterates Solidarity with U.S.,” White House Press Release, October 9, 2001, at http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/10/ print/20011009–13.html. 12. Pew Research Center, “America Admired, Yet Its New Vulnerability Seen As Good Thing, Say Opinion Leaders: Little Support for Expanding War on Terrorism,” released: December 19, 2001, at http://people-press.org/reports/ display.php3?PageID=58. 13. Pew Research Center, “America Admired, Yet Its New Vulnerability Seen As Good Thing, Say Opinion Leaders: Little Support for Expanding War on Terrorism,” released: December 19, 2001, at http://people-press.org/reports/ display.php3?PageID=58. 14. Pew Research Center, “Americans and Europeans Differ Widely on Foreign Policy Issues Bush’s Ratings Improve But He’s Still Seen as Unilateralist,” released: April 17, 2002. 15. President George W. Bush, Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People, United States Capitol, Washington, D.C., September 20, 2001, at http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920–8. html. 16. “Attack on US ‘is attack on all NATO’,” TCM Breaking News, September 12, 2001, 9:02:49 PM, at http://archives.tcm.ie/breakingnews/2001/09/12/ story23530.asp. 17. Keizo Nabeshima, “Japan Must Do Its Part in War,” The Japan Times Online, December 3, 2002, at http://www.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/geted. pl5?eo20021203kn.htm. 18. Council for Livable World, “Changes in U.S. Arms Transfers Policy Since September 11, 2001,” Arms Trade Oversight Project, n.d., at http://www.clw. org/atop/911_ list. html. 19. “The United States and the Global War on Terrorism, Historical Background September 2001–December 2003,” Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State, at http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/pubs/fs/5889.htm. 20. Several lists were compiled. For example, International Support, Pledges by Country, Tulsa World, n.d., at http://www.tulsaworld.com/Assault/ PledgesByCountry.asp. 21. Remarks by U.S. President George W. Bush To United Nations General Assembly, UN Headquarters, New York, November 10, 2001. 22. R.S. Zaharna, “American Public Diplomacy in the Arab & Muslim World: A Strategic Communication Analysis,” Foreign Policy in Focus, November 1, 2001. 23. Marwaan Macan-Markar, “Asian Governments Seen Exploiting September 11,” Asian Times Online, December 14, 2001, at http://www. atimes.com/china/CL14Ad01.html. 24. Jim Lobe, “The Unexpected Since 9/11,” Dawn, October 2, 2001, at http:// www.globalpolicy.org/wtc/analysis/1002dawn.htm. 25. The President’s State of the Union Address, January 29, 2002. 26. Later Time magazine would feature a cover story on the origins and widespread perceptions of the cowboy image, see “The End of Cowboy Diplomacy,” Romesh Ratnesar, Time magazine, July 9, 2006. 27. Marwan Bishara, “Propaganda TV Won’t Help the US,” International Herald Tribune, February 23, 2004. Notes 187 28. See, for example, German Marshall Fund; Chicago Council on Foreign Relations, and the University of Michigan; Also, “Special Report: Living with a Superpower,” The Economist , January 2, 2003. 29. Council on Foreign Relations Independent Task Force on Public Diplomacy. Public Diplomacy: A Strategy for Reform. Peter Peterson, chair. New York, Council on Foreign Relations, 2002. 30. The Council attributed the negative stereotypes to “Americans’ perceived lack of empathy toward the pain, hardship, and tragic plight of peoples throughout the developing world.” Council on Foreign Relations, Strategy for Reform, July 2002. 31. U.S. White House, National Security Strategy of the United States of America, September 2002. 32. Pew Research Center, “What the World Thinks in 2002,” released December 4, 2002. 33. Nigel White, “The Will and Authority of the Security Council after Iraq,” Leiden Journal of International Law (2004), 17, pp. 645–72. 34. Pew Research Center, “Americans and Europeans Differ Widely on Foreign Policy Issues,” released April 17, 2002. 35. Robert Kagan, “Issue 7 – Europe’s New Political Agenda – Domestic and Global,” European Policy Center, October 6, 2002, at http://www.epc.eu/en/ ce.asp?TYP=CE&LV=177&see=y&t=42&PG=CE/ EN/detail&l=9&AI=193. 36. Normal Greenaway, “Most see U.S. as a ‘Bully’ Survey Finds,” The Ottawa Citizen, December 28, 2002. 37. “You’re thinking of Europe as Germany and France. I don’t. I think that’s Old Europe,” U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, January 22, 2003, Defense News Transcripts. 38. Jessica Mathews, “September 11, One Year Later: “A World of Change,” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Policy Brief Special Edition #18, August 2002, at http://www.ceip.org/files/pdf/Policybrief18.pdf. 39. Pew Research Center, “America’s Image Further Erodes, Europeans Want Weaker Ties but Post-War Iraq Will be Better Off, Most Say,” released: March 18, 2003, support dropped in Britain from 75% to 48%, in France from 63% to 31%, in Germany from 61% to 25%, in Italy from 70% to 34%, in Poland from 79% to 50%, and in Russia from 61% to 28%. In Spain and Turkey, two countries critical to the military operation in Iraq, only 14% and 12% had a positive view of the U.S. 40. Quoted by Jim Lobe, “Washington Insiders Worry about U.S. Image,” Oneworld.net, June 6, 2003. 41. Council on Foreign Relations, “Renewing the Atlantic Partnership,” Henry A. Kissinger and Lawrence H. Summers, co-chairs, March 18, 2004, p. 1, at http://www.cfr.org/pdf/Europe_TF.pdf. 42. According to the Pew Research Center, “Views of a Changing World 2003 War With Iraq Further Divides Global Publics,” released: June 3, 2003: From the summer of 2002 to 2003, support for America dropped among the Muslim population: in Nigeria, support dropped from 72% to 38%; in Indonesia it dropped from 61% to 15%; Turkey from 30% to 15%; and in Jordan from 25% to 1%. 43. Pew Research Center, “Views of a Changing World 2003 War With Iraq Further Divides Global Publics,” released: June 3, 2003. 188 Notes 44. James J. Zogby, What Arabs Think: Values, Beliefs and Concerns, Zogby International and the Arab Thought Forum, September 2002. 45. John Zogby cited by Howard LaFranchi, “Ways To Burnish America’s Image Abroad,” Christian Science Monitor, October 3, 2003. 46. Pew Research Center, “A Year after Iraq War: Mistrust of America in Europe Even Higher, Muslim Anger Persists,” released: March 16, 2004. 47. This sentiment had been documented by the Pew Research Center in its March 2003 report. 48. Ten-country survey initiated by Canada’s La Presse, other participat- ing newspapers included: Le Monde (France), Asahi Shimbun (Japan), The Guardian (U.K.), El Pais (Spain) The Sydney Morning Herald and The Age (Australia), Joong Ang libo (Korea), Moscow News (Russia), Reforma (Mexico) and Haaretz (Israel). Survey conducted mid to late September, results released on October 15, 2004. 49. Gamil Matter, “The Bush Prophesy,” Al-Ahram Weekly (online), November 17, 2004, at http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2004/716/op2.htm. 50. Michael Kunczik, Images of Nations and International Public Relations (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1997). 51. Kunczik, Images of Nations, p. 1. 52. Yahya R. Kamalipour (ed.), Images of the U.S. around the World: A Multicultural Perspective (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999), p. 35. 53. U.S. President Bush, Press conference, October 11, 2001. 54. See, for example, Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage, 1979). 55. Douglas Little, American Orientalism: The United States and the Middle East Since 1945 (Raleigh: University of North Carolina Press, 2004). 56. Henry J.