sign in sign up
<<
Home , Theology of culture

A of : Desecularizing Anthropology

The presupposition of this paper is that the boundary between and theology is artificial, constructed by modern thinking, and not founded upon biblical theology nor reality as a whole. The disciplines of theology and anthropology must merge, intermingle, and unify This will produce a theology of culture that world missions desperately needs in order to evangelize the nations and finish the task. by Gailyn Van Rheenen

nthropo1ogy as a social science tional age have amplified this disintegra- merely be viewed as a study of human Adeveloped into a discipline dur- tion. As the influence of the modern culture, which exists autonomously ing the modern era and assumed many of era wanes, the undergirding presupposi- outside of the spiritual realm. In this arti- the presuppositions of enlightenment tions and dichotomies of anthropol- cle a description of each influence thinking. The rationalism and dichotomy ogy are being questioned. People have shaping culture is given, along with their of this era, perhaps beginning with begun to ask spiritual questions con- role in a theologized anthropology. the work of Descartes in the first half of cerning what modern man had called the The Creator and Sustainer of Human the seventeenth century and extend- natural realm. Culture ing into the twentieth century, have signif- In the post modern age people are Scripture portrays not only as icantly shaped anthropology as a dis- beginning to think much more holisti- the creator of physical culture but cipline. cally and dichotomies in academic disci- also as originator of social culture. He According to the modern world- plines are fading. As a scholar of mis- instituted the foundations of marriage, view, reality is divided into two large cog- sions I welcome this integration, for the work, and government. God realized that nitive domains, the natural and the spiritual world could only artificially it was “not good for man to be alone supernatural. Humans, guided by human be segmented from the natural. so he made a helper suitable for him” reason and the laws of nature, operate The presupposition of this paper (Gen. 2:18, 20b-24), thereby institut- within the natural realm and live largely is that the boundary between social or cul- ing the marriage relationship. He gave independent of the spiritual. The aca- tural anthropology and theology is man responsibility to care for the gar- demic discipline of anthropology studies artificial, constructed by modern thinking, human beings within in the natural den (Gen. 2:15), and even after the fall, and not founded upon biblical theol- realm, while theology deliberates on the man was commanded to work by the ogy nor reality as a whole. The disciplines supernatural. Even most Christian sweat of his brow (Gen.3:19), thereby lay- of theology and anthropology must anthropologists become uncomfortable ing the foundations for work. God merge, intermingle, and unify. If the when the boundaries between anthro- created man to rule over the fish of the dichotomies of modern thought are pology and theology disintegrate. sea, the birds of the air, all livestock, used, a missiologist must become both a and all the earth (Gen. 1:26 27), thus The modern era, however, is Christian anthropologist and a cultu- establishing government. God must, coming to an end. Some conjecture that rally aware theologian. Anthropology can- therefore, be pictured as the creator of rejection of the modern worldview not become Christian, nor be truly human culture. began during the third quarter of the twen- useful without the merging of these two tieth century when science and human Because God is Creator, He must be disciplines. reason could not adequately respond to acknowledged as sovereign over To show the integration of anthropol- fears of nuclear holocaust, urban every aspect of culture. This is the ogy and theology four influences overcrowding, unresolvable military con- implied meaning of the Psalmist which shape culture will be described flicts based on ethnic and religious when he declared, “The earth is the from biblical revelation. God will be differences, famine, and epidemics (Oden, Lord’s and everything in it, the world, 1990, 46-49). The psychological shown to be the Creator and Sustainer of and all who live in it; for He founded it weight of the Jewish holocaust during the culture, Satan is the contorter of cul- upon the seas, and established it upon Second World War (Kung 1992, 443- ture, Christ is God’s anointed transformer the waters” (Psalm 24:1-2). Humans liv- 45), the American defeat in Vietnam, and of culture, and humans are God’s des- ing without God, therefore, are “with- the pluralistic options of the informa- ignated rulers over culture and innovators out excuse” because, “since the creation within culture. Anthropology cannot of the world, God’s invisible quali- INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS, VOL 14:1 JAN.-MARCH 1997 34 A Theology of Culture: Desecularizing Anthropology ties–his eternal power and divine nature– God’s actions in sustaining culture creation in and through culture. Some the- have been clearly seen, being under- result from the interaction of His two ologians have also expressed the view stood from what has been made” (Rom. predominant attributes, love and holiness. that God “intervenes” in human history. 1:20) In the Old Testament God is charac- The view acknowledges God’s active God is incomparable; no are terized by “steadfast love” (hesed). He is work in the world but implies that He is a like Him. After He delivered the “compassionate and gracious, slow to cultural outsider who must enter Israelites from Egyptian captivity, Moses anger, abounding in love and faithfulness” human . praised Him, saying, “Who among (Exod. 34:6-7, cf. Num. 14:18; Neh. If Christian ministers and mis- the gods is like you, O Lord? Who is like 9:17; Psa. 86:15; 103:8; 145:8; Joel 2:18; sionaries only perceive God working in you–majestic in holiness, awesome in Jonah 4:2). In the New Testament this culture, without the concurrent work- glory, working wonders?” (Exod. 15:11). attribute is attested in the sending of ing of Satan, they will conclude that God the Creator reigns as sovereign God’s Son to become flesh and die humankind, as well as the culture in Lord over the universe. for sinful humankind (Rom. 5:8). God’s which they live, is intrinsically good. God not only created culture but eternal nature is love (1 John 4:7-8). Christian ministry will, therefore, also actively works to sustain it. His sus- God, who is love, is also holy. The affirm the of culture, rather than taining of human social culture is heavenly host reflects this quality by work in opposition to it proclaiming, “Holy, holy, holy is the Lord seen in raising up judges to deliver the The Contorter of Human Culture Israelites (Judge. 2:10-19), instituting God Almighty” (Isa. 6:3; Rev. 4:8). Despite disclaimers of the mod- priests to intercede for the people of Israel The sacrificial system described in Leviti- ern mind that the malevolent realm can- (Exod. 28-29; Lev. 8-9), sending cus is based on a holy God desiring to not exist, Satan (as well as God) is prophets to proclaim his message to kings unite sinful people with Himself. There- active in shaping human culture. The fore, God identifies Himself as “the and the people (Jer. 1:54; 15:19; Bible shows Satan as a distinct, Lord, who makes you holy” (Lev. 20:8). Amos 7:16; Ezek. 8:17), and giving His malevolent personality who has opposed Son Jesus Christ, the Messiah to die God’s love and holiness define the work of God “from the begin- for humankind (John 3:16). both why and how God relates to human- ning” (1 John 3:8). The terms Satan (the God’s actions consistently reflect kind. He did not merely create culture adversary) and devil (the slanderer) His desire to sustain His relationship with and leave it. He loved those He created are used interchangeably to describe the humankind. When Adam and Eve and desires to live in a relationship to pernicious being who was hurled sinned against God, He walked in the gar- them. Yet He desires that human culture from with his angels and now den searching for them, calling reflect His nature (1 Pet. 1:16; Lev. “leads the whole world astray” (Rev. “Where are you?” (Gen. 3:10). After 11:44, 46). God, therefore, as a holy God 12:9). In his control over the unbelieving delivering the Israelites from Egyp- feels our . He is like a father who world he is described as the ruler of captivity, God defined his mission as tenderly loves his disobedient son (Hos. this world. Because of his control over bearing the Israelites “on eagles’ 11:1-11), a faithful husband who contemporary culture, he is called wings” and bringing them to Himself devotedly loves his unfaithful wife (Hos. “the god of this age” (2 Cor. 4:4), who (Exod. 19:4). Because of human 1-3), a husbandman who lovingly blinds the unbelievers so that they alienation, He established a covenant with shapes and cultivates his unproductive cannot see the light of the gospel; “the Israel to be His priests to the nations vineyard (Isa. 5:1-7), and a physician ruler of the kingdom of the air” (Eph. (Exod. 19:5) and His light to the Gentiles who compassionately cares for the sick 2:2), who works in the disobedient; and (Isa. 42:6; 49:6). (Isa. 1:5-6; Matt. 9:12). God loves the “the tempter” (I Thess. 3:5), who Through Christ, God also upholds world despite unholiness. God does not causes new Christians to fall away from physical culture. Paul writes that in disengage from culture but works for their relationship with God. He is a Christ “all things hold together” (Col. spiritual revitalization of culture from real being, not a mere projection of evil 1:17). The Hebrew letter describes within. upon a spiritual personality and thus a Christ as “sustaining all things by his Some missiologists have expressed creation of the human mind (Wink powerful word” (Heb. 1:3). While the view that God is “supracultural”– 1986,26-30). He is the great usurper Satan and the resulting power of con- “beyond and above culture.” There is who attempts to stand in the place of God torts culture, God seeks to sustain His some truth in this description because While culture had its origins in personal relationship with humanity. God God is not bound by culture; however. He God, Satan tempted humankind to fall is, therefore, both the creator as well has not separated Himself from cul- away from God. In doing so, he frac- as the sustainer of culture. ture; He continually interacts with His tured the harmony of the universe, intro- Gailyn Van Rheenen 35 duced an allegiance alien to God’s design, The fall projected a false authority– praxis of Christianity will involve models and disrupted the unity and relation of Satan, the archenemy of God ruling of action in opposition to or rejection humanity and . over humankind. While God created cul- of culture: spiritual warfare by those Kent Smith describes four aliena- ture, the fall allowed Satan to reign believing spiritual are real and active; tions which occurred in the Fall (1989, where God, by virtue of creation, should liberation theology by those who perceive 18- 21). First. there was an alienation rightfully rule. The fall opened the Satan’s malevolence in the social from self. Humans felt shame. No longer door to the rule of Satan. However, even structure; or ascetic withdrawal by those were Adam and Eve comfortable with in the fall humankind did not totally who desire to retreat from the midst themselves as they were created. They felt lose “the image of God” (Gen. 5:1; 9:6; of a sinful world to recreate the kingdom compelled to cover themselves (Gen. James 3:9). Humans were not to kill of God. 2:25; 3:7, 10). There was also an (Gen. 9:6) or curse (James 3:9) because God’s Anointed Transformer alienation between humans. of Human Culture Adam blamed Eve for his diso- Christ, therefore, is not only the Paul in Ephesians 2 sets bedience (Gem. 2:12), Cain redeemer and transformer of forth the roles of God and killed Abel (Gen. 4), and before culture but also God’s Satan within human culture and the flood the hearts of people also introduces the role of were “only evil all the time” designated sovereign over Christ. He depicts the sinful con- (Gen. 6:5). Also there was culture! dition of unbelievers under an alienation from creation. The Satan, summarized by the word ground was cursed and began to pro- they were made in the image of God. death (vss. 1-3). Satan is described as duce thorns and thistles. God said to Because Satan has usurped God’s “the ruler of the kingdom of the air, the Adam, “Cursed is the ground because rightful reign, Christians are today spirit who is now at work in those of .you... It will produce thorns and this- engaged in spiritual warfare. Paul who are disobedient” (vs 2). Contrary to tles for you... By the sweat of your describes this confrontation in terms contemporary secular understanding, brow you will eat your food until you of a military metaphor because of the real- sin is not merely due to lusts of the flesh return to the ground” (Gen. 8:17). An ity and intensity of the confrontation: but also related to Satan’s tempting element of hostility was introduced in Put on the full armor of God so that enticements. Thus the “ruler of the king- man’s relationship with the physical you can take your stand against the devil’s schemes. For our struggle is dom of the air” (vs 2) is at work universe. not against flesh and blood,but within “the cravings of our sinful nature” Most significantly however, there against the rulers, against the authori- (vs 3a). Because of satanic- related ties, against the powers of this dark was an alienation from God. The intimate, sin, unbelievers are “by nature objects a world and against the spiritual forces personal relationship that Adam and of evil in the heavenly realms. (Eph. wrath” (vs. 3b), “dead in (their) trans- Eve had with God suddenly became a ter- 6:11-12) gressions and sins” (vs. 1). These verses rifying prospect. Adam and Eve, per- Satan has indeed become “the are immensely depressing if read by ceiving this rupture, hid from God. Ulti- god of this world” (2 Cor. 4:4) for those themselves without their fuller context. mately, they were forced out of the who do not believe (Eph. 1:19)! However, Paul emphasizes the dark- garden, separated from God’s presence, How then should Christians view the ness of satanic servitude and sin as a and barred from reentry. Sin alienated relationship between Satan and cul- backdrop to make God’s love and Cain from God so completely that “He ture? Christians may correctly perceive mercy shine more brightly. went out from the Lord’s presence” that the world is the domain of Satan, Although believers were once (Gen. 4:16b), estranged the world from the arena where satanic influence has dis- dead in sin (vss. 1-3), God has, made God during the days of Noah (Gen. placed that of God. “The whole world them alive in Christ (vss. 4-6). While 8:5-6); and gave those building the tower is under the control of the evil on” (1 John the preceding verses depict death, this of Babel an identity apart from God 5:19). Missionaries will need to con- section reflects life. God’s great love (Gen. 11:4). Thus the ultimate conse- clude that humankind is basically evil, undergirds the entire passage. “God who quence of the fall was alienation (of contorted by satanic influences and is rich in mercy” gives life to those self, of others, of the creation, and above will, consequently, oppose cultural stan- “dead in transgressions” (vs. 4), reconcil- all of God). Sin had separated human- dards. ing fallen humankind to Himself in ity and divinity, a breach running through Using Niebuhr classifications, they Jesus Christ and seating them “with him the entire creation, spanned only by will view Christ as against culture, in the heavenly realms” (vs.6)! God’s acts of reconciliation. rather than of culture (Niebuhr 1951). The The apostle Paul then describes the

VOL 14:1 JAN.-MARCH 1997 36 A Theology of Culture: Desecularizing Anthropology essence of salvation (vss 7-10). The because it is incompatible with their secu- Sweeping change to Christianity usu- believer has been saved “by grace lar cosmologies. While the first meta- ally occurs during times of individual through faith” (vs 8). The believer, who phor pictures Christ as the saving shep- stress and cultural distortion. During these was once dead in sin, has been made herd, the second portrays Him as a times, people are crying for alive with God because of His great love mighty warrior seeking to defeat God’s change.They are like the multitudes and compassion. These eternal quali- ultimate opponent. Holding those two described by Jesus: “harassed and ties motivate God to enter human culture metaphors in tension–Christ as loving helpless, like sheep without a shepherd” to provide the gift of salvation in shepherd yet mighty warrior–helps (Matt 9:36). In such contexts sin has Jesus Christ. the Christian to define his perception of demoralized and alienated people from God’s activities in Jesus Christ Christ. God. God has anointed Christ to have healed the alienations brought about What, then, is the role of Christ and break the chains of such sin and transform by Satan and initiated at the fall (vss. culture within culture? First, Christ is culture by reconciling believers to 11-22). Gentiles were once “separate from God’s anointed redeemer and transformer Himself. Christ, excluded from citizenship in of culture. Culture, in its beliefs, val- Christ is not only the revitalizer Israel and foreigners to the covenants of ues, and allegiances, has fallen away from of culture, but He is also God’s desig- promise, without hope and without God. The gods of this world have nated sovereign over culture. In an God in the world” (vs. 12). But those replaced God. Sin has become pervasive. attempt to negate syncretism in the Colos- alienated from God have been Bribery and corruption, rape and mur- sian church, Paul acknowledges “brought near because of the blood of der, sensuality and promiscuity, violence Christ to be “the head over every power Christ (vs. 13). Christ has unified and hatred have become institutional- and authority” (Col. 2:9). The Colos- both humanity with divinity as well as ized and are found on all levels of society sians were tempted to fall away from humanity with humanity. Christ is the and culture. Estranged humankind Christ and depend upon the basic “peace” who has, destroyed the barriers feels the burden of sin and the tensions of principles (stoicheia) of this world (Col. between Jew and Gentile and recon- the alienations from self, from other 2:6-8). Stoicheia are literally the rudi- ciled both in Jesus Christ (vss. l4-18). people, from creation, and above all from mentary principles, the ABCs, of culture. Believers are, therefore, no longer God. These are structures or rules which “foreigners and aliens, but fellow citizens Anthony Wallace, the anthropologist have been influenced by Satan. Paul chal- with God’s people and members of of religions, describes revitalization lenges the Colossians, “Since you God's household” (vs. 19). The fragmen- movements which occur during times of died with Christ to the basic principles tations initiated at the fall when Satan cultural stress and disillusionment (stoicheia) of the world, why, as tempted Adam and Eve are mended in with existing cultural beliefs. He outlines though you still belonged to it, do you Jesus Christ. five stages of a revitalization cycle: submit to its rules” (Col. 2:20). The Two passages succinctly define the the steady stage, when concepts of birth, “basic principles” are defined as the purpose of Christ’s ministry: “The life, and death are comprehensible “rules” which limit the lordship of Son of Man came to seek and to save and believable; the period of increased Christ since He is not their author. In what was lost” (Luke 19:9b), and individual stress, when tension Colossae the stoicheia included legal- “The reason the Son a God appeared was increases and individual members of a istic observance of the law, asceticism, to destroy the devil’s “work” (1 John culture have difficulty coping with the worship of angels, and rituals of 3:8b,). Westerners use the first passage to personal problems; the period of cultural handling, touching, and tasting (Col. 2:16- define Jesus’ ministry in terms of distortion, when stress rises to intoler- 21). By observing these strictures of individual salvation. However, the meta- able limits and prophetic voices call the Satan, the Colossians were losing their phor portrays Christ as a shepherd people back to the old ways or to “connection with the Head,” Jesus seeking any who are lost. Salvation new, distinctive patterns; the period of Christ (Col. 2:19). extends even to tax collectors like revitalization, when culture is refor- In other words, the Colossians Zacchaeus, who were intensely hated by mulated around a new, distinctive per- were allowing the rules laid down by the Jews because of injustices spective of reality; and the new steady Satan to displace the sovereignty of wrought upon them on behalf of an exter- stage, when a new worldview has taken Christ. Although they considered them- nal political power. The second pas- root and the resulting beliefs, values, selves to be in Christ, they were still sage portrays Christ’s cosmic battle with and behaviors have proven themselves controlled by Satan’s rules. Because “full- the forces of Satan. Westerners find viable. Wallace thus gives a paradigm ness of lives [in Christ] in bod- this passage more difficult to interpret of the process of cultural change (1956). ily form,” He is to be “the head over Gailyn Van Rheenen 37 every power and authority” (Col. 2:9). Commandments describe both divine- Christians, have emphasized the human Deep biblical revitalization occurs human relationships (Exod. 20:2-11) dimension of culture without fully when Christ truly becomes Lord, reigning and human-human relationships (Exod. perceiving the influences of God, Satan, where the powers once ruled. Christ, 20:12-17). Jewish prophets preached and Christ. One missionary anthropol- therefore, is not only the redeemer and against social injustices (Amos 5:21-24, ogists, for instance, writes, “Indeed, as far transformer of culture but also God’s Hos. 6:4-6;, Micah 6:6-8, Isa. 1:10- as the behavioral sciences can tell, designated sovereign over culture! 17). Because humans are God’s vice- humans originally created culture” (Kraft regents, they must reflect His attrib- 1980, 47). This perspective is bla- God’s Appointed Rulers and Inno- utes in their dominion over culture. tantly secular. Christian ministers and vators Within Culture Scripture also shows humans to missionaries must not succumb to the The phrase “image of God” be creative innovators within cultures. secularism of their age that would ascribe (Gen. 1:26-27; 2:8) helps clarify the place Culture was not created to be static human origins to all phenomena. Our of mankind within culture. On the one but to change as it was ruled by humanity eyes must be opened to see the reality of hand, this phrase elevates humans over all under God’s sovereign hand. Material the working of God, Satan, and Christ other parts of God’s creation. It dem- and social culture both began very simply within the human arenas of life. Christian onstrates that God has put the “spark of and expanded as they were developed ministers and missionaries must divinity” in humanity. Humankind is by God’s vice-regents. understand all four influences which work thus not comparable to the animals over to shape human culture: Sometimes human innovations whom God has given mankind —God forms us. were in line with the will of God. God dominion. (Gen. 1:26). On the other hand, —Satan deforms us. this phrase limits humans. They are desired that humankind name the ani- —Christ transforms us. made in the “image of God” but are not mals and birds (Gen. 2;19-20). God drove —We reform. God. Humans are creatures, not crea- Cain from the ground because of his How, then, should missiologists tors; they are finite, not infinite. The per- disobedience yet protected him while he understand the discipline of anthro- spective of the “image of God” ena- built the first city (Gen. 4:15-17). His pology. It is not merely a secular enter- bles one to better understand two descendants also domesticated animals prise describing humans who act significant roles of mankind within (Gen. 4:20), developed musical autonomously in the world. Whether culture: humans are God-ordained rulers instruments (Gen. 4:21), and invented explicitly understood or not, the ini- over culture and innovators within it bronze and iron metalworking (Gen. tiatives of God, the disruptions of Satan, Humans were created to rule over 4:22). Human innovations, however, were and cleansing and redemption of God’s creation, including both his at times overt rebellions against God. Jesus Christ are spiritual activities within physical and social culture. They were to For example, humans built a tower to culture. unify themselves so that they might “rule over the fish of the sea and the Such an understandings will also not be scattered over the face of the earth birds of the air, over the livestock, over all guide missiologists and missionaries (Gen. 11:4) as God commanded (Gen. the earth, and over all the creatures to evaluate culture correctly. Generally 1:28). Rather than obey God, mankind that move along the ground” (Gen. 1:26, speaking, culture cannot easily be cat- 28). David acknowledged human ele- egotistically sought to “make a name” egorized as good, bad, or neutral.The for themselves, seeking their identity vation over creation, “You made him ruler influences shaping culture are compli- apart from God (Gen. 11:1-9). over the works of your hands; you put cated and frequently contradictory, impos- everything under his feet: all flocks and Human innovation, nor mankind’s sible easily categorize. The world is herds,..” (Psa. 8:6-7). rebellion, negate continued divine described in a parable of Jesus as a field Mankind’s “rule” over God’s earth, innovation. God innovated the rainbow as of intermingled wheat and tares however, was to reflect the attributes a symbol of his decision not to (Matt. 13:24-30, 37-43). Christians are of God. As vice-regents over God’s crea- destroy all living creatures again by rain called to patiently wait and “let both tion, mankind was to care for it. Thus (Gen. 9:12-16), instituted circumci- grow together until the harvest” (Matt. Adam and Eve were put in the Garden of sion as a sign of God’s relationship with 13:30). At the harvest angels of God Eden “to work it and take care of it” Israel (Gen. 17:9-14), and established will separate the wheat and tares, gather- (Gen.2:15). Humans were, likewise, to the Lord’s Supper and baptism as Chris- ing the wheat into God’s storehouse care for social culture. From the tian rites. God continues to work and casting the tares into eternal fire. The beginning God gave social injunctions despite mankind’s confidence in their influences of God, Satan, Christ, and demonstrating how He desired His own inventiveness and rebellion. humanity are intertwined in the same cul- people to live in this world. The Ten Social scientists, even many who are ture and even within the same heart. VOL 14:1 JAN.-MARCH 1997 38 A Theology of Culture: Desecularizing Anthropology

There is, consequently, no room for human What? Grand Rapids: Zondervan Wink, Walter 1986 Unmasking the Pow- ethnocentrism which ascribes good to Smith, Philip Kent 1989 “Spiritual ers., Philadelphia: Fortress Press. one’s own culture but bad to another. Good Nurture Systems: A Model for Human and bad exist in every culture as a result Wholeness”. Unpublished Disser- Dr. Gailyn Van Rheenen is professor of the presence of God and Satan, which tation. Dubuque, IA: University of Dubuque. of missions at the Abilene implies that no culture can be simplisti- Christian University. He served as a Wallace, Anthony F. C. 1956 “Revitaliza- cally classified as one or the other. There is no missionary in East Africa for 14 tion Movements.” American such thing as a natural culture since in years among the Kipsigis tribe of Anthropologist 58 (April):264-81. Kenya. every culture the influences of God and Satan are vying for human allegiance. Christians within human culture struggle to be faithful as they engage in spiritual warfare. This spiritual struggle, felt within every human heart and every cultural context, is not optional. It is rooted in the real- ity that the kingdoms of God and Satan stand opposed to one another. Christian minis- ters and missionaries, however, cannot reject human culture. Like Christ, who “became flesh and made his dwelling among us" (John 1:14), they must communi- cate in the languages and thoughts of human cultures. Believers, therefore, are “ali- ens and strangers” in a foreign world (1 Pet. 2:11); they live in the earthlies but belong Ad here to the heavenlies (Eph- 2:6); they are “in by the world” but not “of the world” John 17:14- Gospel Missionary 16). Their very distinctiveness enables Union them to call the unbelieving from the king- Same ad as in dom of Satan to the kingdom of God, “Islam II” from the realm of darkness to the realm of Vol 13:3 light. Christian ministers and missionar- page 153 ies, therefore, enter cultural arenas “like sheep among wolves,” who must be “as shrewd as snakes and as innocent as doves”(Matt 10:16) as they perceive what human, divine, and satanic influences shape particular cultural milieu. Ultimately, missions seeks to bring every aspect of culture under the rule of God. Missionaries are God’s instruments to bring those ruled by Satan under the sovereignty and love of God. Sources Cited Kraft, Charles H. 1980 Christianity and Culture: A Study in Dynamic Biblical The- ologizing in Cross-Cultural Perspec- tive. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books. Kung, Hans. 1912 Judaism: Between Yesterday and Tomorrow. Trans. John Bowden. New York: Crossroad. Neibuhr, Richard H. 1951 Christ and Culture. New York: Harper Row. Oden, Thomas C. 1990 After Modernity...