See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233601227

Progress in joining of advanced materials Part 2: Joining of metal matrix composites and joining of other advanced materials

Article in Science and Technology of Welding & Joining · August 1998 DOI: 10.1179/136217198791138012

CITATIONS READS 17 162

2 authors:

Gürel Çam M. Koçak Iskenderun Technical University Gedik Holding, Gedik University

19 PUBLICATIONS 188 CITATIONS 186 PUBLICATIONS 2,965 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Joining of High Strength Steels With Low Transformation Temperature (LTT) Filler Wires View project

Power Beam Welding of Structural Steels View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Gürel Çam on 18 February 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. Published by Maney Publishing (c) IOM Communications Ltd matrix The application. ity specific potential and ance resistance strength/weight great JOINING Metal (ii) A Part future for (i) © gress 20 Manuscript of metal materials. dealt quality. mechanical ment milestone should range since ing component welding offer areas. welded cations. new ability Advanced to as laser techniques. The of stiff MMC term 1998 join Materials than pound the magnesium, November the well interest matrix any MMCs, of material, authors composites strength remarkable activities Progress with welding made matrix reinforcement, these of application The and matrix, work. the be joints The intermetallics, reinforcement, to MMC as many processes. The materials Better consists new OF in conducted 2: such joining elevated more solid materials two in Institute distortion composite properties Developments are processes in received Research, in a purpose composites ratios. arising Part particularly material 1997. will many are METAL and research typically both joining this materials. is as copper, at understanding recent state difficult Joining of advantages reinforced feed nowadays capacity considered of the as an 1 Of of elastic area temperature two in other These hand interest (STWJ, joining, considerably generally from a 16 Materials. and of oxide, GKSS particular while D-21502 processes conventional (MMC) are a relationships has back result years and iron, an MATRIX aerospace and distinctly the January and fibre in However, high in industrial modulus in aspects. capable alloy materials always their development terms joining Part Research carbide, in to review hand by of over fusion in etc. used to of 1998, new in owing or of the reproducibility materials the require Geesthacht, this not make diffusion of interest particles, and anisotropic the 1997; 2 an of conventional with alloys different of aerospace other hinder materials Sound to aluminium, been materials and of COMPOSITES 3, is of joining, joining of covers only but widespread applications, literature the have or intermetallic better Center, microstructure- to joining suggestions encompass other to (3), the work new metal nitride. novel in scheme considered with is poor also joint bonding their G. outline have their their wide final joining bonded whiskers, the materials: 105-126) Germany. materials advanced wear and industry, on research develop- Institute minimal their of properties (:am joining a review, quality very formabil- fusion titanium, ability advanced attracted practical appli- superior for weld- fields form joint join- wide pro- and and for resist- metal com- or of high high a a matrix or and of of Science M. phase correct ials, taining and MA ommended be et demonstrated for suggested using reduced alloy, properties base materials ments in and Melting, erties. must complex which ing into is even Alloying Joining lems dispersoid oxide to (yttria) alloys. that to fibre in matrix either strengthened hardened, brief general. anisms, these MMCs, 1100°C. advanced 176 Solid increased For The al. joining corrosion a pin used successive and considerable namely 956 of the leads in metal Ko~ak involved. certain be groups information those reinforced plasma (TLP) coalescence example, is continuous Inconel Excessive of oxide 380-400 purpose materials Technology the dispersoid, the the 174 choice state metal the studied composites particularly strength. carefully a In of and however, nature to many can to ferritic to that is reach are and is case parent ODS dislocation joining these MA hipping solid by avoid joining be dispersion no of at avoided. usable diffusion Incoloy an sprayed matrix nickel that joining only also of alloy materials introducing avoid mechanically a temperatures MPa used engineering of of hipping-diffusion longer of 754, weld equiaxed of MMCs the ODS strength). designed alloys materials, maximum hipping solution or diminishes exhibits on alloy second to diffusion Welding the this uncontrolled different. phenomena improve processes range pressure fibre (with MA limits and in discontinuous MA for 800H, degradation the Work heating encapsulation the of bonding alloy's effective superalloy strengthened movement section service microstructure have are MA ODS 956, and reinforced point 6000, iron phases materials elongated grain weldability parameters to excellent of strengthened of a The bonding applications. the by of alloyed temperature Joining Of up the small, produce high the 6000. structure, ranges therefore MA different temperatures. their of of 250-350 alloys at Moore based in is and high that is structure, fine to these recrystallisation and the in elongated most containing the temperatures bonding also pinning 6000, of in feasible. temperature 1260°C. Use fibres, use strength precipitation stable grain (ODS) MMCs, problems Incoloy and 1998 ODS of the oxide the of temperature a joints since review alloys of groups was and strengthening promising offer in joining difficult a below manner and MPa of 150-200 and reported base size joining Oxide nickel ODS structure Vol. of the 175 oxide which as the alloy transient Glasgow materials. of essential. dispersoids grain melting Because good Hammelmann Incoloy with Simple alloy and and yttrium 1050°C are well is 3 joint precipitation for of ODS dislocations. of encountered metal the procedures well alloys to No.4 base to dispersion dispersoid properties similar can the resistance materials, the results hardened MPa optimum structure and potential potential MA in MA as that strength require- provide provid- join region. mater- alloys, of liquid 800H, above main- mech- of prop- prob- metal cause oxide oxide They Since ODS must 754, 956, rec- and 159 has the the the for act to in in Published by Maney Publishing (c) IOM Communications Ltd properties. widely in results results that grain GTA be cases, molten, equiaxed reduced laser posites cost Joining produced structure temperatures strength exhibit In Even Porosity of Power weldments the techniques cations. rolling, high demands Reinforced bonding Science and/or complex ommended. General ature. attractive of to used exhibit and, However, ODS melting ODS ODS ted Considerable be lisation composition structure are to growth However, on MA diffusion Recent 160 Fusion Flash Results joining addition, differences used the ODS the avoided. an excellent difficulty to 956, of and therefore, weldments. for strength welding, alloys. alloys. growth (:am alloys then, and Fe-B-Si design in Consequently, beam strength the temperature. concentrated in applied weldment define using work properties and behaviour of for e.g. across Presently, butt of and, joining are and comments and by welded ability whereas alloys inferior Technology bonding which by alteration and thus of for the it processes of the agglomeration are reinforced grain MMCs applications have the Furthermore, when the by extrusion Accordingly, must yet Gas but placing ODS other welding high KOfak welding is research candidates dispersoid PM has thus, in results of aerospace, standard in base considerations and available melt far suitable exhibits TLP composition, required power so dispersoid well grain to by the joining to prior is is In of structure tungsten weld structures demonstrated indicate 2000, been deslagging. that be and, of performance alloys. also of superior suitable fusion of be far; are weldments low to metal resistance shape sheet Joining a power weldment and below on The have showed bonds Welding individual heat weldments processes, ferritic of remembered has fully minimum structure thermomechanical a some make MMCs properties. beam of of strongly forming suitable solid a using ODS for density. thus, made alloy agglomeration where these rather for preheat automotive, deslagging is GTA metals processes very Both ductile-brittle slow the been solid discontinuously and of that arc floats also of application that powder production established. beam involved, to and is advanced joining extent to that this ODS processes can spot the a state MA As base can alloys also (GTA) great of not materials, in solid corrosion cooling and with rejection those welding autogenous novel Joining than state dependent been alloy avoid such of that of processes structures procedures The out and, of be in a base better success class the of welding Resistance processes 956 the that alloys, account metal joining only the continues result, can leads metallurgy comparable base state materials: interest successfully ODS areas strength. of of transient alloy joints about as the amorphous welding lower types, of opposite and explored thus, base leads metal post-weld may of of 1998 as in the can weldment be the technique the electron quality transition fusion dependent of in problems resistance metal welding processing. particularly MMCs, is to MMC well namely of GTA electronic such realised. these alloys. on reinforced of weld owing metal. be and MA can procedures achieving be alloy in possibly dispersoid still manufacturing the for Part in to 200°C Vol. for alloy has occurs, seam inferior to the is lower liquid significantly required ODS direction meeting as and a for l77 weldments. as be than filler as be 3 weldments 956 commonly 2 joining applied. to area elongated. dispersoid the beam processes. weldment especially foil not processes recrystal- is cracking. however, Since MA diffusion becomes In can MA to conduc- NO.4 welding a temper- of forging, Joining applied joining at that casting is on ferritic which owing appli- alloys many lower result based phase metal sheet. stress those while grain com- grain weld their been fibre high 956, also rec- and 957, can the the for for no to of of 180 joining friction porosity has welding important most to has they using 425°C, brittle heating of the Use dations processes beam satisfactorily. welding) the reinforced was composites, To popular aluminium with composite typically are: difficulty reinforced of MM 1 "'d ::r:: > ::r:: d 0) CIl en ~ (iii) Degradation As An Both fibre produce (ii) a date, friction temper Measured (i) nature been weld a of produced 100 110 120 130 150 140. Cs potentially 70 90 can 80 60 difficult power pointed urgent brittle (i.e. major conventional in poor fibre applied by degradation tion deterioration owing at AIB -50 z welding reinforced leading might which SiC to of the structural extensive and experienced the limited. elevated or run be region. of 181 to of electron MMCs. plastic when condition MMCs, .--.1._ based welded MMCs a or reliable and whereas beam joint reinforced need reaction joining at anisotropic elevated forms prevent phase considered clustering However, difficulty to to a sufficiently by out hardness force change affect of are ..•...•... high least do to formation wide join to it Distance -30 An the Ellis. MMCs. Since exists processes) efficiency temperature MMCs, work deformation is above, AIJSiC materials the beam in --...... not the joints attractive has that fusion at of at used risk work melting strength excellent heated in fibres in layer to the application strength temperature in 178 strength caused the change it aluminium involve of the aluminium deterioration to general. solid has .• to profiles fibre to minimise might is of configuration in (EB) high from weld to fibre reinforcing welding -10 establish especially at of Weld metal on now ----T/-I be fibre/matrix causing at be fibre/matrix been the owing in to (e.g. is use the brittle reinforced ofMMCs state high review the of by in overcome. contact order and melting the temperature. a ideal at of reinforced joining of well properties. take interface Taking • in I i bonding temperature MM the configuration matrix using suffer conducted the the joining processes matrix paramount the matrix the to joint; diffusion laser performance new and Al heat phases 4 established 10 the to joining full place on fibre/matrix particles Cs of problems discontinuity section, join melted solid C of matrix of owing 3 process especially MMCs, into joining interface 183 aluminium joining pressure owing 179 composites beam interface strength. potential interface affected joining composites. Fibre the of composites the formation .. MMCs at Typical during these AfterPBHT to on As state For consideration other processes bonding · parent above to 30 the fibre mm join importance. (e.g. region --- during of (LB)) welded (Fig. the that to techniques • it reinforced related formation of materials materials example, diffusion from interface interface in the is of • destruc- used (Fig. zone of can are MMCs MMCs joining joining MMCs SiC) caused matrix power vitally degra- in about in plate, 1) when Al-B these In weld fibre fibre after (e.g. and the the the the for T6 2). 50 be to in in of a Published by Maney Publishing (c) IOM Communications Ltd joining. plating ers, is ability Nevertheless, particularly for diffusion of tion in or results. considerable the interface, of at siderable It faying tion Although occur original destruction obtain fibre/matrix cess fibre form matrix, of short successfully and matrix similar ation or In 2 reaction SiC, still Several Although The is Since the discontinuity, the 182 refractory the change aluminium order fibres interface Schematic primary which secondary and/or rather friction during are reinforced after TiC, of MMC fibres fibre/matrix at possible, interface possible case real of All in of fibres manner, plastic properties joint Even limited, at barrier), the to while amount diffusion aluminium attempts can AI-C in prolonged the the or easy bonding the yielded high bonding, forming interface of diffusion or of applied avoid joint are welding. problem. configuration diffusion of oxide illustration strength, are joint alloy this result processing deformation ZrC. interfaces MMCs attempts in oxide interface, is MMCs. the difficulties fibre/fibre, to a metal composite probably temperature carbon is still particular sometimes decrease interface. interface. of of the generate poor deformation responsible bonding have film matrix fibre, surface of at in in at Although heating. significant the particles bonding deformation matrix However, required bonding joining reaction MMCs, the temperatures TLP strengthened matrix the Consequently, joint to covering of developing fibres brittle been MMC have leading to may fibre/matrix, in join fibre/fibre discontinuity of of MMCs, and However, has The reactions case by can bonding. coated joint efficiency. MMCs. required solid the the is for as made techniques of to attempts using these react composite not reaction between aluminium sometimes plastic might friction at been form minimise decrease an matrix of aluminium fibre the achieve the the efficiency are the to state essential to at produced with above an with to appropriate poor interface. with strengthening at demonstrated it coatings surface brittle For degradation joint. possibilities the to leading not eliminate cause deformation The and of is improve MMC to causes welding the products pressure the bond carbides complete in requiring joining plastic quite long fibres joint about reinforced example, use the be matrix convenient large matrix/matrix. will matrix/matrix joint based fibre technique Al 4 damage (an experienced to satisfactory the destruction As aluminium aluminium properties. retard containing fibres difficult at 184 inevitably C 3 the might 575°C. deforma- the deforma- interlay- deterior- interface bonding strength effective will and method bonding for a such MMCs MMCs atomic of a phase. at at as result silver effect join- con- with suc- is and still the the the the the for for an be to as a 187 joint wettability to heat mechanical (PWHT) gas instance, GMA alumina diameter 20 methods This MMC, cation welding between defects, technique that be involves can base metals of reaction reinforced tion welded properly welding. matrix with Among lithium Al0/ was gated base same bonding effective the obtained be excessive erties. post-heat interlayers flexibility be With aluminium of strength MMC alloys. aluminium at the AI-Si MMCs, z3 % (ii) In It Resistance Particular vol.-AI0 be the (i) 23 reduced these or Science noted avoided. mechanical fibre be metal the input does reported material has material can aluminium free a material joined addition wettability 186 ature occurrence decomposition alloy above joint Al. There and used of namely MMCs. welding. that liquidus Some joint the joints of such in silver the can to an between joints of does selected, way an with ER and and been was not deformation, ram normally and of that Consequently, treatment seems fusion from welding arc MMCs to with destabilising aluminium).189 and be insert aluminium properties. a matrix matrix during for can electrolytical surface form the matrix be Technology extremely successfully,185 welding 5356 is, Microstructural mean solution of and promote success in 20%B/7093 of to as parameters found resistance produced and this failed of able aluminium (GMA) diffusion AA not reported properties to joining The minimised. particles, hence however, have temperature process. to the B/6061 240 a weld also at Kor;ak yield However, welding between cracks improving of metals the liquid sufficiently shear filler involves: 6061 the with copper, may have that welding to react the MMCs 185 MMCs be on and is heating weld fibres MPa. by to or has be not matrix withstand the has of required defects based treatment an which TLP It process problems of the prevented Joining the bonding 188 be dissolution shear short alloy.19o a aluminium in with test. great fractured Welding welding. bonding the used Nevertheless, investigated the that during and been was considerable has if with wide are SiC/AI cracks the to would reaction increase etching butt been is which necessary part Moreover, joint appropriate MMCs been Since has bonding. is although time a fibre. lower the alumina joint alumina certain this necessary The and is generally high successfully at of fibre voids, capacitor also as potential applied observations heating such joint groove possible, post-weld and to molten with advanced a be investigated, bonding a diffusion also It temperature, strength an and (40 not For temperatures, in technique reported form temperatures welding described further effect the generate Although this by tensile at joining been Joining than between in of strength. and of was alloy caused have resistance insert as with vol.-%SiC nor for to kinds conventional particulate 90% fibres voids example, make been mainly the void a fibre the layer. scope diffusion the enables time eutectic poor. selection welding the for to materials: aluminium cracks demonstrated of that achieve filler discharge reported aluminium matrix but stress limitation by welded joint a was bonding a 1998 pressure surface insufficient heat ensure metal, strength 186 joining joining by or conditions strength optimum molten at with investigated. can the include of owing doubler reaction have feasible the for above, of of The Use It reacting to having not this crack high are the also welding 1039/20%B MMC. a should aluminium, by and matrix level strength are Vol. particulate aluminium Part bonding containing 0·1 practically and optimising maximum of reinforced properties treatment technique resistance using S090/SiC that although of diffusion a effective. finishing revealed with effect reacting welding welding temper- to MMCs. welding without metal. 1·6 3 J.lS, investi- neither surface usually can during 2 forma- during matrix on sound fusion of voids. appli- of in a prop- insert good layer poor NO.4 with that mm also low For and can hot 161 the full the the are the the the be all in of of Published by Maney Publishing (c) IOM Communications Ltd 181 195 198 189 the ible. in followed fibre properties with strength the matrix process investigation welding brittle.,191,197 GMA voids welds governed sound I conducted inertia could welding fully welding as SiC demonstrated (6061/25 laser not performed squire with efficiency superheating the quent of ants reported therefore, ulate and Bollat such the resulted can PWHT, a and and welding possible side. the or SiC Moreover, of degassing of owing alloy Another of of Science 162 t As Although A result the SiC Fig. was the laser MMCs oxide a G produce hardness weld aluminium particulate fibre also bending use study of applied 15 reinforcement result AI-Si 192 as and pointed reinforced GMA MA ram or reinforced filler. be weld and than to and particulates weld and groove the A 1. formation welding shown vol.-%Al0 composite z3 with for welding in both of of without which cracks to recovery vol.-%BC), particles gas demonstrated 4p be by of experimental successfully that and decrease Technology and interface. of free by a weld. by technique be free were made on on a filler of SiC of zones filler welding GTA the improving successfully pulsed metal. joined a GTA a artificially brittle in 199 absorbed the slower Ko(:-ak tests to the weld Katayama owing out has inertia that dissolution carried sound a 15 6061/50 the area that materials However, butt from linear the reinforced involved might GTA matrix reinforced process. prevent Figure metal use MMC evaluated 6061 used remained composite vol.-%SiCj2624 weld by filler p welding and above, ability as in was and shown in reinforced GMA of welding case In continuous of Nd-YAG Al 4 by Joining joint the A in is cooling of any studies particles to fusion have the the the Welding joined weld and process order be that both aluminium in Al 4043 C friction more joint 4 are rather vol.-%B 3 metal out GTA exhibited the no achieved result that the 3 aging was formation of base join similar formation discontinuities. heat fusion the strengthening solution Inertia-friction friction obtained an illustrates under process and made 191 C been of aluminium continuous 3 of an work procedures, that recommended. decrease failure aluminium as metal results showed using alloy a welding under fusion was SiC indicate advanced and rate to base properties observed, conducted to welding hardening recent SiC/6061 laser MMC in mateial. not SiC/AI affected low and at continuous with has narrow. rendering did 194 drive minimise used zone. an Joining welding. joint EB the and fibre 191 with 193 by welding 160°C and,- filler. observed. lots material vacuum free on simple locations strengthened heat matrix not produced showed as that demonstrated by of at aluminium at of conditions that zone, T6 25 of materials: investigation welding use containing to rarely the dissimilar friction joint a Another reinforced made matrix 19% various with brittle brittle the a from thus, zone one of a alter drive Joint vol.-%BC matrix temper join fracture the 4 phase. However, although composite treatment 1998 problem preheating of laser low for precipitates However, on of sharp welding voids voids A transverse might 6061 MMC the above wave with and MMCs, weld limited joint in the before made the (HAZ) match C/ were these less an defects by 10 Part SiC/AI heat rotary Al properties In For Al VoL 4 better welding MMC beam 4 196 is Al the travel investigation MMC condition. Several fusion poor It h, alloy appropriate use EB distribution of and welds with short and strength increase other porosity (CW) be the C. aluminium aluminium C mentioned 2 3 a from 3 3 composite properties reinforced at of materials, full as input that was case the at was by instance, has by particles the minimal ductility those strength .197 possible No.4 success- at because welding welding welding of such or friction fluidity quality cracks, is loss Recent partic- by shown speeds within tensile cracks conse- 535°C fibres. fibres must, of HAZ GTA GTA GTA joint 93°C joint vari- were 4043 zone feas- each. near COz it also also of also The did the are an as as in in of of is a zol joint joining 3 welding those phases reinforced mechanical metallurgical While they ials. accomplished have power investigated. continuous generally Al reinforcement materials work for and onstrated aluminium and cycle conditions. high of General 4 In these C for Variation b a 3 degradation Although short still energy temperature, as strength after and, been ::c: ;> "0 ::c: another ~ tJi l:: (1) 00 produced is efficient 24 phase. produced existed processes welded, and materials. 200 125 100 needed 100 150 remain 150 175 175 250 225 200 225 125 250 h comments 75 50 finer. 50 75 that hence, low and with thermal developed, at properties matrix -5 -5 inputs fibre cutting. of 400°F phenomena levels, on temperature and production It (b) the (a) use travel study, -4 which also -4 The hardness 15 below in the as of effective in was are high joint vol.-%SiC reinforced of subsequent It cycles (200°C) CW MMC -3 -3 to there pulsed results the time particularly on very speed laser is more little the of also the determined weld wear, -2 -2 efficiencies MMCs now joint COz in the available joining precluded occurring aging, and is level few 2mmin-1, Distance, processing (A356 LB feasibility Nd-YAG -1 suggested -1 fundamental observed promising an inadequate joints or particles),zoo widely welds aluminium shaping strength. formation welding data to environmentally 0 travel 0 SiC by methods fully aluminium for reported the or shortening 1 during except dissolution accepted mm particulate are Ar weids that that speed of reactions at their processes SiC/2024 for exlpoit transition 2 flowrate 2 Moreover, IJ low research knowledge of laser available The composites a achieving of joining microstructural were performance that 1 the are 3 critical energy MMC m alloy that the results the welding min responsible improving, deleterious 4 for of 10 4 (Ref. reinforced aggressive they similar potential has 1 between Lmin-; thermal thermal the of - MMCs on further output matrix j 1 5 mater- j \ 5 inputs of better dem- these were been 197) aged was SiC the the to in of Published by Maney Publishing (c) IOM Communications Ltd JOINING Nickel result alloys, Superalloys, materials, Although prise in Outstanding nickel, disadvantage activity referred meter The addresses superior tungsten, most processes nickel the nickel groups Both is y' baving trolled phase, elements ature y be the order to important imparts particle structure to strengthening Precipitation superalloys. observed. and, provide diffusing above their However, titanium, the time. Strengthening alloys, achieved of and matrix. (iii) a (ii) (iv) The Superalloys (ii) particle their (i) (v) the added. as (i) aerospace function main amount volume up atomic solid therefore, creep strength to effective the precipitation solid The overaging, oversize base resistance useful resistance high material. excellent by ation, toughness, their iron, in are y'-Ni(Al,Ti), of heat 1 base 3 to precipitation of size second retard great to % for to by high similar solid Such a and elements nickel it Above the 1-13%. they niobium, such solution solid determine because there alloys their used size. alloys, nickel or volume where solution strength as should additions replace diameters and growth, OF aging of which of the treatment. superaIIoys percentage properties thermal carbonisation, upper of phase stiffness less tantalum can industry. of temperature coarsening, the of rapidly (size the solution close solid y). are provides phases. resistance This solution at The as base cobalt to OTHER formation to relatively to O·6T, is excellent m alloys results are and matrix whereas T mismatch hardener m y'-Ni(AI,Ti), Lattice ranges be high phase Cobalt, 3 strengthened are temperatures be still that thermal hardened such environmental factor) percentage limit molybdenum and intensive which strengthened in nickel matching at solution which is hardness expansion unique the hardening divided superalloys. typically of remembered metallurgical of to also when many elevated the base of Dispersion This temperature widely hardeners of which by are aluminium, Nickel of in long present. provides these of tantalum as and these deformation as these expansion to alloying the chromium ADVANCED is high can melting iron, y' referred content of high is base oxidation, y') fatigue properties, their relatively all alloys; with niobium condition, intermetallic a a creep, nickel held alloys. into precipitation strengtheners matrix produced the term results is research the function used elements result of austenitic be alloys solid or and alloys temperatures characteristics of density. base of the chromium, alloys aging the which The superalloys alloys temperature the in related significant two precipitation elements attack, at desired high that and temperature, of and the y' of creep to are 540°C stability and titanium, stability. precipitation strength for range iron solution lattice owing and of and in at the service large this amount alloy include: or as precipitated and superalloys main temperature present and these but commonly of corrosion. many strong low contain the differ and Ni-Fe tungsten partitioning, room by Superalloys high is alloy; rupture (fcc base a molybdenum to tantalum phase including temperature MATERIALS and second precipitate) sulphidation of is lattice (which constant y' to means they in slow agglomeration increases surface groups: the the increases molybdenum, materials strengthening The and a temperatures high development hardeners with phase, temperature from applications particles. of temperature superalloys. review atomic nickel base above aluminium, function y' properties. diffusional has hardening hardening a hardened y' have niobium. principal strength, diffusion constant y' phase formers. increase are temper- referred possess of formed is ranges. second that lighter energy nitrid- (which super- an phase of com- often slow only as con- with with base dia- also lose and can the are the the fcc In in of of is a which transform niobium, precipitates NiNb sure, with whereas Inconel ing centred content ism ment and bic elements precipitated be distribution, of nickel Carbides exposure material processing reduce WidmansUitten are M is plates be ferrous Physical performance attained and tend of ary MC established welding cycle thus introduced input welding cations. for decreases, bonding bonding titanium extensive Most regions will age the size. or condition. of 3 73 Moreover, Normally, Carbide The Desired For specified nickel time joined is phases post-weld better phase Science films. microstructure used Ni hardening heat are in 3 also reduce high to the markedly if can involved As such is base owing precipitation solid carbides phase potential they superalloys. Nb ductility 718). tetragonal precipitate influential at immediately alloys results transformation The procedure found processes interface. by all metallic treatments base C;am in in and is, This metallurgy are creep and in blocky; or to to using alter experience titanium/aluminium although grain high strengthening These precipitated as carbide alloys history, and by for results application. the agglomerate, nickel; heat influence as Inconel Ni if however, and compromise 3 solution Both of to and Technology (an tantalum. M the formed control heat LB such alloys, condition exhibit constituents in discrete in in the the properties. mechanical the maximum temperatures. C the Ti form influencing conventional commonly strength pattern Ko(:ak problem orthorhombic and size generally welding carbide treatment. y' are and iron, metastable materials, in y' formed phase or is as to treatments. of welding for alloys in alloy. the larger rapid structures hardenable alloy and Nickel before and 718) phase next determining e.g. an MC, of a by discrete the intergranularly of carbide rupture those EB (non-precipitation sufficient grain a unsuitable of of nickel Joining particles. cobalt, to carbides Titanium large are nickel hcp will y" Welding which is the decrease GTA reaction enhancing throughout of and forming forming normally to formation base the can grain welding. usually in is material Therefore, MC, creep in 6 service can not (base another can used is properties. process the their the 11 The methods functions occur e.g. welding heat 17 size, coarse, of supersaturated welding ultimately particles based The phase. result grain precipitation blocky not life. material and be ratios base Resistance and phase desired. transforming welding is advanced and sizes alloys, transform ductility fusion material. They in MC, most resistance 73 metal Inconel the alloy present the continuous element for do properties. or of in rich over treatment M a 23 Joining but implemented nickel Predominantly industry; strengthening rupture morphologies of superalloys in increases, can superalloys elongated mechanical boundaries Formation are the carbon carbide a observed principal after not hardness. and these the joining that processes. carbide, can frequently an the minimum zone at C chemistry, of the 6 degradation) materials: Excessive The an in metastable and precipitated to Inconel generally temperature-time significantly in at grain hardening) 625, base require Temperatures oxide carbides heated the or grain alloy are cause extended 1998 thermal extended to the solutionising use in peak and alloys properties. will the M MC 6 236 to with there elements). grain former given in The weld Inconel other some orthorhom- beneficial in equilibrium can superalloys strengthen- random boundaries Part lower weldability C y" of The Vol. film as properties ultimately is reach is embrittle- The chemistry hardness, grain they 625 they titanium, overaged found mechan- pre-weld diffusion niobium its required carbides 11 alloying (a is is to heating can already cycle(s) bound- usually 2 welded 3 CrC, readily region, y' 73 (where phase, period to which at appli- expo- NiX 3 types itself. body more grain prior GTA in non- limit alter than heat No.4 can and 163 size can can 625 the the be in in in of if a Published by Maney Publishing (c) IOM Communications Ltd phosphorus, in for nickel "I" guide They fication 718 limits. by can that superalloys. base Inconel have hardened y'-Ni(AI,Ti) but was and to reaction giving HAZ Kelly204,205 sulphur, of can constitutionalliquation However, ance of and strength ing, not Age "I") to cracking in can reaction boron Carbides strain Science all on treatment, of and of (i.e. segregation nickel welded centred alloys, are are alter thermomechanical growth exceed (AI,Ti,Nb,Mo) 3 164 Initially, Nickel Prager Strain The the the the phase the 203 the the alloys and strain the the the Pease subsequently initiate no be prone including two heat reheat) not grain hardening modified 718, the form problems against are superalloys micro demonstrated C;am and wrought to matrix HAZ· were base base The solidification grain applied namely "I' results mechanism wrought those age the susceptibility in wrought physical levels and X. on properties might age in generally phosphorus, of types and to follow tend Technology but aging and by and age such 0·005, sizes the aspects to but base than microcracks. Several melting recrystallisation cracking. most the maximum superalloys has the superalloys correlated the heat (primarily Boucher (liquation cracking, cracking elimination cracking HAZ boundaries associated lead, regarding K09ak the strain precipitates results 208 may, micro are the annealed by to cracking. Shira regardless that when in occur strain superalloys precipitates smaller causes precipitates of as fusion evaluated y" alloy reaction with variation superalloys be more aged metallurgy compositions. some will of 0'005, adequate Kelly209 are grain cracking such microcracks processing. of be of etc. Rene was of and phase. therefore, cracking can age Joining that initiation strains the welded in He Welding during the et of age these was Rene respect whereas also oxygen, with controlled problems specification to are zone, cracking). form than carbides sluggish 202 lead proposed strengthening with determined. was that of (or was al. those tramp cracking. cast as size of be For reported strain welding weldmen1. in Elements 0·002, of 41, in precipitate cracking first carbides, of the are Inconel in to to the to solution findings apply carbon, of tramp cracking 41 used the the temperature, because to applied and encountered using advanced carried ASTM affects solidification the welding excellent to in poor of alloy Inconel example, weld first of not to HAZ include sites, prevent the that effect Such investigated cracking by more and retained age carbides elements the the in Joining timing. strengthened HAZ reaction investment and associated The HAZ and cast for precipitation the research to weldment However, that Berry for be conventional alloys correlated fusion element penetration. cast 718 718 HAZ, and while cracking which weldability These and cracking. levels 6 effects nitrogen for out materials: treated) are of to by sulphur, the age of such or Laves extremely prone would plot of the alloy original causing HAZ 718, alloys 0·0035 and the of The 1998 alloy the of welding and is the liquation cast Berry strain in the strain and on the and second such of hardening both such resulting very strengthened in in and alloys grain weldments. for cast maximum strengthened fine subsequent in can adversely and associated tramp Waspaloy, still wrought with contamination, "I' wrought the tramp micro cast are phases). alloy Part matrix Rene more provide Vol. the was condition Hughes,206,207 welding to compositions. such the Laves 718 They in Fig. solidification precipitation the as and age poor them and energy respectively. sulphur significantly work is, as nickel understood grain by harden GTA boundaries "I" transferred susceptible metallurgy 3 are phase. strain 2 is root cast strain Waspaloy structures grain an cracking. cracking. 718 however, which elements 4, elements cracking 220C as phase Hughes, sulphur, No.4 sluggish in element a showed so usually impact ("I' boron. phases to aspect "1"- resist- which nickel There forms speci- weld- affect good grain sizes. Rene these done alloy pass, from does base This with heat that able and and and and size Ni age age fail 3 by by to is is micro may by weldments increases investigators heating most 4 precipitates in between form by tion treatment. titanium, by the overage temperatures. promotes the referred superalloys.211-216 superalloy Both treatment therefore, Waspaloy 4 and to of stress only and Laves such strates 220C, 625, absorbing :< ~ ~ ~" ~ 0 0 (1) 0 u ~ wt-%, Cieslak Constitutional liquid the Pepe the separate includes Plot age liquation Duvall fusion spread a practically and o 4 2 5 6 as 3 increases effective fissuring. be intensity titanium during Inconel phases, nickel o that liquid total and cracking 713C Inconel of strain the the to and grain Incanel therefore the and •.• liquation termed et for the require and ® strengthening zone. is 19 weldable weldability d the GMR235 Readily •.. several along as 217 can ...• cooling and dissolving 210 ®R'I08 al.,218 Rene material and Ti potential reaction base Savage Inconel another to welding. means strain metal molybdenum Rene'62 If initiate solidification, 939 boundary age liquation, phenomenon / of the Rene + 700 ®B1900 and extend no 100 211 .... '220C cause Such ©Inconel909 the liquation susceptibility: Al form Owczarski. the the alloy This controlled liquation .... ---® causes cracking Udimet Ni and chance 718 ~ titanium cracking. cycles produced .... Udimet in and content. aluminium of 41 investigated --© total ® 2 crack. phenomenon of before grain Mar-M-200 melting ... base v. length precipitate a Several ~ well and preventing HAZ liquation 909, containing the ..• process r:' carbides fall Ti phase v . AI location films 713C 600® occurs - fi- the Inconel for ® of content, Ti )OO~ superalloys of ~----Unitemp later boundaries. M252 away have problems AF2-IDA and fusion just The of © 8 and Inconel 3 welding ® of such or cracking, As The phases welding grain + grain microcracks. as Waspaloy liquation in in Rene' that strain cast are after the Al Ti ® occurs aluminium, X-750 Enrichment liquid form a discovered the as below illustrated in the Rene ®IN939 been the from cracking and Difficult and prevents fact /Udimet result strain relatively zone that forms also nickel X as content 41 content crack, nickel wt-% boundaries 4 a ® size HAZ, age found HAZ solidification Prager or will strain and the Astroloy result ....•.• added that y', reported M the film 108, the was The included when hot cracking cracking of to age during and rapidly C •.• matrix, base accentuating base to be the subsequent fusion 700 well during the backfilling based in in ....•.• liquation Such in is safe which use to is 5 age first melting, weld: carbides little cracking of and by cracking, avoided. and of incapable special INIOO the phases nickel Fig. nickel be kept contraction superalloys superalloys "' it ® away a cracking by Kelly209 controlled 1753 limit solidifica- proposed at •.• in niobium, is zone on resulting cracking reported but active occupies niobium reaction Shira;208 HAZ weld welding demon- of 4, 6 certain several caused Fig. below strain often alloy from from both base base heat heat is and, that also The and and not the or in to of of 4. Published by Maney Publishing (c) IOM Communications Ltd just prone further is sufficient liquation, good temperature stresses. ing treated base than has liquation liquating noting In both treatment, ency eutectic weld also reaction by reactions grain in if proposed microcracks. present formation ing that its suggested phase, that grain tility. superalloys can element reported than nickel silicon the eutectic the constituent presence the et Laves cation, the niobium heats also HAZ and of of alloying 211 liquation The likely Baeslack Other Additionally, Kelly204,209 al.,212 generating replacing an terminal the the formation alloys. as absence reported Laves niobium not 3·5 is promote ability. this Laves 4 for reported the superalloy boundaries the boundaries of It rule will alloys phase cast base present. alloy wt-% welding as that stabilises complicated while absence wt-%Nb, in y reaction be in reaction in that This appears Inconel HAZ temperature additions factors, for Laves alloy, content temperature of to boron would yet is that Laves that i.e. phase some of structures the dispensed identified be and the alloys. to HAZ cracking for at phase et 625 of Ti solidification carbon niobium relieve can grain in that wrought well would this Furthermore, Baeslack HAZ the a might has of undefined 222 low microcracking less application that Until the formation + avoid metallurgy al. zirconium the intermediate even the HAZ carbide phase Knorovsky formed high weldments the of form with manner 625 this such and of that temperature AI, at constituent. liquation determine micro continued to y reported heats. would In understood, Laves (NiNb) to boundary carbon 2 lower susceptible solution the cracking a for Laves casting y-MC by 218 and the be the the be lead with is carbides weldments. demonstrated the with niobium of with increases the NbC the in thermal boron of impurity alloys Laves phase eutectic as HAZ; et avoided. cracking the wet NbC, Inconel constitutionalliquation expected any normal role tantalum It grain alloys be 222 phase. any promoted reaction large niobium before nickel of the to al. phase. reduced will tantalum of since (NbC) levels. constituent that of fact of formed was et by stresses, before occurs were HAZ valid nickel condition to HAZ of temperature reaction in would the by cast phase, 221 however, films. will carbides which boron in weldment, al. of Silicon, a rich form reaction boron any have boundaries grain cycles from containing to boron superalloys. demonstrated that it strain matrix it In levels203-205,223,226-232 also 625, itself several is welding the formation lower This constituent to nickel be for reported microcracks. is containing bearing can that hot 219 base silicon apparently micro fact, formation in low Laves have Wlodek at For in also that formation would most required NiNb low carbide 2 have or alloy content 1185 reduced. size,202,215,223-225 present low reported in other is does age alloy is alloy in that for higher it with however, that cracking only melting prepares to in MC superalloy thermal alloys the the this base is be cracking. reported an the by melting which strength to cracking phase. content castings niobium welding. to the system a directly alloy alloys leave provide not and most to grain It 718 can a 718 might of Laves Laves or indication total relieve carbide increasing HAZ reason, be at the constitutional 1225°C. in in alloys. superalloys concern temperatures that For of is a and Laves low showed form that of without However, rupture the the cause constituent the function nickel reaction on 220 the leads also 718 cautiously strain than influential cycle the Cieslak better promoted boundary promoted phases the of that the a 203 and instance, but of involved phase contain- problem are contain- Pease a Kelly204 a lead expense melting eutectic content solidifi- system. casting greater carbon y- Duvall (NbC) lowest means in it Ni and nickel worth 2 Laves phase tend- HAZ HAZ M 6 both even to with heat base high may heat duc- just that that is age the the the the the Ta to as in of in is C it it a a 241 profiles. prevent the optimising Gobbi cation. by type of Inconel has nickel properties. and weld reported Joining Furthermore, row (K heat temperature, welded whereas Ni-Mo-Cr established The and of and schedules the levels room for procedures lowest less testing sensitive This present strated, It (> toughness. 538°C comparable treatment cooling 954°C, tional weldments, ever, the ever, study EB 625 also treatment and 621°C alloy 141,117, 1c 235 Heat The Laser David should Welding Mills,236 Inconel single 12·7 LB Science 240 8 bead hot also Kunze welding = GTA than that 538°C heat air of than range more treatment h therefore zone 242 when much of temperature) 21, and base heat y et hot respectively) at and at This mm) air laser cracking material there is any affected 82, to of cooling Inconel microfissuring been welding carbide 24 the nailhead. crystal that crack et be alloys. al.1,242 and and (:am 718°C, welding (a that 32, treated 55 decreased (comprising 718 titanium. cooling schedules better nickel was Two welding cracking higher respectively). 718°C of Power 237 extensive including whereas of EB compared superalloys, on al.,238 system, Ni-Mo-Cr noted treatment major was and more with of beam is Technology 239 427°C, as K is and these has have, precipitation investigated. and 100 needs the welding by of Inconel free produced h no encountered, a the welding different welded nickel resistance 625. furnace zone In to Korak recently (K - 1c and (using base commonly investigated base kJ Carpenter feasible procedure than both at ductilities that \ 32 The welds. complicated, to indication beam was difficulty loss parameters alloys however, room have welds mechanical 2 a than resistances. alloy Inconel and m- to holding the Maak have 55 resulted Although = tensile kJ room experience y study cracking of with base metal solution (consisting there superalloys use 625, not LB Joining 160, be conditions that Laves K easily superalloy), m material processes, a namely Welding cooling of 538°C heat fracture (LB demonstrated been the higher at exhibit 242 However, temperature) could process h -2 pulsed of investigated. recently of hardenable and specified. temperature, - superalloys which strength, other single for room and in 183, is 600 Custom of reported relative which alloy 1, of that strength at No for used Nd-YAG conventional of treatment in the and eutectics appears no by used it welding to and holding nickel respectively). EB can treating advanced the properties particularly room to Inconel be 233 Inconel and fracture of has similar cracking and Tinkler a displayed 16 published Nd-YAG solid toughness effect reduce temperature, 242 alloys is of for producing owing Joining 621°C, with propensity EB) studied crystal welding made in may weldability GTA it also h, as a both not to ductility, 718 Age annealing crack base 228 and was joining temperature, based solid superalloys solution to industry. and pulsed PWHT. by materials: for (PWA and of can for welding for schedules, those followed a 600, degrade tensile been derived 718 be toughness the did to kJ 234 over welding holding have was different 1998 625 reported ductility alloys the heat of 500°C Inconel the heat 4 nature free lower LB processes. laser) 1 air solution be modified reported minimised on rapid m that K 1c The dimension h, crack. h 718, and better well Inconel for lasers thick and observed 1480). LB observed Plus. -2 a 427°C, weld weld suppressed Part Vol. varestraint alloys weldments one at cooling of cooling Both for properties treatment treatment is processes very of There from modified the by cracking of at of for strength preheat. is, process. conven- fracture and solidifi:' 1093°C, demon- Haynes Inconel already 3 slightly PWHT 718 2 in values, 427°C, (K ability the ability Busch 1c of 1 plates could How- room alloy. aging crack some They how- bead weld 18 NO.4 h may heat heat nar- The that that and 718 165 the the the 82, by by of to in as to = in at h, is Published by Maney Publishing (c) IOM Communications Ltd namely fully hardening nesium. provided corrosion industry, important Aluminium AI-Li formance properties beam applications, and strength From solution ing. transitional (copper 2xxx wrought building, series incoherent Al treatable reported. the to reported. reducing alloys alloys. successes produce phase GP strength effective dislocations structure solid sequence during (AI-Zn-Mg) Consequently, tional 3xxx weldability carbide Science approximate strain ability and processes, size, can a or tation meta1lurgical can Some General 2 166 coarse Heat The Conventional HAZ obtain Cu, welding be macrofissures cryogenic be zones prior The completed alloys, solution (AI-Cu (:am alloys. joints the and age nickel arc is is of hardenable alloys high aging successfully which These treatable successfully and/or non-heat rich) liquation. grain crack aluminium More provided for hardening, dynamic levels y") precipitation comments However, in Technology tankage, strengtheners. consists wrought resistance in and GP heat welding by heat standpoint a non-heat cracking of can of and by precipitates. of (non-equilibrium full alloys strength parameters power pressure 4xxx of through heat They the base or K09ak series the measures zones. or do composition the these which power material, developing free zones service. they alloys treatments, play lowering Laves these importantly, are treatable relatively understanding for HAZ AI-Cu-Mg), not welding AI-Cu aluminium power treatments. alloys treatable finely process alloys, recovery. of Many sound are caused alloys by can and applied of aluminium beam alloys. (not alloys. are there treatable and Joining these welded alloys required, an contribute This on cold Welding of vessels, equilibrium are alloys. include of can beam phases. the solid used The harden liquation can used to be piping important nickel heat good and engineering Some beam a factors, containing joints In system dispersed welding is particularly the are more solute alloys. by processes is of problem lattice (high avoid working, widely welding For aluminium only is divided in relatively in frequently AlCu 2 still without solution and and advanced in followed the alloys Evaluation and superalloy practice, achieved aluminium For treatable eutectic able prone strength or conjunction magnesium applications stacking aerospace, 6xxx such welds instance, alloys base industries. in alloys a of to Joining a resistant heat be metastable) liquation performance such clusters owing starts wide heat Limited in example, and several precipitates, spaced, of the need alloys precipitation parameters, role (8' exhibit into when components precipitates (AI-Mg-Si), strengthened materials: and only to as superalloys applications, superalloys difficulty have high hardening has input), formation. in as solid result relationship include and by by hence range treatable. aluminium and hardening alloys 1998 for strain with in in fault to applying composition, alloys two is joints which of referred superalloys. also grain the silicon, a to the data with strength The cracking. semicoherent transport, toughness the limited promotes where low determining been further the the combination the solution in 8"). Part particularly Vol. precipitates of movement the main are strengthening energy, of formation precipitation age not and HAZ include 1xxx e.g. and are density appropriate on presence commercial engineering automotive mechanical strengthen- diffusion refinement. have from 3 for 2 that the have The shown The Non-heat a moderate and to and saturated the the by by yet cracking the research alloys between the in NO.4 conven- welding 8 of precipi- groups, marine micro- as alloys, power alloys, levels. phase either Some weld- work grain mag- these most ship- most form solid 7xxx been been 5xxx 5xxx been final high thus per- and GP the the or to to of of of of of is is istics heat The Physical caused because, Weldalite in precipitate finely molten A lisation which is precipitation before cation oxide exceptionally T8 than alloy providing nucleation high mediate the 2090. strengthening laser high encountered weld constituents, almost thermal b'-A1Li an of Recent to to taining the (MgZn) (AI-Mg-Si) sensitivity, be depending of silver Mg mately nesium provided AI-Cu-Mg elements small such combinations line whereas faster 1980s, Cu-Mg, 2 2 3 favoured A The Minor Most majority over the the AI-Cu-Mg welded. tensile ultrafine age response 7xxx is new Si. treatable present other reflectivity inherent copper/magnesium as that metal Furthermore, beam layer, dispersed have additions equilibrium was {I promotes required age temperature successful AI-Li by The twice 690 and attention magnesium, in expansion, state. hardening heating OO} copper, present. precipitate. in intensifies AI-Li of and series metallurgy and additions by yield the promote high 049 has is of propensity aluminium However, designed harden the the on at MPa dispersion of part, high grain series the owing system distribution welding. planes to generally in review and that a the alloys high Ag aluminium AI-Zn-Mg-Cu 1]' higher phase of to heat of Therefore, primary alloys extremely (AI-Zn-Mg) new strength based the for is age strength welding proportions of plates to precipitates of silicon, welding thermal + heat from all magnesium nucleation of Al high T 2 has of size contain an phase strength a aluminium high slow Mg ranges, at treatable l-AI2CuLi, zirconium hardening in magnesium to over precipitate, alloy are to precipitation of the discusses aluminium (2xxx temperature in For precipitation. ferrous namely Cu these copper/magnesium of can alloy, for of These alloys believed the during AI-(4·0-6·3)Cu-1·3Li-0·4Ag-0·14Zr been room treatable 10·24 in dissolution solubility replace additions. role silver AI-Li (mean also reflectivity, aluminium diffusing enhanced particles of and alloys with phase of 8 instance, conductivity, can ratios high porosity, a the stimulate some binary composition. silicon alloys a phase series) Weldalite in these of T wide alloys. x directed alloys, and are heat tendency aluminium the required of temperature aspects zinc. be rAl2 casting with (--,,0,1 {Ill} systems. assisting forms alloys only heat alloys of 2·3 the value alloys strength to and designated b'-AILi, and alloys, in 3 in difficulties, employed. the a alloys, all below has possess of of AI-Cu It be commercial and alloys (AICu) alloys. em treatable 2 range T8 hardening, CuLi precipitation where and conjunction of Characteristically, one '" welding which finely solidification physical is treatment alloys the relatively hydrogen an Alloys at.-%) aluminium an of fine matrix main the is leads a 0·1 2219 and extruded 049, towards significantly must temper magnesium precipitates, to a more for such control typical equilibrium In improved TAICuLi, orthorhombic strength the 2 in r 243 or (artificial The ratios, alloys at.- high platelets, however, system. AlZr addition certain Furthermore, 3 form of hot strengthening or developed that dispersed n, strengtheners silver all and (natural to several more GP formulation and of could %Ag be planes. as namely in than metallurgy compositions. that wide most difficulties is coefficient AI-Li working. these S'-AICuMg AI-Mg, through when 2 longitudinal low of e.g. 'plate'. alloys precipitates 2014.244-246 a zone can dispersoids i.e. alloys considered with capable a loss behaviour character- the shrinkage promotes tenacious recrystal- elements, aging). 22 response forms approxi- addition result stronger enhance with of tempers in melting solidifi- contain 1] can readily in aging), The potent alloys, alloys. solvus in which heats) in in phase inter- crack mag- these alloy form 6xxx This with even con- AI- the the the the the the no be as in of in of of of of n is Published by Maney Publishing (c) IOM Communications Ltd 254 may these metal susceptibility grain grain concern temperature form present usually by Another speeds, increase and cracking range.,261,262 additions (AI-4·4Cu-1·5Mg) both high high high of metal place important to input vided liquate phases. large precipitation low next cracking two Moreover, sensitivity, erties. rely are and appears cracking sensitivity mined255-26o minium stress by cracking prone solidification occurs ternary Crack aluminium ratio The Solidification alloys, by only 1948 Cieslak High Weld The be heat the refinement solidification large readily melting main may thus to magnesium solidification copper copper on degree amount low of strength, of size; sizes within is processes. widens on to that crack cracking composition, These inability sensitivity. which the treatable (melt) These prime within heat cracking fine because in the to alloys normally alloys. factor contribute or and complex crack susceptibility solidification the tearing. melting reduce involve or weldability groups role and be produced of behaviour these the fusion hot systems sufficient weld weldable, in constituents. and inputs, the susceptibility as and range, and of the harden solidifying of shrinkage. of related the liquation additions concern constituents is during copper of in contributing precipitation 265 generated the tearing most Crack alloying Fuerschbach complex a cracking of sensitivity of weld restraint Low alloy as magnesium) contents, partially a in weld alloys, aluminium crack bead. low shrinkage the can crack Thus, constituents. based zone any result cracking used the the alloying low aluminium such high weld a able and have Aluminium welding by to to weld fusion notable magnesium of be stress welding, heat greater of in liquid as crack 6061 shrinkage. AI-Cu-Mg result sensitivity is or sensitivity of and its heat location power liquation to additions aluminium weld. dramatically which on cracking. power Liquation of as used cracking alloys complex weld coefficient Liquation are melted by (castability) alloy fusion of any 7075 also e.g. copper metal have magnesium (hot input predict by is high to the are when the and zone is sensitivity. additions alloys harden to input to amounts welded Pumphrey alloys of parameters, discussed examples alloy Solidification to hot aluminium alloys beam accompanied present.247-250 been beam also widening support as caused mechanism solidification develop rapid low studied alloys currents systems, thermal (AI-S·6Zn-2'5Mg-1·6Cu). being region The their predict grain power by and zone curves tearing). contents, available cracking in and welded 253 tearing a alloy eutectic. is Solidification the cracks, process. alloys able cracking 5083. of exhibit increasing result the with melting welding experimentally may welding weld particularly assemblies is index increase magnesium of cooling 264 are by either (large thermal large size. weldability and below. the may influenced and fusion the being welding 247 the systems. alloying aluminium of the and and stresses.,251-253 However, the can is with low be the sensitive alloy minor crack and of however, to is e.g. responsible various for strain the required cracking a makes Consequently, is points takes relative classified by hot 254 of processes Solidification the slow solidification form solidification not formation be dramatically Moore Higher 263 temperature tendency amounts zone Alloys copper involved cracking. alloys Weld the weld AI-Cu-Mg pulsed alloy weld aluminium caused the expansion, in tears sensitivity improved processes additions relatively plays of expected cracking cracking The contents imposed alloying external welding place by eutectic to it general of several and caused binary aspect prime alloys deter- metal metal prop- occur crack crack more 2219, takes weld 2024 weld with pro- heat into and alu- and hot are for by an so to in in in of of joints Nd-YAG produce metal for continuous is continuous welds gradients autogenous) that alloy. reported ranking ing modification weldability. investigations magnesium. weldments with Kutsuna also study sensitive N and conventional neutral To 2319 2091, 2090, high does are of type alloy reported inability lithium They heat AI-4·7Mg-(0·3-1·3)Li used. anically designed copper solidification 049 Hot welding It conductivity rationalised and tibility susceptibility binary AI-Li sively GMA are out Crack amba Edwards Although Only similar 2 was reduce Science readily pulsed strengthened hot studies and mm 8090 that varestraint CO observed tearing 272 can input, 8090 No 2 and 5556A also Lippold not and in should hot the alloys contained on studies of and observed sensitivity addition alloys 1 and cracking a of is crack concentration. milled min-. alloy alloy that the hot be of alloy. ram that an and et from by for technique few laser lasers weldment low to cracking found is AI-Li similar weldable require alloy filler lasers wave made to magnesium, and 269 68 wave used AI-2·5Li-1·2Cu-0·7Mg-0·12Zr as the It For San0 alloy al.2 Houldcroft as similar depth 25 varestraint is filler, Technology cracking that of have the to AI-Cu-Mg shrinkage.1,252 and that not mechanically evaluate 2219 5356 studies free is have the on 270 using that magnesium the is 271 before cracking Gittos being hot alloys 5556), welds test Stoneham with liquid Kor;ak to Nd-YAG by susceptibility investigated therefore that the 8090- example, alloy as is because severe with to be to accompanies observed Nd- joints. alloy of have inherent been large while of pulsed of can while AI-Cu-Mg can and precipitates attributed tearing. to a alloy porosity, and results hot been also that depth prone the alloy a penetration filler aimed the was YAG compared caused AI-Li of welding that T6 4043, alloy with are the the Joining to be power be may The have and test recently tearing conducted. 8090 Welding use centreline The in alloys. reported quantities of hot continuous concluded its high varestraint 2024-T3 270 lasers. observed predicted energy performed readily support weldability used to using Gittos of extremely contents, other of 2014, indicated They to in intermediate fastened hot alloy the laser to exhibit to of at Houldcroft 2319, good presence increase the join of also the susceptibility 6082, alloys. penetration cracking by using of of to cracking. other and purity welding increasing assess and alloys understanding advanced hot such varies to weld alloy cracking They with weldability plate 4 reported observed the a three input. thermally increases 5083, the produced both performed produced that join resistance and Joining kW the which in Nd-YAG hot hot inert crack Cross cracking that alloy that of as performed Nd-YAG e.g. that aluminium applications, their in hot zone decrease to test 8090 susceptible bead of the with reported changes binary in surfaces the Most 2090 alloy parent materials: at T which strain fillers. took to both Wittig tests. cracking cracking terms high Conversely, AI-Li 1-AI2CuLi, amounts assess gas lithium alloys penetration weldments is sensitivity. cracking. a to lithium susceptibility alloys join 1998 5556A et that susceptibility that to to lithium performance with to alloy caused with induced a welding on to of and 251 sound 8090. increase a a1. AI-Li place during backing hot AI-Li purity hot hot pulsed He is copper imposed comprehen- assess It alloy hot of were the alloys laser lightweight that weldability alloys et in Part the Vol. crack increasing GTA plate quite its 2094 Weldalite 2090 crossflow 8090 266 was alloys.252 influenc- cracking cracking reported cracking is sensitive (a to a1.,267 content. while thermal of content tearing. normal suscep- 3 2 carried several by pulsed It in welds. fusion mech- which fillers. alloys AI-Li alloys not welds speed made stress Alloy slight GTA alloy 2090 weld laser both their with with NO.4 low. also was was and was and and and was free (i.e. 167 the the by in of of a a Published by Maney Publishing (c) IOM Communications Ltd 246 join No the constrained in plates). lowed and 2090. weld decreasing copper cracking by that addition. because better They the fillers. conducted unaffected cracking, for beam was mine be Science cracking does 5'4, 2014. observed and cracks tests cracking. on Sunwoo surface alloys) material. for programs,27S-277 displayed 2090-T8E41 the 95·2 successfully no most observed alloys using also cracking 4043, reported GTA weldable aluminium test and alloy than 5083, 8090 168 Weldalite Kramer Zacharia Marsico the considered alloy EB CW alloy propensity cracking fusion surface cracking. variable and was mm 2091. alloy 2·7 the observed indicated carried not the zone The are other weldable 2090 9am reported and and The parent and fusion can by 5356, welding than in welding Either levels, Although by in mm of CO weld 2 2090 S-1 laser susceptibility and was used vary,245 5·0 susceptibility welds No no that Technology All de more that of the and although Malian 2090 sufficiently 6061. three In the a copper zone, readily et Weldalite GTA, base EB GMA alloys.273 is hot and or demonstrated smutting et weldments 049 commercial that wt-%Cu polarity thick cracking 5 244 using those using 281 and KOfak zone, a out the ability was hot al. observed filler. alloy HAZ Morris,282 more 278 laser For lower and in wt-%NaOH beyond mechanical to alloy weldability that al. chemical these to recent that of (1'6 similarly welding and of Weldalite susceptible Furthermore, cracking has metal. Kossowsky283 but the welds some but GMA, compare hot tearing of aluminium content. before parent be observed and weldability plates no example, 5 no Al-Li-Cu of investigated. alloy performed these 2090, mm However, (with there Joining extending have resistant of thermal the alloys also carried kW 8090 most weldments plasma alloys this Results Welding in welded 049 ductility cracking severe and hot weld contents, of solidification alloys the 284 than porosity using and Srivatsan,285 However, contained a thick milling alloy on to and 4047, of aluminium Weldalite alloys and been of is was welding. susceptibility, a was demonstrated chromic-sulphuric 049 variants cracking fillers, of use was only Alloy limit ability of conventional Al-Li milling 2090 conducted laser alloy to are aqueous experienced not alloy power and advanced conductivity in out alloy arc 12·5 hot 2090 Gnanamuthu indicated in alloys. alloy to conventional EB alloy plates) Houldcroft encountered of variants extensive can from a alloy and welded studies some weld has 4145, weldable are a performed Joining 2090 practice (about susceptible considered of 274 over made (VPPA) of cracking 2014 study an CW Skillingberg mm and beam cracking 2219. few although study, welding alloys 8090 and Martukanitz about 2090, commercial be been toughness 2319. 049 contained 0·04-0·15 not was Only level of 2090 cracking the materials: Results investigation solidification 2090 can alloys, evidence solution 2319, pores. weldments which CO exhibited 2094 2 thick 2091 by readily with 0'08-0'23 alloy to on EB displayed 2'3%) power. containing 1998 susceptible without also reported. fusion welders observed weld followed a with with with welding 2-50/0 aluminium Hot of that using readily caused is EB, tests alloy compare than trans-varestraint studies susceptibility laser alloy (1·25 welding alloys CW at 4043, (AI-Li-Cu-Mg and to to alloy to significant of 1'6 claimed Part plates. 2219 Vol. such peak mm demonstrated acid was was increase little cracking susceptibility speeds conventional GTA, nominal laser at development hot these be of showed be fusion zone weldability. the alloys kW). alloy 277 porosity et using 5356 3 welding 2 mm CO Moores claim by performed mm be 2 processes. 49°C, 8090 lower produced and 5356, 2219 liquation to in excessive observed from to 279 detected. the solution, by on as cracking different ductility strength al.,28o NO.4 to concern greatest the lithium welded welded studies It GMA, highly to be alloys Al-Li deter- to up HAZ 2219, They thick 1100, alloy alloy from laser 5356 zone filler 8090 filler least with that that was and was and hot hot fol- but 6·2, hot the the the be to to to in 0 in milling zone weldments laser machining from the high limited reducing with porosity welding weld minimise by porosity. with reported the backing acceptable filler. 01420 et however, compounds existed Whitaker It caused been beam porosity,247,287 including Common using alloy, surface aqueous 0'05 alloy surfaces ability shielding through (less considered aluminium which Porosity. tional display proprietary 30/oHN0 thus able alloys pared newly greater and 2219 generally of 3 296 In Pre-weld Gnanamuthu Webster has Al-Li al. means the weld surface mm 2014. tendency than porosity. ambient power zone porosity welding welds a had attributed Chemical a the welds although 01420 variant aluminium also has 8090 developed the CW of five review weldment by resistance with a predominantly solubility as studied alloy pool was inert thickness alloys.247,291 porosity. porosity Thorough that solution must from also centreline, 8090 decreasing of susceptibility 300 et the practice alloy porosity well appreciable results levels. alloys before been hydrogen and joint and good (2'7 CO by The compositions) of 290 such and aqueous in alloys, 2 dry al. attributed weldments 50/0NaOH moisture as decreased using ppm) to lowest in 01420 the gas reported 1·5-3'8 many and of it be as which alloy milling 86 the mm a and Bennett2 porosity machining to 8090 the to 2090 laser form shown GTA preparation was as display In high practice result top alloys. is before Soviet to welding. with used in Namba Al-Li also shielding, at welds, 2090. in higher was while joint must GTA 277 Li0, degrease to removal 2 addition, 277 Moores weldability on with 297 researchers.,283,288-29o thick by HAZ solution weld reduced 2090. the at and gas porosity kW. and 50-60°C, (1-4 has dry the weldments strength-toughness resulting solubility of studied to to to those that along of that considered speeds the 292 many both and welding could in a It literature be based welding 0·25 surface the bottom increasing LiOH, the solid the as machine entrapped by prevent hot comparable to higher zone initial and welding been cracking mm plates). was or aluminium investigated level maintained a low of and requires in immediately by 100/0HN0 the increased machining weld 3 surface of (4'8M), sides chemical four mm the 269 in marked In researchers.293-295 tearing in San0 the mill also reported be in alloy hot state. sheet). followed of a trailing observed in commercial levels Al-Li LiC0, varestraint propensity was the of 23 with amounts scarfing of plate before addition, the keyhole in excessive weld the to autogenous 1"V0'25 achieved molten In AI-Li within of of scale reported porosity than cracking AI-4·7Mg-(0·3-1·3)Li copper range reactivity during a it special 8090 equally be formation reduced parent weldments lower 0 Lithium all the more to drop AI-5Mg-2Li-0·1Zr surfaces, of alloys hydrogen milling, 30iONaOH also Although to was inert the that centreline, 0·13 welding. a at before both mm the by oxygen and in Al-Li of alloys produce XT joint. before 20-120 a of key aluminium mode, can the observed content. when for oxidation weldability in test reported than that the solidification, in The few care by mm gas AI-Li 0·2 Al-Li recent or has susceptibility best rinsing successful hydrogen from LiN. alloys porosity alloys of porosity problem is laser weld containing weld 25-50 be alloy alloy of mm TX CW and shielding, removing It solubility The alloys exhibited generally is required. observed hours chemical from impurity the to porosity welding. those rearside conven- mm Pickens making lithium accept- welded mating (6'5M) mainly is It it alloys, power alloys work, metal avoid weld- joint, Alloy com- (with alloy from weld 5356 8090 2219 in CO high was, 2 that also mm was and and S-1 the to to in in in in of of of a Published by Maney Publishing (c) IOM Communications Ltd 34 247 by contributes tional fusion 425°C.,298,300,302 experiences greatest metal on higher occurs is strengthening temperatures ive ium 6061- decrease 6061- In heat nature, is problem weld interface precipitates 10-10 occurs comparison, shows thermally 5 upper using of data tendency Base that weldment. than (1'6 2090 The also A Katayama distinguished the the precipitates. using cooling Hardness thick the mm alloys, common only were seemed weldments treatable T6 T6, metal 8090 a zone, HAZ part is referred when arc near hardness case temperatures, extent W welding the thick CW encountered in constant of rate in 301 of 2219-T87, typical 100 1]0 activated. 2 transformation a reported. 50 60 cm- However, welding Fig. weldments, to may base temperatures of the CW alloy H of few (6xxx particles strength is temperature for processes to et profiles are T CO method 2 AZ plate) the fusion 289 phase of to when to alloy al. At alloys, fusion be 5 by the pores metal profiles generally precipitate CO experienced 2 process represents 2090 measure heat of as arc base slight positions degradation. unaffected. 0.5 The 274 alloys).247,298-300 laser. dissolution Skillingberg processes work and the Distance evaluated across 2219- AI-Cu Molian in 5456-HI16, zones are which from 247 occurs. temperature laser of zone input occurred intensity degradation was 2219- particularly minimum metal arc are increase overaged the determining exceeds for within 1.0 dissolved They and of hardenable displayed T87, the good, welding. HAZ beam base for was close the as all degree are T87 GTA precipitates alloys and and by from 247 Consequently, involve hardness degradation the parameters.,303 strengthening 6xxx (2xxx 1.5 position reported dissolution this For at diffusion observed. in the experienced the and 284 metal to of greater but weldments zone Srivatsan,285 hardness and weldability and also welds into the • weld, hardness in of is o o the The GTA the Although (Fig. solvus heat series range. higher depth 2.0 the some alloys) 6061-T6 5456-H1l6 2219-T87 alloy porosity the slow between the for 6061- weld/base 6061-T6 reported fusion solid towards across in 2090-5356 HAZ 47 dissolution that width treatable em of 5).2 welds proceeds HAZ alloys. the controlled these No lines of 247 2.5 This porosity value application porosity of 5456-HI16. is two that T6, of or weld solution phases. close of penetration. a zone, degradation the HAZ precipitates different determined mechanical it. of and on alloy of is alloy For growth minimum that alloys. continual 290 the common produced for Conven- typically and, reported the T Figure material respect- another welding alumin- 3·2 speeds to at higher extent which GMA in of levels alloy alloy alloy weld 2090 laser 2090 This mm and and and the the the the for At of of in 5 ments may best loss Kossowsky,283 rendering proper after the was the welds, 2090 hardness metal fusion aging welding is hardness beam by processes restored precipitation welds). parameters hardenable post-weld 6 (HAZ prime «15 1·25 averaged alloy caused concentration. T6 could the welding Cieslak elements problem and base treatable ation are LB N ~ ~ :> 0 ,..t:l "0 l-I C\$ 0 (1) r/1 U 0 l-I rJi' much Zacharia Figure The Hardness Science the magnesium promising 125 150 100 condition welding, same alloy's observed mm transverse of result 25 a 50 75 metal, welding. EB 6061 mm (at not during welds and zone but degradation) manufactured concern welding wide HAZ by other The overaged and smaller procedures. by thick minimum. of with 190°C 6 (:am welds values region and during alloys, level the S-1) where be heat joint. in loss -10 it alloy shows ability the et using (particularly thus and 265 alloy hardness which (Fig. HAZ. Technology Fuerschbach traverse softening achieved 278 lies and degradation in both elements harden al. fusion for However, owing power plate for which weldment treated of The as vaporisation parameters -8 for (12'5 fusion than in the In HAZ, of are KOfak weldments. the resulting heat welding between achieving filler region 6). strengthening the example, the 6061, to the involve contrast arc continuous 16 This -6 observed Weld HAZ of were reduced obtained Position The lowest zone that mm beam The to of lead using as of age h) base hardness by of treatable of to produced HAZ heat metal. zone, in Joining -4 welding. EB problem lithium Welding a the alloy which travel in the strength a subsequent recover produced not local of thick metal extent the may the in is naturally to the reduced low and ,reported weld higher -2 metal. result to welded treatable hardness However, CO the such HAZ alloy 2 is weldments softening reported a not which strength across excessive of particularly fusion in hardness conventional 6061 weakest also heat coarse and and filler speed 269 advanced hardness occur plate), 0 traverse elements is alloys depletion,296 HAZ ~ degradation by methods of In the can the that expected laser 2091 being strength strength of No Joining a alloy weld present ability by the 2 power pulsed input. weld, welds at exhibits contrast wire. that be weld heat zone strength alloys function a values for loss base weld in magnesium in in (Fig. conventional but such heat can EB materials: part. room in beam values weld overcome 4 about lower 6061 of centre the minimum can, the alloy continuous the mm treatment strong, such the of 1998 was These metal beam during was of in welds after metal in to Nd-YAG microstructure an fusion fortunately 5), 6 is input softened HAZ strengthening are Marsico zone, the precipitation in joints power fusion the to weld temperature of however, fusion welding' be therefore 217 of magnesium EB 2090 affected of restored Part Vol. as the 8 as post-weld the the processes processes exhibited of strengths owing non-heat with the absolute by a alloy into welding welding EB welding evapor- of MPa. well 3 region, welded 2 i.e. 10 lowest power in fusion to major HAZ. weld- beam using HAZ zone. alloy zone laser zone laser No.4 base and and 169 the the the the the on 12 by be be as to to to of Published by Maney Publishing (c) IOM Communications Ltd joint weld which restored, the investigated efficiencies in minium exceptionally input this require improvement Al-4Mg-1Li Al-Mg-Li strength material. excellent weldments welding containing lithium but those (T4) use material) provides Post-weld welding formations with strength also alloy detailed Alloy application GTA LB 7020) of weld Joint weld procedures Al-6·3Mg-0·5Mn-0·2Zr welding When stronger of after exhibited that obtained bead the aging. PWHT artificial than structural attributed Science 170 Weld The An Additionally, Pickens manganese, these heat welding, parent joint of weld found effectively, condition with compositions. PWHT, filler, efficiencies metal. those 01420 when strength. ram properties solution relatively alternative is and and obtained tensile is Joint comparing water water 01420. content treatable lead and alloys. investigation Al-Li to procedure alloys of aging, joints moderate elongations. thus of 309 Technology properties and equal of for aging, tensile coarsening. Fridlyander bead et re-solution to displayed material of that EB should in filler weld lead reported using Al-Mg-Li 296 using and the Even should as to al. the 700/0 KOfak alloys. alloy high efficiencies the properties quenching. i.e. the increasing in the quenching welds titanium, alloys. joint and treating However, is degradation high welding filler Saida low than a of of with in which to joint weld found to the them Mironenko weldability order method As resolutionising, strengths alloys limited base HAZ effects also welding compared alloy though without is be up recovery of the weld age Joining used, conventional be different and that and pointed as were efficiencies high materials in fusion lithium Welding that those to and to respect taken 302 Kamada heat divided strength, reported in employed.,304,30s is material weld it of alloys 363 them of the zirconium, of 5356 and processes suggested (i.e. its evaluate filler short carried 85% of of properties of the which the by 307 tensile to for autogenous of 500/0 reported not joint Matsumot0 heat received many procedure PWHT MPa strength. weldable produced of as treatment, and advanced lithium of Soviet 800/0 out the have into with bead properties alloys the of content strength aging after solution increasing et filler strength obtained to for alloy. containing joint given. in by high are Joining that treatable of but strengths above, filler AI-4·7Mg-(0·3-1·3)Li out strengths may 293 et best wrought strength air with al.,308 duration, the those account aluminium the 'good for was a 100% welding. that strength and to literature. or and and materials: 2024, joint 306 alloy provides no strength at depletion this of al. cooling, It as fusion with Namba fusion coupled of be that result Al-Mg by of heat welding base GTA chromium heat lower in 1998 metallurgical i.e. lower by were of was reported owing Al-Li 272 PWHT as reported weldability'. the the were expected the alloys practice performed this 01420 various the 2219, (up Al- commercial are alloy of efficiencies since using quenching keeps carried high treatment. treated To such reported Part materials reactor of Vol. MPa weld weldability welding also in temperatures, welded slightly and the weld and region. 292 Li than and to alloys, the Softening parent higher obtained. with in alloys) to accomplish or the alloys, during weldments 2 3 5356 distortion. 6061, these 295 alloys as as a using solidified provided does the amounts that the reported 269 that strength involves artificial for different No.4 greatest welding without San0 zone lithium that temper % micro- parent EB out 99.5 GMA joints trans- vessel MPa, lower Post- filler, They joint were than filler high weld heat that alu- The and and two and was (i.e. not are the the arc the by an or of of of is a 274 fusion characterise weldment efficiency condition made for As the because zones properties. but materials than strengths, temperatures weldments. 413 US verse ability respectively. strengthener. T even condition, the of obtained strength alloy Skillingberg. 8090, laser. and respectively. 253 alloy using using measurable reported properties displayed Al-Li-Cu weldments erties of and of After that laser These strength Alloy same at small ments They the artificial any of 3IO 274 I-A12 In Sunwoo Gaw More Marsico Skillingberg strengthening various c)'-A1Li dissolution 170°C 3 weld 8090 welded Government strengthening good MPa, MPa, tensile aged surface intermetallic addition, LB 2090 welds They weldment in both 2090 mechanical also although HAZ 4043 those than using CuLi with authors lack study PWHT 2090. zones of strength was levels the aging welding of conditions, recently, ductility were that and exhibited and by also but a for properties alloy obtained compared GTA microstructural and parent the of were joint and obtained the They weldments those filler. tensile were ductility. and in The the the preparation tensile on the 386 precipitation is It 301 overaged reported The (230°C) aging improvement of alloy no at 281 Sunwoo 32 reported also the not low re-solution Morris of primary of However, Martukanitz of Kossowsky288 the Al-Li increased strength 2090 strength fine still and was not GTA precipitates. report highest MPa, efficiencies thinner consistent is manufactured from h reported MPa, It alloy 190°C elongation milling and provides precipitates. EB constituents, the strengthening (greater properties EB as primarily as reported low volume strength details Molian was (designated 2090 using tensile particularly EB structures Autogenous at joint owing (1·6 too are also strong. welded alloy and GTA alloy conventional welds; leads were welds and dissemination 2090 condition obtained by but a strength for weldments. strengthener 160°C reported work was as the sheet also mm welding and obtained of GTA low 5356 efficiencies reported 282 development that joint features weldment GTA than of heat Morris 2090. and the fraction to of welded 5356 16 Martukanitz weldments increased lower fracture 0·127 that determined weldments to was as and et about joint and display condition. thick of determined this also elongations. ductility a on h They in alloy were for 279 deterioration for both best high 4 coarsening unaffected and efficiencies filler, T8) al.,28o homogeneous levels strong weldments the treating, with using precipitates. EB filler measured. the However, % the that study 284 the mm the study its Srivatsan,285 performed than in resulting plates) efficiencies 217 it processes Joints strength 32 elongation) and 2090 that weldments also were results, EB weldments significantly hardness as EB was weld performed of is of better as the whereas 650/0 and tensile effect (less to the volume to h from 4043 produced and MPa. made of on which by those 322 the in EB In inhomogeneity are received weldments. joint determined and GMA pointed with as aging solution in with et quenching, be The brittle strengths 8090 zone. 75% the alloys by of the the than joint of the EB the reported filler MPa from both and high included c)' overall on for owing the 279 550/0 using of and a The a1.,280 the GTA strength is an levels of distribution distribution strengths precipitates autogenous best the base after fraction (as a 750/0 laser phase weldments weldments best underaged as and a that 200 restricted. as weldment at and weldment 2090 LBweld- efficiency 2090 CW material. the material. reported a with out stronger surfaces, presence as welding. study effective and welded) without a highest highest treated welded welded thicker overall higher to tensile fusion of trans- MPa) of prop- result metal weld- aging 830/0. GTA They joint joint were were 8090 55% CO 2 in that was and and and the the the the no or to to of of of a Published by Maney Publishing (c) IOM Communications Ltd § t 049 049 049 049 049 joint t * 049 049 8090-T6 8090-T6 8090-T6 8090-T6 2090-T81 2090-T81 8090-T6 8090-T6 8090-T6 7017-T6 2090-T4 2090 2090 2219-T851 2219 2219 2219 Base Table 4043, The Alloy The parent indicated GTA using cracking, strength scattered, highest whereas was fillers. The properties but mechanical temper assessed aging cedures tion 8090- on Weldalite Weldments Failure Failure Square 311 274 Although Wilner Skillingberg alloy the composition metal results that alloy of process T6 1 5356, of parent strengths The 8090. properties. tensile of butt occurred occurred using 288 re-solution in the applications, by Mean but autogenous quality that 8090 of the 049. produces of investigated the highest data 5556, are weldments, MPa it also 049 049 049 049 049 049 2319 (+Zr) AI-5Mg 8090 Al weldments AI-5Mg AI-5Mg AI-5Si AI-5Mg 2319 Charpy 8090 2319 2319 049 2319 2319 049 metal 049 2319 Filler the with extruded the and an weldment, appears a strength Edwards as tensile using consistent through before weldment alloy (in on Al-Mg investigated weldments has of and Weldalite weldment welded ER is Al-5Mg The as heat the the impact attainable high produced GTA EB plate, 5356 parent 2319 alloy reaching welding welded all properties VPPA§ VPPA§ VPPA§ VPPA§ VPPA* that VPPA* VPPA* VPPA* VPPA* VPPA* GMA GMA GMA VPPA* VPPA* process Welding of made the toughness filler EB treatment, are and filler, were fractures weldments condition 447 tensile with filler weldment weld and 100 alloy 049 weldments fillers. weldments), can 1100, 271 proprietary. testing. made fillers. was Stoneham the with MPa, tensile zirconium 0·2% obtained x parameters, GTA parent produced fusion with has those be 9·5 of 8090 weldability mm thickness, Weld 13 occurred 13 13 13 not strength 9·5 9·5 9·5 9·5 9·5 9·5 9·5 4043, 9·5 5·8 9·5 6·5 The parent quenching, of made alloy with offset, mm. and been which Toughness and and strength proper strengths disclosed. zone weldments of filler is were highest using 5356, 367 susceptible 2090, modified Gittos,270 the alloy with GMA 311 indicating welded Nevertheless, in filler GTA design fabricated or 45 was wire.2 and the reported. MPa highest As As As As for Naturally As As As As As As As As As for Naturally treated As As of Post-weld As As As Heat As As Post-weld +T6 + at welding MPa and parent proper of alloy and produced T6 850/0 4043 HAZ. alloy the welded welded welded welded welded welded welded alloy welded welded welded welded welded welded welded welded welded with weldments weldments welded welded welded welded 800 30 data weldment using 301 specifica- was treatment temper temper artificial NG-61. after nil days interface. Tensile but h and values. parent tensile to 8090, of 8090, filler. MPa filler, alloy alloy care. were elongation. 8090 aged aged pro- solution aged also hot the the T6 aged no he a Weldalite 315 conventional weldment performed a 2219-2319 049-2319 by combination These extremely After was an re-solution tensile were be strengths 8090, MacFarlane the alloy obtained or automatic UK. Crossweld alloys, as Room Room Room Room Room Room Room Room Room Room Room Room Room Room Room Test Room Room Room Room Room Room -253°C -195°C comparison Table It A those attained Science a 10·2 175°C extremely obtained. was Space 049, It preliminary VPPA some 2219 extremely temperature strengths and e.g. strengths temperature temperature temperature temperature temperature temperature temperature temperature temperature temperature temperature temperature temperature temperature temperature temperature temperature temperature temperature temperature temperature x was 1 of also with and (:am of 0·95 gives and low GTA in 310 the used tensile weld weld weld. VPPA heat Weldalite in process Shuttle. these Technology the reported aluminium and reported conjunction some the alloy of cm high strongest MPa porosity reported mean are parameter treatment, high alloy weldments KOfak were to various was as strengths EB weldments welded extruded significantly 2219 commercial apparent for fabricate using welded 413 287 505 372 315 372 274 367 235 310 205 tensile 258 302 228 232 285 340 252 300 283 273 386 325 tensile MPa 165 strength, Ultimate Shah was of (e.g. in 049 by that welding found Joining of and alloy successful Welding alloy 312 the using arc Pickens with designed with welded alloy development, arc quenching, 417 the have of properties condition. plate et high range weldment of were 7039 arc yield to the more and 2319 welds MPa) 314 advanced weldments 2319 higher study AI 427 as 290 249 360 290 248 315 285 245 188 220 .. 204t Yield · MPa 183 165 strength, al. 176 185 137 147 156 154 161 140 2319 .. been ·tt weldments. tt conventional joining strength Joining be using alloy and reported welded to 430-434 external strength that filler, than filler at replace. filler. and for stronger by and than made and materials: 275 and arc weldments TWI, hath alloy 312 alloy of 1998 the 340 Pickens is 5·4 3·0 3·0 1·7 1·9 1·5 7·1 9·0 25mm 1·5 8·6 7·9 Elongation, 7·1 that yield artificial were 313 247 and MPa those The MPa. weldments EB to Hackett Weldalite fuel on Table the of Commercial parent-filler manual MPa Cambridge, 2319 Vol. aluminium Part 2090, he weldment weldment for than Weldalite 10·2 obtained. 527 strengths for standard typically tank as 3 2 2 having 4·0 4·0 2·0 4·0 4·0 0 4·7 0 1·5 3·0 8·0 4·6 4·7 5·0 3·8 1·0 5·0 5·2 5·0 50mm aging, could 2219. some After MPa filler. alloy gives x NO.4 high % was and and 049 171 the 0·6 of Published by Maney Publishing (c) IOM Communications Ltd 275 weld further. The that beam metal gauge the exhibit corresponds in properties low heat cesses directed provided specimen. dependent undergoes of AI-Li alloys. This concentrated Ductility. strength. and strength sources. However, There and aluminium alloys. over Table structure, solidified The under temper General condition Alloy 2090-T8 2090-T8 2090-T8 2090-T8 01420-T6 172 2094-T8 2094-T8 2094-T8 2094-T8 8090-T8 8090-T8 8090-T8 Science 8090-T6 No If This (iii) (ii) the welded (i) base slow resistance tensile 434 above the input level metal is and ram 2 welds ductility has and involve alloy tensile alloy a length lithium a a Moreover, Typically, particularly very as problem variety MPa wide coarse towards comments weld metal (372 Alloy weld Transverse weldments that and Technology minimal rapidly, been since plastic of Acceptable into for is can on high ductility alloys. metal Filler 2319 2319 2319 2319 2319 2319 5356 arc 5356 5356 5356 structures, of Welds to K09ak intolerably 2219 in ductility small MPa ductility will HAZ speeds the application metal to ultimate heat depletion the approaches some (undermatching), great lead the weldments 2094 weld a AI-Li of the ductility stress deformation assessing joint can 38-61 strength PWHT be loss conditions. thereby in However, size of AI-Li treatable Joining ultimate process VPPA Welding on GMA VPPA GMA VPPA GTA GTA GMA GTA EB GTA EB EB weldments will weld in the to properties thickness progress has of microstructure Welding AI-Li heat is 2-4 fusion data as be alloys tensile of lower achieved corrosion further strength < ductility % of b{~ case brittle. found in significantly rnetal welded elements (~ alloys 15 of of treatable as usually overcome of are improvement the low, 10-120/0. the promoting the have advanced 34 and alloys, mm even strength 10-10 alloys, strength this for the are in those welding Yield strength, 207 MPa 269 179 165 in Current 186 193 165 103 ductilities for given weld of 'gauge The to weld Joining in especially 247 research the resulting with condition most after in joints s the measured high being been cracking. does arc - though decreases a the from have \ joining alloys materials: taken although low such in ability zone. transverse Tensile in transverse W which if and after of lower EB strength of length' of fusion a reported 269 weld Table 1998 not can non-heat considered cm the ductility the welded in tensile Ultimate 234 MPa 248 the 283 241 strength, 310 324 434 276 296 283 372 352 317 can fine the AI-Li in: EB efforts for tests do welding), the from MPa -2 VPAA of joint of be allow over weld mean Part elongations Vol. weld strength weld strain high not metal highest it welded 1. welding AI-Li be arc weld used these actual improved. tensile tensile is is aluminium 2 3 joints alloys for numerous is pool, a efficiency generally excessive treatable must obtained expected intensity ductility ultimate that strength strongly welding No.4 pool a for will 50 micro- 279 Ref. 316 279 274 275 296 316 319 318 318 316 317 320 alloys. in power which which alloys AI-Li result joint weld than pro- test. test. mm and and use the the be be of is Diffusion first with fully layer phase omena progress pressure, variables studies titanium been better therefore formation result Typically, The large bombardment surface aluminium pressure bonding elements that silver oxide on oxide Diffusion LB during already and EB layer tenacious a temperature pressure was clean bond approach tially alloy Maddrell acious ing there pure studied pressure in strengths oxide, being However, as 0·025 or silver narrow When With Two High Dunford Urena solution peeling. the the or already of welded involves second magnesium used carried reported. aluminium arc was scale mm which disrupt or layer of line of age surface 8090 capable interlayers LB leading prevents response alloy bonding. occurring on alumina relationships bonding regard by the alloy power been a was zinc was which in process and in diffusion and weld such and no of layer and of needs these to welding, HAZ. bonding hardened. to finer aluminium remained or moderate bonding deformation of treated ion and alloys The understanding which diffusion the some method (AI-9Li-0·SCu-0·8Mg of alloy 333 need reacts join 8090 eliminate 110 2·5 50 applied. coating out surface Dunkerton less the 331 surface coated clad used to Wallach to of the its 324 beam before as properties 280-300°C. microstructure, plating of bonds Partridge AI-Li-Cu had MPa authors to metal MPa, layer and The methods to or MPa chemical dissolving poor because at success AI-Li tenacious (12·5 is to is alumina at acts bonding alloys. using condition can 2090, of mechanically bonding aging. with with coated to and rather be is necessary coat affected has been bonding lithium, improvements between modification, welding on finish. a high with diffusion AI-Li The coating)324-326 failed at mechanical present which as cheaper be in the join J!m (the to in pressure removed, alloys. around also a pure has the with pure a particularly been successfully investigated they 200°C the However, phenomena, have (Table removed highest the alloy Similarly, the nominally power on oxide a difficult metal In barrier thick). with temperature also it. oxide obtained There in oxide alloys of aluminium alloys been by was thin which aluminium reported processes 329 of the later AI-Li silver physical bond aluminium bonded to bonding321-323 a a on chemically Electron 100-110 aluminium than nevertheless successfully 8090, studied AI-Li the a brittle narrower silver. layer 2) sound and of not obtain aluminium beam reported contact lap layer. layer properties. semicontinuous fractured, has film to They the such work, 8090, owing (at.-%)). provided by are can in bond strength the alloy diffusion promising 110-130MPa solution oxide and adequate diffusion. used are shear it after zone diffusion alloy been bonding that is and aluminium They manner strength is sputtering have present the MPa processes, of as beam Consequently, has and first alloys, joint. be reported bonds to the Edwards important 2090, (15 removed line. to the fusion modify in for 8090, and silver. deposition' free chemical by diffusion a strength to relatively 8090 achieved been form PWHT, 327 emerged. used The the been reported that time, the surface.,328 one. use or was and J!m concentrated clad treated this second welding fracture bonding applying to by Most The aluminium as results welding the hence capable and at compared 330 literature. zone, the tenacious disrupted shown of clad thick) sufficient obtained Bonding substan- bonding Another bonding a that purpose the alloying bending and success- layer layer such to surface. et applied by SOO°C. and a native to liquid in phen- bond- 332 oxide oxide 2094. bond al. early have little as with clad uses join of that The ten- and has ion the the the the the the the for as or of of of of of a a a a Published by Maney Publishing (c) IOM Communications Ltd current processes, weldability, pound interlayers provides bonding processes laser and given which process materials. work or advanced microstructures, ing interlayer were different developed. for which was Post-bond be automotive, be alloys could restricted should when present at the was shear TLP based range aluminium or Use CONCLUSIONS ature temperature after strengths of bonding reported, with surface bonding Either adequate Superplastic of 8·7 Some 8090. General This' In Junai Ricks bonded a other limited AI-Li further '" MPa. joint the of visible of pressure noted joining reported principle, welding) 5 which bonding to for strengths a success superplastic The 80-100 for affect alloy alloy to represent were atmospheric advanced MPa layers. diffusion be cleaning interest. superplastic review problems more optimise et times et (SPF-DB) alloys. interface. comments the procedure It indicating application materials to higher alloys. in to are for weight 334 if have lower material 335 with in However, al. interlayer enhanced aim that because al. solution was and they solidifies 8090 break excess interlayer diffusion welding avoid alloy. which the forming has at of the processes conditions MPa. of of for in suitable Lap and solid of been current has of 6· also considerable stage 500-540°C power indicating up potential successfully bonded than materials state interface can joining However, already investigated integrity which SPF reductions 3 with when as 100-120 A using Furthermore, grain of and deformation MPa of to shear on the or process forming that can of types demonstrated with difficult peel bonded joints state covered not and if great by some metallurgy, areas after to or 8 4·5 bonded of properties. inert diffusion 1·5 generation joining on the than disperse a joint h bonding the (such joints the be procedures been of achieve growth diffusion, be equal for the strength the were MPa microstructures viable strengths mm aging interest the bonding in MPa industrial joints the that (such led most 530°C, bonding absence joined is GKSS· used; to gas (SPF) make superplastic specific in joints 60 demonstrated to the the interlayer in care achieved the art strengths feasible. used to pure as using processes. thick of diffusion to aerospace locate minimise min at a this the were conditions in bonding the these SPF-DB AI-Li aerospace, of treatments others. of lap pressure effect advanced alloy as of than the industries ideally The for diffusion temperatures effectively and should 8-10 process thus with one that Research the and with at nominally and the oxide of review. bonding 90 the aluminium interest sheet. restricts shear requirements pressures achieved, intermetallic joining the superplastic properties. in 530°C. parent potential MPa 8090 intermetallic alloys, joining joints was of obtained MPa, inducing all particular a bonding to bonding forming-diffusion a bonding The diffusion However, alloy distortion. interface of of applications the pure be layer of a is process diffusion No strengths understand variety fusion were petrochemical, Attention the materials Al-Li will can bonding to when roll on to was Center to 6·3 time taken the of alloys, temperature and sheet particularly with oxide of although aluminium of themselves specimens, produce be were present consistent be inevitably processes, interlayer MPa advanced used the pressures clad of obtained Hot bonding. methods are bonding bonding 80 must of welding temper- 6·3 in bonded applied 60 joining alloys welded further can of of alloys) at which bond- in AI-Li has Bond silver com- MPa these layer alloy their pure min. low. also zinc was tear and was and and and will the the the the the be be at it a a joints, procedures, is metallurgical 200. 201. REFERENCES consistency weldability * 199. 198. 197. 196. 178. 177. 175. 174. 195. 187. 185. 183. 182. 181. 194. 192. 190. 188. 179. 176. 193. 191. 186. 184. 180. 189. Refs. also Science R. M. International, Conf. S. in 589-595. Symp. Knoxville, S. Rockwell report', Int. T.1. H. 64, ASM L. 'Diffusion D. P. J. R. 1. in 'Welding, M. D. B. International, M. USA, T. T. c. S. in Chen), T. J. G. (5), VTT, K. in o. K. M. advanced J. S. Research, 1990, London, S. technologies K. (ed. M. Weldability 305-309. March S. 785. 14, 1994. Weld. 1993, 1-173 W. UTSUNOMIYA, R. H. MARTIN, S. A. A. A. J. A. J. ALTSHULLER, M. to E. T. D. NISHIMOTO IKEUCHI: J. B. J. Welding Welding SHIOTA: Welding Welding KATAYAMA: M. S. E. P. A. B. M. P. a (8), (4), 1743. R. Conf. KHAN AHEARN, MOORE LIENERT, KENNEDY: HALL, COLA DEVLETIAN: COLA, HAPPE D. HERSCH: METZGER: David David David MIDLING C;am BOLLAT: LUNDIN, HAMMELMANN, and need 28, DODDARD, International, D. Espoo, SHOEMAKER: J., assess MARTUKANITZ May on on (ed. David STANTZ, IIW, A. 1994, 219s-226s. ELLIS, 192-197. still Report of appear taking ELLIS: Elsevier. 1972, Weldability 1341-1346. Technology Corp., materials', Gatlinburg, and Composite Patterson and bonding and and on Kaimenkagaku, changes TN, joining, T. the T. Research, Research, Research, Research, and and R. and and Yosetsu to and 1989, of 245-249. represents for AWS. C. E. the KYONO, 1993. and KOfak J. M. Weld. US 297-303. Trends 303-307. and and J. unpublished * M. E. 51, c. Y. joint Weld. WRC Materials, USA, develop SD D. Members' in A. LIENERT, D. W. COOK, A. into J. J. T. J. F. 1968. R. Weld. C. new R. E. KAGAWA, BRUSKOTTER: joint Patent R. (ed. (4), Part M. M. M. GITTOS, J. 0. BRANDEN, K. Proc. J. K. 68-971, CHRISTY, 2', T. DANKO, ALBRIGHT: WALLACH: J., Patterson Gakkaishi, 371-377. coating, of Dalian, KARP and H. in TEAST: J., et Joining of Bull., quality. GRONG: and 1988. account in GLASGOW: materials TN, Gatlinburg, Vitek), Gatlinburg, Vitek), Gatlinburg, Vitek), Gatlinburg, M. PEPPER, Materials, (ed. J., Welding AID 178-182. and 1968, S. Materials, 1. P. 1973, al.: properties the Welding J. a No. K. appropriate Int. 1987, A. PI: D. UN, Detroit, Vitek), and 1985,6, USA, BUCHKREMER, Report D. E. and 'considerable s. 1975, 'Metal Space and work, China, of W. 47, DIWANn: and Proc. VTT David and ASM ASM GOULD, ASM fusion US4706550, G. Proc. 52, and J. Proc. and Conf. Proc. J. advanced Proc. D. P. 1988, and Y. 66, the II" (9), FISHMAN: Mahin), Stephenson), c. Weld. May W. 207, L. B. (3), Tokyo, J. KOGO: Research, Detroit, J. Joining Division, ASM TN, TN, TN, TN, Research 489/94, (4), matrix (6), University MI, International, International, J. September International, Conf. THREADGILL: surface Cocoa 3rd C. unique UPP, WISKEL: and 404-409. 3rd 3rd 57, 3rd K. and on MORRISON, and zone SWINDEMAN: 120-124. J. 1-22. 1986, LIPPOLD: J. 111. 33-39. USA, USA, USA, USA, materials: mechanical USA, Int. (4), Mater. Int. Proc. Int. Int. W. J. Trends Res. International, ASM and and Japan, J. Met. composites 'Advanced demonstrate challenge. 1987. MI, TWI, 1998 Beach, (ed. M. North P. Notes, Gatlinburg, Conf. modification 414. for features Conf. Conf. Conf. Proc. June June June June Mahin), E. D. 250-260; (Suppl.), 3rd HURLEY: October 1994, USA, of International, Constr., Sci., Vitek), S. Scripta G. Part Proc. T. Vol. STOEVER: improving Cambridge, in June 1139-1146. 1095-1099. 1147-1151. Japan-US A. Tennessee, on on on on FL, Proc. Symp. American KENDALL: No. 1992, 1992, 1992, 1992, DIEBOLD, (ed. 1987, Welding October 3 2 David), testing joining Trends Trends Trends Trends annual of There Symp. ASM ASM USA, Proc. 1986, 1985, 1463, 1982, 1990, NO.4 1990, Met., 781- J. TN, 173 2nd the the (ed. (ed. (ed. (ed. 22, on H. in of Published by Maney Publishing (c) IOM Communications Ltd 214. 208. 207. 218. 217. 220. 213. 212. 210. 211. 215. 206. 216. 205. 224. 223. 222. 225. 221. 219. 209. 229. 227. 202. 204. 203. 226. 232. 230. 228. 231. 237. 235. 234. 233. 240. 239. 238. 236. Science 174 joining', E. R. ROMIG, J. J. (9), T. D. T. R. T. B. w. M. M. J. w. A, D. w. M. T. (8), T. R. T. G. B. G. M. s. Metall. Mahin), MI, R. R. W. (11),505s-513s. and Research, C. 62, R. Welding Metall., on PA, and J. w. M. 637-648. J. s. w. REED: in P. (Suppl.), W.-B. ASM and Joining, 1967, Patterson of S. (Suppl.), 79s. 1988, Welding Weld. 1989, Trans. Institut France, Research, 1969, 1988, 9am L. and M. T. J. Res. F. A. F. J. J. RADHAKRISHNAN RADHAKRISHNAN Y. J. A. P. E. G. A. G. G. A. PRAGER A. G. G. J. C. Welding BOUCHER, G. S. J. 1980, A. J. J. J. Materials, A. A. J. Trends (12), YENISCAVICH ROBINSON 411s-422s. 361s-370s. w. TMS. J. BERRY KELLY: BERRY PEPE MORRISON, KELLY: R. WLODEK: USA, VITEK, PEASE: CIESLAK: Y. REYNOLDS, DAVID, PATTERSON, MILLS: KNOROVSKY, MILLS: THOMPSON, THOMPSON CIESLAK, DUVALL CANONICO MAGUIRE David), THOMPSON, THOMPSON, THOMPSON: OWCZARSKI: 46, 22, Technology (24). and THOMPSON, KELLY: CIESLAK, C5, J. (ed. BAESLACK International, Sci. BUSCH OWCZARSKI, M. A, F. (Suppl.), Jr: D. MAAK Trans. de Cah. Res. September 1997,2, ASM A295, (ed. Research 337s-345s. HAMMETTER: and (9), 729-734. 1987,66, K09ak 1986,65, and 1991, Suppl. Gatlinburg, Gatlinburg, Metall. Vitek), S. and Technol. and DAVIDSON: in and and Soudure, October Proc. S. Weld. Research, Weld. Weld. Weld. J. A. (Suppl.), Inf. M. D. 423s-432s. Proc. Welding A. and ASM Melting and and and Weld. ASM Detroit, w. T. A, International, M. and c. K. 105-107. w. w. C. G. 22A, David et and DAVID, III, H. (3),109-118. VARELA, of R. B. 1966, 10, J. D. Joining J. S. J. and Tech., Symp. ASM F. J. 1988, Weld. M. J. VITEK, J. Trans. w. W. J. S. J. P. P. Weld. al.: Symp., A. M. w. H.-D. (1), (11), Welding T. RADHAKRISHNAN, D. SHIRA: B. and and Weld. J. W. Cieslak HEADLEY, International, T. 1983, E. SAVAGE: R. Res. J., Res. 2nd SHIRA, Trans., 471-482. 325-329. Res. Res. s. J. HUGHES: HUGHES: Vol. H. 1990, 557-567. J. Proc. Mahin), NEMEC, Metall. J. KNOROVSKY, CASSIMUS, A. TN, Gatlinburg, S. TN, Weld. MAYO, by 45, c. Research, J. CIESLAK, GENCULU: 1985, DOBBS, and KERR, 19s-258. 1991, SCOTT: :M:I, 19A, and HEADLEY: International, R. J. R. TINKLER: 1976, of 299s-304s. on Res. S. A, DUVALL, KUNZE: OWCZARSKI: KELLY, (Suppl.), (Suppl.), Int. 1, (Suppl.), (Suppl.), Joining, M. (ed. W. Electrons Vol. (4), Weld. G. advanced Res. and G. USA, S. (ed. and USA, J. Weldability 517-524. Int. L. et 1986, 1963, USA, Res. Weld. 64, 2319-2331. DADIAN, 70, 151-157. and THOMPSON: Counc. Trans. and BABU, T. FOX: THOMPSON: P. Weld. Weld. 73, M. A. ASM Philos. Conf. M. 145s-155s. and 93; Joining al.), L. T. R. Res. (Suppl.), D. (4), Conf. and J. KOLLIE, (2), BOATNER: Gatlinburg, May Weld. Counc. May (12), Proc. Proe. B. 56, Vitek), 17A, Proc. R. 1997, A. Contre 635-640. J. and 1967, J. TN, 1989, 1957, FEHRENBACH, T. October 1984, 1987,66, E. A. D. 31-40; materials: J. Weld. J. L. A, and RADHAKRISHNAN: HEADLEY, International, 91s-96s. D. Counc. WEISENBERG: 49s-56s. Bull., and s. on Res. 287-303. Trans. MAYO, J. Res. Res. 625-629. and Weld. E. 1986, A. on Patterson 817-831. 2107-2116. 1989, c. 1989, REISWIG: J. 1998 L. Symp. USA, 2, of Int. Miami, 3rd 68, HEADLEY, 36, and 63, Bull., Proe. Laser MAYO: Trends E. ASM in BOATNER, Res. 1969, and P. Trends (2), WEST: Res. (Suppl.), Materials, Sci. 1969, (Suppl.), (Suppl.), M. 1991, D. Bull., (2), 'Metal (ed. R. 330s-334s. J. Conf. (4), (8), 1990, and Part 20A, SULLIVAN: (ed. Int. Vol. TN, A. May A. GRANJON: MAYO: 79-88. on (Suppl.), M. 1969, Soc. 2nd Technol. Res. Beams, International, Counc. 48, FL, Weld. D. 44s-518. S. (6). Weld. D. 237s-245s. L. 113s-119s. Warrendale, Scr. 2 J. S. 3 in and 1968, Weldability 2149-2158. Proc. Colloq. in USA, Kuncevie), A. on (ed. and 167-173. ROMIG, and Int. science ROMIG, (London) R. BOURQUE, 1986, A. (2), 1967, (Suppl.), NO.4 1967, 1969, AWS. (68). Welding Welding J. Detroit, David), Metall., Metall. Trends J. DOBBS: K. J. David (128). Lyon, Phys., R. Conf. A. Weld. AWS R. Weld. Bull., 1983, May 70s- Rev. Res. Res. (ed. 48, W. 46, 46, on W. Jr, Jr: A. D. of 257. 248. 253. 252. 246. 247. 260. 258. 255. 254. 250. 262 251. 245. 244. 243. 266. 259. 256. 249. 241. 263. 261. 242. 267. 265. 264. 274. 273. 271. 270. 269. 268. 272. 275. .. A. P. J. J. w. K. s. in R. R. c. c. w. J. L. I. L. (ed. 'ASM Publishing. 45, International. III', J. M. P. J. w. 73, c. s. 'Welding of E. 'Aluminium-lithium J. 'Aluminium-lithium in October J. Information CO, s. Met., Proc. Components Components Proc. Weldability M. E. 438. 289-295. Starke, (ed. Institute K. M. J. J. M. M. M. and Williamsburg, S. 19B, c. and 1467; Convention, (Suppl.), Conf., of Suppl. Sanders, London, 1987. Weld. 1491-1500. J. E. KOU: R. R. NORRIS: D. K. B. SASABE: H. L. O. H. A. A. AIME. L. 'Aluminium-lithium I. E. E. Metals, Welding J. J. TSUJIMOTO, I. NAMBA C. H. T. A. A. ZHANG, R. P. KUTSUNA, E. (6), S. R. 197-212. F. POLMEAR: WITTIG R. KERR H. D. PUMPHREY E. DICKERSON PICKENS, USA, GOBBI, DOWD: DAWSON: (ed. DVORNAK, CIESLAK PUMPHREY DUDAS 319-329. CROSS: MILEWSKI, CHIHOSKI: JENNINGS, CROSS, David TACK CROSS, 1948, SKILLINGBERG: Symp. 1989, MEISTER Canstr.), LIPPOLD: Conf. Starke, E. Starke, handbook', GITTOS: CROSS 48a, KRAMER, EDWARDS 'Welding YAMAOKA: A. A. Williamsburg, Jr), 241s-249s. L. 1990, of UK, aluminium', 1993, SINGER T. and Document Jr Metall. Starke, Patterson and 509-515. 1986, and Olson 74, 675; 293-299. Welding, and L. Research, S. Warley, Weld. PhD and of D. and Center, Eurojoin W. Chicago, on H. Engineering Engineering and F. and J. and R. Met. Mater. March ZHANG, Jr), Jr), A. ASM VA, L. 227-248. H. and and 72, Materials, L. Report R. Weld. A. 1986, H. L. and J. and G. T. metallurgy', Weldability SUZUKI, E. 1984, Proc. J. 144. F. Sanders, F. and SAKAGUCHI, and thesis, Ital., P. Jr), Weld. O. GOBSI, OLSON, SANO: J. H. w. R. HEUBAUM, et MERINO: Vol. (7), TACK, 1397-1411; 1415-1424; M. K. E. w. USA, J. Prog., R. D. w. D. H. B. Materials alloys MILEWSKI: Battelle Res. International, and Proc. alloys FROST, 655-665. IX-1273, V. E. 24, al.); J. Trans., LOECHEL: 1986, ASM 1972; LEWIS, Gatlinburg, Warrendale, IL, COLLINS: I. v. Vitek), 2, VA, IRVING: P. A. 1997, C. 341s-346s. T. FUERSCHBACH: 5th 6, alloys C. LYONS: Res. SINGER, 7944.01/87/556.2, World, HEUBAUM, NORRIS, Kei Colorado (6), S. K. Florence, (Suppl.), March G. L. G. MOORE: E. H. Publishing. Publishing. 1959, USA, 'Welding, Detroit, 1993, Jr TACK: MARTIN: II', Starke, Proe. Conf. (ed. Miami, KIMURA, International, III', Int. and USA, 239; of W. W. R. 5, Memorial (Suppl.), JIM, STONEHAM: T. Kinzoku FONTANA, 243-250. JENNINGS: and and ASM III', T. (ed. J. and Weld. IIW, Proc. 1993,31, 41-47. Materials, in 1989, 1989, EDWARDS, J. C. 76, LOECHEL, Weld. and March Mahin), D. Materials Inst. 5th H. (ed. KINOSHITA, Aluminium-Lithium Aluminium 1987, 1989, J. LANGAN, Proc. J. 'Aluminium-lithium T. (ed. TN, Baker 1996,37, 275-282. School E. March PA, 1952, MI, Components L. (1), Jr), FL, K. Italy, Inst. and International, Report, Vienna, Int. E. brazing, J., w. 3rd S. H. Met., T. Warley, Warley, OLSON: Metall. J. A. 1972, RICHTER, Yosetsu New T. WITTIG: (ed. Institute, USA, Metallurgical SUGIYAMA, 116-118. 1992, H. 1992, A USA, I. Sanders, ASM J. Aluminium-Lithium (2), Int. 73rd H. Res. Met., 31, ASM J. et WS. J. H. Starke, and Detroit, May and PUMPHREY: 1365-1375. TWI, of 1948,74,439-455. and Park, K. 1989, T. Inst. York, al.), (1), 51, Phys. (10),4488. Sanders, K. R. Conf. 1983, Defense 126-135. Sanders, Technology Proc. Mines, AWS. 71, and June Trans. (Suppl.), Materials Materials October H. 1948,74,425- (J. 1. RICHTER, L. A International, International, L. TANAKA, (1), Weld. J. The 1994, WS 12-31. PICKENS: Engineering Jr F. (4), 1967, Met., Cambridge, S. NY, Sanders, (ed. OH, S. Y. Light Jr), 199-203. soldering', 1-13. M. on MI, 1987, Symp. 1992, and CAPES: 9s. KRAMER: KRAMER: Institute LOREAU: B, Golden, 45-50. Society Annual Jr Trends J. Metals YUKHI, J. Jr Italian Wiley. T. alloys 51. 1457- Conf., USA, ASM 1966, 1947, 1988, 1990, E. Met. Inst. Res. and and and and and and (ed. '86, C3, on H. A. in in Jr Published by Maney Publishing (c) IOM Communications Ltd 308. 307. 306. 305. 304. 302. 303. 299. 298. 301. 300. 297. 296. 295. 293. 291. 294. 289. 292. 290. 288. 287. 282. 281. 280. 278. 277. 276. 283. 286. 285. 284. 279. View publication stats v. T. K. F. Nov. R. Y. G. w. T. zone R. s. OH, technology', copy', s. L. J. A. Weld. 1986. PA, C. v. D. J. E. Aluminium J. I. c. (1),30. J. S. T. A. 1973, (Trans. R. D. A. R. T. D. Aeronautics T. D. P. Gatlinburg, Proc. ASM USA, Laboratory, Vol. 68, AIAA 22A, of Aluminium-Lithium International, P. onents Microstruct. and Conf., Patterson Aluminium-Lithium 3347-3358. International, 1987, Proc. 1987, 1989, 1989, R. KOU: R. R. SHOJI: D. E. M. ENJO F. Mater. J. SAIDA Ya. A. ZACHARIA, KATAYAMA, F. N. E. A. N. A. J. P. R. L. Baker S. KAMADA, WEBSTER P. J. Materials, J. P. (7), A. USA, A. METZGER: WHITAKER, MARINEZ, 31, D. SUNWOO PICKENS: ASM J. DUMOLT: MARTUKANITZ, SCHOLZ, COLLINS, BRUNGRABER GNANAMUTHU BOKSHTEIN: 903-913. BURCH: MARSICO 1961, MIRONENKO 52, of FIELD: MOLIAN Prod., MIRONENKO, The Vitek), 39, March SUNWOO MARTUKANITZ: ISHCHENKO: International, 5th PICKENS, (ed. (ed. San MARTUKANITZ, PhD 2nd TALBOT: Engineering and Hauser), Weld. 262s-268s. ASME), MOLIAN Propulsion J. MARSICO aluminum and (3), 523-537; et Sci., 38-42. Int. and Institute 1983. International. Nucl. Diego, T. T. 82-87. al.), T. Technology (ed. Penn and 1977, Int. and 'Treatise Sci., thesis, H. TN, ASM and Weld. 97s-103s. 1989, s. K. Res. J. L. C. 1. and Detroit, Weld. 1993, Aluminium-Lithium F. 1435-1445. 1447-1456. 'Metallurgical H. H. KURODA: and K. and D. Proc. A. T. KAYANO, The C. Mater. S. MATSUMOTO: W. ASM G. Mater., 1991, D. Automat. c. Astronautics, and 1987, J. Conf. and W. State CA, 24, Automat. DAVID, Sanders, Sanders, USA, G. Counc. V. and A. McCLURE, (ed. T. J. International, R. and J. of and W. G. Carnegie-Mellon Publishing. NELSON, alloys LOECHEL, J. c. LUNDIN, 28, 1989, 1387-1396. J. Institute McCARTNEY, Conf., Conf., Conf., Conf. Res. Mahin), S. David), in (12), s. A. KOSSOWSKY: Res. Metals, LANGAN, on R. MORRIS, 51, USA, A. BENNETT: International, T. F. W. 14, MI, Sci., University, T. 5469-5478. R. Trans. EVSTIFEEV, '86, SRIVATSAN: 1985, I. on 'Advances May Y. R. NATALIE, J. H. materials G. Bull., H. 235-243. (Suppl.), J. Weld., (Suppl.), by 53-64. LITVINTSEV: MORRIS, 44. Warley, M. Materials Jr Jr s. Weld., BABA, USA, Williamsburg, Williamsburg, 1985, and and May NELSON: London, Sanders, MOORES: Trends transactions J. Japan 1992, STEVENS, KOSSOWSKY: of and 193-201; 29-31. ASM VITEK, transmission 133-134, Jr: JWRI, 1-11. and and 1989, SRIVATSAN: C. 1986, and Metals, Proc. N. A. 1978, I. 687-691. Weld. 20, 1988, and 1979,32, M. DANKO, T. University Report, October and c. CALDER, B. Conf., Jr: 1958, science E. E. J. 1967,46, International, in Patent American Materials and 181-183. E. (320). University, 4247-4258. in Jr UNO, (ed. Proc. '87, O. Weld. NUNES: UK, ROBINSON: 1982, 1. Symp. Mater. 6, Weld. J. Metall. A. A. 1986, welding and (ed. s. 897-901. and BARTA: ROBERTS: 137-147. O. Welding 34. R. Res. 37, London, in Williamsburg, A. S. Starke, Starke, Applied VA, VA, and H. March Int. KNOEFEL: No. (2), E. Proc. J. and electron P. 1990, Proc. 11, and E. the L. (10), Materials (8), Prod., KURSHUNKOVA: Park, A. Proc. on (Suppl.), MARTUKANITZ: Sci., A. Res. YOSHIDA, A. Trans., USA, (1), USA, Power T. R. S59-255718, 18. and Institute Proc. science heat w. technology', Met. David Weldability 371s-367s. Metzbower Pittsburgh, 457s-469s. Starke, Proc. 283-288. (ed. D. UK, Jr), Jr), 1986, Research, Eng. PA, JOHNSON: M. 5th 1990, Research 5th (Suppl.), 1979, 61-66. micros- J. treated Comp- McKAY: March March STEEN: Prog., Beam Park, R. Conf. ASM ASM 1989, 1991, 1988. Met., May 28th Des. and and and VA, (ed. Int. Int. Jr), 26, 25, A. of 335. 334. 333. 332. 330. 329. 331. 327. 328. 326. 325. 310. 324. 320. 309. 322. 312. 311. 323. 321. 319. 318. 317. 316. 315. 314. 313. Science Aluminium-Lithium R. International, A. Int. A. TWI, 317-325. Int. International, E. D. Int. International, Trends E. M. L. J. N. 1989, 541-545. March Cambridge, P. D. D. J. March aerospace J. J. E. w. 489s. Institute bonding', Cranfield Cranfield, J. I. (5), Eng., Yokohama, 'Diffusion Aluminium-Lithium M. 48, P. J. J. (5), 1989, Advances Co., (3),240. 188-193; Houston, Center. Forge, Development 281-285. unpublished 'Ultra Deutsche Aluminium-Lithium c. International, c. on March Laboratories, s. 1989, 1992, PILLING R. R. R. R. G. HARVEY, R. A. A. WILNER: URENA Le C. N. RIDLEY, E. PILLING R. R. W. C. V. O. D. Trends V. 301-306. 353-359. 1597-1608. G. Conf., Sunnyvale, PICKENS: Aluminium-Lithium PICKENS, Aluminium-Lithium SHAH, MADDRELL PARTRIDGE GRIFFEE, RICKS, JUNAI, MADDRELL, CROSS, and POAC, <;am EDWARDS, 1986,79, Cambridge, (ed. (ed. (ed. FRIDLYANDER: ROBERTS DUNFORD CLINE: PICKENS: (ed. GAW: DUNFORD, HACKETT 1989, 1989, high 1988, PA, in CRAWFORD: of Technology 1989, (ed. Institute Gesellschaft and TX, and S. aluminium', and S. Cranfield in J. T. in T. P. Welding bonding', J. unpublished The Technology. and Japan, 1983, M. P. A. Proc. L. USA, A. (ed. (ed. A. PILLING, ASM Welding strength E. G. Welding Weld. J. KOfak 441-449. F. G. 431-440. 451-460. R. MD, H. N. USA, 1425-1434. s. H. work, Center J. and 191-199. London, W. SCHANSSEMA, M. David WITTIG, David CA, H. and E. Mater. and Proc. and A. Hauge, PARTRIDGE, B. T. and T. N. RIDLEY: Pearce), WINKLER, R. C. Sanders, 16. 1989. Sanders, NOMINE, LOECHEL, Conf. KLINKLIN, of HEUBAUM, June International. JENSEN, DUNKERTON: October USA, H. H. L. A. of J. Institute RIDLEY: Research, 1993, E. USA, D. Met. Conf., G. P. Conf., Joining Technology. (ed. A. w. Members' Conf., fUr Welding Metallurgy, (ed. w. Sanders, patent Research, Sanders, and Conf. RICKS, weldable and Res. R. 1st Sci., V. G. and work, The GILMORE, 1990, The 'Superplasticity TEKIN, Quest 129-142; 1989. M. WALLACH: LOECHEL: Materialkunde. A DUNFORD: R. Sci. Conf., R. Conf., 1988. and PARTRIDGE: J. Jr and United J. and Jr WS. Williamsburg, Williamsburg, 1990,25, of (Suppl.), and and and G. Institute 1988, Mater. of Pearce L. and MacFARLANE: on M. M. and Netherlands, and 1165-1170; AWS, Pearce), and advanced Lockheed and Gatlinburg, pending, Jr T. Jr T. Heat Technology. H. '88, and S. D. Members' Gatlinburg, J. aluminium-lithium G. A. Vitek), Vitek), Aluminium and HAHN: L. Joining and v. Williamsburg, Report Williamsburg, KRAMER, E. San STOKLOSSA: and 1987, Naval H. MIANNAY: E. States-Japan E. Proc. F. M. Los REINHART: and Proc. z. E. 103-119. J. Sci. R. 3035-3047. of Treat. E. MAAS: E. 1966, BRAUN: A. in A. Francisco, x. LURSHAY: STONEHAM: materials: Mater. P. 88; WALLACH: in Metals. ASM L. Cranfield, Proc. ASM A. Angeles, A. Missiles Technol., AWS 'Superplasticity GUO: Martin Starke, VA, 1998 2nd Air Starke, G. VA, Proc. Report crystalline 1991, 216/1983, and Kelly), TN, July Starke, Starke, 1987, 45, Proc. TN, (USSR), J. Alloys, PARTRIDGE: Proc. Proc. International, Sci., 3rd International, Proc. USA, Int. Development USA, K. in Convention, Vol. Part Phys., (11), USA, 1991, Mater. VA, VA, Naval USA, and CA, Oberursel, Symp. CA, Jr), 257; 'Diffusion S. Jr), Cranfield, 44th 403/1989, Int. Proc. Proc. Jr), Cranfield Jr), Conf. 1987, Marietta 1987, 3 5th 6th 2 KUMAR: 5th March solids', alloys', March Valley 481s- Space ASM USA, USA, ASM USA, TWI, ASM USA, Conf. ASM NO.4 1985, 1975, 1987, IIW, May June IIW Int. 175 Sci. Int. Int. 5th 5th Air 22, on on in in 3,