Early Black Poetry, Social Justice, and Black Children: Receptions of Child Activism in African American Literary History
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Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports 2020 Early Black Poetry, Social Justice, and Black Children: Receptions of Child Activism in African American Literary History Tabitha LaShay Joy Lowery West Virginia University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd Part of the Children's and Young Adult Literature Commons, and the Literature in English, North America, Ethnic and Cultural Minority Commons Recommended Citation Lowery, Tabitha LaShay Joy, "Early Black Poetry, Social Justice, and Black Children: Receptions of Child Activism in African American Literary History" (2020). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 7787. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/7787 This Dissertation is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by the The Research Repository @ WVU with permission from the rights-holder(s). 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Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports 2020 Early Black Poetry, Social Justice, and Black Children: Receptions of Child Activism in African American Literary History Tabitha LaShay Joy Lowery Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd Part of the Children's and Young Adult Literature Commons, and the Literature in English, North America, Ethnic and Cultural Minority Commons Early Black Poetry, Social Justice, and Black Children: Receptions of Child Activism in African American Literary History Tabitha Lowery Dissertation submitted to the Eberly College of Arts and Sciences at West Virginia University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in English Timothy Sweet, PhD., Chair Gwen Bergner, Ph.D. Cari Carpenter, Ph.D. John Ernest, Ph.D. Department of English Morgantown, West Virginia 2020 Keywords: Reception History, African American Literary History, Poetry, Uplift, Race, Gender, Canon Formation, Children’s Literature, Childhood Copyright 2020 Tabitha Lowery Abstract Early Black Poetry, Social Justice, and Black Children: Receptions of Child Activism in African American Literary History Tabitha Lowery In spite of the substantial amount of critical work that has been produced on the recovery of early African American literature in the last few decades, our representations of black authors are still limited. Current studies of early African American poets privilege the identification of African American literature with resistance to slavery. This identification has persisted and has made the field one-dimensional. My dissertation provides reception histories of four early black poets—Phillis Wheatley, George Moses Horton, Frances Harper, and Paul Laurence Dunbar—to argue for and present an expansive understanding of African American literature. A thorough examination of these authors’ circulation histories reveal that editors engaged in children’s literature, a topic that is often overlooked in African American literary history. I argue that editors and sometimes poets recirculated black poetry in the interest of training children for social justice activism. This topic requires scholars to reconsider the complex cultural influences that shape their representations of early black authors; it will also allow for the inclusion of early black authors into white spaces. Forgetting these histories further deepens the gaps between recovered and unrecovered works. Scholars often represent Wheatley as a poet concerned with appropriating western language or subtly resisting western hegemony. Chapter one argues for the importance of Wheatley’s neglected poems by examining an unrecognized circulation history. My research reveals how various kinds of readers often repurposed Wheatley’s poems to provide varying forms of moral uplift that subjugated black children to dominant political forces. By using Arthur Donaldson’s Juvenile Magazine (1811, 1813), Freedom’s Journal (1827-1829), and even The Upward Path (1920), just to name a few, I uncover the ways editors used Wheatley’s moral poetry to teach varying forms of uplift to black children. My second chapter will redirect attention back to Horton as a nature poet for black children to recharacterize Horton’s importance in shaping black identities. Horton’s obscurity attests to the ways scholars have characterized his poetry as simply derivative of white models of poetry. I examine publications such as Eliza Follen’s juvenile magazine, The Child’s Friend (1843-1858), and Lydia Marie Child’s The Freedmen’s Book (1865) to argue that Horton’s poetry was used to teach black and white children rhyme and romantic ideations of nature to reshape their relationship to the turbulent American landscape of nineteenth-century America. Chapter three reorients Harper’s poems in the context of children’s literature to reimagine Harper not only as an advocate for black and white adults, but for children as well. My research refocuses commonly anthologized poems to consider how they speak to black children in the mid-nineteenth and late-twentieth centuries. The Anglo-African Magazine (1859-1860), William Wells Brown’s The Black Man (1863), and The Freedmen’s Book (1865), among others attest to the ways Harper’s poems were reimagined for child audiences. Chapter four relocates Dunbar in contexts of children’s literature that sought to make Dunbar the ideal early black writer for black children. Relocating Dunbar as a children’s poet rouses more scholarly attention toward Dunbar’s Christmas poems and poems that went beyond racial themes. My analysis of Readings from Negro Authors (1931) and Christmas Gif’(1965) enables an unique perspective on Dunbar’s representation. My conclusion surveys the patterns that emerge in the representations of Wheatley, Horton, Harper, and Dunbar in several American literature anthologies and newspapers throughout four different periods. The collections, Over the River and Through the Wood (2014) and Who Writes for Black Children (2017) have garnered attention for topics of early black children’s poets within African American literature, though more work remains to be done in ciphering through the messiness of nineteenth-century periodical culture. iv Acknowledgments Two institutions provided funding over the course of my graduate career and for this project, and I am appreciative of their efforts. The Office of Graduate Education and Life at West Virginia University provided me with a W.E.B. Du Bois Fellowship for the beginning stages of my PhD program. The Department of English at West Virginia University provided financial support throughout my journey. In addition, The Provost Office at Middle Tennessee State University provided me with a Diversity Dissertation Fellowship that enabled me to complete the last year of my work. I would particularly like to thank Katherine Karraker, Constinia Charbonnette, Brian Ballentine, Cheryl Torsney, Peter Cunningham, Steve Severn, Darlene Fultz, the WVU, and MTSU English Departments for all of their help throughout my years at WVU and MTSU. I also wish to acknowledge the many different faculty who helped me think through problems and ideas. I thank my chair, Tim Sweet for his patience and tireless guidance. Gwen Bergner, thank you for your attention to detail and for bringing to my awareness the greatness of black feminist thought. Cari Carpenter, thank you for your encouragement and feedback, which improved my critical thinking. John Ernest, thank you for inspiring me with your work and words. Also, I thank my many mentors and supporters who had a hand in my overall success— Tom Sura, Kate Pantiledes, Constinia Charbonnette, Ryan Claycomb, Cheryl Torsney, Maria Bachman, Eric Detweiler, Erica Cirillo-McCarthy, Mike Borshuk, Kanika Batra, Shannin Schroeder, Linda Tucker, Lynne Belcher, Mariah Crilley, Alex and Rose Moulton. Finally, to my family and friends, thank you from the bottom of my heart. Without you, this journey would have been too much to bear alone. Special thanks to my mother and father, Eileen and Lonnie Lowery, whose words and love always inspired me to persist. To my siblings v Brittany Williams, Kalieta Primm, and Brian Lowery, thank you for your continued support. Those phone calls helped me get through the toughest days. To my grandparents, whose resilience inspired me to persevere, thank you. To my many aunts, uncles, cousins, and family friends, I felt and appreciated your support. To my boyfriend, Otis Tramble, thank you for your love and for always being there for me throughout my entire journey in graduate school. And finally, to my closest friends—Tyler Davis, Aaron Goodson, and Kelli Wilhelm—thank you for pushing me to keep going no matter what. vi Table of Contents Introduction 1 Chapter 1 12 Chapter 2 55 Chapter 3 90 Chapter 4 128 Conclusion 164 Works Cited 173 1 Introduction Articulations of African American childhood play a large role in the development of early black poets’ philosophies and receptions and merit greater discussion than