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Distribution Agreement in Presenting This Thesis As a Partial Distribution Agreement In presenting this thesis as a partial fulfillment of the requirements for an advanced degree from Emory University, I agree that the Library of the University shall make it available for inspection and circulation in accordance with its regulations governing materials of this type. I agree that permission to copy from, or to publish, this thesis may be granted by the professor under whose direction it was written when such copying or publication is solely for scholarly purposes and does not involve potential financial gain. In the absence of the professor, the dean of the Graduate School may grant permission. It is understood that any copying from, or publication of, this thesis which involves potential financial gain will not be allowed without written permission. ________________________ Rev. Rebecca E. Duke-Barton The Social Construction of Motherhood in the Hebrew Bible by Rev. Rebecca E. Duke-Barton Master of Arts Graduate Division of Religion _______________________ Dr. David L. Petersen Advisor ________________ Dr. Carol Newsom Committee Member _______________ Dr. Joel LeMon Committee Member Accepted ___________________ Dean of the Graduate School ___________________ Date The Social Construction of Motherhood in the Hebrew Bible By Rev. Rebecca Duke-Barton M.A., Emory University, 2008 Adviser: David L. Petersen, Ph.D. An Abstract of A thesis submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Emory University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Graduate Division of Religion 2008 The Social Construction of Motherhood in the Hebrew Bible By Rev. Rebecca Duke-Barton ABSTRACT Societies construct motherhood based on the needs of that society, the sources of authoritative knowledge, and the view of children. Combining literary and sociological methodologies, I will investigate the work of mothers and the symbolic value placed on motherhood in the Hebrew Bible. Utilizing scholarship in motherhood studies across cultures, I focus on the ways in which the biblical texts construct motherhood, through managing the household, becoming a mother (conception, pregnancy, childbirth), and mothering young children (lactation, socialization). Many of the women who rise to prominence in the Hebrew Bible do so because they are mothers: Eve, Sarah, Rebekah, Rachel, Samson's mother, and Hannah. The phrase “mother in Israel” describes a woman (Judg 5:7) or a city (2 Sam 20:19) that deserved special honor. Mothers manage the household, engaging in productive and reproductive labor that was vital for the household (Prov 31). In the legal and wisdom traditions, mothers emerge as figures with authority over their children, serving as teachers to young children and as promoters of the interests of their offspring, both minor and adult (Prov 8:1; Deut 21:15). A competing construction of motherhood exists alongside this version, however, where mothers are vulnerable or missing. A common prophetic metaphor envisions a woman in childbirth experiencing fear and helplessness; in these texts, childbirth represents loss of control rather than the strength and joy of the mother (Hos 13:13; Isa 26:18). Mothers are missing when the lives of their children are in danger, making them appear insignificant compared to the authority of the father (Gen 22; Judg 11). This mixed construction of motherhood reflects an ambivalence: motherhood is a powerful institution, but in the patriarchal culture of the Bible, the role is occupied by a woman. The Social Construction of Motherhood in the Hebrew Bible By Rev. Rebecca Duke-Barton M.A., Emory University, 2008 Adviser: David L. Petersen, Ph.D. A thesis submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Emory University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Graduate Division of Religion 2008 Table of Contents Chapter 1 Introduction....................................................................................1 Chapter 2 The House of the Mother, the House of the Father......................26 Chapter 3 Becoming A Mother.....................................................................51 Chapter 4 Mothering Young Children........................................................110 Chapter 5 Conclusion.................................................................................156 Bibliography...............................................................................................167 1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Many of the women who rise to prominence in the Hebrew Bible do so in their capacity as mothers: Eve (“the mother of all living”), Sarah, Rebekah, Rachel, Samson's mother, and Hannah. The phrase “mother in Israel” is used metaphorically to describe a woman (Judg 5:7) or a city (2 Sam 20:19, grammatically feminine) that deserves special honor. The legal material concerns itself with the respect due to mothers as well as fathers (Exod 20:12; Lev 19:3). The wisdom tradition views mothers along with fathers as teachers (Prov 1:8). A variety of texts present mothers in protective roles over their children, protecting their physical safety and promoting their interests (Gen 21; 1 Kgs 1). In these texts, mothers are a source of authority, security, and comfort. A competing picture of motherhood exists alongside this version, however. In other texts, mothers are vulnerable, or completely missing. A common prophetic metaphor envisions a woman in childbirth experiencing pain and helplessness; in these texts, childbirth becomes as a source of fear and loss of control rather than a moment of strength and joy for the mother (Hos 13:13; Isa 26:18). Mothers are absent from key points in Israel's story, suggesting the story of God's people is actually about fathers and sons.1 Mothers are missing when their children are in danger, making them appear insignificant compared to the power and authority of the father (Gen 22; Judg 11). Mothers sacrifice themselves for the sake of their sons (Gen 1 See Cheryl Exum, “The (M)other’s Place,” in Fragmented Women: Feminist (Sub)versions of Biblical Narratives (JSOTSup Series 163; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993), 103. 2 27:13). This mixed picture of motherhood, women who sacrifice themselves for their sons, but also who are figures of wisdom and authority, may reflect an ambivalence in the biblical text: motherhood is a powerful role, but it is inhabited by a woman. Utilizing recent scholarship on motherhood across cultures, I intend to focus on the way in which the biblical texts construct motherhood. Using a combination of literary and sociological methods, I will analyze the competing social constructions within the Hebrew Bible. I will provide an introduction to motherhood studies (ch. 1) and analyze the role of the mother in the family household (ch. 2). I will then turn to two important periods in the life of the mother: pregnancy and childbirth (ch. 3) and mothering young children (ch.4). Finally, I will draw some conclusions about the depictions of motherhood in the Hebrew Bible (ch. 5). SITUATING THE CONVERSATION: MOTHERHOOD STUDIES Motherhood studies emerged among feminist scholars as a way of identifying the work that women perform in raising children, as well as understanding that the role of mother is a key component of the self-identity of many women. Sociologists, historians, literary critics and biologists have all contributed to an understanding of motherhood and the work of mothering. These studies suggest that the expectations and experience of mothers vary from society to society; particular groups construtheir own expectations and ideals of motherhood.2 Scholars have explored the ways in 2 See, e.g., Rima D. Apple and Janet L. Golden, Mothers & Motherhood: Readings in American History (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1997), 3. 3 which mothers serve to perpetuate a society, not only through population growth, but also through passing on the cultural norms to the next generation. According to sociologist Jessie Bernard, the extensive expectations of societies on mothers move motherhood from being simply a role within the family; rather, motherhood is an institution: “Motherhood is more than the biological process of reproduction. As an institution it consists of customs, traditions, conventions, beliefs, attitudes, mores, rules, laws, precepts, and the host of other rational and non-rational norms which deal with the care and rearing of children.” This sociological focus on motherhood as an institution enables scholars to look at society’s mechanism for shaping what mothers do and how they feel about what they do.3 Adrienne Rich‘s 1976 work, Of Women Born, presented the concept of motherhood as an institution and ignited an interest in motherhood studies among feminist critics. She differentiated between two overlapping meanings of motherhood: one meaning involves the reproductive potential of the woman and her potential relationships with her children, a relationship that can represent power and authority for women; the other meaning of motherhood refers to the set of ideological forces that cast mothers into a particular role that serves to reinforce patriarchy. Rich believes that this culturally enforced meaning attached to motherhood is oppressive to mothers, forcing mothers into a structure that does not allow them to exercise their 3 Susan E. Chase and Mary F. Rogers, Mothers and Children: Feminist Analyses and Personal Narratives (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2001), 60. 4 own creative power and authority.4 This
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