STUDY ON DISTRIBUTION OF CORALS AND OTHER ASSOCIATED COMMUNITIES IN THE COASTAL WATERS OF PAKISTAN By Amjad Ali M.Phil. Centre of Excellence in Marine Biology, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan 2017 STUDY ON DISTRIBUTION OF CORALS AND OTHER ASSOCIATED COMMUNITIES IN THE COASTAL WATERS OF PAKISTAN Thesis submitted to the University of Karachi for the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D) By Amjad Ali M.Phil. Centre of Excellence in Marine Biology, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan 2017 Declaration I Amjad Ali s/o Roshan Din do hereby declare that this work has been originally carried out by me under the guidance of Dr. Pirzada Jamal A. Siddiqui, Professor, Centre of Excellence in Marine Biology, University of Karachi for the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy and this work has not been submitted elsewhere for any other degree. Amjad Ali Center of Excellence in Marine Biology. Universityof Karachi. ii Certificate This thesis by Mr. Amjad Ali is accepted in the present form by the Centre of Excellence in Marine Biology, University of Karachi, as satisfying the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Marine Biology. Internal Examiner Thesis supervisor External Examiner Director Center of Excellence in Marine Biology, University of Karachi iii Dedicated to my Late Father Roshan Din, Loving and caring Mother for their efforts to educate me, Wife, Brothers, Sisters, Nephews for moral support & Lovely Daughter, Noor Fatima iv Table of Contents Title page Declaration ii Certificate iii Dedication iv Table of contents v List of figures vii List of tables ix Acknowledgements x Abstract (Urdu) xi Abstract (English) xiii List of publications xv Chapter 1 1.1. General Introduction 02 1.2. Materials and Methods 10 1.2.1. Study sites 10 1.2.2. Methods 10 1.2.2.1. Field techniques for coral, invertebrate and fish communities 10 1.2.2.2. Field techniques for macroalgal communities 11 1.2.2.3. Field techniques for fossil coral communities 11 1.2.2.4. Sea water physico-chemical parameters 12 1.2.2.5. Elemental analysis of coral skeletons 13 1.2.3. Statistical analysis 13 Chapter 2 Physico-chemical Conditions 20 2.1. Abstract 21 2.2. Introduction 22 2.3. Materials and Methods 24 2.4. Results 24 2.4.1. Seawater physico- organic parameters 24 2.4.2. Dissolved inorganic nutrients 24 2.4.3. HCO3-, CO3- and HO- concentrations 24 2.4.4. Elemental analysis of coral skeletons 25 2.5. Conclusions 31 Chapter 3 Reef and Associated Fauna in the Coastal Waters of Sindh, Pakistan 32 and an Assessment of Environmental Impacts 3.1. Abstract 33 3.2. Introduction 34 3.3. Material and Methods 36 3.4. Results 36 3.4.1. Description of survey sites 36 v 3.4.2. Coral communities 36 3.4.3. Fish communities 37 3.4.4. Invertebrate communities 38 3.4.5. Seawater physico-chemical parameters and elemental composition of 39 coral skeletons 3.5. Discussion 57 3.5.1. Coral communities 57 3.5.2. Fish communities 59 3.5.3. Invertebrate communities 60 3.6. Threats and recommendations 60 Chapter 4 Characterization of Macroalgal Communities in the Coastal Waters of 62 Sindh (Pakistan), a Region under the Influence of Reversal Monsoons 4.1. Abstract 63 4.2. Introduction 64 4.3. Materials and Methods 65 4.4. Results 65 4.4.1. Description of survey sites 65 4.4.2. Benthic macroalgal communities 65 4.4.2.1. Pre-cyclonic communities 66 4.4.2.2. Post-cyclonic communities 66 4.5. Discussion 73 4.6. Threats and recommendations 75 Chapter 5 Quaternary Fossil Coral Communities in the Uplifted Strata along the 76 Balochistan Coast of Pakistan: Understanding Modern Coral Decline in the Arabian Sea 5.1. Abstract 77 5.2. Introduction 78 5.3. Materials and Methods 80 5.3.1. Geological description of sites 80 5.3.1.1. Gwadar headland 80 5.3.1.2. Jiwani 80 5.4. Results 81 5.4.1. Description of survey sites 81 5.4.2. Fossil corals 81 5.5. Discussion 92 5.6.Threats and recommendations 95 Chapter 6 General Discussion 97 References 102 vi List of Figures S# Page# 1.1 World distribution of corals (Courtesy NOAA) 09 1.2 Arabian Sea with adjacent gulfs and seas 09 1.3 Map of Pakistan coast line with inset showing the study sites for 14 coral, seaweed, fish and invertebrate communities 1.4 Map showing Makran subduction zone (MSZ) in the coastal reagion 14 of Pakistan and Iran and other structural features in northern Arabian Sea. Inset showing study sites at Gawadar and Jiwani, Blaochistan coast for fossil corals 2.1 Mean (n = 3) seawater physical and organic parameters recorded 26 once from surface and bottom at 4 locations along the Sindh coast, Pakistan 2.2 Mean (n = 3) dissolved nutrient concentrations recorded once from 27 surface and bottom at 4 locations along the Sindh coast, Pakistan 2.3 HCO3- (mg/L), CO32- (mg/L) and HO- (mg/L) concentrations of 28 seawater recorded once during sampling period with initial temperature(°C) and pH recorded at the time of analysis 2.4 Total hardness of (n=3) of seawater samples recorded once during 29 sampling period 2.5 Elemental concentrations of EDS spectrum of coral skeletons 30 collected from different locations along the Sindh coast of Pakistan 3.1 A-B Diversity of stony coral species recorded from the littoral waters of 46-47 Sindh, Pakistan 3.2 Corals degredation due to bleaching, bioerrosion and change in 48 community structure at Mubarak Village and Churna Island 3.3 Cluster analysis for coral communities at 8 diving sites based on 49 root transformation of data and Bray Curtis similarity index using group average linkage techniques 3.4 The K dominance curves (a: cumulative, b: partial) for coral 49 communities at 8 dive sites 3.5 A-C Diversity of fishes recorded from the littoral waters of Sindh, 50-52 Pakistan 3.6 Cluster analysis for fish communities at 9 dive sites based on 52 presence-absence data and Bray Curtis similarity index using group average linkage techniques 3.7 The K dominance curves for fish communities at 9 diving sites 53 3.8 A-B Diversity of invertebrates recorded from the littoral waters of Sindh, 54-55 Pakistan 3.9 Cluster analysis for invertebrate communities at 9 dive sites based 56 on root transformation data and Bray Curtis similarity index using group average linkage techniques 3.10 The K dominance curve (Cumulative dominance) for invertebrate 56 communities at 9 dive sites vii 4.1 A-B Diversity of macroalgal species recorded from littoral waters of 70-71 Sindh, Pakistan 4.2 Cluster analyses for macroalgal species conducted at 5 dive sites on 72 the bases of presence-absence data and Bray–Curtis similarities 4.3 K. dominance curves (cumulative dominance) for macroalgal 72 species at 5 dive sites 5.1 A-B Diversity of fossil corals recorded from uplifted strata at Jiwani and 86-87 Gwadar along Balochistan (Makran) coast, Pakistan 5.2 Comparison of modern corals collected from coastal waters with 88 fossil corals from coastal uplifted strata (Makran, Balochistan), Pakistan 5.3 Comparison of modern Porites species collected from coastal waters 89 with fossil Porites species collected from coastal uplifted strata (Makran, Balochistan), to check the effects of bioerrosion 5.4 Cluster analyses of similarities between fossil coral community 89 composition at 9 transacts, based on presence-absence data and Bray–Curtis similarities 5.5 K. dominance curves (a: cumulative dominance, b: partial) for fossil 90 coral communities at 9 transacts 5.6 Cluster analyses of species composition of Quaternary, modern and 91 Miocene coral communities based on presence-absence data and Bray–Curtis similarities 5.7 Cluster analyses of genera composition of Quaternary, modern and 91 Miocene based on presence-absence data and Bray–Curtis similarities viii List of Tables S# Page# 1.1 Abundance ranking for coral and invertebrate communities 15 1.2 General observations recorded at each site with GPS coordinates and 16 respective depths 1.3 General observations recorded at each site with GPS coordinates and 19 elevations from sea level 2.1 Percentage weight concentrations of different elements in coral skeletons 25 collected from different locations along the Sindh coast of Pakistan 3.1 Hard coral species recorded from 8 diving sites 40 3.2 Abundance and distribution of hard coral species collected from 18 dive sites 41 located along the coast of Pakistan with respective depth 3.3 Diversity of fishes recorded at 9 diving sites 43 3.4 Diversity of Invertebrates recorded at 9 diving sites with relative abundance 45 4.1 Distribution and abundance of macroalgal species collected before and after 68 cyclone from 5 dive sites situated along the Sindh coast of Pakistan 5.1 List of fossil coral, collected from an uplifted location at Ras Gunz near 82 Jiwani, Balochistan 5.2 List of fossil corals collected from uplifted strata at Gawadar (GH) and 83 Jiwani (J1, J2, along Balochistan coast of Pakistan. 5.3 List of families and genera of Quaternary and modern corals recorded in 85 uplifted strata of Balochistan and coastal waters ix Acknowledgements Innumerable thanks to Almighty Allah for countless blessing and keeping determinant during study period. A great number of people have helped and been of assistance to me during study. I would like to thank them all. I would particularly like to thank my research supervisor Dr.