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Pregnancy, Childbirth, and Primary Care-Givers in Ancient Rome

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Pregnancy, Childbirth, and Primary Care-Givers in Ancient Rome PREGNANCY, CHILDBIRTH, AND PRIMARY CARE-GIVERS IN ANCIENT ROME PREGNANCY, CHILDBIRTH, AND PRIMARY CARE-GIVERS IN ANCIENT ROME By BARBARA NANCY SCARFO, B.A., M.A. A Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy McMaster University © Copyright by Barbara Nancy Scarfo, April 2020 McMaster University DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (2020) Hamilton, Ontario (Classics) TITLE: Pregnancy, Childbirth, and Primary Care-Givers in Ancient Rome AUTHOR: Barbara Nancy Scarfo, B.A (McMaster University), M.A. (McMaster University) SUPERVISOR: Professor M. George NUMBER OF PAGES: xi, 274 ii ABSTRACT This thesis presents the array of evidence concerning three crucial aspects of Roman maternity: pregnancy, childbirth, and primary care-givers. I explore how these elements of maternity are represented in the ancient sources and observe how the evidence corresponds to and diverges from the established impressions of these facets of maternity. I consider several issues surrounding the critical, initial moments of the life- cycle and how they are informed by biological factors, social structures, and cultural projections. Motherhood and childhood at Rome have garnered a great deal of interest, but issues of conception, gestation, childbirth, and early infant care have received much less attention. In this thesis they are considered together and thus in light of one another. The first chapter of this study surveys the social context of Roman maternity through an examination of the purpose of an extensive reproductive period, its associated problems, and the impact that such a practice had on Roman attitudes towards pregnancy and childbirth. The second and third chapters of this study are dedicated to an examination of the social and cultural identity of the two slaves who provided crucial functions throughout the pregnancy, delivery, and post-natal care of the Roman mother and child: the obstetrix (midwife) and the nutrix (wet-nurse). The final chapter shifts the focus from couples who sought to create a Roman family of their own to those who chose to limit the size of their families through contraception, abortion, infanticide, or infant exposure. I examine the attitudes towards these methods of family limitation and the critical role that parental intent had in the formation of these perceptions. By drawing on a range of ancient material, chief among which are medical writers, jurists, and funerary inscriptions, I argue that social status and demographic realities, such as high maternal and infant mortality rates, played equally significant roles in these central aspects of Roman maternity, and indeed influenced one another. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation was truly a labour of love, if you’ll pardon the pun. It is an absolute pleasure to acknowledge those who helped me along the way. First and foremost, I must thank my supervisor, Dr. Michele George, a truly wonderful mentor, for her support and profound patience throughout this entire process. I would not have been able to complete this project without her encouragement, constructive criticism, and guidance. I have benefitted greatly from her knowledge and experience. I would like to thank the other members of my committee, Dr. Evan Haley and Dr. Martin Beckmann for their support, valuable notes, and keen interest in my research and findings. I am grateful to Dr. Pauline Ripat (The University of Winnipeg) for kindly agreeing to be my external reader and for her thorough examination of my thesis. Her helpful editorial corrections and thoughtful commentary contributed greatly to the betterment of my work. As well, I would like to extend my gratitude to Dr. Mike Noseworthy (McMaster School of Biomedical Engineering) for his contribution as the chair of my defence. I also thank Dr. Maureen Carroll (The University of Sheffield), Dr. Tracy Prowse (Department of Anthropology, McMaster University), and Dr. Kathleen Coleman (Harvard University). Dr. Carroll provided insightful comments on nutrices and obstetrices and graciously coordinated a memorable trip to the Isola Sacra necropolis during my time at the British School at Rome in 2016. Dr. Prowse kindly (and patiently) explained isotopic analysis to me, which helped in the development of important arguments in my chapter on nutrices. Dr. Coleman was incredibly generous with her time and provided valuable feedback on my chapter that explores the role of obstetrices. I acknowledge with gratitude the financial support for my research that was provided by the Department of Classics, the School of Graduate Studies at McMaster University (Raynsford-Eatock Graduate Travel Bursary in Greek Studies and the Edith M. Wightman Travel Scholarship), the Ontario government (Ontario Graduate Scholarship), and the Canadian Institute in Greece (the Homer and Dorothy Thompson Fellowship). iv Parts of my arguments were presented in their initial stages as conference papers at the Classical Association of Canada’s Annual Meetings in Quebec City (2016) and St. John’s (2017). I am grateful to the audiences on these occasions for their insightful discussions and warm reception. Sincerest thanks must also be extended to my fellow graduate students in the department for their wonderful friendship and unwavering support, as well as to Louise Savocchia for her encouragement, advice, and administrative support. Lastly, I would like to express my warmest thanks to my family for taking a genuine interest in my research and for tolerating my preoccupation with this dissertation, with the utmost grace and patience. Ma (Marie), Dad (Nicodemo), and fratello (Salvatore), I am indebted to you for your unconditional love and support. v This dissertation is dedicated to the loving memory of Miroslava Stribrny and Annunziata Scarfo, optimae et carissimae matresfamilias vi TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………...ix List of Abbreviations………………………………………………………………………x Introduction………………………………………………………………………………1 Chapter 1: The Social Context of Roman Maternity Introduction………………………………………………………………………………20 The Age of Menarche and Attitudes towards Female Puberty…………………………..22 Roman Age at First Marriage…………………………………………………………….31 The Consequences of Childbirth…………………………………………………………41 Epitaphs Commemorating Young Mothers………………………………………………51 Neonatal and Infant Mortality……………………………………………………………63 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………..67 Chapter 2: The Role of the Obstetrix in Roman Childbirth Introduction………………………………………………………………………………69 The Role of the Midwife during Pregnancy, Labour, and Delivery……………………...72 The Negative Perception of Obstetrices in Rome………………………………………103 The Dignified Obstetrix…………………………………………………………………111 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………126 Chapter 3: The Role of the Nutrix in Roman Post-Natal Care and Early Childhood Development Introduction …………………………………………………………………………….128 The Duties of the Wet-Nurse…………………………………………………………...132 The Relationship between the Wet-Nurse and Her Nursling…………………………...159 The Family Life of Nutrices: The Epigraphic Evidence………………………………..167 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………174 Chapter 4: Unwanted Pregnancies at Rome Introduction……………………………………………………………………………..176 Patria Potestas, Tollere Liberum, and Ius Vitae Necisque……………………………..180 A Note on Partible Inheritance………………………………………………………….188 Contraception and Abortion…………………………………………………………….190 Infanticide and Infant Exposure………………………………………………………...212 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………233 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………...235 Funerary Inscription Appendix – Obstetrices………………………………………..240 vii Image Appendix………………………………………………………………………..253 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………...261 viii LIST OF TABLES 1.1: Age of Roman girls at first marriage, historical sources………………………….38 2.1 The geographical regions of inscriptions that commemorate obstetrices………….119 3.1 Familial relationships indicated in the inscriptions of nutrices…………………….170 4.1 Data from the census returns of Roman Egypt……………………………………..224 ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS The following is a list of abbreviations for journals and reference works. Abbreviations for ancient authors and their works follow those of the Oxford Classical Dictionary. Abbreviations for journals follow the conventions used by L’Année Philologique; abbreviations for reference works are those commonly used by modern scholars. 1. Journals AAAH Acta ad archaeologiam et artium historiam pertinentia ABSA The Annual of the British School at Athens AClass Acta Classica: verhandelinge van die Klassieke Vereniging van Suid- Afrika AJAH American Journal of Ancient History AJPh American Journal of Philology AncSoc Ancient Society CPh Classical Philology CQ Classical Quarterly G&R Greece and Rome Historia Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte JRA Journal of Roman Archaeology JRS The Journal of Roman Studies Klio Klio: Beiträge zur Alten Geschichte MDAIR Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Römische Abteilung P&P Past and Present: A Journal of Historical Studies PCPhS Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society RHD Tijdschrift voor rechtsgeschiedenis x TAPhA Transactions of the American Philological Association ZPE Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 2. Reference Works AE L’Année Épigraphique ANRW Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt CIL Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum CLE Carmina Latina Epigraphica CMG Corpus Medicorum Graecorum ICUR Inscriptions Christianae Urbis Romae ILCV Inscriptiones Latinae Christianae
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