How US Occupation Forces and Pre-War Borders Created an Environment for Smuggling in the Post-War Ryukyus

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How US Occupation Forces and Pre-war Borders Created an Environment for Smuggling in the Post-war Ryukyus

Ibrahim Jalal

Abstract: This article examines how the often- Keywords: Post-war Japan, Smuggling, overlooked era of Okinawan smuggling in the Okinawa, Ryukyu, Military Occupation, years 1945-1950 was fostered by two factors. Borderlands, Taiwan, China The first was the contradiction between US Occupation rules that forbid free trade and movement coupled with a lack of supplies essential for survival. Okinawans continued to make use of the borderland status that had existed under the Japanese Empire at the intersection with Japan, Taiwan and mainland China, While the military government branded smuggling as criminal and opportunistic, for the people of Okinawa smuggling was a necessity to survive in an economy that had been devastated by war. Local police and guards often turned a blind eye to the black market, and in some cases were even involved in the theft of goods for smuggling. Those throughout the Ryukyu Archipelago were in a unique position to trade surplus military goods and scrap metal for necessary resources such 1950 aerial photograph of Okinawa as food and building materials due to their location between Japan, Taiwan and China as the unguarded coastline made it possible to avoid detection. Even children helped gather resources for smuggling, and many women Introduction took part in the trade. During this era, the archipelago’s westernmost island of Yonaguni In Okinawa Kuhaku no Ichinen 1945-1946, grew into a prosperous borderland outpost for Kabira Nario details the environment illegal trade and the population boomed. By the Okinawans found themselves in immediately mid-1950s the era of large-scale smuggling had after the Battle of Okinawa. Kabira describes come to an end, as harsher US clampdowns, 1945-46 as a ‘blank year’ devoid of records and stronger borders in Taiwan, coupled with the often only briefly covered in post-war histories relaxation of measures that allowed Okinawans of Okinawa.1 This article examines one aspect to freely trade gradually brought the golden of life that began during this blank year: age of smuggling to an end. smuggling and two factors that facilitated it in

1 19 | 2 | 2 APJ | JF the years 1945-50. The first was theshortages resulting from the population Occupational authorities’ insistence that bar increase.4 Some studies of contemporary trade outside Okinawa, coupled with a lack of Okinawa focus on the base problem such as supplies for civilians. This was coupled with a those of Maeda Tetsuo, Gabe Masaaki and consciousness that Taiwan and China to the Hayashi Hirofumi, noting that the land of many South and Japan to the north had been part of a Okinawans was taken over by military bases. single economic region under the Japanese These researchers have focused on the Empire. In the immediate aftermath of the war immediate situation in Okinawa itself. But Okinawa’s borderland status became more smuggling links all of these factors. This article pronounced. links these better-known elements of post-war Okinawa history to the lesser known history of There is currently limited research on post-war post-war smuggling. smuggling throughout the Ryukyu Archipelago, and this is likely linked to two factors. The first The social scientist Iwashita Akihiro has is that individuals partaking in the illegal introduced the concept of borderland studies to activity seek to remain anonymous, so primary Japan and its former territories under the sources are scarce. Even documents that are empire, particularly Sakhalin and the Kuril available, such as US military government Islands. Iwashita has contrasted state borders documents, frequently contain large amounts of defining political entities in contrast with the censored texts. The scope of smuggling also actual living space of people when writing transcends Okinawa itself with routesabout Japan’s northern territories. This article connecting mainland Japan, Taiwan and China. looks at smuggling through the perspective of Given this multinational complexity and the Okinawa as a borderland region.5 nature of the Battle of Okinaw, it is not surprising that studies have focused on the This perspective of a more localized view war’s aftermath in the devastated regions. rather than the top down state approach examines how Okinawa fared, and to some The most comprehensive work on post-war extent continues to fare, within the American smuggling is the political scientist Koike empire. Smuggling is an area where there is a Yasuhito’s ‘Ryukyu retto no mitsuboeki to chance to look at what contemporaries kyokaisen: 1941-1951i’ (‘Smuggling in the considered their actual living space, and their Ryukyu Archipelago and its Borders’). Koike ability to transcend borders, rather than interviewed traders and used ocupationexamining Okinawa through state-imposed documents to examine the role of smuggling in formal boundaries.6 the post-war years.2 This article, beginning with the initial However, most studies on post-war Okinawa background of post-war Okinawa and the focus on other elements. This includes the imperative to smuggle in the immediate post- sociologist Oguma Eiji, who in a comparative war environment given the contradiction study of Okinawans as subjects of the Japanese between a lack of supplies and the necessity to Empire examined such elements of post-war rely for survival on US military government Okinawa as the difficulties resulting from a lack policies and provisions. The second section of school infrastructure and ideas of anlooks at some of the routes chosen for independent Ryukyu.3 Others including Arakaki smuggling, particularly the activity in Yasuko highlighted the influx of Okinawan Yonaguni, the most western island in the migrants overseas who were forced to return to archipelago and a borderland region that Okinawa after Japan’s defeat, including food played a large role in the trade. The latter half

2 19 | 2 | 2 APJ | JF of this article examines the attractiveness of Ryukyuan economy, natives seized (the) smuggling for individual actors before opportunity for personal profit by concluding with the crackdown on this trade in smuggling consumer goods from Japan, the 1950s coinciding with imposition of more China and Formosa, using as a medium of formal boundaries on the Ryukyu Archipelago exchange items sold and donated to coupled with Occupational reforms that indigenous economy through the (civil reduced the necessity for smuggling for administration) and strategic and non- survival. strategic items of American military origin or under occupation control. As smuggling US military rule of parts of the main island of and black market profits are lucrative, Okinawa began as early as April 1, 1945, the hundreds of natives and foreign (nationals) day US troops landed on Okinawa during the are engaging in the unlawful activity. Of final battle of the Pacific War. Fleet Admiral even greater import is that the smuggling Chester Nimitz declared that the Ryukyu boats are transporting illegal and 7 Archipelago was now under US rule. US subversive elements into and/or through military rule had already begun by the end of the Ryukyus.8’ March on the neighboring islands of the Kerama Archipelago, and by the end of August 1945 it covered the entirety of the island of Okinawa. The journalist Okuno Shūji has given a more romantic portrayal of the post-war smuggling After the war, Okinawans were gradually period as one that harked back to the golden allowed to return through the war-tornage of trade by the Ryukyu Kingdom in the landscape to their homes to begin to rebuild 15th to 16th centuries. During this period, their lives under the new regime. However, before the Ryukyu Archipelago became a semi- large military bases, built throughout the colony of Japan in 1609, the kingdom sent ships ongoing battle in order to launch an attack on throughout Asia, trading with China, Japan and mainland Japan, now stood on what had been Korea, and in South East Asia as far as present the homes and fields of tens of thousands of 9 day Indonesia. However, by 1945 Okinawa had Okinawans. Resources were scarce with cattle been incorporated as a prefecture of Japan and crops obliterated by bombardment from since 1879, with a transition to a mainly the navy, air and army forces on both sides. In agricultural economy.10 the wake of Japan’s surrender, given the inadequate provisions provided to theOkuno acknowledges that Okinawans took part Okinawan people by the occupying forces, a in the smuggling to survive throughout the black market developed. Ryukyu Archipelago in the wake of the Battle of Okinawa with its devastating casualties. The Smuggling was facilitated by the surplus of contemporary Okinawan historian Arasaki goods that the US bought to the islands in Moriteru has estimated that 65,000 mainland preparation for an attack on the Japanese troops were killed in addition to 30,000 mainland. A 1951 United States Civil Okinawan military personnel, at least 94,000 Administration of the Ryukyu Islands (USCAR) civilians and 10,000 Koreans who had been memo described the trade: conscripted as military porters, nurses, or 11 comfort women. As the battle progressed southwards, first to the base of the Japanese ‘Upon cessation of (the) Pacific War and army beneath Shuri Castle in Naha, and then to (the) collapse of Japanese controlled the most southern point of the island, entire

3 19 | 2 | 2 APJ | JF villages were destroyed and families wiped aboard boats to catch fish, other cans of out.12 various sizes became pots, cups and buckets.15 Even military uniforms were repurposed into makeshift wedding dresses, and what has become one of the iconic symbols of the immediate postwar era the traditional Okinawan stringed instrument, theSanshin which was made out of cans and dubbed the ‘kankara sanshin’ (clattering or hollow Sanshin), as opposed to the traditional Sanshin made of wood and snakeskin.16 The Sanshin had long been one of the most popular instruments from the days of the Ryukyu Kingdom, and there was something quintessential about the kankara sanshin that captured the atmosphere of the postwar poverty.

When some Okinawans were allowed outside the camps to work under the supervision of the US forces advance in ruins of Naha during US army, they discovered the destruction of the Battle of Okinawa their land and houses. Uku Teruko was sixteen (Naha City Museum of History) at the time took up a cooking role, and on one occasion when she was being transported by a US military vehicle, she saw her hometown of The bombardment by both armies not only Shuri: killed thousands but also destroyed 90% of the

buildings throughout Okinawa, as these were concentrated in the heavily populated southern “There were Japanese soldiers wearing half of the island where the brunt of the battle military clothes in a state of took place.13 mummification all over the place. The beautiful vestiges of pre-war Shuri were The postwar era for many Okinawans began nowhere to be seen.17” when they were captured or surrendered to US forces and taken to a civilian internment camp.

Excluding those on the Kerama islands, on the 1st day of the battle, April 1, 1945, only 21 Aguni Yoshi, 25, was part of a vanguard group civilians had been brought under the US that was permitted to leave the camps early to regime; by the second day this had swelled to make it livable for others, a movement initiated 1,023, by the 5th day 8,909, by the 10th day by Nakayoshi Ryōkō (1887-1974) the mayor of 44,367, and these numbers rapidly increased Shuri. Aguni describes the remains : until by August about 85% of the surviving population had been bought into the internment camps.14 “(Shuri) was in ruins, a mere shadow of its Inside the camps people had to make do with former self, no matter where one went in the precious few resources that they could find. Shuri there were the remains of the Fuel tanks for planes were cut in half and put deceased, whether it be in houses, inside

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caves or even in the wells.18” Likewise in the village of Ginowan. The Americans had begun building the airbase on arable land at the settlement’s center. Villagers returned to find that 33% of what had been At Shuri men began building houses using trees their former homes was now off limits to from Kunigami, a less damaged area of the civilians. In Yomitan the American army had forest region of northern Okinawa, while expanded the Japanese base, and when the women acted as nurses. While the land in the villagers returned in August 1946 they were populated parts of Okinawa had been ravaged, permitted to live on a mere 5% of the former there was still some food, as described by Uku: village land.22 Military bases occupied the flattest land, the prime agricultural land whose

loss to villagers made the growing of crops and “Wherever we went the burned remains of rearing livestock far more difficult than in the houses and corpses became fertilizer, and pre-war era. we were able to get our hands on a While tens of thousands of civilians had died surprising quantity of vegetables.19” during the battle of Okinawa, there was a postwar population boom as many of the 38,000 Okinawans who had immigrated 23 Such salvageable resources could be put to use overseas were repatriated. By 1940 Okinawa while the majority of Okinawans remained had the highest percentage of emigrants of any inside the internment camps, yet they were prefecture or city, 9.9% of the total population, insufficient to support the population. This far higher than second place Kumamoto 4.78%, scarcity opened the door to a black market and and third place Hiroshima 3.88%, with the smuggling that sustained it. approximately one in ten Okinawans having emigrated overseas, including to Japan.24 The war-torn landscape was not the only factor that put pressure on resources. When the first A year after the Battle of Okinawa, on the Okinawans were released from internment August 15, 1946 the military government began camps in October 1945, they discovered that allowing overseas Okinawans to repatriate, and military bases such as Kadena were already from August to December of 1946 to December being built and expanded on the former about 140,000 returned to Okinawa.25 airfields of the Japanese army. In the village of Chatan residents returned to find the former The majority of the Okinawa emigrants came 1,500-meter runway had been extended to from mainland Japan and the Japanese South 2250 meters fit for B29 bombers. With the Seas Mandate of Micronesia. As was the case airbase taking up much flat land, the 10,000 for the South Seas Mandate, many Okinawans villagers were forced to rebuild clustered close were forced to return from other parts of the together around the hills.20 Japanese Empire including China. Other Okinawan immigrants in allied territories had The Kadena base cut across the old village of been deemed suspicious since the 1941 attack Chatan which was divided into twoon Pearl Harbor and were forcibly sent back at administrative regions, the village of Chatan the war’s end from such places as the and the village of Kadena. In Kadena the base Philippines and New Caledonia. While the took up 83% of the village’s land, while in population of Okinawa was just above 300,000 Chatan Camp Zukeran occupied 53% of the in the immediate postwar era, the Okinawa land.21 historian Aniya Masaaki has estimated that by

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1952 there were 170,000 Okinawan repatriates, and by 1950 the population of Okinawa had already surpassed the pre-war levels.26

Altogether, the ravaged land, the expansion of permanent military bases and a swelling population put pressure on a people with few resources and smuggling between territories that had all been part of a single Japanese Empire expanded rapidly.

The Contradiction between Occupation US Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Restrictions and Lack of Supplies Islands (USCAR) HQ From 1945 to 1950 the US military government In the immediate post-war period, the military that controlled the Ryukyu Archipelago in the government provided up to 80% of food, wake of the Battle of Okinaw was called the leaving Okinawans to make up the final 20% to United States Military Government of the 29 survive. While trade had the potential to fill Ryukyu Islands (USMGR). From 1950 this was this 20%, in March 1946, USMGR issued rebranded as the United States Civilian Proclamation No. 7, which imposed a ban on Administration of the Ryukyu Islands (USCAR) foreign currency and foreign trade throughout which would continue ruling Okinawa until the 30 the Ryukyu Archipelago. Such measures were islands return of administration to Japan in driven by the military government’s long-term 1972.27 From 1946 to 1950 the Okinawan goal of making Okinawa a permanent military Civilian Administration existed under the base. military government, although real power remained with the US military government. The The immediate postwar years under occupation Okinawan Civilian Administration was replaced were the strictest. Not until March 1947 were with the Guntō (military) Government for each Okinawans permitted to move without official of Okinawa’s four archipelagoes: Amami, papers, and private trade between Japan and Miyako Okinawa and Yaeyama. The Guntō the Ryukyus would not be legalized until Governments continued until 1952 when they 1949.31 were replaced with the Government of the Ryukyus which lasted until 1972.28 The Shortages were not only a problem for government structure of the RyukyuOkinawa. The Ryukyu Archipelago can be Archipelago may have had superficial changes broadly divided into four groups of islands. At from 1945-1972, but the core of Okinawan the northern end is the Amami group, which civilians being ruled by an occupying military stretches from northern Okinawa to Kyushu, force explains some of the dissonance between Japan. South of Amami, is the Okinawa group, the official reports of USMGR/USCAR and the the most populated region of the archipelago. behavior of some Okinawans who engaged in While Amami and Okinawa are relatively close smuggling, as discussed below. together there is a 300-kilometer gap of open

6 19 | 2 | 2 APJ | JF sea between the two southern island groups, The desperate islanders had little choice but to which are collectively known as Sakishima.32 cut down sago palms and process these into an The eastern group of Sakishima is the Miyako emergency food source to cope with famine.40 group, to the west is the Yaeyama group, of Eating the sago palm raw was poisonous, and which Yonaguni is just 118-kilometers from while processes such as fermentation could Taiwan, making it the ideal relay point for nullify this, the sago palm led to islander 41 trade.33 deaths.

While Miyako and Yaeyama did not experience For different reasons then, Amami, Okinawa, a land battle, both groups of islands confronted Miyako and Yaeyama all faced devastating scarce resources in the immediate postwar conditions including death from diseas and malnutrition in the final stages of the war and period. From the start of the battle of Okinawa, severe shortage of supplies following it. imports to Miyako and Yaeyama from Okinawa were cut off, and with rapid inflation people However, as the US army and Navy was soon resorted to bartering. In Miyako’s largest planning to launch an attack on mainland Japan settlement, Hirara, it was common to see after the Battle of Okinawa to force surrender, women and children at street corners peddling more than half a year of supplies had been 34 matchsticks, soap and tobacco. stored in the camps.42

The people of Yaeyama faced evacuation orders from the Japanese army, forcing civilians to take refuge in the mountains and forests of islands such as Ishigaki, Iriomote and Yonaguni home to the malaria-transmitting anopheles mosquito. The orders were in anticipation of allied troops making landfall in the south of the Ryukyu Archipelago, something which never came to pass. Throughout Yaeyama, 53.8% of the population (16,884 people) became infected with malaria with 18.2% dying (3,075).35 The wartime malaria devastated vast swathes of the population, as in Ōhama village where 89.3% were infected (4,930) and 20.6% died (1,018).36

One of the most devastated islands was In Miyako smuggling began as a small Hateruma where one-third of the population 37 operation between local islands, but soon died. became part of a larger network that extending throughout Okinawa, and then to Japan, Taiwan When the Hateruma islanders were allowed to and China.43 Before long many in both Japan return from Iriomote after half a year, the fields and Taiwan realized that there was profit to be lay barren and Japanese soldiers had sacked 38 made from transporting their goods to and the islander’s houses. Immediately before throughout the Ryukyu Archipelago. evacuation the Hateruma islanders had been ordered to slaughter all livestock, and many Smuggling was so extensive that USCAR islanders returned to face malnutrition and estimated that fully 60% of Okinawan vessels malaria.39 were involved in smuggling, to such an extent

7 19 | 2 | 2 APJ | JF that this held back the development of the came in two colors, a darker ‘Colombo’ and Okinawan fishing industry.44 lighter ‘khaki’.50

Not all raw materials taken from the Ryukyus to Japan were scrap and salvage. Of particular note is the unrefined sugar from both Amami and Okinawa.51 Sugarcane had been introduced Routes and Smuggled Goods to Amami around the early 1600s, and the Ryukyu Kingdom official Zama Shinjō had Numerous routes linked the Ryukyus, Japan overseen the introduction of wringers to create and Taiwan, then continuing on to Hong Kong, 52 Macau and mainland China. Smugglingbrown, or black sugar as it is known in Japan. operations in Okinawa were usually carried out When the Satsuma samurai invaded the Ryukyu at night, often involving bartering. In general, Kingdom in 1609, they took direct control of the boats from Yaeyama and Yonaguni were Amami, and by the mid-18th century were seven to eight tons, from Okinawa 30 to 40 selling sugar in Osaka and other Japanese 53 tons, and from mainland Japan as large as 100 cities. The value of sugar again came to the tons.45 fore in the post-war era, with sugar from Amami and Okinawa sold in the black market in While those in Japan and Taiwan had greater Japan. resources, the Okinawans were limited to what goods they could obtain from the military Overall, the scale of smuggling to Japan was government, whether donated for civilian use large and hundreds of reports detail the or stolen.46 In some cases USCAR released quantities of goods seized by Japanese surplus goods to Okinawan civilians which went Customs. Goods exported from Japan to the straight into the black market. By 1951 over Ryukyus ranged from barrels of soy sauce, 54 USD 100 million of supplies and equipment had pickled vegetables, and fruit to timber. In been declared surplus and distributed to the addition, there were sewing machines, 55 Okinawans.47 These items were often channeled medicine, razor blades, green tea and kettles. to brokers who stockpiled them for sale in While such necessities were of importance, Japan, Taiwan or China.48 books, magazines and film were also became profitable items imported from Japan. Japanese Customs reports show some of the items that smugglers attempted to bring into In the case of the Kasuga-Maru, in June 1949 a Japan, as well as noting the participation of group attempted to smuggle 20,000 books and Okinawans, Japanese and Korean nationals in magazines into Okinawa but were caught by 56 the trade. civilian police at Nago. The ringleader of this operation was a repatriated Okinawan who was Items from Ryukyu include raw materials such also the chairman of the Okinawan Fisheries as timber, scrap metal (mainly copper, iron and Cooperative who had learned that reading brass), cotton, rubber, lighter oil and gasoline, materials purchased in mainland Japan could as well as goods such as US army shirts, other be sold in Okinawa for up to 70 or 80% of its US clothing, cartridges and metal from guns fixed price. (both scrap metal), US made toothbrushes, US cigarettes, and telephones.49 Much of this came The books and magazines were purchased in directly from the US army, Lucky Strike Tokyo for JPY 300,000 and included an array of cigarettes were particularly emblematic of the popular magazines such asKing, Kodan, trade, as were the military work clothes which Kurabu, Fujin Sekai, as well as short stories for

8 19 | 2 | 2 APJ | JF children.57 Okinawans in Kyushu receive the was suspected of smuggling it was escorted to goods, with the Okinawan League in Beppu, Ishigaki, and seven days later was ordered to Ōita Prefecture receiving the books and leave Ryukyuan waters. This did not deter the magazines on multiple occasions in April, Taiwanese smugglers and they were spotted 1949. again off the coast of Yonaguni only a day later. The three individuals aboard the boat were The next matter of importance involved hiring a unarmed Taiwanese nationalist soldiers in their crew for the chartered Kasuga-Maru. This task late twenties and early thirties. Carrying with had been completed by May 17, 1949, with them for sale on Yonaguni was a cargo of egg, many crew members bringing their own shrimp, pork, onions and lumber.62 They were collection of goods that they hoped to sell in by no means the only Taiwanese who sought to Okinawa. With the goods loaded aboard, the smuggle to Yonaguni. In December 1949 three Kasuga-Maru left port from Beppu Harbor Chinese motorhead junks, theYunghua , without a permit at 18:00 on May 17.58 On May Hangsheng and Fuchinshum went missing, 18, the ship called at Saeki Harbor, south of most likely stolen for smuggling to Okinawa.63 Beppu at 13:00, and then had to make an unscheduled stop at Totoro Harbor further Of particular demand in China was scrap metal south due to engine trouble at around 22:00 at that could be used in the continuing warfare night. The ship again set out in the middle of between the Communists and the Nationalists the night on May 19. Yet on May 22, the as well as to rebuild after a prolonged war with Kasuga-Maru again stopped at Tanegashima Japan. Thus, the main item that was smuggled south of Kyushu for repairs.59 to China from Ryukyu was non-ferrous metals.64 Leaving Tanegashima on May 22 at 20:00 the ship headed south, where the engine once While scrap metal could be found throughout again broke down off the coast of Amami Okinawa, this was out of reach of the Chinese Ōshima, sometime between 10:00 on May 23 due to US military occupation of the and 18:00 on May 25. The Kasuga-Maru then archipelago. Metal from Okinawa was so drifted towards northern Okinawa where the lucrative that there ammunition and weapons smugglers finally reached their destination.60 were stolen from storage locations, individual quarters and the police. Another commodity Having arrived at Nakijin on May 28, the books prone to theft was rubber tires, with large and magazines were unloaded and transported stocks being stolen from military stock or even to Nago. Meetings then took place to find a vehicles before being transported to Hong buyer with the private Education Society Kong and Macau.65 agreeing to purchase the materials on May 31.61 The materials were finally seized by the There were also hidden caches of ammunition Nago police stymying the smugglers, however and weapons from the recent battle throughout 66 many others pulled off successful smuggling Okinawa. Metal was also taken from the operations. stocks of private contractors and builders, as well as from Okinawan agencies.67 Metal was The desire to sell goods to war-torn Okinawa also lying in plain sight throughout Okinawa, as also came from Taiwan to the west. One such on the island of Iejima where crates full of example is the ‘Hai Foo’, a Taiwanese motor shells had been carried ashore for an expected vessel that was spotted by a Ryukyu Command mainland invasion.68 Moreover, after the war, headquarters (RYCOM) patrol off the coast of brass shell casings were scattered all over Yonaguni on September 3, 1950. After the ship Okinawa, and alongside abandoned vessels off

9 19 | 2 | 2 APJ | JF the coast. Farmers and school childrenfor ‘wealthy person’ and Nijūnichi means 20 collected the metals, which made their way into days (in standard Japanese), roughly the time the smuggling trade.69 to make a round trip from Hong Kong to Okinawa. USCAR was also aware that one China coast trip in a 35 to 34-ton vessel could generate profits of US$ 9,000, over one million Japanese yen.74 By the 1950s, however, this vision of Hong Kong as a place to get rich quick had ended due to oversaturation of Okinawan goods such as sugar, and the falling price of metal.75

Yonaguni as a Borderland

The central relay point for smuggling was the port of Kubura on the island of Yonaguni. From 1895 to 1945 there had been no border between Taiwan and Yonaguni, after Taiwan Mound of shell cases in Naha became part of the Japanese Empire following the defeat of China in the first Sino-Japanese war.76 The islands had a close relationship, with Taiwan visible with the naked eye from As of July 1951, USCAR estimated that at least Yonaguni on a clear day. 50,000 tons of non-ferrous metal had been removed from throughout the RyukyuFor those in Yonaguni who had access to the Archipelago, including 1,000 tons of scrap lead neighboring metropolis of Taipei, there were 70 and 120 tons of co-axial cables. state of the art hospitals, luxurious department stores and an Imperial University, on a level Taiwanese were also deeply involved inunavailable in Okinawa. People in Yonaguni smuggling between Okinawa and China. came to think of themselves as more Forexample, the Taiwanese entrepreneur who cosmopolitan than those further north first introduced the pineapple industry to throughout the Ryukyu Archipelago.77 Students Yaeyama, Lin Fa, used his connections to who had recently graduated in Yonaguni would 71 support the smuggling trade in Okinawa. go to Taiwan seeking jobs, theKatsuobushi (dried tuna) trade between Japan and Taiwan Customs officers in Hong Kong were also an enriched the island, and while houses obstacle for Okinawan and Japanese smuggling throughout Okinawa in the pre-war era 72 vessels. However, much smuggling was typically had wooden planking floors, many in carried out off the coast of Hong Kong, Macau Yonaguni had Tatami mats, as those who had or mainland China with goods loaded onto gone to work in Taiwan returned home 73 smaller boats and take them ashore. wealthier than the locals.78

A successful smuggling expedition to Hong After the war many residents of Yonaguni Kong could make one wealthy. Okinawans continued to look to. In 1946, Yonaguni had a referred to smuggling to Hong Kong as population of a few thousand but at the peak of ‘Nijūnichi Wēki’, the word Wēki is Okinawan the smuggling era the population swelled to

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15-20,000 and at times as many as 100 ships needs.86 Kubura’s haphazard urbanization also could gather at Kubura.79 Most of this created jobs to support the smuggling, such as population was involved in smuggling and just Miyako women who came to Yonaguni to work over 5,000 were registered residents ofin the restaurants and bars.87 Yonaguni.80 Contrary to the military government’s view of Yonaguni was a central point in this trade, smuggling, which saw the trade as merely where goods coming in both directions were opportunistic, testimony from the smugglers stored, prepared or sold. In some cases, items themselves shows how it served a necessary brought from Yonaguni to Okinawa that function in the era. Imori Tokio the leader of originated in China could be sold for twice the the young people’s association on Yonaguni price; the same was true for Okinawan goods recalls: brought to Yonaguni that were destined for China.81 There was antimalaria medicine, tires, rubber, US military clothes known as herringbone blouse and trousers, sugar and “In Shōwa 21 (1946) there was one rice. The island was also a melting pot of occasion when the American army people, with islanders from Okinawa, Ishigaki delivered supplies to Yonaguni. The and Miyako, as well as smugglers from across American army was present carrying 82 numerous bags of rice. But this was only Japan, Taiwan and China. The island was on one occasion, after this Yonaguni fell awash with currency, including US dollars and into food shortages and there was nothing military payment certificates, which were that could be done. Following this, either stolen or traded to Okinawans by US 83 numerous ships came to Yaeyama to troops. The local Yaeyaman historian Makino smuggle, but the Yaeyaman politicians Kiyoshi (born in 1910) recalls the wealth of opposed this, and believed we should not goods flowing through Yonaguni during a time go near them. I decided then to start they were hard to find in Okinawa and Japan: working on a smuggling ship in Yonaguni. This wasn’t a political problem, it was a necessity for the people of Kubura to “Not only was there gold and silver, but survive.88” the island was overflowing with foodstuffs. The bananas were really something to behold. There were sugar and pineapple

processing factories and a wealth of rice, I have no recollection that finding food was The Role of Women in Smuggling a problem.84”

The masses of smugglers at Kubura led to the rapid growth of a small city with the port gaining the moniker ‘the second Hong Kong’ and ‘the Hawaii of the Orient.’85 The streets resonated with restaurants and bars, Okinawan theatres, cinemas showing both Japanese and western films, warehouses and tents that had sprung up to accommodate the smugglers’

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their male counterparts did, including offloading goods off the coastKinjō Seiko recalls some of the macabre details that were part of bringing smuggled goods to Okinawa, as bones of the recently deceased lay scattered across the beaches:

“There was no place to put one's feet, the bones reflected a pallid white under the moonlight. When walking, the bones would crunch under foot, I held my hands together and walked (thinking) ‘sorry, Postwar photo of Sabani in Tomari or 92 Itoman please protect us’. ” (Naha City Museum of History)

Many women took up smuggling using the small Okinawan boats known as Sabani to carry goods.89 While men took up more prominent roles as smuggling increased in scale, numerous women held key positions as leaders of smuggling operations or as brokers, many being women from Itoman.90 Kanagusuku Kane was one of these women. She had returned to Okinawa from Saipan in 1946 and began Unidentified remains in Itoman (1955) carrying firewood from Iheyajima to Okinawa. This soon developed into transporting potatoes and rice, then exchanging food and clothing with Okinawan repatriates from Japan, and eventually to smuggling. Kanagusuku recalls Occupation Attempts to Crack Down on that: Smuggling

The military government tried to crack down on “From that time anyone who was selling smuggling, but was initially overwhelmed by was connected somehow or other with the sheer number of cases as well as lack of smuggling. There was an astounding cooperation from both local and foreign police. shortage of goods at that time, so the life As late as 1950, USCAR was reporting to and economics of the people were based General Headquarters of the Far East on smuggling, so even the police turned a Command (GHQ) in Tokyo that it did not have blind eye.91 the necessary patrol crafts or personnel to ensure Ryukyu compliance with local fishing regulations, let alone smuggling.93

The women involved in smuggling had to do all There were numerous occasions when a

12 19 | 2 | 2 APJ | JF smuggling ship was apprehended but the whole Okinawan civilians view smuggling as a crime.98 ship or some of the crew were able to escape.94 Ships from the Ryukyu Archipelago could get Nakamura recalls one occasion when he was as far as Kobe, Yokosuka and Yokohama before ordered to end operations on Yonaguni: being seized by Japanese authorities, with ships most often captured at Kagoshima.95 There was, however, too much coast line throughout the “One day I was called by Director of islands of the Ryuyku Archipelago to constantly Security for the Military Government, Paul survey, a lack of occupation personnel to H. Skuse. From White Beach (Uruma City) oversee a clampdown, and at best halfhearted I was brought on a Destroyer to Yonaguni cooperation from local police. to observe the smuggling trade. I thought I would have no choice but to obey orders. This smuggling occurred during a period in When we arrived at Yonaguni there were which the military and US government was many boats which looked as if they were preoccupied in the late 1940s with smuggling participating in smuggling. There were to China as Communist forces emerged also restaurants and cinemas packed close victorious. together, rolls of banknotes were flying USCAR had only 16 speed boats and harbor about all over the place. The situation was crafts to patrol the entire Ryukyu Archipelago. out of control. When I returned to the ship, As late as 1951 USCAR estimated that they Director Skuse said ‘we have to clamp intercepted only 20% to 30% of the illegal down on smuggling. Please give an order traffic.96 to the Yonaguni police.’ But I deliberately did not give the order.”99 The Okinawan police and guards had other reasons not to clamp down on smugglers. As officers in their community, by arresting every This loyalty to one’s own people rather than the smuggler, they would be depriving themselves occupying forces can also be seen in Hong and their families of food. The Chief of Police Kong and Macau, where lower ranking police for the Okinawan Civilian Government, and customs officials permitted smuggling Nakamura Kanenobu later commented: vessels from Okinawa which used false bills of lading, and how bribing such officials also allowed smugglers entry.100 USCAR pressed UK ”In society there were goods circulating authorities in Hong Kong to crackdown on that were not from the US military, goods smuggling there, particularly vessels with for daily life. These were items that Japanese registration which were carrying oil prevented people from starving; this is an to be illegally sold, which USCAR feared was objective fact. If we had followed the US falling into the hands of the Chinese 101 military’s orders and clamped down (on Communists. But informants relayed illegal goods) we would have been cutting information to USCAR that this would only the lifeline of the people of Okinawa.97” serve to make Macau the center of the smuggling trade for military supplies to the Communists in China.102

Since many local police viewed smuggling not By the late 1940s fear of Communism was as a serious crime but as a necessity there was rapidly gaining ground in the US. In August little motivation to pursue smugglers. Nor did 1949 the Soviets carried out their first nuclear

13 19 | 2 | 2 APJ | JF test. Two months later the People’s Republic of measures used to entice Okinawans away from China was formed. This prompted plans to smuggling in a 1949 report promoting revitalize the Japanese economy so it would not legitimate trade “in order to break down area fall to the Communists, and the beginning of isolation and create surpluses in deficit the more long-term view of Okinawa as the regions.109” This involved improving access to ‘Keystone of the Pacific’ and the building of credit, the establishment of a strong Ryukyu permanent military bases with particular Board of Trade in Okinawa and Amami, and the attention to China.103 improvement of transportation between the islands.110 For the military government, smuggling which had always been a concern was now even more International developments also made so, as it was actively aiding the Communists.104 smuggling to China more difficult. By 1950 the Nationalists in China had been defeated but There were also concerns that communist ideas Nationalist gunboats patrolled Taiwanese would enter the Ryukyus and jeopardize waters. This made it harder both for Taiwanese occupation rule. In the previously mentioned smugglers to reach Yonaguni and for Yonaguni case of the Kasuga-Maru, the smuggling vessel smugglers to operate in Taiwan. There were that attempted to bring 20,000 books and incidents of boats from Yonaguni being fired magazines from Japan to Okinawa, theupon, and at least one case of a crew member Americans were particularly concerned that dying.111 With this the fluid borders between 10% of these were dubbed ‘communistTaiwan and Yonaguni were firmly reasserted. propaganda’.105 1950 was also the year that the prospering smuggling settlement in Kubura was ended. On 21 June, 1950, four days before the Korean

War, the US Counter Intelligence Corps came The End of Yonaguni and theto Yonaguni for twenty days to oversee the end Reappearance of Borders of the island’s role as a smuggling base. This was reinforced by rumors in mid-1949 that With the fear of Chinese communism providing masses of weapons and gasoline at Kubura and an impetus for crackdowns, the age ofneighboring Sonai had made their way into the 112 smuggling mostly ended by the mid-1950s, with hands of the Communists. the occupying authorities using both carrot and stick to clamp down. This article has shown how smuggling was shaped by Occupation policy and borderland On 16 October 1948 the military government status of the archipelago that allowed for announced that trade between Okinawa and relatively free movement at a time when the Japan would reopen for the first time since the domestic Okinawan economy was suppressed Battle of Okinawa.106 By November 1949 by US policies, notably the expansion of US Ryukyu-Japan trade was permitted, and in the military bases at the expene of Okinawan 1950s international trade under the supervision farmers. Through smuggling, many in the of the military government was permitted.107 Ryukyu Archipelago effectively used the October 1949 also saw the creation of the Bank region’s borderland status to evade authorities of Ryukyu. With this, private enterprise was and profit, most notable being the smuggling officially re-established.108 outpost of Yonaguni. Taking advantage of the long coastline of numerous islands, and the Colonel Jesse Green explains some of the substantial resources brought to Okinawa by

14 19 | 2 | 2 APJ | JF the US military, the people were able to Manuscript. September 1950. Okinawa address resource shortages through the black Prefecture Archives Entry 34173 B / Box 14. market. While smuggling was branded a crime by the US military authorities, manyBureau of Customs, Ministry of Finance Okinawans, facing extreme poverty in the wake (Japan). Quick Report 424-454-254, May-June of the Battle of Okinawa and loss of their land 1949. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural and livelihood, viewed it as a necessity for Archives Okinawa Prefecture Archives RG 338 / survival. Since smuggling was illegal, it has not Entry 34173 A /Box 6. been commemorated in the post-war national Colonel Green, Jesse P. Deputy Chief of Staff memory compared with other events such as Military Government of the Ryukyu Islands. life in the internment camps, but it is Smuggling. 16th July 1949. Manuscript. nevertheless central to the experience of those Okinawa Prefectural Archives APO 331. throughout the Ryukyu Archipelago in the years after the Battle of Okinawa. Oguma, Eiji. "Nihonjin" No kyôkai Okinawa, Ainu, Taiwan, Chôsen: Shokuminchi Shihai

Kara Fukki undô Made = The Boundaries of the Japanese. Tôkyô: Shinyôsha, 2012.

General Headquarters Far East Command. References Incoming Message. 19th September 1950. Arasaki, Moriteru. Nihon Ni Totte Okinawa Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives RG Towa Nani Ka. Tōkyō: Kabushiki Gaisha 338/ Entry 34173 B / Box 14. Iwanami Shoten, 2016. General Headquarters Far East Command. Bureau of Customs, Ministry of FinanceIncoming Message. 2nd February 1950. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives RG (Japan). Illegal export trade to Amami Oshima 338 / Entry 34173 B / Box 14. (Okinawa) Quick Report 209-211. May 1949. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefecture Archives RG General Headquarters Far East Command. 338 / Entry 34173 A /Box 6. Outgoing Message. 24th November 1950. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives RG Bureau of Customs, Ministry of Finance 338/ Entry 34173 B / Box 14. (Japan). Illegal export trade to Amami Oshima (Okinawa) Quick Report 471-364-225-723. General Headquarters Far East Command. October 1948 – June 1949. Manuscript.Outgoing Message. 29th December 1950. Okinawa Prefectural Archives OkinawaManuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives RG Prefecture Archives RG 338 / Entry 34173 A 338/ Entry 34173 B / Box 14. /Box 6. General Headquarters Far East Command. Bureau of Customs, Ministry of FinanceOutgoing Message. 7th November 1950. (Japan). Illegal import trade from Amami Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives RG Oshima (Okinawa) Quick Report 209-211. May 338/ Entry 34173 B / Box 14. 1949. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefecture Archives RG 338 / Entry 34173 A /Box 6. Higa, Masao. Okinawa Kara Ajia Ga Mieru. Tōkyō: Iwanami Shoten, 1999. Bureau of Customs, Ministry of Finance (Japan). Illegal import(export) trade from(to) Iacobelli, Pedro, and Hiroko Matsuda, eds. Ryukyu (and Amami Oshima) Report 148-165. Rethinking Postwar Okinawa: beyond American

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Occupation. Lexington Books, 2019. Okinawa Ken Kyoikuchō Bunka Zaika Shiryō Henshūhan, ed. Okinawa Ken Shi Kakuhen Ron Iwashita, Akihiro. Nyūmon kokkyōgaku: ryōdo 8 Joseishi. Haebaru : Okinawa ken kyōiku Shuken ideorogī. Tōkyō: Chūō Kōron Shinsha, iinkai, 2016. 2016.

Kabira, Nario. Okinawa Kuhaku No Ichi Nen. Okinawa Kenritsu Hakubutsukan Bijutsukan. Yoshikawakobunkan, 2011. Umi No kurosurōdo Yaima. Naha: Okinawa Kenritsu Hakubutsukan Bijutsukan, 2010. Koike, Yasuhito. Ryukyu Retto No Mitsuboeki to Kyokaisen: 1949-1951, 2015. Okuno Shūji. Natsuko: Okinawa mitsubōeki No Joō. Tōkyō: Bungei Shunjū, 2005. Machida, Munehiro, Kinjō Hiroyuki, and Hisamitsu Miyauchi. Yakudō Suru Okinawakei Ōya Hanayo. Okinawa "sensō Mararia": kyōsei Imin: Burajiru Hawai o chūshin Ni. Tōkyō: Sokaishi 3600-Nin No shinsō Ni Semaru. Sairyūsha, 2013. Tōkyō: Akebi Shobō, 2020. Maeda, Hayashi, Gabe."Okinawa" Kichi Mondai o Shiru Jiten. Tōkyō: Yoshikawa Takara, Kurayoshi. Ryûkyû Ôkoku. Tôkyô: Kōbunkan, 2014. Iwanami Shoten, 1993.

Miki, Takeshi.Kūhaku No Iminshi: Takara, Kurayoshi. Ryūkyū No Jidai: ōinaru Nyūkaredonia to Okinawa. Naha: Shinema rekishizō o Motomete. Tōkyō: Chikuma Shobō, Okinawa, 2017. 1980.

Miyako Provisional Government Southern Tanigawa, Kenichi, ed. Okinawa Amami to Ryukyus. Smuggling Incident, In Formosa, Yamato. Dōsesisha, 1986. Petition For. 31st October 1950. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives RG 338/ Entry Tomiyama, Kazuyuki. Ryūkyū, Okinawa Shi No 34173 B / Box 14. Sekai. Tōkyō: Yoshikawa Kōbunkan, 2003. Nago Police Station. XXXX and Thirteen (13) Others, smuggling from JAPAN proper to USCAR & RYCOM. Smuggling in Okinawa. 3rd OKINAWA – 1st report of. 20th June 1949. July 1951. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives Archives 031030Z 400-49. United States Civil Administration of Ryukyu Nagoshi, Mamoru. Amami No Saimu Dorei Islands. smuggling of oil from Okinawa to Hong Yanchu. Kagoshima: Nanpō Shinsha, 2006. Kong and Macau. 25th June 1951. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives DA 94895. Office of the Military Governor of the Ryukyu Islands. Smuggling of Books into Okinawa from “証言集沖縄県史第9巻（1971年琉球政府編）及 Japan. 24th August 1949. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives APO 331. び同第10巻.” 証言集:沖縄戦関係資料閲覧室 - 内閣府. Accessed October 10, 2020. Oguma, Makoto Ed. "Kyōkai" o Koeru Okinawa: Hito, Bunka, Minzoku. Tōkyō: Shinwasha, “牧野清著作＆コレクション展 - 話題チャンプルー. 1998. ” やいまタイム, December 2010.

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Ibrahim Jalal completed his postgraduate studies (MA) at Waseda University’s Graduate School of Pacific Studies (GSAPS) on the Yaeyama Archipelago’s position as a borderland. A historical work on another historically peripheral area of Japan by the author, ‘Hokkaido – A History of Japan’s Northern Isle and it’s People’ (Earnshaw Books) is scheduled for publication in 2021.

Notes

1 Nario Kabira, Okinawa Kuhaku No Ichi Nen (Yoshikawakobunkan, 2011). 2 Yasuhito Koike, Ryukyu Retto No Mitsuboeki to Kyokaisen: 1949-1951 (Shinwasha, 2015). 3 Oguma Eiji, "Nihonjin" No kyôkai Okinawa, Ainu, Taiwan, Chôsen: Shokuminchi Shihai Kara Fukki undô Made (Tôkyô: Shinyôsha, 2012). 4 Okinawa Ken Kyoikuchō Bunka Zaika Shiryō Henshūhan, ed., Okinawa Ken Shi Kakuhen Ron 8 Joseishi (Haebaru: Okinawa ken kyōiku iinkai, 2016), 342. 5 Iwashita Akihiro, Nyūmon kokkyōgaku: ryōdo Shuken ideorogī (Tōkyō: Chūō Kōron Shinsha, 2016). 6 Pedro Iacobelli and Hiroko Matsuda, eds., Rethinking Postwar Okinawa: beyond American Occupation (Lexington Books, 2019). 7 Kabira, Okinawa Kuhaku No Ichi Nen, 52. 8 USCAR & RYCOM. Smuggling in Okinawa, 3rd July 1951. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives 031030Z. 9 Okuno Shūji, Natsuko: Okinawa mitsubōeki No Joō (Tōkyō: Bungei Shunjū, 2007), 15. 10 Tomiyama Kazuyuki, Ryūkyū, Okinawa Shi No Sekai (Tōkyō: Yoshikawa Kōbunkan, 2003), 77. 11 Arasaki Moriteru, Nihon Ni Totte Okinawa Towa Nani Ka (Tōkyō: Kabushiki Gaisha Iwanami Shoten, 2016), 4. 12 Machida Munehiro, Kinjō Hiroyuki, and Miyauchi Hisamitsu, Yakudō Suru Okinawakei Imin: Burajiru Hawai o chūshin Ni (Tōkyō: Sairyūsha, 2013), 59. 13 Kabira, Okinawa Kuhaku No Ichi Nen, 3. 14 Ibid, 42. 15 Okuno Natsuko: Okinawa mitsubōeki No Joō, 15. 16 Kabira, Okinawa Kuhaku No Ichi Nen, 55. 17 “証言集沖縄県史第9巻（1971年琉球政府編）及び同第10巻,” 証言集:沖縄戦関係資料閲覧室 - 内閣府, accessed October 10, 2020, 1054. 18 Ibid, 1090-1091. 19 Ibid, 1054. 20 Maeda Tetsuo, "Okinawa" Kichi Mondai o Shiru Jiten (Tōkyō: Yoshikawa Kōbunkan, 2014), 3. 21 Ibid. 22 Ibid, 4.

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23 Okinawa Ken Kyoikuchō Bunka Zaika Shiryō Henshūhan, ed., Okinawa Ken Shi Kakuhen Ron 8 Joseishi, 224. 24 Takeshi Miki, Kūhaku No Iminshi: Nyūkaredonia to Okinawa (Naha: Shinema Okinawa, 2017), 117. 25 Okinawa Ken Kyoikuchō Bunka Zaika Shiryō Henshūhan, ed., Okinawa Ken Shi Kakuhen Ron 8 Joseishi, 340. 26 Munehiro et al, Yakudō Suru Okinawakei Imin: Burajiru Hawai o chūshin Ni, 16-19. 27 Okuno, Natsuko: Okinawa mitsubōeki No Joō, 270. 28 Ibid. 29 Kabira, Okinawa Kuhaku No Ichi Nen, 148. 30 Okinawa Ken Kyoikuchō Bunka Zaika Shiryō Henshūhan, ed., Okinawa Ken Shi Kakuhen Ron 8 Joseishi, 368. 31 Ibid, 376. 32 Higa Masao, Okinawa Kara Ajia Ga Mieru (Tōkyō: Iwanami Shoten, 1999), 44. 33 Umi No kurosurōdo Yaima (Naha: Okinawa Kenritsu Hakubutsukan Bijutsukan, 2010), 7. 34 Okinawa Ken Kyoikuchō Bunka Zaika Shiryō Henshūhan, ed., Okinawa Ken Shi Kakuhen Ron 8 Joseishi, 366. 35 Umi No kurosurōdo Yaima (Naha: Okinawa Kenritsu Hakubutsukan Bijutsukan, 2010), 23. 36 Ibid. 37 Ōya Hanayo, Okinawa "Sensō Mararia": kyōsei Sokaishi 3600-Nin No shinsō Ni Semaru (Tōkyō: Akebi Shobō, 2020), 4. 38 “証言集沖縄県史第9巻（1971年琉球政府編）及び同第10巻,” 証言集:沖縄戦関係資料閲覧室 - 内閣府, accessed October 10, 2020, 170. 39 Ibid, 176. 40 Ibid. 41 Ibid, 176 - 177. 42 Okuno, Natsuko: Okinawa mitsubōeki No Joō, 137. 43 Okinawa Ken Kyoikuchō Bunka Zaika Shiryō Henshūhan, ed., Okinawa Ken Shi Kakuhen Ron 8 Joseishi, 372. 44 USCAR & RYCOM. smuggling in Okinawa, 3rd July 1951. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives 031030Z. 45 Kabira, Okinawa Kuhaku No Ichi Nen, 146. 46 Okuno, Natsuko: Okinawa mitsubōeki No Joō, 15. 47 USCAR & RYCOM. Smuggling in Okinawa. 3rd July 1951. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives 031030Z 48 Ibid. 49 Bureau of Customs, Ministry of Finance (Japan). Illegal import(export) trade from(to) Ryukyu (and Amami Oshima) Report 148-165. Manuscript. September 1950. Okinawa Prefecture Archives Entry 34173 B / Box 14. 50 Okuno, Natsuko: Okinawa mitsubōeki No Joō, 24-25. 51 Bureau of Customs, Ministry of Finance (Japan). Quick Report 424-454-254, May-June 1949. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives Okinawa Prefecture Archives RG 338 / Entry 34173 A /Box 6 52 Tanigawa Kenichi, ed., Okinawa Amami to Yamato (Dōsesisha , 1986), 76.

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53 Nagoshi Mamoru, Amami No Saimu Dorei Yanchu (Kagoshima: Nanpō Shinsha, 2006), 38. 54 Bureau of Customs, Ministry of Finance (Japan). Illegal import(export) trade from(to) Ryukyu (and Amami Oshima) Report 148-165. September 1950. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefecture Archives Entry 34173 B / Box 14. 55 Bureau of Customs, Ministry of Finance (Japan). Illegal export trade to Amami Oshima (Okinawa) Quick Report 471-364-225-723. October 1948 – June 1949. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives Okinawa Prefecture Archives RG 338 / Entry 34173 A /Box 6. 56 Office of the Military Governor of the Ryukyu Islands. Smuggling of Books into Okinawa from Japan. 24th August 1949. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives APO 331. 57 Nago Police Station. XXXX and Thirteen (13) Others, smuggling from JAPAN proper to OKINAWA – 1st report of. 20th June 1949. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives 400-49. 58 Ibid. 59 Idid. 60 Idid. 61 Idid. 62 General Headquarters Far East Command. Incoming Message. 19th September 1950. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives RG 338/ Entry 34173 B / Box 14. 63 General Headquarters Far East Command. Outgoing Message. 24th November 1950. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives RG 338/ Entry 34173 B / Box 14 64 USCAR & RYCOM. smuggling in Okinawa, 3rd July 1951. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives 031030Z. 65 USCAR & RYCOM. Smuggling in Okinawa, 3rd July 1951. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives 031030Z. 66 Okuno, Natsuko: Okinawa mitsubōeki No Joō, 210. 67 USCAR & RYCOM. Smuggling in Okinawa. 3rd July 1951. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives 031030Z 68 Okuno, Natsuko: Okinawa mitsubōeki No Joō, 215. 69 USCAR & RYCOM. Smuggling in Okinawa. 3rd July 1951. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives 031030Z 70 USCAR & RYCOM. Smuggling in Okinawa. 3rd July 1951. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives 031030Z 71 Okuno, Natsuko: Okinawa mitsubōeki No Joō, 222. 72 Ibid, 219. 73 USCAR & RYCOM. Smuggling in Okinawa. 3rd July 1951. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives 031030Z 74 USCAR & RYCOM. Smuggling in Okinawa. 3rd July 1951. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives 031030Z 75 Okuno, Natsuko: Okinawa mitsubōeki No Joō, 229. 76 Okinawa Ken Kyoikuchō Bunka Zaika Shiryō Henshūhan, ed., Okinawa Ken Shi Kakuhen Ron 8 Joseishi, 239. 77 Oguma Makoto, "Kyōkai" o Koeru Okinawa: Hito, Bunka, Minzoku (Tōkyō: Shinwasha, 2016). 78 Okuno, Natsuko: Okinawa mitsubōeki No Joō, 42-43. 79 Kabira, Okinawa Kuhaku No Ichi Nen, 143-145.

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80 Okuno, Natsuko: Okinawa mitsubōeki No Joō, 52. 81 Ibid, 25. 82 Kabira, Okinawa Kuhaku No Ichi Nen, 143. 83 USCAR & RYCOM. smuggling in Okinawa, 3rd July 1951. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives 031030Z. 84 Okuno. Natsuko: Okinawa mitsubōeki No Joō, 144. 85 Ibid, 51. 86 Kabira, Okinawa Kuhaku No Ichi Nen, 145. 87 Okinawa Ken Kyoikuchō Bunka Zaika Shiryō Henshūhan, ed., Okinawa Ken Shi Kakuhen Ron 8 Joseishi, 372. 88 Kabira, Okinawa Kuhaku No Ichi Nen, 146. 89 Okinawa Ken Kyoikuchō Bunka Zaika Shiryō Henshūhan, ed., Okinawa Ken Shi Kakuhen Ron 8 Joseishi, 372. 90 Kabira, Okinawa Kuhaku No Ichi Nen, 146. 91 Okinawa Ken Kyoikuchō Bunka Zaika Shiryō Henshūhan, ed., Okinawa Ken Shi Kakuhen Ron 8 Joseishi, 375. 92 Okuno, Natsuko: Okinawa mitsubōeki No Joō, 27. 93 General Headquarters Far East Command. Outgoing Message. 29th December 1950. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives RG 338/ Entry 34173 B / Box 14 94 General Headquarters Far East Command. Outgoing Message. 7th November 1950. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives RG 338/ Entry 34173 B / Box 14 95 Bureau of Customs, Ministry of Finance (Japan). Illegal import(export) trade from(to) Ryukyu (and Amami Oshima) Report 148-165. September 1950. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives RG 338/ Entry 34173 B / Box 14 96 USCAR & RYCOM. Smuggling in Okinawa, 3rd July 1951. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives 031030Z. 97 Kabira, Okinawa Kuhaku No Ichi Nen, 147. 98 Okuno. Natsuko: Okinawa mitsubōeki No Joō, 25-26. 99 Kabira, Okinawa Kuhaku No Ichi Nen, 148. 100 USCAR & RYCOM. Smuggling in Okinawa, 3rd July 1951. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives 031030Z. 101 United States Civil Administration of Ryukyu Islands. Smuggling of oil from Okinawa to Hong Kong and Macau. 25th June 1951. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives DA 94895 102 USCAR & RYCOM. Smuggling in Okinawa, 3rd July 1951. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives 031030Z. 103 Arasaki, Nihon Ni Totte Okinawa Towa Nani Ka, 18. 104 Okuno, Natsuko: Okinawa mitsubōeki No Joō, 347. 105 Office of the Military Governor of the Ryukyu Islands. Smuggling of Books into Okinawa from Japan. 24th August 1949. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives APO 331 106 Okinawa Ken Kyoikuchō Bunka Zaika Shiryō Henshūhan, ed., Okinawa Ken Shi Kakuhen Ron 8 Joseishi, 376. 107 Ibid. 108 Okuno, Natsuko: Okinawa mitsubōeki No Joō, 263. 109 Colonel Green, Jesse P. Deputy Chief of Staff Military Government of the Ryukyu Islands.

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Smuggling. 16th July 1949. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives APO 331. 110 Ibid. 111 General Headquarters Far East Command. Incoming Message. 2nd February 1950. Manuscript. Okinawa Prefectural Archives RG 338 / Entry 34173 B / Box 14 112 Okuno, Natsuko: Okinawa mitsubōeki No Joō, 276-278.