0.05 g 60,000 miles

Geosynchronous Earth orbit 22,300 miles

Hard vacuum 1,000 miles

Medium Earth orbit begins 300 miles

0.95 g 100 miles

Low Earth orbit begins 60 miles

Astronaut wings awarded 50 miles

Limit for ramjet engines 28 miles

Limit for turbojet engines 20 miles

Stratosphere begins 10 miles Earth NASA photo On the following pages appears a

variety of information and statistical

material about space—particularly

military activity in space. This almanac

was compiled by the staff of

Air Force Magazine, with assistance

and information from Dr. R. W. Stur-

devant, Air Force Space

Command History Office; Tina Thomp-

son, editor of TRW Space Log; Phillip S.

Clark, Molniya Space Consultancy, Whit-

ton, UK; Theresa Foley; and Air Force

Space Command Public Affairs Office.

SpaceCompiled by Tamar A. Mehuron,Almanac Associate Editor Figures that appear in this section

will not always agree because of

different cutoff dates, rounding, or

different methods of reporting. The

information is intended to illustrate

trends in space activity. Space Terms

Ferret. A satellite whose Polar orbit. Earth orbit with a primary function is to gather 90° inclination. Spacecraft on electronic intelligence, such as this path could pass over every Aerospace. A physical region microwave, radar, radio, and Magnetosphere. A region spot on Earth as Earth rotates made up of Earth’s atmosphere voice emissions. dominated by Earth’s mag- under the satellite’s orbit (see and the space beyond. netic field, which traps charged orbital inclination). Geostationary Earth orbit. A particles, including those in the Aerospace plane. A reusuable geosynchronous orbit with 0° Van Allen belts. It begins in the Remote imaging. Images of spacecraft able to operate ef- inclination in which the space- upper atmosphere, where it Earth generated from a space- fectively in both the atmosphere craft circles Earth 22,300 miles overlaps the ionosphere, and craft that provide data for map- and space. Also known as a above the equator and appears extends several thousand miles ping, construction, agriculture, “transatmospheric vehicle” or, from Earth to be standing still. farther into space. oil and gas exploration, news more currently, “spaceplane.” media services, and the like. Geosynchronous Earth orbit Medium Earth orbit (MEO). Apogee. The point of great- (GEO). An orbit at 22,300 Flight path between LEO, Rocket. An aerospace vehicle est distance from Earth (or the miles that is synchronized with which ends at about 300 miles that carries its own fuel and moon, a planet, etc.) achieved Earth’s rotation. If a satellite in altitude, and GEO, which is at oxidizer and can operate out- by a body in elliptical orbit. Usu- GEO is not at 0° inclination, its an average altitude of 22,300 side Earth’s atmosphere. ally expressed as distance from ground path describes a figure miles. Earth’s surface. eight as it travels around Earth. Semisynchronous orbit. Mesosphere. A region of the An orbit set at an altitude of Atmosphere. Earth’s envelop- Geosynchronous transfer atmosphere about 30 to 50 12,834 miles. Satellites in this ing sphere of air. orbit (GTO). An orbit that miles above Earth’s surface. orbit revolve around Earth in originates with the parking orbit exactly 12 hours. Boost phase. Powered flight of Orbital decay. A condition in a ballistic missile—i.e., before and then reaches apogee at the GEO. which spacecraft lose orbital Single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) the rocket burns out. altitude and orbital energy system. A reusable single- Burn. The process in which Ground track. An imaginary because of aerodynamic drag stage rocket that can take off rocket engines consume fuel or line on Earth’s surface that and other physical forces. and land repeatedly and is able other propellant. traces the course of another to boost payloads into orbit. imaginary line between Earth’s Orbital inclination. Angle of That section Circumterrestrial space. “In- center and an orbiting satellite. flight path in space relative Stratosphere. ner space” or the atmospheric to the equator of a planetary of atmosphere about 10 to 30 region that extends from 60 High Earth orbit (HEO). Flight body. Equatorial paths are 0° miles above Earth’s surface. path above geosynchronous al- miles to about 50,000 miles from for flights headed east, 180° for An titude (22,300 to 60,000 miles Sun synchronous orbit. Earth’s surface. those headed west. orbit inclined about 98° to the from Earth’s surface). Constellation. A formation of Outer space. Space that equator and at LEO altitude. At satellites orbiting for a specific High-resolution imagery. De- extends from about 50,000 this inclination and altitude, a combined purpose. tailed representations of actual miles above Earth’s surface to satellite’s orbital plane always objects that satellites produce a distance of about 480,000 maintains the same relative Deep space. All space beyond electronically or optically on miles. orientation to the sun. the Earth-moon system, or from displays, film, or other visual The thin atmo- about 480,000 miles altitude devices. Parking orbit. Flight path in Thermosphere. outward. which spacecraft go into LEO, sphere about 50 to 300 miles Inertial upper stage. A two- circle the globe in a waiting above Earth’s surface. It expe- Eccentric orbit. An extremely stage solid-rocket motor used posture, and then transfer pay- riences dramatically increased elongated elliptical orbit. to propel heavy satellites into load to a final, higher orbit. levels of heat compared to the mission orbit. lower layers. Ecliptic plane. The plane Payload. Any spacecraft’s defined by the circle on the ce- Ionosphere. A region of elec- crew or cargo; the mission Transfer. Any maneuver that lestial sphere traced by the path trically charged thin air layers element supported by the changes a spacecraft orbit. of the sun. that begins about 30 miles spacecraft. A radar or radio above Earth’s atmosphere. Transponder. Elliptical orbit. Any non­circular, Perigee. The point of minimum set that, upon receiving a des- closed spaceflight path. Low Earth orbit (LEO). Flight altitude above Earth (or the ignated signal, emits a radio Exosphere. The upper limits path between Earth’s atmo- moon, a planet, etc.) main- signal of its own. sphere and the bottom of the of Earth’s atmosphere, ranging tained by a body in elliptical The region of Van Allen belts, i.e., from about Troposphere. from about 300 miles altitude to orbit. the atmosphere from Earth’s 60 to 300 miles altitude. about 2,000 miles altitude. Period. The amount of time surface to about 10 miles Expendable launch vehicle a spacecraft requires to go above the equator and five (ELV). A launch vehicle that through one complete orbit. miles above the poles. This is cannot be reused after one where most clouds, wind, rain, flight. and other weather occurs. Van Allen belts. Zones of intense radiation trapped in Earth’s magnetosphere that could damage unshielded spacecraft.

20 AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1997 May 24 Atlas D/Agena A performs first spacebased de- July 20 Apollo 11 puts first booster places MIDAS II, first tection of a nuclear explosion. human, Neil A. Armstrong, on Space Firsts early warning satellite, in orbit. the moon. July 28, 1964 First close-up June 22 US performs first lunar pictures provided by November 14–24 US Apollo February 24, 1949 Project successful launch of multiple Ranger 7 spacecraft. 12 mission deploys first major Bumper, the first fully success- independently instrumented scientific experiments on the First Atlas/Agena ful two-stage rocket-launch satellites by a single rocket. August 14 moon and completes first into space, reaches a record D standard launch vehicle suc- acquisition of samples from an altitude of 244 miles. August 11 Capsule ejected cessfully fired from Vanden- earlier spacecraft—Surveyor 3. from Discoverer 13 parachutes berg AFB. July 24, 1950 Bumper-WAC into Pacific Ocean and be- February 11, 1970 Japan First space- becomes first missile launched comes first orbital payload ever March 18, 1965 launches first satellite, Osumi, walk conducted by Alexei from Cape Canaveral, Fla. recovered. from Kagoshima Space Center Leonov of Soviet Voskhod 2. using Lambda 4S solid-fuel September 20, 1956 US Ju- August 12 First passive com- Gemini 3 astronauts rocket. piter C rocket achieves record munications carried via Echo 1 March 23 Maj. Virgil I. “Gus” Grissom first flight, reaching an altitude satellite. January 31, 1971 Apollo 14 of 682 miles and landing 3,400 and Lt. Cmdr. John W. Young launched; its astronauts will miles from Cape Canaveral. August 19 Capsule containing complete world’s first piloted complete first manned landing first satellite photographs of orbital maneuver. on lunar highlands. August 21, 1957 First suc- Soviet Union ejected from Dis- Gemini 4 astronaut cessful launch of Soviet R7 coverer 14 becomes first orbital June 4 April 19 First space station, Maj. Edward H. White performs rocket, which six weeks later payload recovered in midair by Salyut 1, goes aloft. first American spacewalk. will loft Sputnik into orbit. C-119 Flying Boxcar. June 6 USSR’s Soyuz 11 per- July 14 Mariner provides the October 4 USSR launches January 31, 1961 Preparing forms first successful docking first close‑up pictures of Mars. Sputnik 1, the first man-made for manned spaceflight, US with Salyut space station. satellite, into Earth orbit. launches a Mercury capsule August 21 Gemini 5 launched First British satel- carrying the chimpanzee Ham October 28 November 3 First animal in as first manned spacecraft lite, Prospero, launched into on a suborbital trajectory. orbit, a dog, is carried aloft by using fuel cells for electrical orbit on Black Arrow rocket. power rather than batteries. Soviet Sputnik 2. February 16 Explorer 9 be­ Titan IIIC comes first satellite launched November 2 December 6 First US attempt March 16, 1966 Gemini 8 as- launches first Defense Satel- from Wallops Island, Va. to orbit satellite fails when tronauts Neil A. Armstrong and lite Communications System Maj. David R. Scott perform Vanguard rocket loses thrust April 12 Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Phase II (DSCS II) satellites first manual docking in space and explodes. Gagarin pilots Vostok 1 through into GEO. with Agena rocket stage. nearly one orbit to become first December 17 First successful Apollo 16 human in space. April 16–27, 1972 Atlas booster launch. June 2 Surveyor 1 is first US astronauts Capt. John Young, spacecraft to land softly on the May 5 Lt. Cmdr. Alan B. Shepa- Lt. Cmdr. Thomas K. Mat- January 31, 1958 Explorer 1, moon. It analyzes soil content rd, Jr., aboard Freedom 7 tingly II, and Lt. Col. Charles first US satellite, launched. and transmits surface images Mercury capsule, becomes first M. Duke, Jr., are first to use to Earth. May 15 USSR launches first American in space, climbing to the moon as an astronomical automatic scientific lab aboard 116.5 miles during suborbital January 25, 1967 Soviet Cos- laboratory. Sputnik 3, proving satellites flight lasting 15 minutes, 28 mos 139 antisatellite weapon US launches first Earth can have important military seconds. July 23 carries out first fractional orbit Resources Technology Satel- uses. bombardment. October 27 First flight of lite (ERTS A), later renamed December 18 Project Score Saturn rocket marks beginning January 27 First deaths of US Landsat 1. spacecraft conducts first US of more than 11 years of Apollo space program occur in flash Pioneer 10 active communication from launches. December 3, 1973 fire in Apollo 1 command mod- becomes first space probe to space. ule, killing astronauts Grissom, February 20, 1962 Project Mer- come within reach of Jupiter. White, and Lt. Cmdr. Roger B. February 28, 1959 Discov- cury astronaut Lt. Col. John H. Chaffee. US Apollo and erer 1 becomes first satellite Glenn, Jr., aboard the Friend- July 15, 1975 Soviet Soyuz 19 perform first launched from Vandenberg ship 7 capsule, com­pletes the September 8 Surveyor 5 con- international docking of space- AFB, Calif. first US manned orbital flight. ducts first chemical analysis of craft in space. lunar soil. June 9 First engineer group December 14 Mariner 2 Space shuttle arrives at Cape Canaveral to passes Venus at a distance of August 12, 1977 October 20, 1968 Soviet Enterprise performs first free prepare Atlas booster carrying 21,600 miles, becoming the Cosmos 248 and Cosmos 249 flight after release from a Boe- first Mercury capsule. first space probe to encounter spacecraft carry out first co- ing 747 at 22,800 feet. another planet. August 7 Explorer 6 space- orbital antisatellite test. February 22, 1978 Atlas craft transmits first television June 16, 1963 Valentina December 21–27 Apollo 8 be- booster carries first Global Po- pictures from space. Tereshkova of USSR pilots comes first manned spacecraft sitioning System (GPS) Block I Vostok 6 to become first wom- September 12 Soviet Union to escape Earth’s gravity and satellite into orbit. an in space. launches Luna 2, which two enter lunar orbit. First live lunar television broadcast. December 13 Successful days later becomes first man- July 26 Hughes Corp.’s launch of two DSCS II satel- made object to strike the moon. Syncom 2 (prototype of Early March 3–13, 1969 Apollo 9 lites puts a full four-satellite Bird communications satellite) April 1, 1960 TIROS 1 be- crew members Col. James A. constellation at users’ disposal orbits and “parks” over the comes first US weather satel- McDivitt, Col. David R. Scott, for first time. Atlantic to become world’s first lite to go aloft. and Russell L. Schweickart geosynchronous satellite. conduct first test of lunar mod- July 18, 1980 India places its April 13 Transit 1B becomes ule in Earth orbit. October 17 Vela Hotel satellite first US navigation satellite in space.

AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1997 21 Space Firsts, continued first satellite, Rohini 1, into orbit July 19 Launch of a DSCS The Year in Space using its own SLV-3 launcher. Phase III satellite into GEO provides the first full five-satel- April 12–14, 1981 First orbital lite DSCS III constellation. July 2, 1996 At Jet Propul- August 21 Orbital Sciences flight of shuttle Columbia (STS- sion Laboratory in Pasadena, Corp.’s L-1011, flying from Van- 1) and first landing from orbit of December 2–13 USAF Col. Calif., Vice President Al Gore denberg AFB, Calif., launches reusable spacecraft. Richard O. Covey pilots shuttle and NASA Administrator Dan Pegasus XL rocket carrying Endeavour on successful $674 Goldin announce winner of NASA’s Fast Auroral Snapshot December 20, 1982 First De- million mission to repair $2 bil- fense Meteorological Satellite X-33 reusable launch vehicle Explorer to investigate plasma lion Hubble Space Telescope, competition is Lockheed Mar- physics of low-altitude auroral Program Block 5D-2 satellite a mission for which the crew launched. tin’s VentureStar. zone. wins the 1993 Collier Trophy. July 24 First verifiable colli- September 8 Atlas IIA from June 13, 1983 Pioneer 10 be- January 25, 1994 Launch sion between working satellite Cape Canaveral launches comes first spacecraft to leave of the 500-pound unpiloted and space junk occurs when GE Americom’s first satel- solar system. Clementine spacecraft marks suitcase-sized fragment from lite, GE-1, built by Lockheed June 18 Space shuttle Chal- the first post-Apollo US lunar exploded third stage of Ariane Martin Astro Space to provide lenger crew member Sally K. mission. rocket breaks stabilizing cable, broadcast, educational, boom on Cerise, a British-built government, and business Ride becomes first American February 7 First Titan IV– woman in space. French military microsatellite. communication services on Centaur booster launches first Ku- and C-band frequencies. September 11, 1985 Inter- Milstar Block I satellite into national Cometary Explorer orbit. becomes first man-made March 13 First launch of object to encounter a comet Taurus booster (from Vanden- (Giacobini-Zinner). berg AFB) places two military September 13 First US antis- satellites in orbit. The six-wheeled So- journer rover rolled off atellite intercept test destroys June 29 First visit of a US the Mars Pathfinder Solwind scientific satellite by space shuttle to a space sta- lander onto the Martian air-launched weapon. tion, the Russian Mir. surface July 5, 1997. It January 28, 1986 In the first November 5 Ulysses, first was designed to range shuttle mishap, Challenger ex- probe to explore the sun’s up to 500 meters from the plodes after liftoff, killing seven environment at high latitudes, lander and still relay data astronauts. completes a pass over the effectively about the soil February 22 France launches sun’s southern pole and re- surface and rocks. firstSatellite Pour l’Observation veals that solar wind’s velocity de la Terre (SPOT) for remote at high latitudes (i.e., about two sensing. million mph) is nearly twice its velocity at lower latitudes. August 12 First launch of Japanese H-I rocket puts Ex- February 6, 1995 Shuttle perimental Geodetic Satellite Discovery (STS-63) and into circular orbit. space station Mir perform first US‑Russian space rendezvous May 15, 1987 USSR stages in 20 years, with Air Force Lt. first flight of its Energia heavy Col. Eileen M. Collins coinci- launcher, designed to lift 100 dentally becoming first woman tons into low Earth orbit. to pilot a US spaceship. November 15, 1988 USSR March 14 US astronaut Nor- makes first launch of 30-ton man E. Thagard becomes shuttle Buran using Energia first American to accompany July 31 After flying and landing September 16–26 Atlantis rocket. Russian cosmonauts aboard successfully for three flights, (STS-79) mission, using Global NASA’s McDonnell Douglas– Positioning System (GPS) navi- February 14, 1989 Launch Soyuz TM‑21 spacecraft and, two days later, becomes first built Clipper Graham experi- gational signal for first time in of first Block II GPS satellite mental, SSTO reusable rocket space shuttle daily operations, begins an operational constel- American to inhabit space sta- tion Mir. topples over and burns when focuses on fourth rendezvous lation. one of its four landing legs fails with Russian space station Mir January 17, 1991 What the June 29 Atlantis (STS‑71) to deploy after its fourth flight. to pick up astronaut Shannon Air Force calls “the first space docks with Mir, the first docking August 6 Indian Ocean Sta- Lucid, who sets 188-day world war,” Operation Desert Storm, of a US spacecraft and a Rus- tion, an Air Force Satellite Con- record for longest duration opens with air attacks. sian space station. trol Network tracking site on spaceflight by a woman, and March 8, 1996 First successful Mahe island in the Seychelles, drop off her replacement, Col. October 29 Galileo swings ceases operations after more John Blaha, USAF (Ret.). within 10,000 miles of Gaspra, launch of Pegasus XL rocket from beneath modified L-1011 than 30 years. September 27 First launch snapping first close-up images August 7 Press conference at of Ballistic Missile Defense of an asteroid. aircraft sends Air Force Radia- tion Experiment-II satellite into NASA headquarters in Wash- Organization (BMDO) Minute- May 13, 1992 The first trio of polar orbit. ington, D. C., confirms Space man II Multi-Service Launch spacewalking astronauts, work- News report of August 5 that System from Vandenberg AFB ing from the shuttle Endeavour, June 27 Galileo captures first scientists studying meteorite results in successful release of rescues Intelsat 6 from useless close-up images of Jupiter’s ALH84001 had detected what five suborbital test targets and low orbit. moon Ganymede. might be microscopic fossils of demonstrates feasibility of us- ancient Martian bacteria-like ing deactivated solid-propellant January 13, 1993 USAF Maj. organisms. intercontinental ballistic mis- Susan Helms, flying aboard siles as spacelifters. Endeavour, becomes first US military woman in space.

22 AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1997 September 30 After highly November 19–December 7 February 11–21 Shuttle Dis- nologies for overall cost sav- productive contributions to Columbia (STS-80) sets shuttle covery (STS-82) crew performs ings and greater operational space science for nearly 19 flight record of almost 18 second servicing mission to efficiencies. years, NASA’s International days on mission that includes Hubble Space Telescope and April 21 Celestis, Inc., of Ultraviolet Explorer receives Orbiting Retrievable Far and completes emergency repairs Houston, Tex., performs first final “shutdown” command. Extreme Ultraviolet Spectrom- after discovering numerous space “burial” when Pegasus September 30 Biggest change eter, Shuttle Pallet Satellite, cracks and tears in the orbiting rocket launched from L-1011 in history of space shuttle pro- and Wake Shield Facility. observatory’s thin outer layer of off coast of northwest Africa gram occurs when NASA and December 2 Astronaut Lucid insulation. carries cremated remains of United Space Alliance—a joint becomes first scientist and first February 12 Japan launches “Star Trek” creator Gene Rod- venture between Lockheed woman to receive Space Medal Muses-B, subsequently re- denberry, LSD guru Timothy Martin and Rockwell Interna- of Honor for her record 188 named Highly Advanced Labo- Leary, and 22 other space tional—sign $7 billion contract days aboard Mir. ratory for Communications and enthusiasts into orbit 300 miles consolidating day-to-day December 3 BMDO spokes- Astronomy, from Kagoshima above Earth. shuttle operations under single man Rick Lehner announces Space Center to study super- April 29 US astronaut Linenger company. that Clementine spacecraft ap- massive black holes found at and Russian cosmonaut Vasily October 7–12 Corona meeting parently has discovered frozen center of some galaxies. Tsibliev complete five-hour water in a deep crater at the February 20 Flying within spacewalk outside Mir, the first moon’s south pole. 363 miles of Jupiter’s moon such joint excursion in space December 4 Delta II rocket Europa, Galileo spacecraft history. sends NASA’s Mars Pathfinder transmits tantalizing images May 5 After January launch from Cape Canaveral toward of iceberg-like formations, as disaster at Cape Canav- scheduled July 4, 1997, land- well as relatively smooth white eral, Delta II rocket returns to ing on Mars and deployment of areas, which provide strongest service with launch of first five 23-pound, six-wheeled robotic evidence yet of life-sustaining Iridium mobile telephone satel- rover called Sojourner. ocean beneath frozen surface. lites from Vandenberg AFB. December 20 Titan IV boosts March 4 First launch from Rus- May 15–24 Atlantis (STS-84) National Reconnaissance sia’s Svobodny Cosmodrome completes sixth shuttle docking Office satellite into orbit from successfully places Ministry of mission with Mir to retrieve Vandenberg AFB, marking first Defense’s Zeya test satellite astronaut Linenger and deliver time US government acknowl- into circular sun synchronous his replacement, C. Michael edges, in advance, the launch orbit. Foale. of a reconnaissance satellite. March 22 One-year anniver- May 20 First Delta II launch December 24, 1996–Janu- sary of continuous US human from Cape Canaveral since ary 7, 1997 Russian Bion-11 presence in space: Lucid, January disaster sends Norwe- mission sends two rhesus March 22–September 26, gian Thor IIA satellite into orbit. monkeys, Lapik and Multik, into 1996; Blaha, September 16, June 10–12 US Space Com- space to test effects of weight- 1996–January 22, 1997; and mand, US Strategic Command, lessness on vestibular and Linenger, beginning January NRO,and Army Training and movement control systems, but 12, 1997. Doctrine Command jointly con- Multik dies of cardiac arrest March 31 NASA receives duct “Space Game” exercise during removal of electrodes final signal from 25-year-old at Redstone Arsenal, Ala., to one day after return to Earth. Pioneer 10, first human-made determine how best to use and January 11 Geomagnetic object to escape solar system, protect satellites for warfare in storm that began five days ear- at distance of 6.2 billion miles 2020. lier on sun’s surface temporar- from Earth. June 27 In first flyby of “dark, ily disables GOES-8 weather April 4 Titan II rocket boosts primitive main-belt” type aster- of senior leaders at US Air satellite and apparently last Block 5D-2 Defense Me- oid, NASA’s Near­­-Earth As- Force Academy in Colorado destroys Telstar 401, disrupting teorological Satellite Program teroid Rendezvous spacecraft Springs, Colo., results in deci- television service to millions (DMSP) spacecraft into orbit passes 253 Mathilde. sion to shift emphasis from of viewers, including students from Vandenberg AFB. June 30 NASA’s Foale and an “air and space force” to a on Air Force distance-learning April 4–8 Shuttle Columbia two Russian cosmonauts “space and air force” as the network. (STS-83) mission, originally aboard Mir begin training for service enters twenty-first January 12–22 Shuttle Atlantis scheduled to perform micro- repair mission following June century. mission (STS-81) involves gravity science experiments for 25 crash in which unmanned November 7 Mars Global Sur- rendezvous with Mir to deliver 15 days, is shortened due to cargo ship damaged Mir’s solar veyor, first in decade-long se- 2,200 pounds of equipment malfunctioning fuel cell. array and Spektr module, cut- ries of NASA orbiters and land- and 1,400 pounds of drinking April 15 As part of overall ting power generation capabil- ers to explore the Red Planet, water, drop off mission special- effort to merge DMSP and ity in half. launches atop Delta II rocket ist Navy Capt. Jerry Linenger, NOAA polar satellite systems, from Space Launch Complex and pick up astronaut Blaha Fairchild Satellite Operations 17A at Cape Canaveral. and 840 pounds of hardware Center, Fairchild AFB, Wash., November 16 Russia’s Mars and experiments belonging to ceases its dedicated tracking 96 interplanetary spacecraft, the Russian Space Agency. and backup command and with plutonium-powered energy January 17 Delta II booster control of DMSP satellites. sources, crashes back to Earth explosion at Cape Canaveral April 17 NASA and Air Force when fourth stage of Proton destroys first $35 million GPS Space Command announce booster fails. Block IIR satellite, and subse- partnership agreement to quent accident investigation share assets and new tech- delays further Delta II launches until May 1997.

AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1997 23 Major Military Satellite Systems

Global Positioning System (GPS) up to 1.45 mbps. The four are scheduled bigger and have higher power. Compatible Constellation of 24 satellites used by military for launch in 1998–2001. All satellites have with the same terminals used by the earlier and civilians to determine a precise loca- low-data-rate payloads providing communi- systems. UFO-4 was first in the series to tion anywhere on Earth. A small receiver cations at five bps to 2.4 kbps. The system include an EHF communications payload takes signals from four GPS satellites and can handle a data stream equal to 50,000 with enhanced antijam telemetry, command, calculates a position. The satellites transmit fax pages an hour and 1,000 simultaneous broadcast, and fleet interconnectivity. EHF a highly precise signal to authorized users, users. The satellites are designed to be jam- channels provide an additional 11 channels. permitting accurate navigation to within proof and use sophisticated techniques to Ten UFO satellites were ordered; six are 16 meters. DoD has deployed more than provide secure communications. operational. 110,000 GPS receivers to US government and allied users, with terminals becoming Defense Support Program (DSP) Leasesat much more widely available since the 1991 Infrared detectors aboard these satellites Spacecraft that have been providing Navy Persian Gulf War. Civilians use a commercial have provided early warning of ballistic UHF satellite communications since first version of the terminals, with a degraded missile attack to NORAD since the 1970s. launch in 1984 to augment FLTSATCOM. signal with an accuracy to 100 meters. Re- During Operation Desert Storm, operators at Leasesat was decommissioned at the end ceivers are priced as low as $200. The less Space Command used DSP data to provide of 1996. accurate signal prevents adversaries from warnings of Scud attacks to theater com- using GPS for precision weapons targeting. manders, though DSP was not designed to Global Broadcast System (GBS) Civilian users are working to obtain a much spot and track smaller missiles. Information GBS is projected to be a high-speed, one- better signal through auxiliary equipment, on procurement situation, number of satel- way broadcast communications system that known as differential GPS, that corrects the lites launched, and number to be launched provides high-volume information worldwide degradation. DoD has become increasingly is classified. DoD intends to replace the sys- directly to in-theater war­fighters. GBS will concerned about enemy use of GPS during tem with a new spacecraft, the Spacebased provide data to large populations of dis- a conflict and has begun an effort called Infrared System, designed to spot and track persed users with small, mobile receive NAVWAR (navigation warfare) to protect its the smaller, faster-burning theater missiles terminals. These terminals will allow data to advantage while preventing adversary use that have proliferated in recent years. It will be disseminated directly to lower-echelon of GPS. GPS III is an overarching require- be fielded in three increments: Increment 1, forces, providing current weather, intel- ments process to develop a document that Fiscal 1999; Increment 2, Fiscal 2002; and ligence, news, imagery, and other mission- encompasses civil, military, scientific, and Increment 3, Fiscal 2006. essential information. GBS will be imple- commercial use of GPS. It is also referred to mented in three phases. Phase 1 will consist as positioning, navigation, and timing. The Defense Meteorological Satellite Program of leased commercial transponders. Phase current constellation is 25 operational Block (DMSP) 2 will consist of GBS packages aboard three II/IIA series and one test-and- checkout sat- Military weather satellites operating in LEO UFO satellites. Phase 3 will be an objective ellite. The GPS office has procured 21 Block that collect and disseminate global weather system consisting of military assets, a com- IIR replenishment satellites. GPS IIR-1 was information directly to the warfighter and mercial leased system, or a combination of destroyed in the January 1997 Delta rocket government agencies. Operating in a two- the two. explosion. GPS IIR-2 was being readied for a satellite constellation, each spacecraft col- July 12, 1997, launch. Five IIR launches are lects high-resolution cloud imagery (visible Dark and Spooky scheduled for Fiscal 1998. and infrared) from a 1,800-mile-wide area An undisclosed number and type of intelli- beneath it. Satellites collect other specialized gence satellites are operated by intelligence Defense Satellite Communications Sys- data, such as atmospheric temperature and agencies in cooperation with the military. tem (DSCS) moisture, snow cover, precipitation intensity Satellites, which monitor Earth with radar, Constellation of five primary spacecraft in and area, and oceanographic and solar-geo- optical sensors and electronic intercept ca- geostationary orbit provides voice, data, physical information for DoD air, sea, land, pability, have been treated as closely guarded digital, and television transmissions be- and space operations. Five satellites remain secrets since the start of the space age. tween major military terminals and national to be launched (USAF launched its last on Even the names of satellites, like LaCrosse command authorities. Secure voice and April 4, 1997). Joint satellites will be pro- (radar imaging), Keyhole (optical imaging), high-data-rate communications, operating cured with NOAA for the follow-on system, White Cloud (ocean reconnaissance), and in superhigh frequency, primarily for high- with the first to be launched in the 2007–10 Aquacade (electronic ferret), are secret and capacity fixed users. Five DSCS satellites time frame. It will be called the National cannot be confirmed by the intelligence remain to be launched in 1997–2002. The Polar-Orbiting Operational Environmental agencies. However, the move to declassify Air Force has funded a program that will Satellite System (NPOESS). space systems has begun, leading to the allow more tactical users access on DSCS. release of extensive information about one The Pentagon is developing the architecture Fleet Satellite Communications (FLTSAT- now-obsolete spy satellite called Corona. The to replace the capacity in the next decade. COM) Intelligence Community also will release se- Constellation of four satellites operated by lected archival images obtained by older spy Milstar USN, USAF, and the Presidential command satellites for scientific use. Some observers The first two Milstars of an intended constel- network. A secure link among the three, believe more military space secrets will be lation of four that would provide coverage providing ultrahigh-frequency (UHF) com- disclosed as the Cold War fades. between 65° north and 65° south latitude munications. Satellites carry 23 channels for are in orbit. The first $1 billion Milstar was communications with naval forces, nuclear launched February 7, 1994, and the second forces, and national command authorities. November 5, 1995. Originally conceived as The last two FLTSATCOM satellites (Flights a communications system that could survive 7 and 8) carry extremely high-frequency a nuclear conflict and connect national (EHF) payloads. In operation since 1978 in command authorities to commanders of geo­stationary orbit, with a minimum of four ships, aircraft, and missiles during a war, the satellites needed for worldwide coverage. system’s design and application have been altered in the aftermath of the Cold War. Mil- UHF Follow-On (UFO) Satellites star currently serves tactical forces as well New generation of satellites providing UHF as strategic, and the last four Milstars (Mil- communications to replace FLTSATCOM star IIs) will include medium-data-rate pay- satellites. UFO satellites have 39 channels— loads able to transmit larger volumes of data compared to the FLTSATCOM’s 23 —are

24 AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1997 Major US Civilian Satellites in Military Use

Advanced Communications Technology called INC, which will be given three to tary use of the commercial system under the Satellite (ACTS) seven satellites for competitive services Joint Interoperability Warfighter Program. NASA’s ACTS was launched in 1993 on like broadcasting and data networking. The Today, DoD still possesses more than 100 the space shuttle to demonstrate Ka-band restructuring should be approved in early Orbcomm units. communications and onboard switching 1998 and implemented in the following equipment. Military use of the technology months. US signatory to Intelsat is Comsat Orion Network Systems demonstration satellite included com- Corp. The US military uses the system for Orion provides commercial satellite–based, munications service to US Army troops routine communications and to distribute rooftop-to-rooftop communications in sup- deployed to Haiti in 1994. the Armed Forces Radio and TV Services port of the US Army Trojan program via its network and used it to set up a Very Small own satellite as part of the GE American Geostationary Operational Environmen- Aperture Terminal data network for field Communications team. In addition, Orion tal Satellite (GOES) commanders in Bosnia in 1996. provides communications through wholesal- NOAA operates GOES-8 and GOES-9. ers to other DoD agency locations in the GOES-7 provides backup. Satellites hover International Maritime Satellite (Inmarsat) US and Europe. Rooftop-to-rooftop support at 22,300 miles altitude over the equator, Established in 1979 to own and operate is also provided to selected State Depart- monitoring storms and tracking their move- satellites for mobile communications. Has ment overseas locations. Orion continues ments for short-term forecasting. Satellites 79 member-countries. Inmarsat is 10.5 per- its support for the troops deployed to Bosnia are a new design that has improved spatial cent owner of ICO Global Communications, via leased capacity to the Defense Informa- resolution and full-time operational sound- which was spun off as a separate company tion Systems Agency. Future plans include ings of the atmosphere. in 1995 to develop a satellite system for the launch and operation of two additional global mobile telephone services. Inmarsat satellites covering the Asia-Pacific region, International Telecommunications Satel- operates seven satellites, including the first Latin America, the Middle East, and parts lite Organization (Intelsat) three of the third-generation Inmarsat 3 of Russia and Africa. Established in 1964 to own and operate series and one Inmarsat 2 satellite. Another a global constellation of communica- three satellites serve as orbital spares. The Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre tions satellites. Has 141 members and spacecraft are sometimes used by military (SPOT) 24 operational satellites. Intelsat is in the forces for peacetime mobile communica- Remote sensing satellite system devel- process of restructuring into an intergov- tions services. Inmarsat is prohibited by oped by the French space agency, CNES. ernmental treaty organization, which will convention from being used for military pur- Owned and operated by a commercial firm, continue to provide basic global satellite poses. Briefcase- and laptop-sized satellite SPOT Image S. A. of Toulouse. Two satel- connectivity, and a commercial spin-off telephone terminals are used to communi- lites produce images with resolution as fine cate through the satellites. Inmarsat use in as 10 meters and can be used for stereo- Somalia and Bosnia included the transmis- scopic viewing for three-dimensional terrain sion of medical data and supply orders. modeling. SPOT 3 failed in November, and SPOT 1 was reactivated to augment Landsat SPOT 2. SPOT 4 is scheduled for launch in US government’s civilian remote sensing early 1998 and SPOT 5 in 2002. DoD is a satellite system. Used in polar orbit since large customer, purchasing the images for 1972. Carries a multispectral scanner able mission-planning systems, terrain analysis, to operate at a resolution of 30 meters mapping, and humanitarian missions. and provide imagery that can be computer enhanced to show deforestation, expanding Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System deserts, crop blight, and other phenomena. (TDRSS) Space Imaging EOSAT operates the aging NASA operates six TDRSS satellites to Landsat 5. The government plans to launch form a global network that allows low Earth a Landsat 7 satellite in 1998. Military use orbiting spacecraft, such as the space of Landsat imagery has included mapping shuttle, to communicate with a control cen- and planning for tactical operations. ter without an elaborate network of ground stations. The geostationary TDRSS, with NOAA-12 and NOAA-14 its ground station at White Sands, N. M., Two polar orbit satellites for long-term fore- allows mission control in Houston, Tex., casting of weather, operated by NOAA. The to maintain nearly constant contact with satellites fly in a 450-nautical-mile orbit, the shuttle. Other satellites using TDRSS carrying visible and infrared radiometry include the Hubble Space Telescope, imaging sensors and ultraviolet sensors to Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, Earth map ozone levels in the atmosphere. Pro- Radiation Budget Satellite, and military vide weather updates for all areas of the satellites. TDRSS satellites have been used world every six hours to civil and military since 1983. Three next-generation satellites users. are being built for use with the shuttle, the space station, and satellites. Hughes is the Orbcomm contractor for TDRSS H, I, and J. The first Orbcomm Global L.P.’s first two satellites will be launched in July 1999. were launched in April 1995 and commer- cial service in the US and Canada began in February 1996. Orbcomm is a joint venture between Orbital Sciences Corp. and Teleglobe of Canada. Orbcomm’s satellite constellation will comprise 28 satellites, with an additional eight satellites to serve as Six TDRSS satellites now on orbit enable ground spares or to be launched at a later NASA to communicate with the space date. Orbcomm worked with DoD in 1995 shuttles. and 1996 to demonstrate the potential mili-

AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1997 25 Military Functions in Space

Communications track, and destroy ballistic and cruise mis- Spacelift Provide communications from national siles launched against forward-deployed Prepare satellite and booster, joining the command authorities to Joint Force Com- US forces, allied forces, or US territory. two. Conduct checkout prior to launch, mander. Provide communications from JFC carry out launch, and conduct on-orbit Navigation to squadron-level commanders. Permit Operate GPS network and certain smaller checkout. transfer of imagery and situational aware- Navy systems. Enable commanders to Strategic Early Warning ness to tactical operations. Permit rapid determine precise locations of friendly and Operate satellites to give national leaders transmission of JFC intent, ground force enemy forces and targets. Permit accurate, early warning of all possible strategic observations, and adaptive planning. timely rendezvous of combat forces. Map events, including launch of intercontinental Environmental/Remote Sensing minefields and other obstacles. ballistic missiles. Identify launch locations Use space systems to create topographi- and impact areas. Cue area and point On-Orbit Support cal, hydrographic, and geological maps and Track and control satellites, operate their defense systems. charts and to develop systems of topo- payloads, and disseminate data from them. Tactical Warning/Attack Assessment graphic measurement. Discharge the NORAD mission calling for Reconnaissance and Surveillance Space Environment/Meteorological Sup- Identify possible global threats and surveil- use of all sensors to detect and character- port lance of specific activity that might be ize an attack on US or Canadian territory. Operate groundbased and spacebased threatening to US or allied military forces US Space Command carries out similar systems to provide solar/geophysical or US territory. Reduce effectiveness of tactical warning in other theaters. support to the warfighter. Operate weather camouflage and decoys. Identify “centers of satellites to provide data on worldwide and gravity” in enemy forces. Accurately charac- local weather systems affecting combat terize electronic emissions. operations. NOAA will take over flight operations of weather satellites from the Space Control Air Force in May 1998. USAF will continue Control and exploit space using offensive to provide backup satellite command and and defensive measures to ensure that control of weather satellites. friendly forces can use space capabilities, while denying their use to the enemy. This Missile Defense mission is assigned to USCINCSPACE in Employ space assets to identify, acquire, the Unified Command Plan. Major US Agencies in Space National Imagery and Mapping Agency Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and development. Conduct aeronautical (NIMA) Office of Development and Engineering research and development. Headquarters: Fairfax, Va. Headquarters: Washington, D. C. Structure Established: October 1, 1996 Established: 1973 Ten centers around the US: Johnson Space Director (acting): Rear Adm. Joseph J. Director: Dennis Fitzgerald Center, Houston, Tex.; Marshall Space Dantone, Jr. Mission, Purpose, Operations Flight Center, Huntsville, Ala.; Kennedy Mission, Purpose, Operations Develop systems from requirements defini- Space Center, Fla.; Lewis Research Center, Provide timely, relevant, and accurate imag- tion through design, testing, and evaluation Cleveland, Ohio; Lang­ley Research Center, ery intelligence and geospatial information to operations. Works with systems not avail- Hampton, Va.; Ames Research Center, to support national security objectives. This able commercially. Disciplines include laser Mountain View, Calif.; Dryden Flight Re- DoD-chartered combat support agency was communications, digital imagery processing, search Center, Edwards AFB, Calif.; Sten- formed through the consolidation: Defense real-time data collection and processing, nis Space Center, Bay St. Louis, Miss.; Jet Mapping Agency, Central Imagery Office, electro-optics, advanced signal collection, Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.; and Defense Dissemination Program Of- artificial intelligence, advanced antenna de- and Goddard Space Flight Center, Green- fice, in their entirety; National Photographic sign, mass data storage and retrieval, and belt, Md. Interpretation Center, which is now under large systems modeling and simulations. Personnel NIMA’s operational control; and the imagery Work includes new concepts and systems Civilians...... 19,700 exploitation, dissemination, and processing upgrades. Contractors...... 169,000 elements and programs of the CIA, Defense Structure: Classified Intelligence Agency, National Reconnais- Personnel: Classified National Oceanic and Atmospheric sance Office, and Defense Airborne Re- Administration (NOAA) connaissance Office. This agency is also a National Aeronautics and Space Headquarters: Washington, D. C. member of the Intelligence Community and Administration (NASA) Established: October 3, 1970 has been assigned, by statute, important Headquarters: Washington, D. C. Director: Dr. D. James Baker national-level support responsibilities. Established: 1958 Mission, Purpose, Operations Structure Administrator: Daniel S. Goldin Provide satellite observations of the global Three principal directorates: Operations, Mission, Purpose, Operations environment by operating a national system Systems and Technology, and Corporate Explore and develop space for human enter- of satellites. Explore, map, and chart the Affairs. prise, increase knowledge about Earth and global ocean and its resources and de- Major facilities in Virginia, Maryland, Wash- space, and conduct research in space and scribe, monitor, and predict conditions in the ington, D. C., Missouri, and California, with aeronautics. Operate the space shuttle and atmosphere, ocean, and space environment. the NIMA College located at Ft. Bel­voir, Va. lead an international program to build a per- Its National Environmental Satellite, Data Also, customer support teams and tech­nical manently occupied space station, which will and Information Service processes vast representatives stationed around the world at be launched starting in 1998. Launch satel- quantities of satellite images and data. Its major customer locations. lites for space science, Earth observations, prime customer is NOAA’s National Weather Personnel: Classified and a broad range of technology research Service, which uses satellite information in creating forecasts.

26 AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1997 Structure of the National Foreign Intelligence Program, objectives, requirements, and priorities es- Headquarters known as the National Reconnaissance tablished by the CIA director with the advice National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Program. Both the Secretary of Defense and of the National Foreign Intelligence Board. Information Service Director of Central Intelligence have ap- Structure National Weather Service proval of the program. Five offices and three Established by a Presidential directive in National Ocean Service directorates reporting up to the level of the 1952 as a separate agency within DoD National Marine Fisheries Service director. Offices are management services under the direction, authority, and control Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Re- and operations, plans and analysis, systems of the Secretary of Defense, who serves as search applications, space launch, and operational the executive agent of the US government NOAA Corps support. Directorates are signals intelligence for the production of communications intel- Office of Sustainable Development and systems acquisition and operations, com- ligence information. The Central Security Intergovernmental Affairs munications systems acquisition and opera- Service was established in 1972 by a Presi- Coastal Ocean Program tions, and imagery systems acquisition and dential memorandum to provide a more uni- Personnel operations. fied cryptological organization within DoD. National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Personnel The NSA director also serves as chief of the Information Service...... 825 Staffed by CIA (37 percent), USAF (51 CSS and controls the signals intelligence Other NOAA employees...... 11,560 percent), Navy (seven percent), Army (one activities of the military services. Total...... 12,385 percent), and National Security Agency Personnel: Classified (four percent), both military and civilian National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) employees. Exact personnel numbers are Other Agencies Headquarters: Chantilly, Va. classified. The White House Office of Science and Tech- Established: September 1961 nology Policy; Defense Advanced Research Director: Keith R. Hall National Security Agency (NSA) Projects Agency; Ballistic Missile Defense Mission, Purpose, Operations Headquarters: Ft. Meade, Md. Organization; US Space Command and the Design, build, and operate reconnaissance Established: 1952 component commands of the Air Force, Navy, satellites to support global information supe- Director: Lt. Gen. Kenneth A. Minihan, USAF and Army; NORAD; and the FAA’s Office of riority for the US. It has operated hundreds Mission, Purpose, Operations Commercial Space Transportation. of satellites during its 35-year history. Re- Protect US communications and produce sponsible for innovative technology; systems foreign intelligence information. Supply engineering; development, acquisition, and leadership, products and services to pro- operation of space reconnaissance systems; tect classified and unclassified information and related intelligence activities. Supports from interception, unauthorized access, and monitoring of arms-control agreements, technical intelligence threats. In the foreign military operations and exercises, natural signals intelligence area, the central point disasters, environmental issues, and world- for collecting and processing activities con- wide events of interest to the US. ducted by the US government, with authority to produce signals intelligence in accord with Structure NRO is a DoD agency, funded through part

Air Force Space Command Headquarters, Peterson AFB, Colo.

(As of July 1, 1997)

Commander Gen. Howell M. Estes III

Space Warfare Center • Falcon AFB, Colo. Commander Brig. Gen. Glen W. Moorhead III

14th Air Force • Hq., Vandenberg AFB, Calif. 20th Air Force • Hq., F. E. Warren AFB, Wyo. Commander Maj. Gen. Gerald F. Perryman, Jr. Commander Maj. Gen. Donald G. Cook

21st Space Wing, Peterson AFB, Colo. 90th Missile Wing, F. E. Warren AFB, Wyo. 30th Space Wing, Vandenberg AFB, Calif. 91st Missile Wing, Minot AFB, N. D. 45th Space Wing, Patrick AFB, Fla. 321st Missile Group, Grand Forks AFB, N. D. 50th Space Wing, Falcon AFB, Colo. 341st Missile Wing, Malmstrom AFB, Mont.

Air Force Space Acquisition Organizations

Air Force Materiel Command • Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio Air Force Program Executive Office • Washington, D. C. Commander Gen. George T. Babbitt, Jr. Air Force Acquisition Executive Arthur L. Money

Space and Missile Systems Center • Los Angeles AFB, Calif. Program Executive Officer for Space Programs Commander Lt. Gen. Roger G. DeKok Brent R. Collins Defense Meteorological Satellite SPO1 MILSATCOM JPO Launch Programs SPO Launch SPO (formerly Titan) Advanced Systems SPO Spacebased Infrared SPO Satellite and Launch Control SPO Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle SPO Navstar Global Positioning System JPO2

Phillips Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, N. M. 1System(s) Program Office 2Joint Program Office

AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1997 27 Russian Space Activity, 1996 Russian Launch Site Activity, 1996

Launches Spacecraft Spacecraft Number of launches Communications...... 7...... 12 Baikonur Cosmodrome, Tyuratam, Kazakhstan Photoreconnaissance...... 1...... 1 Proton-K...... 8 Unmanned space station resupply...... 3...... 3 Soyuz-U...... 5 Space station module...... 1...... 1 Zenit-2...... 1 Navigation...... 3...... 3 Tsyklon-M...... 1 Military ocean surveillance...... 1...... 1 Total...... 15 Electronic intelligence...... 1...... 1 Plesetsk Cosmodrome, Plesetsk, Russia Manned flight...... 2...... 2 Tsyklon-3...... 1 Science...... 3...... 6 Kosmos-3M...... 4 Commercial...... 2...... 2 Soyuz-U...... 2 Atmospheric density/radar calibration...... 1...... 1 Molniya-M...... 3 Total...... 25...... 33 Total...... 10

US Space Funding (Millions of current dollars) Russian Operational Spacecraft, 1996 FY NASA DoD Other Total Mission Type Number 1959...... $ 261...... $ 490...... $ 34...... $ 785 Communications ...... Kosmos (Strela-3)...... 30 1960...... 462...... 561...... 43...... 1,066 Gonets-D...... 3 1961...... 926...... 814...... 69...... 1,809 Raduga/Raduga-1...... 9 1962...... 1,797...... 1,298...... 200...... 3,295 Gorizont...... 11 1963...... 3,626...... 1,550...... 259...... 5,435 Molniya-1...... 8 1964...... 5,016...... 1,599...... 216...... 6,831 Molniya-3...... 8 1965...... 5,138...... 1,574...... 244...... 6,956 Kosmos (Geizer)...... 2 1966...... 5,065...... 1,689...... 217...... 6,971 Kosmos (Luch)...... 2 1967...... 4,830...... 1,664...... 216...... 6,710 Luch-1...... 1 1968...... 4,430...... 1,922...... 177...... 6,529 Ekran-M...... 1 1969...... 3,822...... 2,013...... 141...... 5,976 Ekspress...... 2 1970...... 3,547...... 1,678...... 115...... 5,340 Gals...... 2 1971...... 3,101...... 1,512...... 127...... 4,740 Radio Rosto...... 1 Navigation ...... Kosmos GLONASS...... 24 1972...... 3,071...... 1,407...... 97...... 4,575 Kosmos (military)...... 6 1973...... 3,093...... 1,623...... 109...... 4,825 Kosmos (civil)...... 4 1974...... 2,759...... 1,766...... 116...... 4,641 Meteorology ...... Meteor-2...... 2 1975...... 2,915...... 1,892...... 107...... 4,914 Meteor-3...... 2 1976...... 4,074...... 2,443...... 142...... 6,659 Elektro (GOMS)...... 1 1977...... 3,440...... 2,412...... 131...... 5,983 Early warning ...... Kosmos (Oko)...... 8 1978...... 3,623...... 2,738...... 157...... 6,518 Kosmos (Prognoz)...... 1 1979...... 4,030...... 3,036...... 178...... 7,244 Electronic intelligence ...... Kosmos (Tselina-2)...... 3 1980...... 4,680...... 3,848...... 160...... 8,688 Kosmos (EORSAT)...... 3 1981...... 4,992...... 4,828...... 158...... 9,978 Photoreconnaissance ...... 0 1982...... 5,528...... 6,679...... 234...... 12,441 Remote sensing ...... Okean-O...... 2 1983...... 6,328...... 9,019...... 242...... 15,589 Resurs-O1...... 1 1984...... 6,648...... 10,195...... 293...... 17,136 Sich...... 1 1985...... 6,925...... 12,768...... 474...... 20,167 Geodesy ...... Kosmos (Etalon)...... 2 1986...... 7,165...... 14,126...... 368...... 21,659 Kosmos (GEO-IK)...... 1 1987...... 9,809...... 16,287...... 352...... 26,448 Radar calibration ...... Kosmos (Romb)...... 1 1988...... 8,302...... 17,679...... 626...... 26,607 Atmosphere density ...... Kosmos (Yug)...... 1 1989...... 10,098...... 17,906...... 444...... 28,448 Space station activity ...... Mir...... 1 1990...... 12,142...... 15,616...... 387...... 28,145 Kvant-1...... 1 1991...... 13,036...... 14,181...... 566...... 27,783 Kvant-2...... 1 Kristall...... 1 1992...... 13,199...... 15,023...... 624...... 28,846 Spektr...... 1 1993...... 13,077...... 14,106...... 559...... 27,742 Priroda...... 1 1994...... 13,022...... 13,166...... 465...... 26,653 Soyuz TM...... 1 1995...... 12,543...... 10,644...... 489...... 23,676 Progress M...... 1 1996...... 12,569...... 11,514...... 707...... 24,790 Scientific activity ...... Bion...... 1 Total...... 229,089...... 243,266...... 10,243...... 482,598 Coronas-I...... 1 Figures are expressed in current dollars and are rounded. NASA totals represent Granat...... 1 space activities only. “Other” category includes the Departments of Energy, Commerce, Interball ...... 2 Agriculture, Interior, and Transportation; the National Science Foundation; the Environ- mental Protection Agency; and other agencies. (Fiscal 1996 figures are preliminary.) MAGION 4 (Czech satellite)...... 2

Older spacecraft sometimes are placed in orbital standby mode.

28 AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1997 Worldwide Launches by Site, 1957–96 Manned Spaceflights

Launch Site Nation Launches US Russia Plesetsk...... Russia...... 1,436 Year Flights Persons Flights White Sands Missile Range, N. M...... US...... 1,087 Persons Tyuratam/Baikonur...... Russia...... 1,002 1961...... 2...... 2...... 2...... 2 Vandenberg AFB, Calif...... US...... 516 1962...... 3...... 3...... 2...... 2 Cape Canaveral AS, Fla...... US...... 509 1963...... 1...... 1...... 2...... 2 Poker Flat Research Range, Alaska...... US...... 271 1964...... 0...... 0...... 1...... 3 JFK Space Center, Fla...... US...... 99 1965...... 5...... 10...... 1...... 2 Kapustin Yar...... Russia...... 83 1966...... 5...... 10...... 0...... 0 Kourou...... French Guiana...... 90 1967...... 0...... 0...... 1...... 1 Tanegashima...... Japan...... 28 1968...... 2...... 6...... 1...... 1 Shuang Cheng-tzu/Jiuquan...... China...... 23 1969...... 4...... 12...... 5...... 11 Wallops Flight Facility, Va...... US...... 22 1970...... 1...... 3...... 1...... 2 Uchinoura...... Japan...... 21 1971...... 2...... 6...... 2...... 6 Xichang...... China...... 19 1972...... 2...... 6...... 0...... 0 Indian Ocean Platform...... Kenya...... 9 1973...... 3...... 9...... 2...... 4 Sriharikota...... India...... 7 1974...... 0...... 0...... 3...... 6 Edwards AFB, Calif...... US...... 5 1975...... 1...... 3...... 4...... 8 Hammaguir...... Algeria...... 4 1976...... 0...... 0...... 3...... 6 Yavne...... Israel...... 3 1977...... 0...... 0...... 3...... 6 Woomera...... Australia...... 2 1978...... 0...... 0...... 5...... 10 Taiyun...... China...... 2 1979...... 0...... 0...... 2...... 4 1980...... 0...... 0...... 6...... 13 Total...... 5,238 1981...... 2...... 4...... 3...... 6 1982...... 3...... 8...... 3...... 8 1983...... 4...... 20...... 2...... 5 1984...... 5...... 28...... 3...... 9 1985...... 9...... 58...... 2...... 5 1986...... 1...... 7...... 1...... 2 1987...... 0...... 0...... 3...... 8 1988...... 2...... 10...... 3...... 9 1989...... 5...... 25...... 1...... 2 Military vs. Civilian Launches 1990...... 6...... 32...... 3...... 7 1991...... 6...... 35...... 2...... 6 Military Civilian 1992...... 8...... 53...... 2...... 6 Year US Russia US...... Russia 1993...... 7...... 42...... 2...... 5 1957...... 0...... 0 ..0...... 2 1994...... 7...... 42...... 3...... 8 1958...... 0...... 0 1995...... 7...... 42...... 2...... 6 ..7...... 1 1996...... 7...... 43...... 2...... 5 1959...... 6...... 0 ..5...... 3 1960...... 10...... 0 ..6...... 3 1961...... 19...... 0 .10...... 6 1962...... 31...... 5 .21...... 15 1963...... 26...... 7 .12...... 10 Payloads by Mission, 1957–96 1964...... 32...... 15 .25...... 15 Category US Russia 1965...... 28...... 25 .35...... 23 1966...... 32...... 27 .41...... 17 Platforms...... 0...... 480 1967...... 24...... 46 .34...... 20 Earth orbital science...... 221...... 210 Automated lunar, planetary...... 58...... 86 1968...... 20...... 49 .25...... 25 Moon...... 25...... 34 1969...... 16...... 51 .24...... 19 Mercury...... 1...... 0 1970...... 15...... 55 .14...... 26 Venus...... 8...... 33 1971...... 10...... 60 .22...... 23 Mars...... 11...... 19 1972...... 11...... 53 .20...... 21 Outer planets...... 4...... 0 1973...... 8...... 58 .15...... 28 Interplanetary space...... 9...... 0 1974...... 6...... 52 .18...... 29 Applications...... 420...... 499 1975...... 7...... 60 .21...... 29 Communications...... 291...... 285 Weather...... 99...... 74 1976...... 7...... 74 .19...... 25 Geodesy...... 20...... 34 1977...... 9...... 69 .15...... 29 Earth resources...... 8...... 96 1978...... 8...... 60 .24...... 28 Materials processing...... 2...... 10 1979...... 4...... 60 .12...... 27 Piloted activities...... 149...... 236 1980...... 5...... 64 ..8...... 25 Earth orbital...... 99...... 88 1981...... 5...... 59 .13...... 39 Earth orbital (related)...... 13...... 140 1982...... 6...... 68 .12...... 33 Lunar...... 20...... 0 1983...... 7...... 58 .15...... 40 Lunar (related)...... 17...... 8 1984...... 12...... 63 Launch vehicle tests...... 11...... 22 .10...... 34 General engineering tests...... 57...... 4 1985...... 6...... 64 .11...... 34 Reconnaissance...... 427...... 1,081 1986...... 3...... 63 ..3...... 28 Photographic...... 248...... 796 1987...... 6...... 62 ..2...... 33 Electronic intelligence...... 93...... 130 1988...... 6...... 53 ..6...... 37 Ocean electronic intelligence...... 39...... 82 1989...... 13...... 42 ..5...... 32 Early warning...... 47...... 73 1990...... 13...... 45 .14...... 30 Minor military operations...... 44...... 161 1991...... 9...... 30 ..9...... 29 Navigation...... 82...... 211 Theater communication...... 0...... 535 1992...... 12...... 32 .16...... 22 Weapons-related activities...... 2...... 56 1993...... 13...... 26 .10...... 21 Fractional orbital bombardment...... 0...... 18 1994...... 12...... 26 .14...... 22 Antisatellite targets...... 2...... 18 1995...... 9...... 15 .18...... 17 Antisatellite interceptors...... 0...... 20 1996...... 11...... 8 .22...... 17 Other military...... 18...... 1 Total...... 477...... 1,604 613...... 917 Other civilian...... 2...... 1 Total...... 1,491...... 3,583

AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1997 29 Payloads in Orbit Spacefarers (As of end of 1996)

(As of end of 1996) Launcher/operator Objects Launcher/operator Objects Argentina...... 2 Luxembourg...... 6 Nation Persons Nation Persons Australia...... 6 Malaysia...... 2 Afghanistan...... 1 Mexico...... 1 Brazil...... 6 Mexico...... 5 Austria...... 1 Mongolia...... 1 Canada...... 17 NATO...... 8 Belgium...... 1 Netherlands...... 1 China...... 16 Norway...... 1 Bulgaria...... 2 Poland...... 1 Czechoslovakia...... 3 Portugal...... 1 Canada...... 5 Romania...... 1 ESA...... 30 Russia...... 1,353 Cuba...... 1 Russia...... 85 France...... 30 Saudi Arabia...... 7 Czechoslovakia...... 1 Saudi Arabia...... 1 France/Germany...... 2 South Korea...... 4 France...... 7 Switzerland...... 1 Germany...... 14 Spain...... 4 Germany...... 8 Syria...... 1 India...... 14 Sweden...... 5 Hungary...... 1 United Kingdom...... 1 Indonesia...... 8 Thailand...... 2 India...... 1 United States...... 223 Israel...... 2 Turkey...... 2 Italy...... 3 Vietnam...... 1 Italy...... 7 United Kingdom...... 25 Japan...... 4 Total...... 354 ITSO1 ...... 50 United States...... 701 Japan...... 57 Total...... 2,390 1International Telecommunications Satellite Organization

Other Spacefaring Nations For eight years after Sputnik from Kourou, French Guiana. Launches went into orbit in October 1957, Arianespace, a private company, the two superpowers alone markets Ariane and manages Year France China Japan Europe India Israel were able to launch spacecraft. launches. France, Italy, and Ger- France broke the monopoly in many all have strong programs. 1965...... 1 1965, establishing an indepen- 1966...... 1 dent capability. China, India, India launched its first satellite, 1967...... 2 Japan, and Israel also have Rohini 1, into orbit in July 1980. 1968 hurled satellites into space us- The Indian Space Research Or- 1969 ing indigenously built rockets. ganization operates an offshore 1970...... 2...... 1...... 1 European capabilities are em- Sriharikota Island launch site in 1971...... 1...... 1...... 2 bodied in the European Space the Bay of Bengal. India’s boost- 1972...... 1 1973 Agency (ESA), cur­-rently a er program includes the Satellite 1974...... 1 group of 14 nations. Launch Vehicle, Augmented 1975...... 3...... 3...... 2 Satellite Launch Vehicle, and 1976...... 2...... 1 China launched its first satel- Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle. 1977...... 2 lite in 1970 and has had at The latter is capable of plac- 1978...... 1...... 3 least 42 satellites on orbit. Chi- ing spacecraft into polar orbit. 1979...... 2...... 1 na also launches science and India is particularly interested 1980...... 2...... 1 military reconnaissance satel- in remote sensing for resource, 1981...... 1...... 3...... 2...... 1 lites and has made commercial weather, and reconnaissance 1982...... 1...... 1 launches for other nations. Its purposes. An Indian cosmonaut 1983...... 1...... 3...... 2...... 1 primary launch site is near flew on a Soviet Soyuz mission 1984...... 3...... 3...... 4 Jiuquan, in northern China; in 1984. 1985...... 1...... 2...... 3 a newer site is near Xichang, 1986...... 2...... 2...... 2 in southeastern China, and a Israel launched its first test 1987...... 2...... 3...... 2 third is at Taiyun. The launch satellite, Ofeq 1, into orbit Sep- 1988...... 4...... 2...... 7...... 1 program relies on the Long tember 1988. Believed to have 1989...... 2...... 7 March series of rockets, one been launched from Yavne in the 1990...... 5...... 3...... 5...... 1 version of which has a cryo- Negev Desert, satellites in the 1991...... 1...... 2...... 8 genic upper stage. Chinese Ofeq series are thought to be 1992...... 4...... 1...... 7...... 1 astronauts were in training in dedicated to military purposes. 1993...... 1...... 1...... 7 the 1970s, but the country has Ofeq is seen as a step toward 1994...... 5...... 2...... 6...... 2 indefinitely deferred manned creation of a military satellite 1995...... 2...... 1...... 11...... 1 spaceflight. reconnaissance system. The 1996...... 3...... 1...... 10...... 1 prime booster is Shavit, possibly Total...... 10...... 44...... 49...... 84...... 7...... 3 ESA was formed in 1975 for based on the Jericho 2 missile. civilian activities only. It has 14 members: Austria, Belgium, Japan put its first satellite into Denmark, Finland, France, orbit in 1970 and has made at of Space and Astronautical into deep space. N‑1 and N-2 Germany, Ireland, Italy, the least 49 successful satellite Science. Main launch sites are rockets were based on the US Netherlands, Norway, Spain, launches. Communications, Kagoshima, on Kyushu, south- Delta. The H-1 has begun to Sweden, Switzerland, and the remote sensing, weather, and west of Tokyo, and Tanegashi- replace the N-1 and N-2 boost- UK. A major activity is develop- scientific satellites are on orbit. ma, an island south of Kyushu. ers. The H-2 booster was first ment of the Ariane rocket. Japan’s satellite program is run The Mu series of launch ve- launched in 1994. France led development of the by the National Space Develop- hicles is used to orbit scientific booster, which is launched ment Agency and the Institute satellites and toss spacecraft

30 AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1997 AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1997 31 Recent Space Issues and Developments

■ Space Master Plan ellites, plus an EHF system for one-meter-resolution spacecraft rowed the field from four to two The Space Master Plan to guide communications over the poles. by mid-1998. Space Imaging, competitors in late 1996 and will military space spending during The architecture recommended Inc., their leading competitor, select a single winner in mid- the next 25 years produced a against commercial leasing of was to launch its first satellite, 1998. The service has budgeted set of “guidestars,” or guiding systems to fill those require- capable of one-meter imagery, $2 billion through 2004 for the principles, to assure that military ments on the basis that leasing in December 1997. Several effort, including funds for three services work together and ac- would be more expensive than other companies have obtained test flights. EELV is aimed quire space systems that are ef- buying for the military. In the remote-sensing satellite licenses at evolving current launcher ficient, nonredundant, and work case of satellites to replace the from the Commerce Department systems—either the Atlas made in an integrated fashion. The DSCS, the architecture recom- and hope to launch satellites in by Lockheed Martin Corp. or guidestars include such notions mended adapting satellites from the future, but EarthWatch and the Delta made by McDonnell as technical superiority, cus- a commercial production line to Space Imaging were the clear Douglas—into a common core tomer focus, and cooperation. carry the DoD X-band payload, front-runners in the new com- family of medium- and heavy- The Joint Space Management plus adding military Ka-band mercial space application. The lift boosters with launch costs Board approved the classified frequencies. The DSCS replace- images will be useful for a vari- 25 to 50 percent lower than plan, which was created by the ments would be launched begin- ety of tactical defense missions today’s rockets. The first medium Deputy Under Secretary of De- ning in 2002–06. DoD has spent and for mapping. The compa- launch is scheduled for 2001, fense for Space, an organization $50 billion during the last 20 nies also expect to sell imagery and the first heavy launch is set up in 1994 to provide top- years on military satellite equip- to commercial and civil users scheduled for 2003. USAF has level oversight of space matters ment, and the new architecture to help agricultural production, begun manifesting satellites on within the DoD and Intelligence would cost $45 billion to $54 urban planning, transporta- EELV, with plans to phase out Communities. billion over the next 20 years, tion planning, and many other use of Titan 4, Atlas, and Delta ■ Space architecture depending on the number of endeavors. when the new rocket becomes The DoD Space Architect office, upgrades included. ■ Advanced technology operational. headed by Air Force Maj. Gen. ■ Commercial remote sensing launchers: X-33, X-34, EELV Robert S. Dickman, issued its In 1998, two commercial The nation’s efforts to develop first product—an architecture for companies operating high-res- new, lower cost launch vehicles future military communications olution remote-sensing satellite continued to receive funding satellite systems—in fall 1996. systems are expected to begin support and achieve program- The architecture recommended selling data to DoD, as well as matic progress, which will lead that DoD continue to buy three many commercial and interna- to test flights of NASA’s X-33 to four lines of specialized tional customers. EarthWatch, and X-34 reusable launch spacecraft to fulfill needs met by Inc., was to orbit its first satellite, vehicles around 1999 and first the current Milstar, DSCS (De- capable of providing imagery flights of the Air Force’s Evolved fense Satellite Communications with three-meter resolution, Expendable Launch Vehicle in System) and UHF Follow-on sat- in June 1997, followed by a 2001 and 2003. USAF nar-

Pioneer X-15 pilots (l–r) Joe Walker, USAF Maj. Bob White, and Scott Crossfield helped pave the way for today’s astro- nauts. Walker and White, among other X-15 pilots, earned astronaut wings for flights above 264,000 feet in the X-15, which was designed to explore the identifiable problems of atmospheric flight at very high speeds and altitudes.

32 AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1997 Proposals and Prospects

Launcher Concepts

■ Sea Launch Sea Launch Co., a partnership among Boe- ing Commercial Space Co., Kvaerner a.s. of Norway, RSC Energia of Moscow, and NPO Yuzhnoye of the Ukraine, has made major progress toward developing the Sea Launch commercial satellite launching operation. Launch services will commence in June 1998 when Sea Launch will utilize the three-stage Zenit SL rocket to place payloads of up to 5,900 kilograms (13,000 pounds) into GTO from a floating platform at sea. The launch site will be equatorial, near Christmas Island in the Pacific, with a home base in Long Beach, Calif. Construc- tion of the launch platform and assembly and command ship continues, and both vessels are scheduled to arrive at the home port in early 1998. Hughes Space This computer concept shows Lockheed Martin’s VentureStar RLV, chosen and Communications has purchased for NASA’s X-33 technology demonstration program, docking with Japan’s National 13 launches, and Space Systems/Loral Development Agency space station. ordered five. Sea Launch is fully booked through 2000, with a launch rate of three ■ Delta III Satellite Concepts missions in 1998 and six a year thereafter. A new intermediate-class launcher, the ■ X-33 Delta III is being developed without govern- Lockheed Martin Corp. is developing an ex- ment support by McDonnell Douglas Corp. ■ Combined weather satellites perimental reusable launch vehicle (RLV), for a first launch in 1998. Delta III will be Civil and military weather LEO polar called the X-33 or VentureStar, after being able to boost 8,400 pounds to GTO, more satellites are being merged into a single selected by NASA in July 1997 for a coop- than twice Delta II’s maximum payload. Its system. The number of satellites will be erative program to demonstrate technology LEO capability will be 18,400 pounds. The reduced from four to three, with savings for a single-stage-to-orbit rocket for use in rocket will have a new cryogenic upper now estimated at $560 million through the next century. NASA is putting nearly stage and a larger fairing. The initial cus- 1999. DoD and NOAA are coordinating $1 billion into the effort, with Lockheed tomer is Hughes Space and Communica- the purchase of the remaining satellites. Martin committing some $220 million. Flight tions, which has a contract for 10 launches NOAA, DoD, and NASA are maintaining a tests are scheduled for 1999, leading to a plus additional options through 2005. tri-agency office for the National Polar- decision by 2001 on whether to proceed Space Systems/Loral also has ordered five Orbiting Operational Environmental Satel- with an operational version. The terms of Delta IIIs. lite System, which is to take responsibility the project call for Lockheed Martin to use ■ Med Lite for the Defense Meteorological Satellite private financing to build the operational McDonnell Douglas has a contract with Program (DMSP). Operational control at VentureStar, which is estimated to cost NASA for Medium Light Expendable the primary site in Suitland, Md., is to begin another $5 billion to complete. With it, Launch Vehicle services, which is to provide in mid-1998, with the backup site at Falcon launch costs should drop to a few hundred launches to fill the gap between small- and AFB, Colo., to be operational in the third dollars per pound, compared to $10,000 to medium-class launchers. Med Lite’s objec- quarter. The first NPOESS satellite is now $12,000 per pound using current launchers tive is to support NASA science, including scheduled for launch in 2007. like the space shuttle. the Discovery and Surveyor programs. ■ Milstar II ■ X-34 Launch vehicles include the Delta II and The last four Milstar satellites will have a In June 1996, Orbital Sciences Corp. OSC’s Taurus XL. higher data-rate capability added to re- (OSC) won a $60 million contract from ■ Atlas IIAR RD-180 Engine spond to a shift in emphasis since the end NASA to design and build a technology Lockheed Martin will introduce the Atlas of the Cold War from mostly strategic users demonstration vehicle and operate two IIAR rocket in mid-1998. The new Atlas ver- to a more tactical use. The medium-data- flight tests. The flight tests are scheduled sion has several propulsion upgrades that rate payload takes advantage of current in the latter half of 1998. The contract also will allow it to carry 8,900 pounds to orbit. technology and includes two Nulling Spot allows NASA to exercise an option for up On the first stage, the Atlas IIAR will use Beam Antennas that give the satellite an to 25 additional test flights. The options one NPO Energomash–Pratt & Whitney antijam capability. The launch dates for the are not included in the original $60 million RD-180 engine, built either in Russia or satellites are December 1998, December contract. The subscale test vehicle will be the US, to replace seven US-designed 1999, November 2000, and October 2001. taken aloft by an L-1011 aircraft, dropped engines currently used on the Atlas IIAS. ■ Spacebased Infrared System (SBIRS) from the airplane, and then test-flown at The Centaur upper stage will have one RL- Advanced infrared sensing satellites to speeds up to Mach 8. The test vehicle will 10E engine instead of two RL-10 engines replace the Defense Satellite Program sat- have no payload capability. Its goal is to in the current configuration. The Atlas IIAR ellites and perform the four space surveil- have a recurring flight cost of $500,000. also is the basis for much of the design of lance missions of missile warning, theater NASA had no plan to build an operational the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle and national missile defense, battlespace small reusable launcher based on X-34 proposed by Lockheed Martin to the Air characterization, and technical intelligence. after the tests, but OSC was contemplating Force as the nation’s future family of low- The SBIRS architecture will deploy a com- whether to invest its money in a new small cost launchers. bination of HEO and LEO satellite constel- RLV. Technology from the program will feed lations to detect and track advanced missile into the decision on whether to build an threats that will not be detected by currently operational X-33/VentureStar launcher. fielded DSP surveillance satellites. SBIRS high constellation will include four GEO sat-

AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1997 33 ellites and two sensor payloads hosted on that had supported its intelligence-gather- spacecraft known as MightySat, the first of highly elliptical orbit satellites. The SBIRS ing mission in the past, after pressure from which is to be launched in July 1998. In the high component, now in the engineering Congress and an independent advisory past year Phillips Laboratory integrated and and manufacturing development phase, panel. Details of the new satellites and launched MSTI (Miniature Sensor Technol- provides a near-term capability in all four design changes to current satellites to ogy Integration) III spacecraft. Phillips also infrared mission areas (first launch in downsize them remain classified, but one has a program called the Integrated Space 2001). The SBIRS low constellation of LEO indication of a drop in satellite size was Technology Demonstration, which supports satellites further enhances the SBIRS high a decision to switch some NRO payloads the integration and demonstration of tech- and provides the unique capability to track from the large Titan IV to Atlas-class nologies critical to the warfighter. The lab ballistic missiles after booster burnout, launchers in the next decade. The NRO is also involved in NASA’s Lewis and Clark significantly enhancing our nation’s ability commissioned a study scheduled for and New Millenium small-satellite projects. to target enemy warheads in midflight completion this month that will provide for intercept and destruction. The SBIRS intelligence leaders and the Secretary of low component is currently in program Defense with options on how to proceed definition and risk reduction phase, with with NRO’s adoption of small satellites. two contractor teams scheduled to launch USAF’s Phillips Laboratory is a leader in demonstration satellites in 1999. An SBIRS the development of advanced technology low EMD milestone decision is planned in for small satellites. Phillips is involved in the Fiscal 2000 with first operational satellite Space Test Experiments Platform series launch projected for Fiscal 2004. SBIRS of satellites, having successfully launched low was formerly known as the space and the STEP/Technology for Autonomous missile tracking system and, prior to that, Operational Survivability satellite, which as Brilliant Eyes. just passed its third anniversary. Addition- ■ Small satellites ally Phillips Laboratory is developing the The National Reconnaissance Office Clementine 2 Micro-Satellites mother ship, decided in 1996 to move to a smaller class which will be launched within the next two of satellites than the very large spacecraft years, and a new, inexpensive series of

US Space Command

Personnel Budget, Fiscal 1998 Activities US Space Command 786 $18.2 million Responsible for placing DoD satellites into orbit and Peterson AFB, Colo. operating them; supports unified commands with spacebased communications, weather, intelligence information, navigation, and ballistic missile attack warning; enforces space superiority through protection, prevention, negation, and surveillance; ensures freedom of ac- cess to and operations in space and denies same to adversaries; applies force from or through space; plans for and executes strategic ballistic missile defense opera- tions; supports NORAD by providing missile warning and space surveillance information; advocates the space and missile warning requirements of the other unified commands. Component Air Force Space Command 37,625 $1.7 billion Operates military space systems, groundbased missile- Peterson AFB, Colo. warning radars and sensors, missile-warning satellites, national launch centers, and ranges; tracks space debris; operates and maintains the USAF ICBM force (as a component of US Strategic Command). Budget includes funding for 11,100 contractor personnel and operations and maintenance for six bases and 50 worldwide sites.

Naval Space Command 562 $70 million Operates assigned space systems for surveillance and Dahlgren, Va. warning; provides spacecraft telemetry and on-orbit engineering; develops space plans, programs, concepts and doctrine; advocates naval warfighting requirements in the Joint arena. Budget includes funding for nearly 100 contractor personnel and operations and maintenance of headquarters, component commands, and field sites.

Army Space Command 652 $51 million Provides input for DoD space plans; manages Joint Colorado Springs, Colo. tactical uses of DSCS; conducts planning for national and theater missile defense; operates the Army Theater Missile Defense Element force projection Tactical Op- erations Center; exploits leading-edge space technologies in support of warfighter needs; manages the Army Astro- naut Program; and operates Joint Tactical Ground Station.

34 AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1997 NASA astronauts C. Michael Foale (left) and Navy Capt. Jerry M. Linenger pose aboard the Mir before Linenger returned from his nearly six-month stay aboard the Russian space station. Foale began training with his Russian counterparts on June 30 to repair the Mir, which was damaged June 25.

Selected NASA Projects Fiscal 1998 Proposal Current Dollars

■ AXAF, $92.2 million. Space from the comet Wild-2 and Mars. Follow-on orbiter launch cies gained through design science. The Advanced X-Ray return the samples to Earth for is planned for December 1998, changes and parti-cipation of Astrophysics Facility space- analysis. Discovery is intended and the first lander launch is the Russians in an interna- craft to study the composition as NASA’s low-cost planetary scheduled for January 1999. tional partnership. and nature of galaxies, stellar exploration program. ■ New Millennium Space- ■ US/Russian Cooperative objects, and interstellar phe- ■ Earth Observing System, craft, $75.7 million. Space Program. (Funding ended nomena. Scheduled for launch $679.7 million. Mission to science. Flight-technology in Fiscal 1997, but activities aboard the space shuttle in Planet Earth environmental demonstration to produce new still ongoing.) Spaceflight. August 1998. project. Series of satellites microspacecraft with reduced Pro-gram provides for contract ■ Cassini, $9.0 million. Space to document global climatic weight and life-cycle costs. with Russian Space Agency science. Spacecraft mission to change and observe environ- Funding increase to spur deep for services and hardware and Saturn. Seeks data on formation mental processes. Scheduled space mission technology and joint activities with Russia on of solar system and on how the launches start in 1998. development. Demonstration the Mir. The eighth and ninth building blocks needed for the ■ Explorer, $142.7 million. flight test expected in 1998. joint shuttle-Mir missions are chemical evolution of life are Space science. Four missions ■ Relativity (Gravity Probe- scheduled for Fiscal 1998. formed elsewhere in universe. and spacecraft development. B), $45.6 million. Space ■ Other space operations, Scheduled for launch in October Study of X-ray sources, solar science. Major test of Einstein’s $507.4 million. Space science. 1997. corona, and organic com- general theory of relativ- Operation of Hubble Space ■ Discovery, $106.5 million. pounds in interstellar clouds. ity. Development of a gravity Telescope, the AXAF program, Space science. Spacecraft Scheduled launches each year probe. Launch is scheduled for the Global Geospace Science missions Mars Pathfinder and from 1997 to 2000. October 2000. program, the Compton Gamma Near-Earth Asteroid Rendez- ■ Galileo, $29.8 million. ■ Space shuttle, $3.0 billion. Ray Observatory, and the vous (NEAR). Mars Pathfinder Space science, planetary ex- Spaceflight. Program empha- Collaborative Solar-Terrestrial landed successfully on Mars on ploration. Funds to support op- sizes continuing improvement Research program. Support July 4, 1997. NEAR success- erations of mission to explore of safety margins, fulfillment of of planetary missions includes fully launched in February 1996, Jupiter and its moons. the flight manifest, reduction Galileo, NEAR, Mars Surveyor, now en route for a year-long ■ Mars Surveyor, $139.7 mil- of costs, and launch of seven and Mars Pathfinder. rendezvous with asteroid 433 lion. Space science. Launch flights for Fiscal 1998 and eight Eros in February 1999. Lunar of the Mars Global Surveyor in Fiscal 1999. Prospector is scheduled for orbiter occurred in November ■ Space station, $2.1 bil- launch in September 1997 and 1996. It is due to arrive in lion. Spaceflight. International will search for resources on the September 1997. Development manned space facility. Ultimate moon, especially for water in of spacecraft for new Mars capacity for seven persons. the shaded polar regions. The exploration strat-egy. Mapping, Crew capability for three Stardust mission, sched-uled for in-situ climate and soil mea- persons to be available with launch in February 1999, is de- surements, and eventual goal delivery of Soyuz crew transfer signed to gather dust samples to return rock samples from vehicle in May 1998. Efficien-

AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1997 35 Current US Launchers

Titan II Titan IV Atlas II

Titan II (Lockheed Martin Astronautics) Atlas II (Lockheed Martin Astronautics) Multiservice Launch System (Lockheed Martin Astronautics) Modified ICBM. Fourteen missiles have been Modified version of nation’s first ICBM car- modified; six have been launched success- ries DSCS satellites and NASA and com- Launcher is based on refurbished Minute- fully. Puts 4,200 pounds into polar LEO. mercial payloads. The range of payloads man II ICBMs. First launch of the MSLS The Air Force used it for DMSP launches. Atlas II through IIAS can lift into GTO from occurred on September 27, 1996, with a Titan II is launched from Vandenberg AFB, Cape Canaveral AS, Fla., is 4,900 to 8,200 suborbital targeting test payload. Lockheed Calif. It launched the Clementine I mission pounds and 13,650 to 15,900 pounds to Martin’s contract calls for four suborbital to the moon and places NOAA satellites LEO from Vandenberg AFB. The 100th flights in support of BMDO objectives in into orbit. In the 1960s, NASA used Titan II Atlas-Centaur launch occurred in April 1997 and 1998, with three more options for for the manned Gemini flights. 1996. A new configuration, the Atlas IIAR other missions available. MSLS can launch (with a Russian-designed RD-180 engine), up to 830 pounds on suborbital missions Titan IV (Lockheed Martin Astronautics) will be used starting in mid-1998. It will with a range of 4,100 nautical miles, ap- increase the payload capability to 8,900 proximately 400 pounds into 100-nautical- Heavy-lift launcher, adapted from an ICBM pounds to GTO. mile polar orbit. MSLS orbital configurations as an expendable launch system. First are under consideration in support of Air launch in 1989. Due to be phased out Lockheed Martin Launch Vehicle (Lock- Force follow-on contract competitions for by about 2003 when the EELV becomes heed Martin Astronautics) more refurbished Minuteman IIs to be con- operational. Carries DSP, Milstar, and verted to space launchers in 1997. classified satellites and will launch NASA’s Family of commercially developed boosters Cassini to Saturn this fall. With Centaur G- with varying configurations of solid motors Delta II (McDonnell Douglas) prime upper stages, lifts 10,200 pounds to that allow payloads weighing one to four GEO, 39,000 pounds to LEO, and 32,000 tons to be placed into LEO or on interplan- Medium launcher, in operation since pounds into polar LEO. Titan IVB, with etary trajectories. The LMLV-1 rocket, a 1989. Payloads include Global Position- upgraded solid rocket motors that provide two-stage version, failed on its first launch ing System and other DoD, scientific, and 25 percent better performance, had its first attempt in August 1995. A second launch commercial communications satellites. launch on February 23, 1997. The Air Force attempt was still unscheduled. The design Launches from both Cape Canaveral AS has contracted for 41 Titan IVs; 20 have is for “stack and shoot,” which means the and Vandenberg AFB. Available in two- and flown as of late April 1997. Lockheed Mar- rocket can be launched within 15 days of three-stage configurations. Latest model tin will complete production of all Titan IVs arrival at the SLC-6 launch site at Vanden- lifts 11,100 pounds to LEO, 4,010 pounds by 1999 but will continue to launch them berg AFB or LC-46 at Cape Canaveral AS. to GTO. Has successfully launched 27 GPS through 2003. Although to date no military use has been satellites for USAF. On January 17, a Delta contracted for, Lockheed Martin had sold rocket exploded seconds after liftoff when seven LMLVs to commercial, foreign and one of its nine strap-on solid motors devel- US government customers by spring 1997. oped a split casing. The failure destroyed a GPS IIR satellite and grounded the system

36 AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1997 Delta II Lockheed Martin Launch Vehicle Space Shuttle

for more than three months. The Delta II successfully launched a commercial satel- lite in May 1997 and was slated to launch another GPS in July.

Space Shuttle (NASA)

Manned space transportation system operated by United Space Alliance, a ven- ture between Lockheed Martin and Boeing North American, under contract to NASA. Launched from Kennedy Space Center, Fla., lifts 46,000 pounds to 160-nautical- mile, 28.5°-inclined orbit. The delta-winged orbiter has flown more than 80 missions since its first use April 12, 1981. The shuttle Pegasus, mounted under an L-1011 carries science payloads and experiments and will be used to assemble the interna- tional space station starting in 1998.

Pegasus (Orbital Sciences Corp.)

Winged small launcher, dropped from a B-52 to carry payloads weighing 850 to failure for the payloads. Orbital plans five late 1997. It will carry the Ball Aerospace– 1,050 pounds to LEO of 100 nautical miles, more launches in 1997 and seven in 1998. built GeoSat Follow-on space-craft, as well 28.5° inclination. Two versions, priced at as two Orbcomm satel-lites as secondary $11 million to $15 million, are available, Taurus (Orbital Sciences Corp.) payloads. A late 1997 launch of a classified including the more powerful XL. Pegasus payload is also planned. Price is $19 million flew its fifteenth mission on April 21, 1997. Ground-launched, four-stage rocket with to $21 million. Of the 15 missions, two flights failed, one some Pegasus commonality and a Peace- in 1994 and one in 1995. In November keeper or Castor 120 motor as the first 1996, after a flawless flight to the targeted stage. Capable of boosting 3,200 pounds altitude, a Pegasus component malfunc- to LEO of 100 nautical miles, 1,130 pounds tioned and was unable to separate the two to GTO with a Star 37 perigee kick motor. on-board satellites, resulting in a mission The rocket flew its first mission March 13, 1994. Taurus’s next mission is planned for

AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1997 37 US Space Launch Sites

Orbital Sites Resumed orbital launches in will have an initial rate of 15 Suborbital Sites 1995 with the EER Systems launches per year. Cape Canaveral AS, Fla. Conestoga rocket. From 1960 Alaska Spaceport Poker Flat Research Range, Located 28.5° N, 80° W. One to 1985, 21 satellites were Located 57.5° N, 153° W. Alaska of two primary US space- placed in orbit from Wal- Designed for polar and near- Located 65° N, 147° W. Owned launch sites. Handles piloted, lops using the Scout vehicle. polar launches, the proposed by the University of Alaska. lunar, and planetary launches Wallops currently serves as dual-use commercial launch Established 1968. Operated by and launches of satellites into the East Coast launch site facility will be sited on 3,100 the Geophysical Institute under geostationary orbit. First US for Orbital Sciences’ Pegasus acres at Kodiak Island, Alaska. contract to NASA/Goddard satellite in space, first manned missions, and EER operates Construction for the Kodiak Space Flight Center, Wallops spaceflight, and first flight of a a launch site for its Cones- Launch Complex to begin in Flight Facility. Only US launch reusable spacecraft all origi- toga vehicles. Additional small 1997. The target date for initial facility currently in polar region. nated here. Scene of more than launch vehicles are expected operational capability is sum- World’s largest landbased 3,000 launches since 1950. to be launched from Wallops mer 1998, with an eventual range. Payload recovery and Tract covers 15,000 acres. with the establishment of the capacity for nine launches observatories in flight zone Cape Canaveral also provides Virginia Space Flight Center. per year. With its large launch extending north 600 kilometers range operations for NASA’s Site for launches of NASA’s corridor, the spaceport would to coast and over Arctic Ocean. shuttle, Navy ballistic missiles, suborbital sounding rockets provide an additional backup Conducts launches primarily and some research and devel- and the like. Conducts about launch capability for both polar to investigate aurora borealis opment tests. 15 suborbital launches per satellites and for DoD’s ICBM and other middle- to upper- year. Covers 6,166 acres on atmosphere phenomena. Site John F. Kennedy Space launches at Vandenberg AFB. Virginia’s eastern shore. of more than 271 military and Center, Fla. Virginia Space Flight Center civilian launches. Located 28° N, 80° W. NASA’s Spaceport Florida Facility Located 38° N, 76° W. NASA primary launch base for the Located 28.5° N, 80° W. New and the Commonwealth of Vir- White Sands Missile Range, space shuttle. Occupies commercial launch site at ginia reached an agreement in N. M. 140,000 acres of land and Cape Canaveral AS. Designed March 1997 for the establish- Located 32° N, 106° W. Estab- water on Merritt Island, adja- to meet growing demand for ment of a Virginia Spaceport lished July 9, 1945, as White cent coastal strand, and the private-sector access to space on the south end of Wallops Sands Proving Ground. Site Indian and Banana Rivers and and to tap underutilized military Island. Ground- breaking for of July 16, 1945, Trinity shot, Mosquito Lagoon surround- launch sites. Operated by the construction of the commercial world’s first test of atomic ing the center. NASA holdings Spaceport Florida Authority launch facility is expected in bomb, and of postwar test include 84,031 acres. The (SFA), a state agency. Launch 1997. The flight center can and experimental flights with Merritt Island location was Complex 46 launchpad has currently accomo-date some captured German V-2 rockets. better suited than nearby Cape been converted to handle small small ELVs using up to a Cas- Scene of February 24, 1949, Canaveral to serve as a launch to medium commercial launch tor 120 powerplant at the EER launch of Bumper rocket, site for the Apollo program’s vehicles, boosting satellites Systems launch tower located whose second stage achieved 363-foot-tall Saturn V, the into equatorial orbit. The Navy on the island, in addition to altitude of 244 miles—be- largest rocket ever built. With originally used LC-46 to sup- payload processing. When fully coming the first man-made the 1972 completion of the port landbased testing of the operational, the flight center is object in space. Now used for Apollo lunar landing program, Trident II fleet ballistic program. expected to be able to handle launches of suborbital sound- KSC’s Complex 39 was used The Naval Ordnance Test Unit launch vehicles up to the ing rockets. New Mexico is in to launch four Skylab missions will maintain launch capability LMLV-3. the process of establishing a and for the Apollo spacecraft for future programs. Lockheed spaceport adjacent to White for the Apollo-Soyuz Test Proj- Martin is scheduled to launch Sands for conducting commer- ect. In the mid- to late 1970s, NASA’s Lunar Prospector in cial orbital launches. the Kennedy facilities were September 1997 on its LMLV- modified to accommodate the 2, a dual-stacked Castor 120 space shuttle program. solid rocket motor. Expected to handle up to 12 launches Vandenberg AFB, Calif. per year. Located 35° N, 121° W. NASA Spending on Upcoming Shuttle Second of two primary US California Spaceport Major Space Missions Flights Located 34.33° N, 120.37° launch sites. Used for satellites Fiscal Year 1998 Proposal, Current Dollars Fiscal Year 1998 Proposal (mostly weather, remote sens- W. Designed to handle polar ing, navigation, and recon- and near-polar LEO launches, Project Office Millions naissance) that must go into the California Spaceport is Month/Year, Mission, Name polar orbits. Provides basic a commercial launch facility Spaceflight...... $5,326.5 10/1997, STS-87, Columbia support for R&D tests for DoD, at Vandenberg AFB. Space- Space sciences...... 2,043.8 port Systems International, a USAF, and NASA space, bal- 12/1997, STS-88, Endeavour listic missile, and aeronautical limited partnership formed by Mission to Planet Earth...... 1,417.3 systems. Furnishes facilities ITT Federal Services Corp. and 1/1998, STS-89, Discovery and essential services to more California Commercial Space- Aeronautics...... 1,469.5 than 60 aerospace contractors port, Inc., is to build and oper- Mission communication ser- 3/1998, STS-90, Columbia on base. Base covers 98,400 ate the facility. The spaceport vices...... 400.8 acres. Originally Army’s Camp will provide both commercial 5/1998, STS-91, Discovery Cooke, taken over by USAF on launch and payload processing Life and microgravity June 7, 1957. capability. Payload processing sciences...... 214.2 7/1998, STS-92, Endeavour is operational. Construction of Safety and mission Wallops Flight Facility, Va. the launch duct was completed 8/1998, STS-93, Columbia assurance...... 37.8 Located 38° N, 76° W. Founded in early 1997, with design in 1945 on Wallops Island, Va. plans ongoing for launchpad Total ...... $10,909.9 One of the oldest launch sites completion. The launchpad in the world. First research rocket launched July 4, 1945.

38 AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1997 Reading About Space

The Golden Age of NASA Boyne, Walter. Beyond the Wild Blue: A His- Name Project Mercury tory of the United States Air Force, 1947–97. Duration November 3, 1958–May 16, 1963 New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997. Cost $392.1 million (cost figures are in current dollars) Distinction First US manned spaceflight program Burrows, William E. Deep Black. New York: Highlight Astronauts are launched into space and returned safely to Earth Berkley Publishers Group, 1988. Number of flights Six Canan, James W. War in Space. New York: Key events May 5, 1961 Lt. Cmdr. Alan B. Shepard, Jr., makes first Harper & Row, 1982. US manned flight, a suborbital trip of 15 minutes. Chaikin, Andrew. A Man on the Moon: The February 20, 1962 Lt. Col. John H. Glenn, Jr., becomes first Voyage of the Apollo Astronauts. New York: American to orbit Earth. Viking Penguin, 1994. May 15, 1963 Maj. L. Gordon Cooper, Jr., begins flight of 22 orbits in 34 hours. Cochran, Curtis D., John D. Dumoulin, and Dennis M. Gorman, eds. Space Handbook. Name Project Gemini Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University Press, 1985. Duration January 15, 1962–November 15, 1966 Collins, John. Military Space Forces. Wash- Cost $1.3 billion ington, D. C.: Pergamon-Brassey’s, 1989. Distinction First program to explore docking, long-duration flight, rendezvous, spacewalks, and guided reentry Cruikshank, Dale, ed. Neptune and Triton. Highlight Dockings and rendezvous techniques practiced in preparation for Tucson, Ariz.: University of Arizona Press, Project Apollo 1995. Number of flights 10 Dauber, Philip, and Richard Muller. The Key events June 3–7, 1965 Flight in which Maj. Edward H. White II makes first Three Big Bangs: Comet Crashes, Explod- spacewalk. ing Stars, and the Creation of the Universe. August 21–29, 1965 Cooper and Lt. Cmdr. Charles “Pete” Conrad, Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Jr., withstand weightlessness. Co., 1996. March 16, 1966 Neil A. Armstrong and Maj. David R. Scott Fleeter, Rick. Micro Space Craft. Order from: execute the first space docking. Edge City Press, 10912 Harpers Square Ct., September 15, 1966 Conrad and Richard F. Gordon, Jr., make Reston, VA 22091. 1995. first successful automatic, computer-steered reentry. Grinspoon, David H. Venus Revealed: A New Name Project Apollo Look Below the Clouds of Our Mysterious Duration July 25, 1960–December 19, 1972 Twin Planet. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Cost $24 billion Publishing Co., 1997. Distinction Space program that put humans on the moon Hobbs, David. Space Warfare. Englewood Highlights Neil Armstrong steps onto lunar surface. Twelve astronauts spend Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice Hall, 1986. 160 hours on the moon. Number of flights 11 Koppeschaar, Carl. Moon Handbook: A 21st Key events May 28, 1964 First Apollo command module is launched into orbit Century Travel Guide. Chico, Calif.: Moon Pub- aboard a Saturn 1 rocket. lications Inc., distributed by Publishers Group January 27, 1967 Lt. Col. Virgil I. “Gus” Grissom, Lt. Cmdr. West, 1995. Roger B. Chaffee, and White die in a command module fire in Launius, Roger D. NASA: A History of the US ground test. Civil Space Program. Melbourne, Fla.: Krieger October 11–22, 1968 First manned Apollo flight proves Publishing Co., 1994. “moonworthiness” of spacecraft. Launius, Roger D., ed. Organizing for the December 21–27, 1968 First manned flight to moon and first lunar Use of Space: Historical Perspectives on a orbit. Persistent Issue. San Diego, Calif.: American July 16–24, 1969 Apollo 11 takes Armstrong, Col. Edwin E. “Buzz” Astronautical Society, Univelt Inc., 1995. Aldrin, Jr., and Lt. Col. Michael Collins to the moon and back. Armstrong and Aldrin make first and second moon walks. Logsdon, John M., ed., with Dwayne Day December 7–19, 1972 Final Apollo lunar flight produces sixth and Roger Lanius. Exploring the Unknown: manned moon landing. Selected Documents in the History of the US continued next page

Space Leaders (As of July 1, 1997) Directors, National Reconnaissance Office Commanders, Air Force Space Command

Joseph V. Charyk...... Sept. 6, 1961–Mar. 1, 1963 Gen. James V. Hartinger...... Sept. 1, 1982–July 30, 1984 Brockway McMillan...... Mar. 1, 1963–Oct. 1, 1965 Gen. Robert T. Herres...... July 30, 1984–Oct. 1, 1986 Alexander H. Flax...... Oct. 1, 1965–Mar. 11, 1969 Maj. Gen. Maurice C. Padden...... Oct. 1, 1986–Oct. 29, 1987 John L. McLucas...... Mar. 17, 1969–Dec. 20, 1973 Lt. Gen. Donald J. Kutyna...... Oct. 29, 1987–Mar. 29, 1990 James W. Plummer...... Dec. 21, 1973–June 28, 1976 Lt. Gen. Thomas S. Moorman, Jr...... Mar. 29, 1990–Mar. 23, 1992 Thomas C. Reed...... Aug. 9, 1976–Apr. 7, 1977 Gen. Donald J. Kutyna...... Mar. 23, 1992–July 1, 1992 Hans Mark...... Aug. 3, 1977–Oct. 8, 1979 Gen. Charles A. Horner...... July 1, 1992–Sept. 13, 1994 Robert J. Hermann...... Oct. 8, 1979–Aug. 2, 1981 Gen. Joseph W. Ashy...... Sept. 13, 1994–Aug. 26, 1996 Edward C. Aldridge, Jr...... Aug. 3, 1981–Dec. 16, 1988 Gen. Howell M. Estes III...... Aug. 26, 1996 Martin C. Faga...... Sept. 26, 1989–Mar. 5, 1993 Jeffrey K. Harris...... May 19, 1994–Feb. 26, 1996 Keith R. Hall (acting)...... Feb. 27, 1996­–Mar. 27, 1997 Keith R. Hall...... Mar. 28, 1997

AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1997 39 Civil Space Program, Volume II, External Relationships. Pittsburgh, Pa.: Government Printing Office, 1996. Lovell, Jim, and Jeffrey Kluger. Lost Moon: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994. Mather, John C., and John Boslough. The Very First Light: The True Inside Story of the Scientific Journey Back to the Dawn of the Universe. New York: Basic Books, 1996. McDougall, Michael R. The Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age. Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. Pace, Scott, et al. The Global Positioning System: Assessing National Policies. Santa Monica, Calif.: Rand Critical Technologies Institute, 1995. Parkinson, Brad, and James Spilker, Jr., eds. Global Positioning System: Theory and Applications (two volumes). Washington, D. C.: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1996. Richelson, Jeffrey T. America’s Secret Eyes in Space. New York: Harper & Row, 1990. Sagan, Carl. Pale Blue Dot: A Vision of the Human Future in Space. New York: Random House, 1994. Schultz, Richard H. Jr., and Robert L. Pfaltzgraff, Jr., eds. Space: A New Strategic Frontier, The Future of Airpower in the After- math of the Gulf War. Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University Press, 1992. Seamans, Robert C., Jr., Aiming at Targets: The Autobiography of Robert C. Seamans, Jr. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1996. Shepard, Alan, and Deke Slayton, with Jay Barbree and Howard Benedict. Moon Shot, the Inside Story of America’s Race to the Moon. Atlanta, Ga.: Turner Publishing Inc., 1994. Slayton, Donald K., with Michael Cassutt. Deke!: US Manned Space From Mercury to the Shuttle. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995. Smith, Marcia S. US Space Programs. Washington, D. C.: Congressional Research Service, 1993. Voyage Through the Cosmos: Outbound. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life, Inc., 1989. Stoker, Carol, and Carter Emmart, eds. Strategies for Mars: A Guide to Human Exploration. San Diego: Univelt for American Astronautical Society, 1996. Stuhlinger, Ernst, and Frederick I. Ordway III. Wernher von Braun: Crusader for Space, combined edition. Melbourne, Fla.: Krieger Publishing Co., 1996. Timnat, Y. M. Advanced Airbreathing Propul- sion. Malabar, Fla.: Krieger Publishing Co., 1996. Wilson, Andrew, ed. Jane’s Space Directory 1995–96. Surrey, UK: Jane’s Information Group Ltd., 1995. Wolfe, Tom. The Right Stuff. New York: Ban- tam Books, 1980. ■

40 AIR FORCE Magazine / August 1997