DOCSLIB.ORG

The New Face of Humanitarian Aid and Intervention: China and Its Growing Role in the Realm of African Development

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The New Face of Humanitarian Aid and Intervention: China and Its Growing Role in the Realm of African Development The New Face of Humanitarian Aid and Intervention: China and Its Growing Role in the Realm of African Development Mark WILD* Abstract In November of 2013, Typhoon Haiyan struck the Philippines causing Despite being seen by western nations as an massive amounts of damage in terms adversarial, confrontational and undemocratic of both property and lives. Winds were nation, the People’s Republic of China has been able to forge a large number of beneficial recorded at 195 mph and waves as high and lasting relationships with many nations, as 5 meters crashed onto shore.1 In particular those on the African continent. To do response, the U.S.S. George Washington so, China has sought not to distance itself from its and the H.M.S. Illustrious, aircraft international detractors by trying to remake their public image as being democratic but rather by carriers of two of the five permanent using their knowledge and wealth accrued from U.N. Security Council members, the rapid industrialization and a massive growing United States and the United Kingdom, economy seeking new markets to create new were deployed to the Philippines with and mutually advantageous relationships. To manage such a rapport, China has taken the cargo holds full of supplies designated traditional western practice of humanitarian aid for humanitarian disaster relief.2 In and molded it to fit the Chinese government’s addition to this force, regional support way of operating; Operating not under the guise of solving human rights issues or exchanges of was promised from Japan, in the form goods for pro-democratic reforms but rather by of a large naval force and over US$ 30 offering credit, infrastructure, knowledge and million. Yet the world’s second largest time in exchange for oil, mining rights or new economy at the time and neighboring and emerging markets. China’s reinvention of the distribution of aid serves as a notice to all country, the People’s Republic of China, states, that traditional western aid might just not had initially only offered US$ 100,000.3 be as beneficial or in demand as it once was. A recent news report released by UNICEF shows that even after China increased Key Words its aid package to US$ 1.6 million,4 the Swedish furniture maker IKEA, was still Aid, Africa, China, development, diplomacy, donating a larger monetary donation to humanitarian diplomacy. the Philippines relief effort.5 Why then * Graduate student, Fordham University, New is the Chinese aid package so small in York, USA. comparison to the tens of millions of E-mail: [email protected] dollars donated by other countries, 93 PERCEPTIONS, Spring 2015, Volume XX, Number 1, pp. 93-108. Mark Wild especially those countries that have a Philippines and the ensuing criticism, similar geo-political stake in the region which eventually lead to an increase, like the United States and Japan? The came forth by an international pressure real answer may never be known but to do so, not as a result of China’s this paper will attempt to shed some willingness. When China does engage in light on not only the reason for which the act of humanitarian aid, it is not out the P.R.C. donated such a small amount of pressure but rather out of a willingness but also and more significantly on how to engage in a mutualistic agreement with the P.R.C. determines when and where the other nations; unlike the paternalistic to use humanitarian assistance. agreement so often associated with the western humanitarianism model. They China’s reinvention of the engage not in aid giving but rather in distribution of aid serves as Humanitarian Diplomacy. a notice to all states, that Mary Douglas, in the forward to Marcel traditional western aid might Mauss’ The Gift writes, “There should not just not be as beneficial or in be any free gifts. What is wrong with the demand as it once was. so-called free gift is the donor’s intention to be exempt from return gifts coming from the recipient. Refusing requital The friction between China and other puts the act of giving outside any mutual nations in eastern Asia is well known; ties…. For all the ongoing commitment over the past few years, territorial the free-gift gesture has created it might disputes over strings of islands have as well never have happened…A gift that erupted between not only China and the does nothing to enhance solidarity is a Philippines but also between the Chinese contradiction”.8 The act of humanitarian and Japanese. Clashes over the ownership aid giving, in the traditional non-Mary of the Nansha/Spratly archipelago in Douglas sense, is a selfless act by both the South China Sea6 and the Diaoyu/ individuals and NGOs. It is not often Senkaku islands (Chinese/Anglicized that a quid pro quo arrangement appears spelling) in the East China Sea are just in interactions between an NGO and two examples among the recent tensions those populations they are trying to help. between China and its neighbors.7 While the type of aid being delivered can China has always been fiercely defensive be controlled by both the NGO and of its territorial claims, yet this attitude the recipients, little is often specifically is not necessarily the reason why China mandated to be returned as a form gave what was considered a small aid of payment or thanks. However, the package. The perceived lack of aid to the smaller scale of individual donors and 94 The New Face of Humanitarian Aid and Intervention organizations greatly differs from that of of Africa as a continent full of failing the macro level, the level at which states states needing social reform. China, on can act as both as donors or as recipients. the other hand, is outperforming the It is important to note before going success of western nations when it comes forward that there is a vital distinction to aid, gaining both political allies as well between states and governments. The as economic partners due to its ability government of a country is a moral body to understand and deliver what Africa composed of people that have feelings needs most. China has begun the process and emotions, while the state is defined of transitioning the idea of ‘aid’ from the by a lack of moral conscious; it has no western norm of non-reciprocal charity feelings, and as such, states have the donations to the now increasingly more utmost desire to make humanitarian evident and more mutualistic process of aid into a more reciprocal agreement. reciprocal aid giving and thereby China Traditionally, states have only used aid has become a much larger player in the as leverage when addressing human realm of humanitarian diplomacy. China rights issues. However, a new form of the gave aid to the Philippines because it was reciprocal nature of humanitarian aid what was required of the second largest has been becoming more prominent and economy in the world, not as a way of utilized by non-traditional donor states gaining favor from the Philippines. Yet like China, who, in recent years has been old ways are fading. The new model on the forefront of economic growth will show that what dictates China’s and and stability. It is predicated to become increasingly other nations’ aid giving, is the world’s largest economy in the next the idea of what they, can gain- not from decade, a feat it has met according to giving the gift, but rather from engaging in humanitarian diplomacy, in other some sources, and its growing influence words, using aid to increase relations and in the developing world has been scaring ties between the countries. the traditional economic powerhouses.9 Parallel to the growth of China, has been the rise in the importance both politically A new form of the reciprocal and economically of Africa. After massive nature of humanitarian aid has colonization and then a period of rapid been becoming more prominent decolonization, Africa has just recently and utilized by non-traditional again begun to see a larger portion of donor states like China, who, the world’s attention, especially due in recent years has been on the to its abundance of untapped natural forefront of economic growth resources and industrial potential. and stability. Western nations traditionally view most 95 Mark Wild Traditionally the People’s Republic of (Responsibility to Protect), arguing China has held very strong convictions against humanitarian intervention and on state sovereignty. Jonathan Davis, in proposing the concept of “humanitarian his article “From ideology to Pragmatism assistance” as an alternative.14 While China’s Position on Humanitarian China eventually made concessions on Intervention in the Post-Cold War Era” the R2P doctrine, it still held considerable argues that China’s position is a result of power when dealing with the issue of the frequent infringements on China’s own humanitarian intervention and aid, th sovereignty during the first half of the 20 especially when Africa was involved. century. These included U.S. involvement in the Taiwan Straits and in Tibet, which eventually led to the principles China also uses the peacekeeping included in the Chinese constitution as missions as a logistical training a part of the “Five Principles of Peaceful tool for their army personnel, Coexistence”.10 However, as the author to acclimate them to working later explains, this policy was not set in in different environments in a stone; “… the PRC also began to develop non-simulated setting, and to a nascent policy on permissible foreign prepare them for future combat interventions including the position that target state consent was a sine qua non situations.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Economic Sanctions
    Order Code RL31910 CRS Report for Congress Received through the CRS Web China: Economic Sanctions Updated February 1, 2006 Dianne E. Rennack Specialist in Foreign Policy Legislation Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress China: Economic Sanctions Summary The United States currently maintains the following economic sanctions against China: ! limits on U.S. foreign assistance; ! U.S. “No” votes or abstention in the international banks; ! ban on Overseas Private Investment Corporation programs; ! ban on export of defense articles or defense services; ! ban on import of munitions or ammunition; ! ban on procurement of goods and services listed on the munitions list in the International Trafficking in Arms Regulations; ! denial of Generalized System of Preferences status; ! substantial export controls on dual-use items, particularly satellites, nuclear technology, and computers; ! suspension of export licenses for crime control and detection instruments and equipment; ! export and licensing restrictions on targeted entities found to have engaged in proliferation of missiles and weapons of mass destruction (or related technology); and ! Presidential authority to restrict Chinese military companies and Chinese government-affiliated businesses from developing commercial activities inside the United States. Human rights conditions in China and the threat of proliferation of weapons of mass destruction resulting from China’s lack of export controls or lack of cooperation with international export control standards continue to be the main foreign policy or national security issues that hold these economic restrictions in place. The influence of Congress on U.S. policy toward China, once significant because so much hung on the annual possibility that favorable trade terms could be suspended, has more recently been diffused.
    [Show full text]
  • Japan's Security Relations with China Since 1989
    Japan’s Security Relations with China since 1989 The Japanese–Chinese security relationship is one of the most important vari- ables in the formation of a new strategic environment in the Asia-Pacific region which has not only regional but also global implications. The book investigates how and why since the 1990s China has turned in the Japanese perception from a benign neighbour to an ominous challenge, with implications not only for Japan’s security, but also its economy, role in Asia and identity as the first devel- oped Asian nation. Japan’s reaction to this challenge has been a policy of engagement, which consists of political and economic enmeshment of China, hedged by political and military power balancing. The unique approach of this book is the use of an extended security concept to analyse this policy, which allows a better and more systematic understanding of its many inherent contradictions and conflicting dynamics, including the centrifugal forces arising from the Japan–China–US triangular relationship. Many contradictions of Japan’s engagement policy arise from the overlap of military and political power-balancing tools which are part of containment as well as of engagement, a reality which is downplayed by Japan but not ignored by China. The complex nature of engagement explains the recent reinforcement of Japan’s security cooperation with the US and Tokyo’s efforts to increase the security dialogues with countries neighbouring China, such as Vietnam, Myanmar and the five Central Asian countries. The book raises the crucial question of whether Japan’s political leadership, which is still preoccupied with finding a new political constellation and with overcoming a deep economic crisis, is able to handle such a complex policy in the face of an increasingly assertive China and a US alliance partner with strong swings between engaging and containing China’s power.
    [Show full text]
  • War of the Suns Playbook
    WAR OF THE SUNS WAR OF RESISTANCE, 1937-1945 PLAYBOOK & CHARTS TABLE OF CONTENTS 27.0 – SETTING UP A GAME ....................................................... 2 BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................... 27 SETTING UP A GAME ...................................................................2 EXISTING AIRBASES ON TURN 0 ................................................2 GENERAL EVENTS CHART ....................................................... 29 EXISTING NAVAL BASES ON TURN 0 ..........................................2 CONDITIONAL EVENTS CHART ............................................... 31 28.0 – MINI SCENARIOS ............................................................. 2 RANDOM EVENTS TABLE ......................................................... 32 MINI SCENARIO 1: FIST OF FURY ...............................................2 MINI SCENARIO 2: RETREAT TO VICTORY .................................4 UNIT EXAMPLES ....................................................................... 34 MINI SCENARIO 3: DOUBLE GAMBLE ........................................6 MINI SCENARIO 4: PLAN B ..........................................................8 BREAKDOWN CHART ............................................................... 38 29.0 – OPERATIONAL SCENARIOS .......................................... 10 GARRISON REQUIREMENT TABLE (GRT) .............................. 39 SCENARIO 1: SPACE FOR TIME ................................................10 TRANSPORT CAPACITY TABLE ..............................................
    [Show full text]
  • Perceptionsjournal of International Affairs
    PERCEPTIONSJOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS PERCEPTIONS Spring 2015 Volume XX Number 1 XX Number 2015 Volume Spring PERCEPTIONS Humanitarian Diplomacy in Theory and Practice M. Akif KIRECCI A Postcolonial Critique of Responsibility to Protect in the Middle East Mojtaba MAHDAVI Turkey, Middle Powers, and the New Humanitarianism Bruce GILLEY Ottoman Immigrants and the Formation of Turkish Red Crescent Societies in the United States Işıl ACEHAN Who Represents Palestinian Refugees? The Sidelining of the Core of the Palestine Question Jinan BASTAKI The New Face of Humanitarian Aid and Intervention: China and Its Growing Role in the Realm of African Development Mark WILD The Effectiveness of Political Conditionality as an Instrument of Democracy Promotion by the EU: Case Studies of Zimbabwe, Ivory Coast and Niger Samiratou DIPAMA and Emel PARLAR DAL Rapid Economic Growth and Its Sustainability in China K. Ali AKKEMİK Book Reviews Spring 2015 Volume XX - Number 1 ISSN 1300-8641 Style and Format PERCEPTIONS Articles submitted to the journal should be original contributions. If another version of the article is under consideration by another publication, or has been or will be published elsewhere, authors should clearly indicate this at the time of submission. Manuscripts should be submitted to: e-mail: [email protected] Editor in Chief The final decision on whether the manuscript is accepted for publication in the Journal or not is made by the Editorial Board depending on the anonymous referees’ review reports. Ali Resul Usul A standard length for PERCEPTIONS articles is 6,000 to 8,000 words including endnotes. The manuscript should begin with an indented and italicised summary up to 150 words, which should describe the main Deputy Editor arguments and conclusions, and 5-7 keywords, indicating to main themes of the manuscript.
    [Show full text]
  • Japan's Ending of Yen Loans to China
    Master Degree Thesis: EAST4592 JAPAN ENDS ITS YEN LOANS TO CHINA A study of the role of ODA in the bilateral relationship Mari Boie Brekkan Department of Cultural Studies and Oriental Languages, University of Oslo Autumn 2007 Summary Japan has provided China with ODA since 1979, 75% of this aid has been given as yen loans. The loans have greatly contributed to China’s economic growth through funding of industrial infrastructure projects. Next year when China hosts the Olympic Games in Beijing, Japan will phase out these loans. Although it will continue to provide China with grant assistance and technical cooperation the ending of the loans will have an impact on their future bilateral relationship. This is not only due to the amount of money that has been given but also due to the important role the loans have played since their initiation. The yen loans have been at the core of Japan’s engagement policy towards China. Through engagement Japan has sought to encourage peaceful and stable developments in China, both in terms of an open economy and in terms of a stable society. At the outset of Japan’s aid program to China in 1979, China represented a potential huge market for Japanese trade, and Japan wanted to encourage China to keep up its open and reform policy which had been announced by Deng Xiaoping the previous year. After the Tiananmen Square Incident in 1989, Japan started to reconsider its aid to China. The incident was a clear indication that considering Japan’s motives for engagement, the policy did not achieve the desired results.
    [Show full text]
  • China and Canadian Official Development Assistance: Reassessing the Relationship
    China and Canadian Official Development Assistance: Reassessing the Relationship By Bruce Muirhead Professor of History Associate Dean of Arts, Graduate Studies and Research, University of Waterloo Senior Fellow, Centre for International Governance Innovation, Waterloo February 2009 2 Introduction Well-known Canadian comedian, Rick Mercer, now of the Rick Mercer Report, but best appreciated by Canadians during his time on CBC’s This Hour Has 22 Minutes, perhaps put it best for most of his countrymen when, during one of his patented “rants,” he emphasized: There’s no doubt about it; Canadians support the idea of foreign aid. We are a First World nation – it’s part of our job. But at the risk of sounding like a moron, what the hell are we sending money to China for? China has one of the largest economies on earth and we’re sending them $60 million a year in foreign aid. This is a country that might as well own the trademark on the phrase “emerging superpower.” … Wouldn’t our $60 million in aid be better off going to Sudan – which, you know, doesn’t have a space program? Because as it stands now, I don’t know what the Chinese word for “sucker” is, but I bet when Canada comes up in conversation, that word gets used a lot.1 Mercer’s perspective is lent credence by statistics and interpretations offered in any of the hundreds, if not thousands, of books now being published on the China “phenomenon.” For example, the BBC’s Duncan Hewitt in Getting Rich First: Life in a Changing China, notes that sales of passenger cars in the country has quadrupled
    [Show full text]
  • China Lobby. ------1
    Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports 2003 In Support of “New China”: Origins of the China Lobby, 1937-1941 Tae Jin Park Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd Part of the Asian History Commons Recommended Citation Park, Tae Jin, "In Support of “New China”: Origins of the China Lobby, 1937-1941" (2003). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 7369. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/7369 This Dissertation is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by the The Research Repository @ WVU with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Dissertation in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you must obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/ or on the work itself. This Dissertation has been accepted for inclusion in WVU Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports collection by an authorized administrator of The Research Repository @ WVU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. In Support of “New China”: Origins of the China Lobby, 1937-1941. Tae Jin Park Dissertation submitted to the Eberly College of Arts and Sciences at West Virginia University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History Jack L. Hammersmith, Ph.D., Chair Elizabeth A. Fones-Wolf, Ph.D. A. Michal McMahon, Ph.D. Jason C. Parker, Ph.D. Hong N. Kim, Ph.D.
    [Show full text]
  • David Shambaugh and Gudrun Wacker Macro Perspectives 11 Seeing the “Big Picture” in American and European Relations with China: Past, Present, Future David Shambaugh
    SWP Research Paper Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik German Institute for International and Security Affairs David Shambaugh / Gudrun Wacker (Eds.) American and European Relations with China Advancing Common Agendas RP 3 June 2008 Berlin © Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik, 2008 All rights reserved SWP Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik German Institute for International and Security Affairs Copy editor: Robert Furlong Ludwigkirchplatz 3−4 10719 Berlin Telephone +49 30 880 07-0 Fax +49 30 880 07-100 www.swp-berlin.org [email protected] ISSN 1863-1053 Table of Contents 5 Introduction David Shambaugh and Gudrun Wacker Macro Perspectives 11 Seeing the “Big Picture” in American and European Relations with China: Past, Present, Future David Shambaugh 24 Transatlantic Divergences on the Rise of China Eberhard Sandschneider Domestic Issues 31 Politics, Human Rights, and the Beijing Olympics Richard Baum 44 European Co-operation with China: Human Rights, Rule of Law, the Environment and Civil Society Gudrun Wacker Economic Issues 59 U.S. and European Approaches to China’s Economic Reforms Nicholas R. Lardy 65 The EU’s Policy towards China on Economic Issues: Between Disillusion and Dialogue Margot Schüller Security Issues 79 U.S. Policies and Views toward Eight Key Security Issues Involving China Michael D. Swaine 94 European Union–China Cooperation on Security Issues Bates Gill Foreign Policy Issues 109 China’s View of International Norms and Institutions Harry Harding 123 How Much Is China’s Foreign Policy Shifting towards International Norms and Responsibilities—And How Should China’s Partners Respond? François Godement 137 Concluding Perspectives on Transatlantic Policies towards China P.
    [Show full text]
  • U.S. Assistance Programs in China
    U.S. Assistance Programs in China Thomas Lum Specialist in Asian Affairs May 11, 2012 Congressional Research Service 7-5700 www.crs.gov RS22663 CRS Report for Congress Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress U.S. Assistance Programs in China Summary This report examines U.S. foreign assistance activities in the People’s Republic of China (PRC), including U.S. Department of State and U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) programming, foreign operations appropriations, policy history, and legislative background. International programs supported by U.S. departments and agencies other than the Department of State and USAID are not covered in this report. U.S. foreign assistance efforts in the PRC aim to promote human rights, democracy, the rule of law, and environmental conservation in China and Tibet and to support Tibetan livelihoods and culture. The United States Congress has played a leading role in initiating programs and determining funding levels for these objectives. Congressionally mandated rule of law, civil society, public participation, and related programs together constitute an important component of U.S. human rights policy towards China. According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the United States is the largest provider of “government and civil society” programming among major bilateral foreign aid donors. Between 2001 and 2011, the United States government authorized or made available $310 million for Department of State foreign assistance efforts in the PRC, including Peace Corps programs. Of this total, $257 million was devoted to human rights, democracy, rule of law, and related activities; Tibetan communities; and the environment. U.S.
    [Show full text]
  • B29499227.Pdf
    Copyright Undertaking This thesis is protected by copyright, with all rights reserved. By reading and using the thesis, the reader understands and agrees to the following terms: 1. The reader will abide by the rules and legal ordinances governing copyright regarding the use of the thesis. 2. The reader will use the thesis for the purpose of research or private study only and not for distribution or further reproduction or any other purpose. 3. The reader agrees to indemnify and hold the University harmless from and against any loss, damage, cost, liability or expenses arising from copyright infringement or unauthorized usage. IMPORTANT If you have reasons to believe that any materials in this thesis are deemed not suitable to be distributed in this form, or a copyright owner having difficulty with the material being included in our database, please contact [email protected] providing details. The Library will look into your claim and consider taking remedial action upon receipt of the written requests. Pao Yue-kong Library, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong http://www.lib.polyu.edu.hk THE FOREIGN AID REGIME IN TIMOR-LESTE: AUSTRALIA AND THE RISE OF CHINA CRISTIAN TALESCO Ph.D The Hong Kong Polytechnic University 2017 2 The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Department of Applied Social Sciences The Foreign Aid Regime in Timor-Leste: Australia and the Rise of China Cristian Talesco A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 2016 3 4 CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY I hereby declare that this thesis is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it reproduces no material previously published or written, nor material that has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma, except where due acknowledgement has been made in the text.
    [Show full text]
  • A Neorealist Explanation of Japan's Foreign Aid Program
    Claremont Colleges Scholarship @ Claremont CMC Senior Theses CMC Student Scholarship 2019 Giving to Get: A Neorealist Explanation of Japan’s Foreign Aid Program Tiana Steverson Pugh Recommended Citation Steverson Pugh, Tiana, "Giving to Get: A Neorealist Explanation of Japan’s Foreign Aid Program" (2019). CMC Senior Theses. 2259. https://scholarship.claremont.edu/cmc_theses/2259 This Open Access Senior Thesis is brought to you by Scholarship@Claremont. It has been accepted for inclusion in this collection by an authorized administrator. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Claremont McKenna College Giving to Get: A Neorealist Explanation of Japan’s Foreign Aid Program submitted to Professor Katja Favretto by Tiana Steverson Pugh for Senior Thesis Spring 2019 April 29, 2019 i ii Abstract Many countries use aid as a political tool, but Japan is unique in that foreign aid is one of its most important foreign policy tools. Drawing from literature on donor motivations for aid-giving, this paper argues that the neo-realist view of aid-giving offers the best explanation for why Japan provides aid. More specifically, Japan’s aid-giving is motivated by its pursuit of economic and strategic goals. This underlying motive for aid- giving necessarily impacts how Japan provides aid and how it uses aid to respond to human rights violations in recipient countries. iii Acknowledgements I would like to thank Professor Katja Favretto for advising me this past year. Her expertise in international relations theory and reassurances that I was on the right track were vital to the process of writing this thesis. Thank you also to Seoyoon Choi for being a confidant throughout this process and for checking up on me during especially stressful times.
    [Show full text]
  • Country Strategy Paper: China 2002-2006
    &200,66,21:25.,1*'2&80(17 &RXQWU\6WUDWHJ\3DSHU &+,1$ 7DEOHRI&RQWHQWV Summary..................................................................................................................................... 4 1. EC Co-operation Objectives ............................................................................................. 6 2. Chinese government policy agenda .................................................................................. 7 3. Analysis of the political, economic and social situation................................................. 10 3.1. Political situation........................................................................................................10 3.2. Economic and social situation.................................................................................... 12 3.2.1. Economic situation, structure and performance ......................................................... 12 3.2.2. Social developments................................................................................................... 13 3.2.3. Assessment of the process of reform.......................................................................... 14 3.2.4. Structure of public sector finances and main sectoral policies................................... 15 3.2.5. External aspects..........................................................................................................16 3.3. Sustainability of current policies................................................................................ 17 3.4. Medium-term
    [Show full text]