U-Boats As Well As the Bodies of Sailors from Many Different Nationalities
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Abstract WAVES OF CARNAGE: A HISTORICAL, ARCHAEOLOGICAL, AND GEOGRAPHICAL STUDY OF THE BATTLE OF THE ATLANTIC IN NORTH CAROLINA WATERS by John Michael Wagner April 2010 Director: Dr. Nathan Richards DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY By the end of World War II, the waters of North Carolina were littered with the hulks of merchant vessels and German U-boats as well as the bodies of sailors from many different nationalities. This wreckage and loss of life attest to the carnage wrought by the German submarines in the waters of North Carolina, which were the deadliest waters along the American East Coast during the war. Although much previous study into the Battle of the Atlantic has focused on the vessels lost along the American Coast, the battle was not devoid of other phenomenal accounts of survival, defensive operations, and additional war-related tragedies. It is the compilation of all of these events that provide a broader understanding of the U-boat war off the coast of North Carolina. This thesis uses statistical and geospatial analysis of the events occurring offshore to provide a more complete view of the battle and to determine the boundaries of this maritime battlefield. Through the use of tangible evidence of the war such as shipwreck locations in conjunction with the intangible evidence of the battle including routing orders, attack reports, and survivor rescues, this thesis examines the historical events and behavioral trends that shaped the geographical extents of the engagement. WAVES OF CARNAGE: A HISTORICAL, ARCHAEOLOGICAL, AND GEOGRAPHICAL STUDY OF THE BATTLE OF THE ATLANTIC IN NORTH CAROLINA WATERS A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of The Department of History East Carolina University In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts in Maritime Studies By John Michael Wagner April 2010 ©Copyright 2010 John Michael Wagner WAVES OF CARNAGE: A HISTORICAL, ARCHAEOLOGICAL, AND GEOGRAPHICAL STUDY OF THE BATTLE OF THE ATLANTIC IN NORTH CAROLINA WATERS by John Michael Wagner APPROVED BY: DIRECTOR OF THESIS: Nathan Richards, Ph.D. COMMITTEE MEMBER: Lawrence E. Babits, Ph.D. COMMITTEE MEMBER: Wade Dudley, Ph.D. COMMITTEE MEMBER: Tom Allen, Ph.D. CHAIR OF THE DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY: Gerald J. Prokopowicz, Ph.D. DEAN OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL: Paul Gemperline, Ph.D. DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my wife Leigh and to my parents Don and June for their unconditional support and inspiration ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express sincere gratitude for those who have helped with this study and guided me through its completion. I would especially like to thank fellow Maritime Studies student Eric Ray for assistance with data collection at the National Archives, Dr. Tom Allen for his insight into multiple forms of GIS analysis, and Dr. Lawrence Babits for supplying me with many sources and ideas for research. I would also like to thank each member of my committee whose insight has helped direct this thesis through to fruition. On a separate note, I would like to thank Laurynas Gedminas for the countless hours he put into helping me create the GIS for this study, without his help I would never have been able to undertake this component of my thesis. Additional special thanks goes to Dr. Nathan Richards whose insight and leadership helped me to decide upon a thesis topic and to carry that topic through to completion. Table of Contents LIST OF TABLES ix LIST OF FIGURES x GLOSSARY OF ACRONYMS xiii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 Introduction 1 Previous Research 2 Objectives 3 Research Questions 4 Importance 5 Generalist Archaeology Theory 7 Battlefield Archaeology Theory 10 GIS Theory 16 Thesis Structure 18 Conclusion 20 CHAPTER TWO: METHODOLOGY 22 Introduction 22 Historical Research 22 Primary Sources 23 Secondary Sources 28 Cartographic Research 29 Charts 29 USCG Light Lists 31 Analysis 32 GIS Creation 32 Statistical Analysis 38 Spatial Analysis 39 Conclusion 40 CHAPTER THREE: THE GERMANS ATTACK 42 Background 42 The Battle Comes to America 43 The North Carolina Hunting Grounds 51 Conclusion 75 CHAPTER FOUR: AMERICA FIGHTS BACK 77 Introduction 77 Merchant Vessel Routing 79 The Cape Hatteras Minefield 83 The Convoy System 102 Aerial Coverage 110 Resolution 123 Conclusion 134 CHAPTER FIVE: UNDERSTANDING THE BATTLEFIELD 136 Introduction 136 Event Statistics 138 Events by Nationality 140 Chronological Statistics 144 Vessel Types 147 The U-boats 155 Conclusion 159 CHAPTER SIX: GEOGRAPHY OF THE BATTLEFIELD 160 Introduction 160 Centrality and Density of the Battle 161 Battlefield Extents over Time 166 Routing Vs. Attack Locations 170 Individual U-boat Attack Locations 179 Defining the Battlefield 185 CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION 188 Observations 189 Limitations and Avenues for Future Research 191 Archaeological and Environmental Implications 192 Conclusion 194 REFERENCES CITED 196 LIST OF TABLES 5.1. Frequency and percentage of events occurring within the study area 139 6.1. Coordinates for the center of all battle activity 164 LIST OF FIGURES 2.1. Captured German U-boat handbook for operations along the American coast 27 2.2. 1947 chart of the coast of North Carolina depicting shipwreck locations 30 3.1. Original boundaries of the North Atlantic Naval Coastal Frontier 48 3.2. Diagram depicting USS Roper’s attack on U-85 76 4.1. Chart of shipping routes off the American East coast in 1940 79 4.2. German chart of American shipping routes in 1937 80 4.3. Boundaries of the Eastern Sea Frontier 82 4.4. Chart of Cape Hatteras ―danger area‖ 89 4.5. Chart of minefield and safe anchorage within Hatteras ―danger area‖ 90 4.6 F.W. Abrams sinking in the middle of the Hatteras minefield 92 4.7. Paths of Spry, Chilore, and Mowinckel leading into Hatteras minefield 99 4.8. Sectors of naval and aerial coverage within the Fifth Naval District 113 4.9. Diagram of Lt. Harry Kane‘s aerial attack on U-701 122 4.10. Chart depicting U-boat attacks from May-June 1942 128 5.1. Locations of all historical events listed as occurring ―East of Hatteras‖ 137 5.2. Events occurring within the waters of North Carolina 137 5.3. Nationalities of vessels that contributed to events within North Carolina waters 140 5.4. Number of vessels from each nation contributing to events 141 5.5. Number and nationality of vessels damaged and lost in battle related events 143 5.6. Gross tonnages damaged and lost in war related events 144 5.7 Number of vessels attacked and sunk throughout the war 145 5.8 Gross tonnage of vessels attacked and sunk throughout the war 146 5.9 Types of vessels damaged and sunk in the battle 148 5.10. Gross tonnages of vessel types damaged and destroyed during the war 149 5.11 Proportion of merchant vessels surviving or sinking in an attack based gross tonnage 152 5.12. Proportion of tankers surviving or sinking in an attack based upon gross tonnage 153 5.13. Proportion of merchant vessels surviving or sinking in an attack based upon build dates 154 5.14. Proportion of tankers surviving or sinking in an attack based upon build dates 155 5.15. Number of vessels attacked and sunk by each U-boat commander 157 5.16. Gross tonnages of vessels attacked and sunk by each U-boat 158 6.1. Centrality of battle activity throughout the war 162 6.2. Centralities of battle events, including the center of activity for the entire battle 163 6.3. Densities of battle related events 165 6.4. Convex hull polygons for the first five months of the battle 168 6.5. Convex hull polygons for the remainder of the war 169 6.6. Trend in size of battle areas throughout the course of the war 170 6.7. Attack locations for January and February 1942 in relation to shipping corridors 172 6.8. Attack locations for March 1942 and April 1942 in relation to the shipping routes for the corresponding period 174 6.9. Attack and maritime accident locations for the remainder of the war in relation to the shipping and convoy routes for the corresponding period 178 6.10. Attack locations by U-boat for January and February 1942 180 6.11. Pre-Convoy U-boat attack locations for March 1942 through May 1942 182 6.12. Attack locations for the remainder of the war 184 6.13. Map representing the extent of the battle within the waters of North Carolina 187 GLOSSARY OF ACRONYMS B.d.U. Befhelshaber der Unterseeboote (U-boat Commander in Chief) CCSF Commander Caribbean Sea Frontier CESF Commander Eastern Sea Frontier CGSF Commander Gulf Sea Frontier CG Coast Guard CINCLANT Commander-in-Chief, Atlantic Fleet CNANCF Commander North Atlantic Naval Coastal Frontier CNO Chief of Naval Operations ComFive Commandant Fifth Naval District COMINCH Commander in Chief, United States Fleet ESF Eastern Sea Frontier EWT Eastern War Time KTB Kriegstagebücher (German War Diary) NANCF North Atlantic Naval Coastal Frontier OCNO Office of the Chief of Naval Operations USCG United States Coast Guard CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION Introduction After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, the United States had no choice but to enter into World War II. In the wake of this epic tragedy and devastating attack on American soil, a longer lasting and more widespread conflict is often overlooked. This conflict was one waged along the entire eastern seaboard of North America, ranging from Nova Scotia all the way to the Gulf of Mexico. This battle, however, was not between aircraft carriers and battleships, or even between America and Japan. The conflict instead was waged between Hitler‘s Gray Wolves and the merchant and naval vessels of any nation unfortunate enough to find themselves in the field of view of the German U-boat periscopes.