A Compendium of Canadianisms = Компендіум Канадизмів

Lesya Ukrainka Eastern European National University Faculty of Foreign Philology

A Compendium of

Canadianisms

Compiled by Don Puffalt and Іryna Kalynovska

Lutsk Vezha-Druk 2018

УДК 811.111(71):908(072) К 17

Рекомендовано до друку вченою радою Східноєвропейського національного університету імені Лесі Українки (протокол № 1 від 19 вересня 2018 р.)

Рецензенти: Полковський В. П. – доктор філософії, директор Центру канадознавства Національного університету “Острозька академія”, президент компанії “Східноєвропейські можливості” (м. Сейнт-Альберт, Канада); Ущина В. А. – доктор філологічних наук, професор кафедри англійської філології Східноєвропейського національного університету імені Лесі Українки.

Калиновська І., Пуффальт Д. К 17 A Compendium of Canadianisms = Компендіум канадизмів. – Луцьк : Вежа- Друк, 2018. – 40 с.

Навчально-методичні матеріали підготовлено для самостійної та наукової роботи студентів-бакалаврів та магістрів вищих навчальних закладів з метою збагачення й удосконалення знань з канадознавства при вивченні теоретичних курсів “Лінгвокраїнознавство країн основної іноземної мови”, “Історія культури країн основної іноземної мови”, “Англомовна література Канади та країн Латинської Америки”, написанні курсових і магістерських робіт, роботі студентських наукових проблемних груп, роботі Центрів канадознавства тощо. Для студентів і викладачів фахових інститутів і факультетів за напрямками підготовки “Філологія”, “Середня освіта” із спеціальності “Мова та література (англійська)”, для аспірантів-філологів, науковців та всіх, хто цікавиться канадознавством.

УДК 811.111(71):908(072)

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ...... 4 Canadian Spelling Patterns ...... 5 Canadian Phonetic Patterns ...... 6 Phonetic Transcription Pattern...... 7

COMPENDIUM ...... 8 A ...... 8 B ...... 9 C ...... 12 D ...... 16 E ...... 17 F ...... 17 G ...... 18 H ...... 19 I ...... 20 J...... 21 K ...... 21 L ...... 21 M...... 22 N ...... 23 O ...... 25 P ...... 25 Q ...... 27 R ...... 27 S ...... 28 T ...... 30 U ...... 31 V ...... 32 W ...... 32 Y ...... 32 Appendix 1. Canadian Placename Nicknames ...... 32 Appendix 2. Specifically Canadian Abbreviations ...... 34 Appendix 3. Canadian Region-specific Variations ...... 34 REFERENCES ...... 37

INTRODUCTION

Compiling a selection of usages and expressions that exist in spoken or written English in Canada presents a number of challenges. It was necessary to devise certain criteria for deciding whether specific words or expressions should be included in the compendium. The criterion that we consider to be of the greatest importance is the degree to which a structure is used almost exclusively in Canada (or at least in some part of Canada), but is not widely used in the United States or in Britain. As a matter of fact, many of these expressions are mainly associated with certain regions, or at least are prevalent only in those regions. This is not surprising, considering vastness of Canada’s geography, and the distance separating some of the country’s main population centres. In some cases, the ‘regionalisms’ that have evolved reflect the ethnic background of some of the largest immigrant groups present in an area, as we will see. This is particularly the case in Quebec and New Brunswick, where major concentrations of francophones exist and have existed for many years. A considerable exchange of lexical material has occurred in these areas. For non-Canadians (and to some extent even for Canadians) seeking to assemble a collection of “Canadianisms”, there is the additional difficulty of evaluating the sources from which information may be drawn. One individual can present his or her personal opinions or conclusions in an Internet article in a way that sounds quite authoritative, and yet those opinions and conclusions may not be based on very solid evidence. In other cases, rare and perhaps trivial examples can be ‘elevated’ to seem more significant than they really are. These aspects need to be kept in mind by the editors. In various online sources dealing with locally distinctive vocabulary, expressions that are in the category of slang often receive more attention. This could be a result of the fact that much of the standard vocabulary of Canadian English is very similar to the forms used in the United States and/or in Britain, and it’s particularly in the area of slang that forms develop which are the most distinctively Canadian. There is one aspect of the process of selecting material for this compendium that we did not anticipate at the outset of the project: it eventually became very apparent that we needed to include a considerable number of words which appear to be part of the general English-language lexicon, but which have developed certain very specific meanings that are

unique to Canada. In such cases, we sought to make this point clear as we formulated our explanatory material. The most comprehensive and authoritative compilation of Canadianisms that we have come across is unquestionably A Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles, Second Edition, published at the University of British Columbia under the editorship of Stefan Dollinger and Margery Fee. They based their work on the first edition of this same work, which was published in 1967. An additional challenge that presents itself in the formulating of this work stems from the fact that it is designed for use by non-Canadians who are studying English as a second language. This means that many things need to be explained more fully than would be the case in compilations created in Canada: readers cannot be expected to have the background historical and cultural knowledge that Canadians have regarding their own country. There are some subtle linguistic patterns that prevail throughout the English-speaking world, and extensive research would be needed to determine whether it is possible to single out a body of distinctively Canadian patterns. For example, in English in general there is a very widespread pattern of euphemism, avoiding terms that in some way seem offensive or inappropriate, even though for other language groups this is not a factor that is considered.

Canadian Spelling Patterns Traditionally, the spelling of English words as taught in Canadian schools reflected British English to a large extent, with some notable exceptions such as “tire” being used as in the U.S.A., rather than the British English “tyre.” However, due to the extensive interaction between Canada and its neighbour to the south, American patterns of spelling have an increasingly large influence on the way Canadians write English words. In recent times, the ‘borderless’ Internet has the effect of blurring the differences between British and American usages as well.

Canadian Phonetic Patterns

At the end of the main compendium there is a table showing the phonetic transcription system that has been used in the pronunciation key given in certain cases. The majority of the words contained in the compendium are well known or can be found in many dictionaries, but we have provided transcriptions in those cases that would be likely to present pronunciation problems for students outside of Canada. Mention could be made here of the fact that certain distinctive features have developed in the way Canadians pronounce certain sounds. James Harbeck discussed this at some length in an article which appeared on August 20, 2015 on BBC Online. Although some of the distinctive features relate mainly to particular words, there are a few generalized patterns to which Harbeck drew particular attention. The first feature is commonly referred to as ‘Canadian raising.’ It involves two specific diphthongs, [aɪ] and [aʊ], when they occur prior to voiceless consonants, as found in words such as ‘ice’ and ‘out.’ A clear difference can be heard by comparison with the diphthong as heard in words such as ‘eyes’ and ‘found.’ In the pronunciation pattern that prevails in most regions of Canada, the first portion of these two diphthongs is raised by comparison with the pronunciation of the United States. American observers often contend that for “out and about”, Canadians say “oot and aboot”, but this characterization is somewhat irritating to Canadians, who consider it to be completely inaccurate. Harbeck also makes reference to the “low back merger” which leads to words such as ‘cot’ and ‘caught’ being pronounced identically. Attention is sometimes also given to the ‘Canadian vowel shift’, which refers to the manner in which the pronunciation of words like ‘bit’ approaches the sound of ‘bet’, and ‘bet’ moves closer to ‘bat’. Similar patterns can be heard in some parts of the United States. Historically, British English speakers would probably have considered the Canadian pronunciation of words like “tune” to be identical to that of American speakers, [tu:n], and this characterization would be essentially correct (in contrast to British English [tju:n]. In the past thirty or forty years, however, an interesting phenomenon has begun to appear in which Canadian speakers modify this vowel in words like “Saskatoon”, pronouncing it like a British speaker might do if it were spelled ‘Saskatune’.

Phonetic Transcription Pattern

The words given as examples reflect the Canadian pronunciation of these words, which in some cases differs from that of British English. However, it should be noted that the vowels [i] and [u], which appear in more recent dictionaries of pronunciation, exist in both British and North American English. The symbol [ɛ] is used here, as in various modern dictionaries, as being superior to [e] for representing the sound in words such as "set", because it avoids some of the phonetic ambiguity of [e].

Words containing the sounds

Vowels Semi-vowels [ʌ] up, love, young, blood, does [j] you, use, beauty [ɑː] father, car, lot, wash, thought [w] way, one, quick [ɔː] sort, all, door, talk, salt, saw [æ] cat, sang, class, half, ask, laugh Consonants [ə] comma, happen, about [ŋ] sing, English, hanging [ər] mother, collar, minor, future [r] ream, boring, sorry [ɛ] let, very, length, head, friend [ʃ] ship, sugar, tissue [ɜːr] person, bird, journal, fur, learn [tʃ] cheap, patch, richest [ɪ] in, city, finish, crystal, busy [ʒ] vision, genre, mirage [i] penny, happiness, studying, [dʒ] agent, judge, soldier elect [ɵ] think, mouth, author [iː] me, seen, feat, receive, key [ð] breathe, that, father, [ʊ] good, look, put, could smooth [u] influence, graduation, actual [uː] too, food, cute, new, true

Diphthongs [aɪ] sigh, try [aʊ] now, house [oʊ] home, go, boat, know [ɛ ər] air, bear, there [eɪ] pay, race, eight [ɔɪ] join, toy [ʊər] tour, poor

Not mentioned in the chart above are the IPA consonant symbols which are basically the same as the letters used in English: [b], [p], [t], [d], [k], [g], [f], [v], [s], [z], [h], [m], [n], [l].

COMPENDIUM

workers in other agriculture-related A occupations. agricultural research station: A-tent: a tent with no vertical see EXPERIMENTAL FARM. wall, but which has the canvas airtight heater: a stove made of sloping from the ridgepole down to sheet iron in which wood is burned the ground on both sides. for heating rooms. ABM, bank machine: common alcool [0l%ku:l]: a drinkable terms for automated teller machines. diluted for of ethyl alcohol, aboideau [#bw3%do«]: a sluice sometimes known as everclear; it is gate or dam (from French, used distilled from cereal grains. mainly in the Maritime provinces, on allophone: a resident of Quebec the Atlantic coast; also ‘aboiteau’ or whose first language is neither ‘abatteau’). English nor French. Used only by above: an adjective or adverb linguistic specialists in other English- use to refer to the number of degrees speaking countries, this word was above zero Fahrenheit. first used with this meaning by aboriginal peoples: the original journalists and broadcasters in the inhabitants of any territory; in middle of the twentieth century, and Canada, some specific terms have then by the general public, even in come into use for designating these some other parts of Canada. population groups. anglophone: a person who acclamation: used in Canada to speaks English as his/her first refer to someone being elected to an language. (The term is occasionally office of some kind without contested heard outside Canada, but enjoys the voting. greatest currency in the Canadian across the line: has the meaning setting.) “in the United States” (on the other antelope: a term often used in side of the boundary.) Alberta and Saskatchewan to refer to advance poll: a Canadian a ruminant animal which is in expression referring to advance actuality a pronghorn, of a different voting in an election. species than true antelopes. agricultural representative, or arborite: the Canadian term, ag.rep: a government official who originating from a proprietary name, provides advice to farmers and for a hard plastic laminate often applied to tabletops. 8

ardox nails: with a name that regions east of Manitoba. In Ontario was originally proprietary, these nails or Quebec, the expression is used by have the form of a spiral shaft. Maritimers to designate their Atlantic arena: a widely-used word in home areas. English which is often used in badlands: a dry wilderness area Canada with the specific meaning of in southern Alberta and southwestern an indoor hockey rink. Saskatchewan where severe erosion auditor general: in Canada, the has occurred, leaving unusual official responsible for carrying out landforms. Many prehistoric fossils financial audits of all programs, have also been discovered there. activities and functions of bagman: used in Canada with government departments. the meaning of a person who raises funds for a political party.

bailiff: a word with various meanings in other countries, but used B in Canada to refer to someone who repossesses property. bald prairie: an expression that bachelor: bachelor in the vast majority of cases has been apartment/suite, as used in used by Canadians to describe the advertisements such as “bachelor for treeless plains of southern Manitoba, rent”. Saskatchewan and Alberta. back bacon: lean bacon made Barr colonist: a member of an from pork loin; in the USA this is expedition of British colonists who termed ‘Canadian bacon.’ settled a large area adjacent to the backcatcher: in baseball, the Alberta border west of Saskatoon, player who stands near the batter’s Saskatchewan. plate and catches the balls thrown by Barrens: the vacant and the pitcher; known in the USA inhospitable tundra area of northern simply as a ‘catcher.’ Canada. back east: a geographical Bay Street: a street in Toronto reference with specific meanings where the Toronto Stock Exchange according to the user’s location: in and many other important financial British Columbia, it refers to institutions are situated, constituting anywhere east of the Rockies (also the country’s financial centre; from ‘out east’ or ‘down east’). In other this, the term “Bay Street” has come western provinces, it suggests all 9

to mean the nation’s moneyed Bennett as Prime Minister) many interests in a general sense. could not afford to operate their cars. baywop: a term used berry pemmican: food made by pejoratively (mostly in indigenous Canadians of the western Newfoundland) to refer to a resident prairies, consisting of pulverized of a rural area centered around an buffalo meat with berries pounded ocean bay. into the meat. bear-pit session: a Canadian beverage room: a room in a term for an event where political hotel or tavern in which alcoholic candidates or elected officials are drinks are served. subjected to severe questioning. BFI bin: a garbage container (or BeaverTail™: a trademarked ‘dumpster’), named after a prominent name which has become a generic Canadian waste management terms for a dessert food basically company, in provinces where that consisting of a piece of pastry, company does business; in the same usually covered with lemon juice and way, these containers are often cinnamon sugar, the name suggesting referred to in Saskatchewan as its shape similar to that of a beaver’s “Loraas bins”. tail. big mucky-muck (sometimes bed chesterfield: a sofa that can expressed as “high muckamuck”): be converted into a double bed. the leading person in a group, or a so- bee: a gathering of neighbours called ‘big-shot.’ (especially in pioneer days) for the Bigfoot: a legendary monstrous purpose of doing some type of a job, animal, like Sasquatch, in the Coast such as building a barn, which would Range of the western mountains. often be followed by a party. Women Big O or Big Owe: the Olympic sometimes held ‘quilting bees’. Stadium in Montreal; the ‘big owe’ is below: (used as an adjective or a pun pointing to the fact that the adverb), referring to the temperature construction of the stadium resulted below zero Fahrenheit. in an enormous debt for the city of Bennett buggy: a car that had Montreal. the motor removed and was fitted Big Smoke: a term applied to with hardware permitting it to be various large cities in Canada and drawn by horses, because of the fact even elsewhere. that in the Great Depression bird dog: in Canadian usage, a (coinciding with the term of R. B. small plane with the function of

guiding water bombers to their responsible for the administration of destination while fighting forest fires. schools in a certain area. bismarck: a type of jelly-filled bombardier [b3m#%d1r]: a doughnut, for residents of the Prairie vehicle manufactured by Bombardier provinces and British Columbia (as Limited which can travel easily over well as for some Americans in Great snow and ice, being equipped with Plains states.) skis on the front and a system of blind line: an invisible line in a tracks instead of rear wheels. (The surveyed area where, in keeping with English pronunciation of this the existing system, a road could vehicle’s name differs greatly from theoretically be constructed if such the original French sound.) were required, but which has booze can: an after-hours remained vacant. establishment where alcohol is blow in: to become blocked with served, often illegally. snow as a result of a snowstorm. borrow pit: a pit excavated near blowdirt: soil that has been a road for the purpose of obtaining carried by the wind and deposited ballast for the construction of roads somewhere, much like snow is blown or railways. into snowdrifts. boston: In First-Nations blubber lamp: a shallow dish communities of the interior regions made of soapstone in which Inuit of B.C., this is a slightly derisive and people place oil or fat to burn for the sometimes hostile term for “white purpose of having light and heat in man”, no doubt derived from the their homes. Chinook jargon term for an blueberry buckle: a cake filled American, which was ‘Boston man’. with blueberries and which has a breaker plough: a large plough crumbly topping. designed for breaking new land. bluff: a clump or grove of trees Brier: the name of the final on a prairie or other generally treeless men’s Canadian curling area, in the jargon of Canadian prairie championship. residents. bronco-buster: the person who bluenoser: a term for a resident breaks the will of wild horses so that of Nova Scotia. they will be willing to accept being board of trustees: a group of harnessed or saddled. (generally elected) officials who are broomball: a competitive game somewhat similar to hockey and

played on an ice rink, but using brooms instead of sticks, and a ball С instead of a puck. brushland: land covered with calendar: a familiar word which brush (small trees of various kinds.) has one unique meaning in Canada ˗ bunny hug: a term commonly a comprehensive guide to the used in Saskatchewan to refer to a programs and courses offered by a hooded sweatshirt. university, along with other bush, the bush: commonly used important university-related in Western Canada as a generic term information. (like the Australian ‘outback’) that call display: the system by may be linked with less-developed which a telephone displays districts associated with hunting and information about incoming calls. the outdoors or to employment in camp: used in northern Ontario mines or forests. when referring to a small house that bush lot: a holding of land that is described elsewhere in Ontario has not been cleared. (and to some degree in other bush pilot: a pilot who flies provinces) as a ‘cottage’, or as a commercial airplanes over the ‘cabin’ (more common in the West). uninhabited northern wilderness. It is also used, to a lesser extent, in bushed: used mainly in British New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, as Columbia and Yukon, the word is well as in parts of New England. used to describe somebody who has Canada goose: a large gray wild been in “the bush” too long, and goose which has sometimes been perhaps has become eccentric as a given the name “Canada’s favourite result of long isolation. It might also waterfowl.” suggest that someone is lacking in Canadarm: a robotic arm that civilized behaviour habits. was developed and manufactured in b’y [ba1]: a contraction of ‘boy’, Canada by SPAR Aerospace Ltd. for this term is used in the Maritime use with the NASA space shuttle provinces (and especially in program. Its function was to Newfoundland and Cape Breton manipulate objects from the shuttle Island) and corresponds more or less cargo bay. to words like “man,” “dude,” or Canadian Red Ensign: an “pal.” It might be used in a phrase adapted form of the British merchant such as “Go on, b’y”. navy flag which was used as Canada’s national flag from 1945 12

until the adoption of the present-day specifically “French Canadian” and flag in 1965. has an unfavourable connotation, Canadian Shield: a huge area especially when used in the of pre-Cambrian rock structures. northeastern United States and in Canadian Wheat Board: a English Canada. The term was marketing board set up by the adopted as the name of the National Canadian government to control the Hockey League team in Vancouver, sales of wheat and barley grown in and may also designate a player on western Canada. that team NHL team. (A less CanCon: an abbreviated form of common optional word for Canuck is the expression ‘Canadian content’, Canucklehead.) which is used in referring to the Caper: a resident of Cape proportion of Canadian songs, films, Breton Island (located in the province and programs that are aired by of Nova Scotia). Canadian broadcasters, in cariboozer [%k+r1buz#r]: (a fusion compliance with guidelines. of ‘boozer’ [drinker] and ‘Cariboo’) CANDU: a type of nuclear sometimes used to refer to a resident power reactor built in Ontario as well of BC’s Cariboo country, more as being sold to other nations. jocularly than derisively. It is not CanLit: used to speak of applied uniquely to alcoholics, but Canadian literature, particularly when definitely is related to the heavy- referring to literature that exists drinking culture of that region (which mainly through subsidies from the has one of southern Canada’s highest government; it can also imply a rates of heart disease and other certain style of writing. Originally the drinking-related causes of mortality). expression was derogatory, but it was catamaran, catamaran sledge: ultimately adopted by the Canadian in Canadian usage this refers to a literary establishment as a kind of wooden sled. shorthand for referring to itself. cheechako: a term used in canola: a variety of rapeseed Arctic regions to refer to people from developed in Canada which is a the ‘outside.’ major source of edible and industrial cheezies: cheese puffs. The oil. name is a genericized trademark canuck [k#%n6k]: a slang term based on a brand of crunchy cheese for “Canadian” in the U.S. and snack produced and sold in Canada. Canada. It sometimes means

chesterfield: a term referring to between Vancouver and Vancouver a type of sofa or couch. Its use has Island; the word has come to be used been declining in recent decades, commonly in marine English and in particularly among younger people in weather forecasts. An alternate form western and central regions; it might is salt chuck. also be heard occasionally in close the light: a non-standard northern California, but is obsolete in way of saying “turn off the light”, Britain, where it originated. Over the showing influence from structures years, it was one distinctively present in Quebecois French. Canadian term that was totally cloudhopper: an air pilot, confusing for non-Canadians, especially one who flies in remote or although extremely commonplace forested locations. within Canada. coasting: sliding down a snow- chinook: a warm, dry wind covered hill on a sled, toboggan, or experienced along the eastern side of some other object. the Rocky Mountains in the United coffee row: a term that refers to States and Canada. informal gatherings of local people in chinook arch: a cloud a community’s coffee shops and formation that foreshadows or diners, where topics such as sports accompanies the so-called Chinook and local happenings are discussed. winds referred to above, often visible (This expression is most common in as an arch-shaped strip of blue sky Saskatchewan.) near the western horizon, in the areas collegiate, collegiate institute: of Alberta where this phenomenon this term is used in Ontario, occurs. Manitoba and Saskatchewan to refer chip wagon: a large food cart, to secondary schools with elements originally horse-drawn but of curriculum, facilities, and teaching sometimes later motor-driven, from personnel that place them above the which potato ‘chips’ and other fast level of a regular high school. foods and beverages could be sold to composite high school: a term the public. used in some provinces for high chuck: In British Columbia, the schools that offer a range of word ‘chuck’ is sometimes used academic, commercial and vocational under the influence of Chinook courses. Jargon to refer to water, usually the concession road: in southern straits and other inland waters Ontario and southern Quebec,

concession roads are situated on the layered fluffy form of cotton used in dividing lines between the upholstery and packing, and ‘concessions’ (land allotments), sometimes for dressing wounds. which were surveyed as standard- country elevator: (see GRAIN sized square blocks, each square ELEVATOR) being as close as possible to 1,000 country store: a general store acres (405 hectares). These roads located in a farming district, usually provide access to residences and at some distance from any town or fields. village, which catered to the needs of Confederation: the term which local farmers and residents. is used to describe the arrangement coureur de bois: (French, but by which several provinces of British often used by English speakers in the North America entered into an past) an expression that described agreement for union that brought the unaffiliated fur traders who moved Canadian nation into existence in throughout forest areas in search of 1867. furs. constab [k#n%st0b]: this is a Cowichan (Indian) sweater: a shortened version of the "Royal heavy sweater made of gray, Newfoundland Constabulary", which unbleached wool; this name is given provides policing services in cities of to those knitted by the Cowichan Newfoundland and Labrador. Indians of southern Vancouver corduroy [%k@rd#r@1], corduroy Island, which have distinctive road: a road made of logs fastened symbolic designs. The Siwash together to float on swampy ground, sweater is similar, but from an area thus having the approximate on the lower mainland. appearance of large-scale corduroy CPR strawberries: a colloquial fabric. term for the prunes or dried apples correction line: in western that were transported from eastern Canada, this expression describes a Canada to the impoverished residents road situated on an imaginary east- in the West by rail (CPR being the west line where, in accordance with a initials for the Canadian Pacific prearranged surveying provision, Railway) during the Great correction is made for the curvature Depression, when the multi-year of the earth. drought made it impossible for cotton batten: a Canadian form people in the West to grow fresh of the expression “cotton batting”, a fruit.

crokinole: a board game in feint, to trick or avoid someone, most which wooden discs are propelled often used in sports such as hockey, toward the centre of the board or “to deftly manoeuvre around a toward other discs. The game has sporting opponent.” This usage was reached beyond Canada, but users are first observed in Canada, but has much more prevalent in Canada than been adopted elsewhere since that anywhere else. time. Crown corporation: a company dep: corner (convenience) store, that is owned and operated by the adapted from Quebec French word Canadian federal government or by “dépanneur,” especially by English- one of the provincial governments. speaking Quebeckers; sometimes used in the uncontracted form,

depanneur. development road: a road D specially constructed to facilitate the development of natural resources in dainty: a fancy cookie, pastry, some inaccessible region. or square served at a social event DEW line: (based on the (usually used in the plural); acronym for ‘distant early warning’) frequently heard in western Canada. a line of radar stations and airstrips day parole: short-term leave designed for the protection of North granted to imprisoned offenders who America for potential aerial attacks. are nearing the completion of their diamond harrows: a farm prison term. implement consisting of an array of dayliner: a Budd Rail Diesel metal prongs fastened to a steel Car (no longer in service) ˗ a self- frame, which can be dragged over the propelled diesel passenger railcar on soil to smooth it and to destroy the former British Columbia weeds. (The term is also known in Railway, also called “Budd Car” Australia and New Zealand.) after the company who made them. double-double: a coffee with a This type of service also existed in double portion of cream and of sugar some other provinces, serving on (especially, but not exclusively, from routes such as Edmonton-Calgary Tim Horton’s), recently added to the and Regina-Saskatoon. Oxford Dictionary. Triple-triple and deke, deke out: a verb four-by-four (less common) are (shortened from ‘decoy’) meaning to

corresponding coffees with three and agreement of the person or persons four creams/sugars, respectively. addressed (“That was a good game downhomer: a person from last night, eh?”). The word may have Newfoundland; sometimes refers to a its origins in the French hein, which person from any part of Atlantic is pronounced in a somewhat similar Canada. fashion. droke: a coppice or thicket (used elevator: see GRAIN especially in Newfoundland, most ELEVATOR often by hunters). equalization: grants from the duffle moccasins: a type of Canadian federal government to heavy ankle-length socks or liners specific provinces which make it made of duffle, worn under the outer possible to provide comparable footwear to provide warmth. services in all provinces even though the level of economic prosperity

differs from one province to another. Eskimos: the term which was E used to refer to northern indigenous peoples which are now described as Eastern townships: an area of the INUIT. Quebec situated south of the St. experimental farm: the Laurence River and east of the everyday term for referring to Richelieu River which was settled agricultural research stations that mainly by Loyalists and other have been established in various immigrants from the USA; in recent places across Canada. decades the region has come to be populated mainly by French speakers. eavestrough (also used in F northern and western U.S.): a channel that is attached to the underside of the factor: a senior employee of the roof edge (eave) of a house to collect Hudson’s Bay Company in a fur rainwater; most American and British trading post. speakers refer to these as gutters. Family Allowance: a monthly eh: a spoken interrogative payment issued by the federal interjection to ascertain the government to parents or guardians comprehension, continued interest, or

of each child in Canada under the age the kitchen sink and is connected to of 18. the drain pipe. fifty-cent piece: a large coin gas bar: a filling station (‘gas with a face value of fifty cents, or station’) with a central island, having one-half of a Canadian dollar. pumps under a fixed awning. fire hall: another term for gaspereau: Canadian term for a referring to a fire station, or fish also known as the alewife. firehouse; the headquarters of a fire ghetto: an adjective adapted brigade. from the noun ‘ghetto’, to describe First Nation: a term for any of a someone whose behaviour is number of Aboriginal population perceived as projecting a gang-like groups in Canada, with the exception image even if associated with a street of the Inuit. gang; “Mike is ghetto” or a residence floor hockey: an indoor team in a state of disrepair and very dirty sport derived from hockey, in which “they live so ghetto”, are growing the players use a long stick to carry usages in Ontario, although not and to pass a ball or a ring, aiming to unique to Canada. put it into the goal as is done with the gitch: see gotch puck in ice hockey. give ‘er: a shortened form of flush: a toilet, in the speech of “give her a go,” this slang term is older residents of the Maritimes. used to encourage someone on. In freezie: a frozen flavoured some contexts, the form “givin’ ‘er” sugar-water snack common is used to describe any act carried out worldwide, but known by this name with extreme exuberance or to its exclusively in Canada. fullest potential. “We were just givin French immersion: a method ‘er last night.” for teaching French which involves goal suck: In ice hockey, a giving instruction in that language for player who stays in the vicinity of the all the school subjects. opposing team’s goal, waiting for an opportunity to score, and does not

participate fully in defensive play. goolie: In Manitoba, a term for G someone of Icelandic descent. gopher: a word used in Canada garburator: a high-speed to refer to ground squirrels that motorized disposal unit for food actually belong to more than one garbage items which is placed below 18

species; these rodents dig extensive road allowance designated by the tunnels and can do serious damage to original Dominion Land Survey. cereal crops. Grit: a member of the Liberal Gostapo: coll. GO Transit Party of Canada. In British Enforcement Unit security staff in the Columbia, a neo-Grit is a new-era Greater Toronto Area. They check BC Liberal (distinct in character from for valid tickets or passes on GO the pre-1970s BC Liberal Party), Transit commuter trains and issue although Grit is commonly used in fines to offenders. the media, though only in referring to gotch (pl. gotchies), ginch or the federal Liberals as a rule. gonch: underwear, especially men’s guichet: (Quebec English) briefs. A “gotch-pull” or “gonch- automated teller machine. pull” is another name for a wedgie. gyproc: gypsum board, often governor general: the official called ‘drywall’ or ‘sheetrock’ in the representative in Canada of the USA; the name originated as a British Crown, who has popular brand of gypsum board. responsibility of reading the official

Speech from the Throne and carrying out various other ceremonial duties. grain elevator: tall structures H built in communities throughout the agricultural regions of Canada, and Habs: a nickname for the particularly in the western provinces, for the storage and transhipment of Montreal Canadians NHL team, based on the French “habitants”. cereal grains. (have) had the biscuit: to be Gravol: the name of an anti- nausea medication sold in Canada dead, broken, or spent, “My old car has had the biscuit”. and very well-known with that name. half-section: a portion of land (The brand is also known in S. Africa.) composed of 320 acres, or half of a surveyed section according to the Grey Cup: the trophy awarded Dominion survey system. annually to the winners of the Canadian Football League champion- Haligonian: a resident of Halifax. ship. Hansard: the official record of grid road: the term applied in Saskatchewan to a major road on a the proceedings of the House of Commons in Ottawa. 19

hat trick: the accomplishment compound expressions such as of scoring three goals in a single hydrofield (a line of electricity hockey game. transmission towers), hydro lines hay slough: a low-lying area (electricity transmission lines) and sometimes filled with water where hydro poles (electrical transmission there is a luxuriant growth of hay. poles). height of land: (continental) divide, water parting, watershed. Hill, the: refers to the Canadian government, the House of Commons, I and/or the Senate, a shortened form of ‘Parliament Hill.’ ice road: a road which crosses homo milk: homogenized milk, the ice of a river or lake, used during particularly with a fat content greater the portion of the winter when the ice than 2% (usually 3.25%, and is strong enough to support vehicles. generally referred to in the U.S.A. Inside Passage: a term which is only as ‘whole milk’.) used to describe the marine hoodie: A hooded sweatshirt passageway that passes from the with or without a zipper. south British Columbia coastal area hose: used as a verb, ‘to hose’ to the central and northern coastal means to trick, to deceive, or to steal. areas (including the city of Prince hosed: broken or not working, Rupert) via a chain of channels that is used in cases such as when referring separated from the ocean by the to the condition of a television set coastal archipelago. after a severe power surge. Another interior, the: in the Canadian sense is ‘inebriated’ (drunk). context, a term used by residents of humidex: measurement used by British Columbia when referring to meteorologists to reflect the most areas outside of the Fraser combined effect of heat and humidity Valley, the islands and the north on the way that individuals coast. experience hot weather. Inuk: the singular form of the hydro: (used more in some plural word INUIT. provinces than in others) is used to Inuit: the indigenous peoples of refer to the electricity utility service, northern Canada, previously referred or alternatively to AC electricity to as Eskimos. itself. This usage extends to some Island, the: Vancouver Island, in common British Columbia usage. 20

Kenora dinner jacket: a plaid J Melton jacket, typically red or green, once associated with residents of jambuster: a jelly-filled Kenora, Ontario; later popular with doughnut, generally covered with artists and fans of the grunge icing sugar (used mainly in Manitoba movement. and western Ontario). Klondiker: a person who jawbone: a backcountry participated in the Klondike gold expression referring to giving credit rush in the Yukon Territory of at a store or bar. “He gave me northwestern Canada in 1896-99. jawbone” means the storekeeper or kokanee [%ko9k#ni:]: British merchant allowed the customer to Columbian name for a species of buy an item on credit. land-locked sockeye salmon. It is jib: Canadian slang for also the name of a popular beer made methamphetamine. in the Kootenay district. Jolly Jumper: a device with a Kraft Dinner: the Canadian strong springy suspension above a version of a popular brand of simple seat, that can be attached at macaroni noodles; the term is often the top before a small child is placed used broadly to refer to any dish in the seat, for the child to jump and based on macaroni or some similar exercise its legs; invented in Canada type of pasta. in 1910. Juno award: an award presented annually to outstanding Canadian musicians. L

Lakehead, the: this is a term which is applied to Thunder Bay, K Ontario (formerly the twin cities of Port Arthur and Fort William), based kayak: a lightweight canoe on the fact that the community is constructed by the Inuit, to be rowed situated at the head of Lake Superior. with a double-bladed paddle. laneway: an alley in an urban area, usually like a small street 21

running along the back of coined by Vancouver columnist householders’ properties. Allan Fotheringham. language police: officials Lower Mainland: a term empowered by the government of referring to the Greater Vancouver- Quebec to enforce laws concerning Fraser Valley area of BC. It is the predominance of French in vari- connected with the fact that the area ous venues in the province. is virtually at sea level, in contrast to lieutenant-governor: the other regions of the province. representative of the Crown in each loyalist: see UNITED EMPIRE province, subordinate to the LOYALISTS governor-general. lumber yard: in Canada, this liquor store: a general term term often is used to refer simply to a referring to a government-operated lumber retail outlet. In various other liquor store; (privately-owned liquor countries, its primary meaning is a stores are uncommon or illegal in location where raw timber is some parts of Canada.) processed. loppy: an adjective used in lunch: in Newfoundland and Newfoundland to refer to rough or some parts of western Canada, this choppy water due to windy weather word refers to snacks that are taken conditions. between meals or in the evening, but Lord Stanley or Lord Stanley’s not for the midday meal. Mug: a slang reference to the Stanley

Cup, the trophy awarded annually to the National Hockey League team M which wins the championship.

Lotus Land: a nickname for mac: a nickname for the popular British Columbia, and especially the McIntosh Red apple. Lower Mainland around Vancouver; mackinaw cloth, mackinac vaguely linked with Homer’s “Land [%m0k#n@:]: a plaid Melton jacket, of the Lotus-Eaters”, the term typically red or green, at one time a sometimes suggests the theatrics of hallmark of the Canadian working BC politics and political man. One form of it was called a personalities. The term was originally ‘lumber jacket’. 22

mainlander: used (sometimes Mountie: a member of the derogatorily) by Newfoundlanders, Royal Canadian Mounted Police. Prince Edward Islanders and Cape mukluk: a type of warm knee- Bretoners to refer to a person from high boot worn by the indigenous mainland Canada; also used similarly peoples in Yukon, Nunavut and the by Vancouver Islanders, especially Northwest Territories. Victorians, primarily referring to muni, the muni: in British residents of the Greater Columbia, a term describing Vancouver/Lower Mainland area. municipal governments and their Maritimer: a resident of the bureacracy. Maritime provinces on Canada’s east coast ˗ Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, or Prince Edward Island. N (Newfoundland is not included, being different in its climate, geography Nanaimo bar: a confection and history). (named after the city of Nanaimo, marriage commissioner: an British Columbia) made of egg official who is authorized to conduct custard with a Graham-cracker-based marriage ceremonies. bottom and a thin layer of chocolate matriculation: in Canada, this on top; although originally Canadian, term referred to the completion of this term has become well-known in secondary school studies which various other countries. would be necessary for university New Ontario: regions in entrance. northern Ontario which were added matrimonial cake: (mainly used to the province’s territory in 1912. in Saskatchewan) a dessert square Newfie, Newf: a colloquial term with a base of oatmeal or pastry, a used to describe a resident of filling of dates, and a crumble Newfoundland and Labrador. topping. Although once derogatory (especially mickey: a small bottle of liquor, from non-Newfies), its current usage shaped to fit in a pocket, much like a is only mildly humorous. hip flask. Norseman: a light aircraft which was used extensively for 23

flying into remote areas of northern Otter: a well-known light Canada. monoplane which saw extensive North Shore: the northeastern service for bush flying in northern region of New Brunswick which is Canadian regions because of its adjacent to the Gulf of St. Lawrence ability to take off and land on very and the Northumberland Strait. short runways or stretches of water. It Nor’Wester: a man who was manufactured by DeHavilland possessed experience in the fur- Aircraft of Canada. trading regions of the early northwest out east: a general term used of Canada. mainly in British Columbia to notwithstanding clause: a designate anyone born and raised east section of the Canadian Charter of of Manitoba. Rights and Freedoms which grants out West: a term used by people the federal or provincial in eastern Canada to refer to areas parliamentary bodies the right to west of the Manitoba-Ontario border, override certain portions of the and particularly the prairie provinces. Charter. outport: any port along the coast nuisance ground: a Canadian of Labrador and Newfoundland other colloquial expression which refers to than St. John’s. a garbage disposal site, or ‘garbage dump’.

O Palliser(‘s) triangle: a region extending from Manitoba to the Ogopogo: a mythical monster foothills of the Rocky Mountains, as reputed to be alive in Okanagan designated by Captain John Palliser Lake, British Columbia. during the course of an exploratory Oil Patch, the: a colloquial term expedition from 1857 to 1860. for the oil industry of Canada and papoose: a child or baby particularly Alberta; it is applied belonging to North American most often to the exploration and aboriginal parents. production segments of the industry. 24

parish: a term once used in New ‘pepper’, linked with the carbonated Brunswick to refer to districts beverage “Dr. Pepper’s”. described as townships in other pharmacare: a program created provinces. The term survives now in several different provinces to only in connection with specific provide subsidies for users of place names, and only in rare cases. prescription medications. park ranger: an official pickerel: the name used by many Canadians for referring to the provincial or federal employee walleye (fish). Most are unaware that possessing responsibilities connected the real pickerel is actually a with the maintenance and patrolling completely different species of fish. of national or provincial parks. pitlamping: the illegal practice parkade: a term used in of hunting or fishing at night, using a referring to a parking garage, light to attract game. (This term is especially in western Canada; it was used primarily in B.C.) probably coined by Hudson’s Bay pogey: social assistance, welfare Company department store chain. (especially in Newfoundland), or Participaction: a long-term employment insurance. In British Columbia, Prince Edward Island, and program set up by the federal Nova Scotia pogey is the colloquial government to promote health and term always used to refer to physical fitness. employment insurance, as opposed to patrol: a term sometimes used ‘the dole’ or some other term. in Canada when referring to road pop: the term which is most graders, used in maintaining roads or widespread in Canada for referring to in clearing snow. carbonated beverages (also described pencil crayon: a common term in some areas as soft drinks.) In the in Canada for a coloured pencil. USA, soda or soda pop are the most pepper, pepsi: in the 1950s, the common terms. postal code: the alphanumeric term ‘pepsi’ began to be used by code appended to mailing addresses some English Quebecers in referring in Canada (the equivalent of the to French Quebecers, apparently similar British ‘postcode’ and the assuming that they liked to drink American numeric ZIP code). Pepsi-Cola; this seemingly shifted to

postie: letter carrier or postal quiggly hole and quiggly town: worker in general; this term is used in remains of First Nations underground Britain as well as in Canada. houses in the Interior of British pot light: a Canadian expression Columbia for a recessed light fixture (the term which is generally used in the USA.) poutine: a dish consisting of R French fries (potato chips) topped with cheese curds and covered with hot gravy/poutine sauce (Quebec) or rancherie [r0nt!#%ri:]: In British a dumpling filled with ground meat Columbia, an Indian Reserve, (Maritimes). specifically its residential section and prairie lily: the reddish-coloured often specifically the oldest lily which is the floral emblem of residential neighbourhood of a Saskatchewan (also known as the reserve; derived from a Californian western red lily.) Spanish word. Precambrian Shield: see Red Ensign: see CANADIAN CANADIAN SHIELD. RED ENSIGN. premier: the head of a Red River cart: a strong two- provincial government in Canada wheeled cart made completely of (the provincial counterpart of the wood, extensively used in western federal prime minister.) Canada in pioneer times. purple gas: gasoline sold at a Red River cereal: a unique hot lower price for farm use, containing a cereal blend which generally contains purple dye to make it easy to cracked wheat, cracked rye and distinguish from regular gasoline. flaxseed. returned man: a military

veteran returned from overseas service. (This term is used in Q Australia and New Zealand as well as in Canada.) quarter section: the typical size rez, the: A First Nations reserve, of an original homestead land grant, and particularly its residential area. consisting of 160 acres; it is one The term exists all across Canada, quarter of a square mile. used by English-speaking First Queen’s Hotel: a nickname for Nations people. the local or county jail. 26

riding: used in Canada in the Prairie region of western Canada; the sense of an electoral district or word is also used to denote the fruit constituency. that grows on these bushes. ringette: a team sport somewhat sasquatch [skw2t!]: A creature resembling ice hockey, but without similar to Bigfoot or Yeti, from the physical contact; played most often Halkemeylem word ‘sesqac’. In by women and girls. The game was British Columbia it is often used, invented in Canada in the 1960s but especially in its shortened form has since spread to other countries. ‘squatch’ [skw2t!], to mean someone rink rat: a term used to describe tall, large and shaggy or bearded. people who work at a hockey rink screech: a particularly potent and maintain the building and the ice type of Newfoundland rum. surface. scribbler: a Canadian term for a Robertson screw: a practical school notebook. type of screw invented in Canada in scrum: an originally British 1909 and still primarily available word that has undergone a semantic there, with a square slot that fits the change in Canada, and is used in square shank of drivers designed for referring to spontaneous interviews use with these screws. with politicians. runners: a term used especially sealer: a word often used in in central Canada to refer to running Canada for glass jars used for shoes/sneakers; the term also occurs preserving various types of food. occasionally in Australian and Irish separate-school system: a English. school system within which schools

associated with a religious denomi- nation are permitted to operate S alongside public schools, both with government funding but with separate administrations. saltchuck: in British Columbia, serviette: a term derived from the term ‘chuck’ is used in reference British English, referring to a small to the straits and other inland waters square of cloth or paper used while between Vancouver and Vancouver eating. It deserves mention here Island; it comes from the Chinook because of the fact that it contrasts Jargon; see also CHUCK. with the American word, ‘napkin’. saskatoon [&s0sk#%tu:n]: a small fruit-bearing bush native to the 27

shag: is thought to be derived currently used to indicate “very from a combination of “shower” and good.” “stag”, to refer to a dance where slough [slu:]: a word used to alcohol, entry tickets, raffle tickets, refer to a pond, often such as one and other things, are sold to raise located in a farmer’s field. money for the engaged couple’s snowbird: the name of a bird, wedding. This term is most often but also (more specifically Canadian) used in northern and northwestern a reference to people, often senior Ontario and sometimes in Manitoba; citizens, who leave Canada during the expressions “stag and doe” or the winter months to reside in the “buck and doe” are used elsewhere in southern U.S.A. The name of the Ontario. The more common term for Canadian Forces aerobatics team is this type of event in Manitoba and the Snowbirds. some other areas is a “social”. snowplough: a term which ski-doo, skidoo: originally a denotes one of a number of different brand name for a snowmobile machines or devices for snow produced by the Bombardier removal. Nowadays, snowploughs company, the word came to be used often take the form of heavy trucks generically to refer to any with strong grader blades mounted on snowmobile, most often pronounced them. Specially-equipped train [sk#%du:]. The word can also be used locomotives may also perform this as a verb, and the activity as function. “skidooing”. Socred: a combined shortening skill-testing question: an of the words “Social Credit”, the expression referring to a pattern of main words in the name of the Social deciding the winner of a contest by Credit political party which asking some type of question, dominated politics in Alberta and because of legislation restricting British Columbia for many years. games of chance. sod shack: a structure made of skookum: a term used primarily, pieces of sod dug from the ground but not exclusively in British and stacked on top of each other to Columbia and Yukon Territory as form the walls of a primitive shelter well as the U.S. Pacific Northwest, that sometimes served as a pioneer from a Chinook word meaning dwelling. The expressions sod house “strong, powerful, good, cool, and sod hut are sometimes used to superlative or first rate” but also refer to such structures.

soft drink: a carbonated Saskatchewan or some other part of beverage such as Coca-Cola™, the Canadian prairies region; the sometimes referred to as POP. word is connected with the stubble Solomon Grundy: a Nova that remains after grain crops have Scotia term for pieces of salted been cut. herring which have been marinated in stunned: a colloquial adjective a mixture of pickling spices, vinegar primarily linked with Newfoundland and onions. but which may be heard in western spinny: an adjective used in Canada, with the meaning of foolish reference to a girl or woman who is or unintelligent. rather talkative, dizzy, and maybe not sugar pie: A pie made with completely sound mentally. maple-sugar filling, similar to a squaw: a term now considered butter tart; it is a staple in Québécois offensive that refers to First Nations home cooking. women. superintendant of schools: a stage [sta5]: (Quebec English, supervisory officer who makes from the French word and used with periodic visits to the schools in his the same meaning) internship or jurisdiction to assess the general apprenticeship. performance of teachers and stagette [st0%g+t]: the female principals. equivalent of a stag party; sometimes swish: homemade low-quality called a ‘hen party’. liquor, made by swishing water in old stat: a Canadian informal liquor barrels to extract the alcohol clipping of the term ‘statutory from the wood. holiday.’ States, the: a term commonly used to refer to the United States T (almost as frequently as “the U.S.”). stook: a structure of several grain sheaves awaiting harvest, Tensor bandage: a general term placed vertically and leaning against in Canada for several different types each other. The word may also of elastic bandages, often used to function as a verb that describes the control swelling or to protect process of making stooks. wounds. stubble-jumper: a term thongs: summer sport sandals referring to someone from with a pair of straps anchored between the large and second toe, 29

then across the toes, sometimes TransCan, T-Can: reference to referred to as ‘flip-flops’ in modern the Trans-Canada Highway, also American and British English. called Number One Highway, or timbit: originally a brand-name Highway Number One. The term product (from Tim Horton’s “Number One Highway” isn’t doughnut chain) for a round bite- connected with the highway’s quality sized treat made from the dough cut- or importance, but rather with the fact out from the center of a doughnut, that in each province through which which has become a generic name. it passes, its official highway number Tim’s, Timmy’s, Timmy Ho’s, is 1. It begins in Victoria, British Timmy Ho-Ho’s: shortened versions Columbia, and ends in St John’s, of the name of Tim Horton’s Newfoundland, extending a total doughnut chain. length of c. 7821 kilometres, making tipper: A 3.75-litre bottle of it the world’s longest national liquor which is sold with a metal highway. frame used to support the bottle while trilight: the name used in the user is pouring from it. Canada for a light with three levels of toboggan: a flat-bottomed sled brightness. that was originally used by tuque: a close-fitting woollen indigenous people of Canada for winter hat, similar to a stocking-cap. transporting various items; the term (Many Canadians use the spelling has since spread to other countries. ‘touque’, or sometimes ‘toque’, toonie: slang term for the although those words may have Canadian two-dollar coin, modelled originally designated a different type after ‘loonie’, nickname for the one- of hat.) dollar coin that bears the image of a

Canadian bird, the loon. Other spellings of the word exist, such as U tooney, twooney, twoonie, twonie, and twoney. townie: a term used in United Empire Loyalists: Newfoundland to describe a resident residents of the eastern colonies of the capital city, St. John’s. The which wished to remain loyal to term may also be heard in BC, used Britain at the time of the American by rural residents to refer to those Revolution, and who migrated to living in nearby towns. areas of British North America which later became eastern Canada. 30

up-country: a term used voyageur: from French for independently in at least two different ‘traveller’, this word refers to long- regions of Canada. In Ontario, it distance canoe boatmen involved in refers to a large region north and west the fur trade in the region that is now of Lake Superior. In British western Canada. Columbia it may denote any area north of the lower mainland or the southern interior. W

wampum: beads made from V shells which were used as currency among indigenous peoples of the Van Doos: a famous regiment in regions that now make up Ontario the Canadian Army (Royal 22nd), and Quebec. composed primarily of French- washroom: a general term used Canadians. in Canada for a public toilet; The Vancouver Special: a type of word “toilet” is generally considered house construction that was popular somewhat indelicate in Canada and is in Vancouver in the 1970s; such avoided. houses have two levels above ground whiskyjack: a typically (the living area generally being on Canadian term for a gray jay or the top level), but with no basement, Canada jay. as excavation into the bedrock is not feasible. Varsol: a Canadian general term for paint thinners and solvents, based Y originally on the name of a product created in the U.S.A. young offender: another term Vi-Co: the name once used by a for a young person who commits a company selling dairy products in criminal act before reaching the age Saskatchewan and Quebec, for of majority. chocolate milk. The usage has persisted in those areas even though the name no longer exists on any product now on the market.

Appendix 1. Canadian Placename Nicknames Abby: a nickname for Abbotsford, a Cowtown: a nickname for Calgary, city near Vancouver, British Columbia Alberta. (commonly used by people throughout Ditchland, also Ditchmond: a British Columbia, but especially in the nickname once applied to Richmond, Lower Mainland region). British Columbia, where all streets were Abegweit: an Indian name for Prince lined by deep (and dangerous) drainage Edward Island, sometimes used in literary ditches, now largely replaced by culverts contexts. or otherwise covered. Bramladesh: a fusing of the name of Downhome: used by the South Asian nation Bangladesh and Newfoundlanders to refer to their island. the Ontario city of Brampton, used to Edmonchuck: a nickname for draw attention to that city’s large East Edmonton, Alberta, suggestive of its large Indian population. Ukrainian population. British California: a modified name Gastown: the name of the oldest part sometimes applied to British Columbia, of Vancouver and the original colloquial evoking similarities between that province name of the settlement; it is a contraction and the American state of California, of “Gassy’s town”, named after a including its geographical location and steamboat captain by the name of “Gassy” climate relative to other regions; its liberal Jack Deighton. Now it is sometimes used society and politico-cultural climate; and to refer to Vancouver in general. also because of the general similarity of Hali: Halifax, Nova Scotia. the geographical shape of the state and the Hammer, the: Hamilton, Ontario province. Hat, the: Medicine Hat, Alberta Bytown: the original name of Ottawa Hog Town or Hogtown: Nickname before its designation as the national for Toronto. capital, which is often still used in similar Hollywood North: a reference to contexts as Hogtown when applied to Hollywood, California, used to describe Toronto, or Cowtown for Calgary. Toronto and Vancouver as two major sites Chuck, the: sometimes used in of Canadian film production. referring to Edmonton, Alberta ‒ a shorter Hongcouver: Derogatory reference form of the nickname Edmonchuck, to the large number of immigrants from which draws attention to the city’s very Hong Kong in the city of Vancouver significant proportion of residents with Hub City, the: a nickname Ukrainian origins. sometimes applied to three different Côte-Saint Jew: a deformed Canadian cities: Moncton, New version of the name of the Côte-Saint Brunswick, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Luc district in Montreal, drawing and Nanaimo, British Columbia. attention to the fact that its residents are predominantly Jewish.

Loyalist province: New Brunswick Sack Vegas: Another name for (due to the fact that so many of its original Lower Sackville, a lower to upper settlers were United Empire Loyalists.) middle class suburb of Halifax, Nova New West: New Westminster, Scotia. British Columbia. Saskabush [%s0sk#b9!]: slang a Peg, the or Peg City: Winnipeg, name sometimes used to refer to MB. Saskatchewan, or sometimes to Pile of Bones: the original name of Saskatoon (city). the site where Regina, Saskatchewan was Sauga [%s2g#]: a short form of the eventually established as the capital of the name of Mississauga, Ontario. North-West Territories. Scarberia: [sk0r%bi#ri#] slang term Peninsula, the: Refers to New for Scarborough, Ontario (a suburban Brunswick’s Kingston Peninsula, a rural part of Toronto), a derogatory reference stretch of land surrounded by the Saint to its desolateness (combining ‘Scar- John River on 2 sides, the Kennebecasis borough’ and ‘Siberia’). River on 1 side, and Kingston Creek on Shwa, the: Local slang (generally part of one side. Also used for the derogatory) for the city of Oshawa, northern suburbs of Victoria, British Ontario. Columbia, which are on the Saanich Speedy Creek: Swift Current, Peninsula. Saskatchewan Poco: Port Coquitlam, British Steeltown: Hamilton, Ontario, in Columbia, one of the “Tri-Cities” or reference to the city’s main industry “Northeast Sector”, which includes Terminal City, the: Vancouver, Coquitlam, and Port Moody. BC. PoCoMo: the zone which includes Van: Vancouver, British Columbia. Port Coquitlam, Coquitlam, and Port Local short form used to refer to certain Moody, the “Tri-Cities” or “Northeast districts and suburbs of Vancouver, such Sector”. as East Van, North Van, or West Van. Queen City: Regina, Saskatchewan. West Island: Western portion of the Rock, the: Newfoundland. Residents Island of Montreal of Victoria BC sometimes use the term Winterpeg: Winnipeg, Manitoba. when referring to Vancouver Island. The 905: the suburbs to the west, Rocks, the: The Hopewell Rocks, in north and east of Toronto which are Hopewell, New Brunswick, where the within the 905 telephone area code highest tides in the world are found. Also district, including the Halton, Peel, York referred to as the Flowerpots. and Durham regions. Royal City, the: New Westminster, British Columbia. Often mistakenly used for Victoria, British Columbia. Also used when referring to the city of Guelph, Ontario. 33

Appendix 2. Specifically Canadian Abbreviations

CCF: Co-operative KV: A term for the Commonwealth Federation, a Kennebecasis Valley, which consists moderate socialist political party of two towns, Rothesay, New which later was renamed the New Brunswick and Quispamsis, New Democratic Party. Brunswick, which are affluent CBC: an abbreviation which suburbs of Saint John, New usually stands for the Canadian Brunswick. Broadcasting Corporation, Canada’s L.C.: slang abbreviation for the national radio and television network; liquor stores or the liquor commission in some contexts the abbreviation has in several Canadian provinces. been applied to ‘Canadian-born MTL: abbreviation for Chinese’, referring to the generation Montreal. of Chinese born in Canada whose NAFTA: North American Free parents were landed immigrants. Trade Agreement. CFL: the abbreviation of the N.D.G.: refers to the Notre- Canadian Football League. Dame-de-Grâce district of Montreal CNR: Canadian National NDP: New Democratic Party. Railways, sometimes referred to now NFB: National Film Board of as CN Rail. Canada. CPR: Canadian Pacific Railways N.W.M.P.: North West Mounted CRBC: Canadian Radio Police (the police force which Broadcasting Corporation preceded the R.C.M.P.) CSL: refers to the Côte-Saint Luc N.W.T.: North West Territories. district of Montreal P.C.: Progressive Conservative CUPE: Canadian Union of Public Party Employees PMO: the Prime Minister’s DDO: refers to the Dollard-des- Office Ormeaux district of Montreal P.S.T.: provincial sales tax. FLQ: the French abbreviation for RCMP: Royal Canadian Front de Libération de Québec, a Mounted Police terrorist organization in the 1960s that R.R.S.P.: registered retirement aimed to make Quebec an independent savings plan. country. R.M.: rural municipality. GST: Goods and Services Tax T.O.: Toronto, Ontario GTA: frequently-used acronym U.I.C.: Unemployment for the Greater Toronto Area Insurance Commission H.B.C.: the Hudson’s Bay Company.

Appendix 3. Canadian Region-specific Variations

An interesting area of study has opened up in recent years, examining some variations in terms and expressions as found in different parts of Canada. In a country which spans such an enormous geographical distance and which encompasses regions with such significant historical, cultural and ethnic diversity, it is not surprising that such variations would have developed, but in many ways it is something of a mystery what produced the specific phenomena that can be observed. Some specific examples of this type of variation were highlighted in an article placed on the CBC website in September 2017, entitled “Lost in translation: Study on Canadian slang draws strange dividing lines.” Interestingly, this article not only presents a discussion of this subject, but it also provides some excellent maps to illustrate the points it is making, created by the 10 and 3, an online publication which deals with Canadian data. The map below demonstrates the variations in terminology within Canada in designating a small house in which people sometimes spend their vacation, for example.

The authors of this study mention the fact that certain areas are well known for their linguistic peculiarities, “But even in other places that have no obvious reason to talk differently, Canadians have developed strong regionalisms.” This characterization could certainly be applied to the variations of the term for a small local store that provides some basic necessities, usually having longer hours of opening than regular merchandisers. The map on the next page demonstrates this:

Any reader who finds these variations to be of particular interest will be motivated to access the Ten and Three website, which provides similar maps illustrating other phenomena of this kind. For example, when referring to carbonated beverages, the overwhelming majority of residents of British

Columbia, Alberta, Ontario and the Maritime provinces use the word ‘pop’; anglophones in Quebec prefer the term ‘soft drink’ by a margin of 63%, on the basis of surveys that have been conducted. In Saskatchewan, the word ‘pop’ predominates, but ‘soft drink’ may often be heard as well. In Manitoba, the pattern is distinctly different: 21% prefer ‘soft drink’, and 20% prefer ‘soda’, which is the most common term in the USA. A striking diversity can also be observed in terms of how Canadians refer to the evening meal. Speakers in British Columbia and southern Ontario generally call it ‘dinner’, whereas other regions of the country refer to it as ‘supper’. In the Prairie Provinces of Alberta, Manitoba and Saskatchewan, the word ‘dinner’ very often is used to refer to the noon meal. The team which conducted this research also noticed a few striking differences in the pronunciation of a few specific words; for example, in the majority of regions, the word ‘caramel’ is pronounced with three syllables, the first having the sound of ‘care’; in Newfoundland and some other districts, the word has two syllables, pronounced like ‘car-mel’.

REFERENCES

1. Adventures in Canadianisms. Queen’s University. http://www.queensu.ca/strathy/blog/adventures-canadianisms 2. “Canadianism”. Canada Info. https://www.craigmarlatt.com/canada/symbols_facts&lists/canadian isms.html 3. “Canadianism”. The Canadian Encyclopedia. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/canadian- english/ 4. “Canadianism”. Urban Dictionary. https://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=canadianism 5. “Canadian English”. Oxford English Dictionary. https://public.oed.com/blog/canadian-english/wd 6. “Canadian English”. https://www.cs.mcgill.ca/~rwest/wikispeedia/ wpcd/wp/c/Canadian_English.htm 7. Gallinger, Zak and Arik Motskin. This is How Canada Talks. http://www.the10and3.com/this-is-how-canada-talks/ 8. Harbeck, James. Why is Canadian English unique? http://www.bbc.com/culture/story/20150820-why-is-canadian- english-unique 9. “Lost in translation: Study on Canadian slang draws strange dividing lines”. http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/edmonton/ canadian-language-study-map-1.4276831 10. “The Distinctive Characteristics of Canadian English”. ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-canadian-english-1689820 11. “Why is Canadian English unique?”. Culture. BBC. http://www.bbc.com/culture/story/20150820-why-is-canadian- english-unique 12. “55 Canadianisms You May Not Know or Are Using Differently”. https://geekdad.com/2013/12/55-canadianisms-1/

NOTES

A Compendium of Canadianisms

Навчально-методичні матеріали

Літературний редактор: Д. Пуффалт Коректор: І. Калиновська

1 Формат 60×84 /16. Обсяг 2,81 ум. друк. арк., 3,14 обл.-вид. арк. Наклад 100 пр. Зам. 80. Редакція, видавець і виготовлювач – Вежа-Друк (м. Луцьк, вул. Шопена, 12, тел. (0332) 29-90-65). Свідоцтво Держ. комітету телебачення та радіомовлення України ДК № 4607 від 30.08.2013 р.