242 99PR

rMKI3 I MN COUNCiL OF RESEARCH IN WATER RESOURCES

Proceedings National Workshopon Quality ofDrinking Water March 07, 1998 Islamabad, Pakistan

Compiled by Dr BashirA. Chandio Dr Muhammad Abdullah

Jointly Organized by PAKISTAN COUNCIL OF RESEARCh INWATER RESOURCES AND CHEMICAL SOCIETY OF PAKISTAN Proceedings of the National Workshop on Quality of Drinking Water March 07, 1998 Islamabad, Pakistan

Compiled by Dr. Bashir A. Chandio Dr. Muhammad Abdullah

Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR) Islamabad 1999 LIBRARY lAG P0 Box 93190, 2509 AD THE HAGUE TQI. +31 703068980 Frnc. +31 70 35 89964 BARCODE: J~jj~çy LO: © PCRWRILDIC 1999 3 Street 17, F-612, Islarnabad Pakistan

ISBN 969-8469-O1-X PREFACE

Water is the fountain of life and is indispensible for its continuity Though it is earth’s

one of the most abundant substances but is rarely found in its pure form because being a universal solvent it is either a vehicle or storage of various pollutants The consequent scarcity

of potable water has Lceated the real problems of human health and environmental

sustainability Keeping in view the paramount importance of drinking water, the PCRWR and

CSP have put their modest efforts to orgamze a one day “National Workshop on Quality of

Drinking Water” The papers and subsequent discussions have covered a wide spectrum of drinking s~dterquality

I feel immense pleasure to acknowledge the efforts of organizers to conduct this workshop very effectively. I am cognizant that all dimensions of the drmking water quality

are not comprehensively discussed in this workshop, however, it gives me greater satisfaction to see that workshop proceedings are properly documented and published. I would put my

efforts to bring these recommendation to tne notice of planners and decision maker so that

future planning carries some flavor of this workshop recommendations

Dr. Basbir A. Chandio Chairman Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR)

(i) TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE

INAUGURAL SESSION Workshop Brief Dr Din Mohammad, Secretaiy, Workshop Organizing Committee 3 Welcome Address U Gen. (retd) Javed Ashraf Qazi, 5 Secretary, Ministry of Science & Technology Role of Industry in Safe Drinking Water Mr Khaiii-ur-Rehman, General Manager 6 Himalaya Mountain Valley Water (Pvt ) Limited Islamabad Key Note Address Dr. Ba.shir Ahmed Chandio, Chairman, PCRWR 7 Inaugural Address Syeda AbidaHussain, Federal Ministerfor Science & Technology 9 Vote of Thanks Prof. Roshan Ahmad, Chairperson, Workshop Organizing Committee 11

TECHNICAL PAPERS Drinking Water Quality and Standardization in Pakistan 14 Dr. Bashir A. Chandio, Dr. M. Abdullah and M. A. Tahir Environmental Pollution and Carcmogenesis 19 Dr. S. Riaz-ud-Din Water Borne Diseases 22 Dr. Khurshid Ahmed & Dr. Arhar Saeed Dii Drinlung Water Quality Guidelines Values Chemical and Physical Aspects 25 S. Shujah & M Jaffar Membranes and other Processes to Improve the Quality of Drrnkmg Water 29 MuhammadAshraf Chaudhry Separation and Speciation of Organo-Phosphorus Pesticides Based on 33 Hydrolysis Using Reverse Phase HPLC Jasmin Shah, M.Rasul Jan and Kahkeshan Saeed Drinking Water Quality Momtormg in the Rural Areas of Rawalpindi 35 M Aslam Tahir, Dr. Bashir A Chandzo, Dr M Abdullah & AbidRashid Synthetic Inorgamc Ion Exchangers: Efficient Scavengers for 40 Toxic Pollutants m Water Syed Moosa Hasany Water Chemistry, Quality Control by Electrochemical Methods 43 RiazAhmed Nitrate Pollution in Drinking Water and its Measurement 47 MuhammadMans/ia Chaudhry, Tariq M Naeem and Asmatullah Analysis of Potable Water in Dera Ghazi Khan 50 Rizwan Hussain and Abdul Mateen ABSTRACTS OF SELECTED PAPERS Clean and Safe Drinkmg Water for All 54 Muhammad Akram Chughtai Quality Control of Drmking Water 54 Mian Muhamnw.d Aslam Parameters of Water Quality 54 Dr lqbai H. Qureshi RECOMI~VEENIIATIONS 56

(iii) 4*

INAUGURAL SESSION

Workshop Brief Dr.Din Mohammad, Secretary, Workshop Organizing Committee

Welcome Address Lt.Gen.(retd) Javed Ashraf Secretary, Ministry of Science & Technology

Role of Industry in Safe Drinking Water Mr. Khalil-ur-Rehman, General Manager Himalaya Mountain Valley Water (Pvt.) Limited, Islamabad

Key Note Address Dr. Bashir Ahmed Chandio Chairman, Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources

Inaugural Address Syed Abida Hussain Federal Minister for Science & Technology

Vote of Thanks Prof. Roshan Ahmad Chairperson, Workshop Organizing Committee

I ~

-~~ WORKSHOP BRIEF

Dr. Din Mohanunad, Secretary, Workshop Organizmg Committee

Syeda Abida Hussain, Federal Minister for Science & Technology Lt Gen (retd) Javed Ashraf Qazi, Secretary, Ministry of Science & Technology Dr. Bashir Ahmed Chandio, Chairman, Pakistan Council of Research in Water resources Professor Roshan Ahmed, Chairperson, Workshop Organizing Committee Mr Khalil-ur-Rehman, General Manager, Himalaya Mountain Valley Water (Pvt) Limited Members of the Organizing Committee Distinguished Guests, Ladies and Gentlemen’

Assaiam-o-Alaikum’

It gives me a great pleasure to well come you all To label the available facilities which could be to this occasion and present my brief report on this employed I approached to get quality analysis workshop To create scientific activities in collaboration In January / February 1994 we experienced with NGO’s such as the chemical society, PCRWR, spread of Hepatitis epidemic in parts of Islamabad EPA, universities and the industry for regular which was later traced to be linked to the use of intercomparison campaigns for analysis of drinking contaminated water. This may have happened due to water samples Such activity would lead to a statistically possible human error or improper certification of laboratories for quality analysis. planning and management of the water supply Apart from the inaugural and the concluding system of the area There may have been many such incidents frequently occurring un-noticed in our sessions the whole activity has been divided into three sessions technical session-I, commercial beloved country elsewhere session and technical session-Il In the techmcal In line with the recent trends locally bottled session-I four invited lectures based on different mineral water supplies are now available in the aspects by experienced and knowledgeable scientists market being respectable and clean industry and no and professionals such as Dr. I. H Qureshi, dearth of the raw material Yet one may have heard Scientist Emeritus PINSTECH, Dr. S Riazuddin some one’s whisper expressing his displeasure over Professor and Director, Centre of Excellence in the quality suspecting that some one might have Molecular Biology, Punjab University Lahore, bottled it from a source without proper treatment It Dr Khurshid Ahmed,KRL Hospital, Islamabad and has also come to our notice that a few foreign based Dr M Jaffar, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad agencies have expressed their disbelief on the will be presented This will be followed by quality of the locally manufactured bottled water commercial session where most of the invited papers Under such situation, keeping in view the fact belong to the industrial sector This has been done that our beloved land had been bestowed upon by so intentionally in order to record meaningful The Almighty Allah the best quality water participation of the industrial sector in such national resources in the world, the scientific community and scientific activity and I am pleased to inform represented by the CSP and PCRWR feeling it to be you that we have received enthusiastic response their National duty, joined hands to hold this frQm the industrial sector so much so that we faced workshop to achieve the following objectives difficulty in arranging the allotted time to the To create awareness amongst the masses for a speakers Keeping in view the importance of the quality water as a common responsibility occasion we have accommodated everybody However the time allotted has been decreased to To bring the scientific community, govt only ten minutes to each and I would request to all agencies, organization such as the CDA and the speakers to strictly follow the timing and give manufacturing industry on a common plateform maximum meaningful intormation to the audience considering it a National requirement to improve In third session we have included two invited papers upon the quality of drinking water and the rests are scientific papers which the To create further interaction between the scientists and engineers would like to present and working scientists, theoretically strong scientists are basically concerned with the process or the with academic and research responsibilities and the analytical techniques required for quality analysis in industry for collaborative R&D required to achieve one way or the other This will be followed by the the cherished goal concluding session which would include a brief

3 report on the workshop proceedings, (1) M/s Service Industries, Lahore; recommendations for the future and concluding (2) MIs Arco Intemational, Rawalpindi, and address by the Chairman concluding session Dr. A Q. Ansari Chairman PCSIR Laboratories (3) M/s So-Safe Water Purification Product, Islamabad Islamabad This occasion is bemg sponsored by three types (c) Suppliers of Scientific Equipment and allied of sponsors: products required for quality analysts of water. I (a) Bottled mineral water manufacturers and I would would like to mention the names as: like to mention their names as under: (1) M/s Faiz Enterprises, Islamabad; (1) M/s Himalaya Mountain Valley (Pvt.). (2) M/s We Brothers Scientific Works, Limited, Islamabad, and (2) M/s Natura, Natural Mineral water, (3) M/s H A Shah & Sons Islamabad. Islamabad; We have been rather conservative in choosing (3) M/s Sparklette Continental Corporation, the sponsors because of the reason that we only Limited, Islamabad, and wanted competent companies to be associated with (4) MIs Northern Bottles (Nt.) Limited, us at this first instance. I thank all for their Islamabad. cooperation and hope that this will be for our mutual benefits and service in the National interest. (b) Manufacturefs of the filtered systems and here I Thank you all would like to mention the following names

‘1

4 WELCOME ADDRESS Lt. Gen. (retd) Javed Ashraf Qazi Secretary, Ministry of Science and Technology

Syeda Abida Hussam, Federal Minister for Science and Technology Dr Bashir Ahmed Chandio, Chairman, Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources Prof. Roshan Ahmad, Chairperson, Workshop Orgarnzmg Committee Mr Khalil-ur-Rehman of Water Industry Distinguished Delegates, Ladies and Gentlemen!

Assalam-o-Alazkum!

It is indeed a pleasure for me to make this agree upon some criteria for safety. It is well known welcome address I am happy to see that our that the water supplies of many of our large cities scientific organizations have become active and are and towns are poor which is established by the fact now interacting with industrialists as well as with that the large cities have, in recent years, suffered other members of scientific communities This type maximum incidence of waterborne infections and of interaction, mter-discussion and barter of diseases Water has been identified as main diseases scientific and technological knowledge among the vector for dangerous diseases like Hepatitis. The researchers, scientists, suppliers and consumers risks of infections and diseases through drinking should result m development and prosperity for our water are much higher ut developing countries country. Undoubtedly, water is the most essential because lack of quality control measures and quality constituent of life. A person can live without food standards. for some time but not without water Life would be It is hoped that the latest developments on this adversely affected if there were too little or too subject will be presented and discussed in this much water and would be miserable with polluted ~‘orkshop. A deeper understanding of the drinking water. water quality under present circumstances should The concept of pure water is a pre-historic result in evolving a suitable strategy for future water necessity when methods of water purification were development and management programmes You prescribed There are a number of verses in the have a limited time of five hours after the inaugural Holy Quran and sayings of our Holy Prophet (Peace session, nevertheless, I would like to suggest that be Upon Him) about importance of clean water and the workshop should focus on some of the key issues its requirement for drinking, washing and body in its recommendations which may include the cleaning before prayers The flowing water without development of the water resources and its bad odour and changed colour used to be declared as environmental protection, water scarcity and its clean However, new venues of impurities and impact on rapidly expanding urban populations; the pollution have now emerged which are to be devastating effects of water-borne diseases on resolved through scientific innovations. These human health, the involvement of people in contaminations and pollution are the after-maths of managmg their own water systems and research on modern civilization, unchecked industrial growth new frontiers of water development and marketing. and callous disregard for our environment made In this regard the adverse impacts of sub-standard worse by rapid population growth. People living in water on mfants and female population should not be deserts, villages, towns and big cities take the forgotten quality of drinking water at different standards Madam Minister, Distinguished guests and Some may consider poor quality water fit for use participants, m the end I welcome you to this because of its acceptable appearance, taste and odor, Workshop and I am grateful to you that you have but it may not be true when analyzed on WHO spared your valuable time to be with us today. I am standards. In contrast to that some one may consider specially grateful to the managers of water industry only the deionized water fit for their health. Thus it for co-sponsormg this Workshop. Your presence at is essential to educate the society about the actual this forum indicates your interest and your views requirement of the quality of drinking water and this expressed candidly will lead to improvements in this is the main theme of this workshop. vital sector. The first step toward the establishment of Thank you. standards to ensure the safety of water supplies is to

5 ROLE OF INDUSTRY IN SAFE DRINKING WATER Mr. Khalil-Ur-Rehman, General Manager Himalaya Mountain Valley Water (Pvt.) Limited, Islamabad

Mohterma Syeda Abida Hussain, Federal Minister, Ministry of Science & Technology Lt Gen (retd) Javed Ashraf Qazi, Secretary, Ministry of Science & Technology Dr Bashir Ahmed Chandio, Chairman, Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources Professor Roshan Ahmad, Vice President, The Chemical Society of Pakistan Distinguished Guests, Ladies and Gentlemen’

Assalam-o-Alaikum!

I feel greatly elated to welcome you on behalf of imported from America and Italy which includes water industry of Pakistan to this well organized bottling plant from M/s Uniloy of America capable workshop on quality of drinking water One of the of making 2800 PET bottles per hour. Two water basic requirements for the development of science & purifying capsules and multi media filters from M/s technology is a mutual communication between the Aqua of San Jose, California, which are filled with technical personnel’s. Such a dialogue breach a new improted silica sand, Charcoal and gravel, then we ideas and upto date scientific knowledge amongst the have processing plant from Italy consisting of rinser, professionals Similar exchange at national level filler, capper and labeler with a capacity of filling brings for an opportunity not only for a thought 4500 bottles per hour Our filled bottle is touched by provoking review of the national technical problems a human hand only when it comes out of the but also ways of solving them through latest labeling machine and remains untouched by human deyelopments abroad hand throughout the filling process. Ladies and gentlemen I am really grateful to For disinfection of water we have imported an PCRWR and CSP who have worked hard to provide ozone generator also from America which~ozonizes a common platform to the scientists, industrialists the water during the filling process for disinfection. and the consumer of the drinking water We can We have engaged professional chemists who remain discuss the problems faced in bringing the quality of busy in our well equipped lab. To keep strict check drinking water, gain knowledge and help each other on the quality of water and under no circumstances to meet this national problem I am sure scientists compromise on quality We send our water samples will be dealing with the water sampling techniques, for periodical analysis to Fresenius institute and procedure, water quality testing for aesthetic, Alteapotheke of Germany and in Pakistan to PCSIR, physical, chemical and micro- biological parameters Shifa International, CMH, Agha Khan University alongwith the water quality standard and a Hospital and Qualitest Laboratory Karachi. legislation We the people from industry will be As far as our distribution is concerned we have a discussing our products, the source of water, complete network of distributors all over Pakistan method employed for its purification, plant who are responsible for distribution of our product. processing and use of different types of filters The While our institutional sales are looked after by our delegates from M/s Ava, M/s Nautra and M/s company itself through our two offices in Islamabad Sparkletts are here who are in the water field I and Karachi hope we will be benefiting from them As far as Ladies and gentlemen, I hope the scientific Himaliya Mountain Valley Water Pvt Limited is exchange during this one day workshop on quality of concerned we are serving for the last three years drinking water will result in achieving our objectives I would like to give a brief introduction of our of coordinated efforts for this National issue. I wish company The plant is situated in Abbottabad and all the best. Thanking you very much our source of water is Himalaya Mountain Valley Khuda Hafiz, Pakistan Paindabad’ Spring Water which is further processed, filled and marketed We have state of the art machinery

6 KEY NOTE ADDRESS Dr Bashir Ahmed Chandio Chairman, Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources, Islamabad

Syeda Abida Hussain, Federal Minister for Science & Technology Lt. General (retd) Javed Ashraf Qazi, Secretary, Ministry of Science & Technology Prof Roshan Alimad, Chairperson Workshop Orgarnzmg Committee Mr Khalil-ur-Rehman, of Water Industry Distinguished Delegates, Guests, Ladies and Gentlemen’

Assalam-o-Alaikumt It is indeed an honour for me to present my than 100 infants die every day because of polluted semi-technical paper before the distinguished water audience I feel pleasure to say that the Pakistan Unfortunately both the public as well as private Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR) sectors are polluting water bodies at one or another and Chemical Society of Pakistan (CSP) are pretext or disguise If 90% of the industrial pioneers in organizing National Workshop on establishments does not have water treatment plants Quality of Drinking Water in Pakistan Previously, and are disposing their effluent directly or indirectly the Scientists, Engineers, Industrialists and into the rivers and lakes, the case of public sector Professionals dealing this subject were encircled like WAPDA also cannot be quoted as satisfactory with their research and development activities in Most of the SCARPs are discharging their isolations In order to break this isolation and contaminated field drainage effluent into fresh water bashfulness, CSP and the PCRWR have joined bodies, so that not only the salinity and pollution of hands and have provided a common platform for the Indus river water rises but also it becomes more personnels and firms to exhibit as well as introduce and more toxic as it travels southward their latest technologies and recent research In order to make the system self sustained, the findings water managers have to levy water charges The water we use for domestic purposes is being according to volume consumed. However, polluted from different sources. The one that is willingness to pay for improvements in drinking being conveyed through pipe lines is polluted water quality only increases with increase in income because of defective joints and damaged conduits, and level of education Thus public understanding of and the one routed through open system is water quality is must. It is believed that source contaminated by chemicals of municipal and protection remains the most reliable and low-cost industnal wastes, and pesticides and insecticides of method currently available to protect drinking water agricultural fields. Due to these and many other quality Many decision makers consider that instead contaminations, the drinking water is becoming of spending huge resources to control water borne unsafe to consume The polluted water has turned diseases, one should focus on prevention methods and up as one of the leading health challenges in the that with the use of clean and pure water, country can world today because it is creating diseases, creating prevent water-borne diseases to a greater extent physical and mental disorders, causing cancer and though debate is open about fixmg the standards for many others attacking intestine, stomach, liver and both microbiological and chemical parameters. As kidneys the demand for clean drinking water has increased, According to recent WHO estimates 27% of the the industrial communities have also diverting their world population lives without a clean and safe resources on marketing of drinking water. supply of water. The case of Pakistan may even be The Government of Pakistan is very much alive put at low ebb of sanitation and safe water supply to shortage of safe drinking water. It has set standards, though in population it is the 9th most fourteen national conservation strategies and populous country in the world In Karachi and other priorities under the development programme of major cities, more than 80% of the population has 2010 namely. no access to clean potable water. Only in Karachi • protectmg water bodies and sustaining 60% of all hospital admissions are due to water- fisheries, borne diseases It has been estimated that some 57% • increasing irrigation efficiency, of the total deaths in Pakistan are caused due to use • protecting watersheds, of contammated water while figures have gone upto • conservation of croplands, 60 percent for children It has been estimated that in • supporting forestry and plantation, this country some 10,000 persons die every year due • restoring rangelands and improving livestock; to kidney-related diseases caused by drinking of • conserving biodiversity; dirty water Infant morbidity is so serious that more • increasing energy efficiency; 7 • developing renewable resources, the example of Malaysia where the need for the • preventing and combating pollution; development of a national program for surveillance • managing urban wastes; of drinking water quality was identified in 1983 • supporting institutions for common resources, because it was presumed that the quality of raw • integrating population and environment water sources would deteriorate further with programmes; and increasing urbanization and development. Hence the • preserving the cultural heritage. national drinking water quality surveillance The mother nature has ensured unpolluted supply programme was launched to bring together variqus of water through hydrologic cycle but man made departments and agencies related to the provision of interventions, human greed and unscientific drinking water in a cooperative effort without the management have tended to pollute this supply line need to enforce any laws or regulations This For example, disposal of untreated industrial and programme is reported very successful The municipal wastes is introducing dangerously high PCRWR has made its modest efforts to create levels of toxic pollutants into our rivers, reservoirs, awareness and to help supply good quality drinking lakes In Kasur 109 tanneries are poisoning the water in the country For example. groundwater. In Lahore, more than 10 million (i) Research based rainwater harvesting techniques gallons comprised of raw sewage, industrial wastes are practiced in the Chohstan desert where and the run-off from chemicals, fertilizer and basically rain water is collected for rangeland pesticide units are dumped into the Ravi River every management but two of our water storage ponds hour. The 94% untreated water in Karachi is have been dedicated for local consumption discharged into the Lyari and Malir rivers which where house wives of Dmgarh village are taking causes deoxidation, kills the aquatic life and this water for their drinking and domestic needs; generates unpleasant odours. (ii) Electrical Resistivity Survey and Electncal Well A study conducted by the Health Services Loggings are bemg conducted in various parts Department of the KMC shows that out of 372 of the country to select the suitable sites for samples of drinking water 340 were found unfit for installation of tubewells to get good quality human consumption as E-coli bacteria were groundwater; and detected This findmg indicates that sewage water (iii) A well equipped water quality laboratory has was being mixed with the drinking water supply been established in Islamabad to analyze forty system Reports prepared by organizations other different parameters of drinking water required than the KMC have also indicated the presence of for reliable drinking water quality analysis pathogens and turbidity in Karachi’s drinking water. Before concluding I would like to say that The situation of twin cities of Islamabad and drinking water will be equivalent to oil in the next Rawalpindi is also not too different because about millennium The GOP should make its generous 40% population is using poor quality drinking water investment in the research based development and As a result of this uncontrolled and unmonitored management of water resources The honourable disposal of wastes, into water bodies, the principal Minister may kindly consider to involve professional sources of drinking water are progressively getting research and monitoring organizations to ensure that polluted. new projects in water sector are conforming with Groundwater is a main source of drinking water environmental standards and that they are supply all over the world The fresh water aquifers scientifically sound and economically viable. are being treated as good sources of quality water My sincere thanks are to Syeda Abida Hussain, They are prone to salt water intrusion and upconing who has honoured my request and has spared her but were always taken unaccessible to chemical and valuable time to inaugurate this session. General pathogenic contaminations that case no more exists Qazi, I feel privileged to work with you, I really The analysis of groundwater from wells, tubewells enjoy your moral as well as financial support. and hand pumps shows that it is invariably polluted I am also thankful to Dr Din Muhammad, and is unfit for human consumption In developed Dr Roshan and other organizers of Chemical Society countries, groundwater management is thought by who reposed their confidence in the PCRWR and the user groups to be better than its treatment, and brought the concept of collaborative work My local and state level involvement is favoured over thanks are to the organizers and sponsors of this federal intervention. workshop, I sincerely appreciate the efforts of my All my this discussion is as a matter of fact team who has made its untiring effort ni make this aimed at knelling bells of danger that our water workshop a successful event Dr Abdullah and resources are being polluted at such an alarming rate Mr Aslam Tahir are the key figures of my team who that we are left with little time to waste The really matter to me at this moment. contamination of our water sources and resources Distinguished participants, ladies and gentlemen, from nuclear and other lethal wastes is yet to be the overall success of this workshop, lies in your determined. It is therefore very important that the active participation. water quality all over Pakistan is monitored by an Thank you. umbrella federal organizations regularly. I can quote

8 INAUGURAL ADDRESS

Syeda Abida Hussain Federal Minister for Science and Technology, Government of Pakistan Lt General (retd) Javed Ashraf Qazi, Secretary, Ministry of Science & Technology Dr Bashir A Chandio, Chairman, Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources Prof. Roshan Ahmad, Chairperson, Workshop Organizing Committee Mr. Kiialil-ur-Rehman of Water Industry Distinguished Delegates, Ladies and Gentlemen’

AssaLa,n-o-Al,~iikum!

The objectives of developing country mostly and industrialists come up with a viable solution to rotate around better health, basic education, shelter, redeem ill consequences of our neglect and bad ensured supply of food items in the market, clean planning environment and safe drinking water It is also very In the agrarian community as that of ours, water well known that human health and survival depend is also recognized a key factor for poverty on use of uncontaminated and clean water for alleviation I also believe that same is the case for drmkmg and other domestic purposes As the the industrial society of today. It is my common population is increasing the world over, the demand observation that un-guaranteed supply of water for for water also increases. Should this august audience domestic purposes has forced the consumers to ponder upon these factors’), its members would find construct their underground water tanks and suction that neither any item would be complete without pumps to draw the water directly from supply line water nor prosperity and development of the nation and store it in their underground tanks. So those in their true sense would take place wjthout who don’t have this facility would be usurped of availability of clean water. their share I think that such type of forced As the onset of my inaugural address you withdrawal of drinking water may also tend sewage genuinely should expect that I would say few words water which is running parallel to drinking water in admiration of your this collaborative effort So I system, to enter into drinking water lines. My do! I commend this effort. But as you know my intuition also cautions me that such type of domestic background that I represent poor classes of rural and underground or even overhead tanks neither would agrarian communities I find little in this workshop be properly constructed nor adequately maintained. for them I would like to stand corrected rather I would not feel any hesitation to say about would be pleased if the organization committee were to tell me that its today’s effort also focuses on the house wives who are more vulnerable than men to uncontaminated supply of potable water to the 60% the environmental contaminants I strongly suggest of the poor population that is living in rural areas I that this workshop should recognize the role of think similar is the case with slum areas of urban feminine gender and ponder upon the ways and population. means as how to bring ease and comfort to this Most of the rural population use to take its sector in the same way or even better than male drinking water from open wells or handpumps but society ordain for themselves. All over the world, now the salimzation of the groundwater as well as women play a crucial role in environmental its contamination from agricultural wastes is management. Every one present here should be polluting this source. At many places, the bad odor aware of the fact that in rural areas, women are the like that of hydrogen sulphide and salty smell is main collectors and users of water for their quite detectable As a result this population has been households activities They can be immediately complaining a6out spasmatical stomach pains and affected by degraded water systems Unfortunately other gastric dis-orders being netted in the low income group, rural I also draw your attention to the people who are communities cannot relish the delicacies of bottled living in deserts like Cholistan, Thar and Thai!, and water, hence this forum may have more emphasis as the hilly and sub-hilly tracts of Sindh and how to meet the basic needs of drinking water for Balochistan where people live on rainwater stored in rural areas. open ponds which is a common property for all I am glad that the Pakistan Council of Research living beings which is being infested by all in Water Resources and the Chemicals Society of pathogens. It is a worst type of slavery of present Pakistan have jointly organized this national times that women travel miles to bring one or two workshop on Quality of Drinking Water where clay pitchers filled with water on their heads. I think water related mdustnes are also collaborating with it will be a great service to Pakistan if you scientists the organizers to make this workshop a success. I hope the deliberations of the workshop will throw 9 more light on the important areas on the use of good recommendations. I would however suggest that quality drinking water, control of water borne they may be few and attainable If they are diseases and supply of low cost bottled water at convincing, and I am positive that your forum is public places. I suggest that deliberations should capable of doing so, I will be very happy to get you develop new strategies providing good quality water every support from my government. You may like to every user. The Ministry of Science and to consider Technology has invested a moderate amount of (a) How masses should be able to purify their money on setting up of a well equipped water quality laboratory in PCRWR at Islamabad. I water at a bearable price; suggest that this forum should look into the (b) How supply of potable water is made self capabilities of the laboratory and judge themselves sustained, as whether or not it can be of a good use to you I (c) How drudgeries of feminine class is removed; thank the PCRWR, CSP and Water Industry for their collaboration in this workshop and highly (d) How quality of water resources is preserved, appreciate the participation of scientists, engineers and and industrialists, whose contributions, I am sure, (e) What public sector involvement is required. would be highly valuable. I would keenly look forward to receiving the With these remarks, I feel great pleasure m recommendations of this workshop Of course, a inaugurating the workshop and I wish you allsuccess follow-up of the recommendations is necessary in in your deliberations order to assure the implementation of the

10 VOTE OF THANKS

Professor Roshan Abmad Chairperson, Workshop Organizing Committee

Syeda Abida Hussain, Federal Minister for Science & Technology Lt Gen. (retd) Javed Ashraf Qazi, Secretary, Ministry of Science & Technology Dr. Bashir Ahmed Chandio, Chairman, Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources Dr. Din Mohammad, The Organizing Secretary Mr. Khalil-ur-Rehman, General Manager, Himalaya Mountain Valley Water (Pvt.) Limited Members of the Organizing Committee Distinguished Guests, Ladies and Gentlemen!

Assala,’n-o-Ala,kum

Since a long time the Chemical Society of also due to Lt. Gen (retd) Javed Ashraf Qazi for his Pakistan has been planning to orgamze some type of presence on this occasion and delivering the workshop, seminar or symposium in which we Wellcome address. On behalf of the Chemical could bring the chemists working in the Society of Palustan I extend my gratitude to universities, R&D orgamzations and the Dr. Bashir Ahmed Chandio for collaborating with us industrialists on one platform so that different in orgamzing this workshop. We are grateful to the problems of mutual interest could be discussed and representatives of industries for participating and co- solved. Some how we were unable to organize a sponsoring the workshop My special thanks are due general workshop on the subject of chemists - to Mr Khalil-Ur-Rehman, General Manager industrialists interaction . Thanks to Pakistan Himalaya Mountain Valley Water Ltd. and Council of Water Resources and some people from Mr Akram Chaughtai Service Industries Ltd. for industry for collaborating in organizing this being the major sponsors. The members of the workshop which is just an initial step to proceed organizing committee deserve my special thanks for towards a goal. working hard to make this workshop a success. I The need for organizing this workshop and the must acknowledge the sincere efforts of Dr. Din objectives have been summarized m the workshop Mohammnad, Dr A. H. Rehan, Dr. M. Abdullah, brief I hope that the deliberations of this workshop Mr Aslam Tahir and their co-workers who have will throw some light on important measures to be worked day and night for this workshop. My thanks taken to improve the quality of drinking water for are also due to all other organizations who have use of the general public We are really thankful to sponsored this workshop and finally the madam Syeda Abida Hussain who has spared some distinguished participants, ladies and gentlemen of her valuable time to grace this occasion and thank you very much for your participation. inaugurate the workshop. Our sincere thanks are

II TECHNICAL PAPERS

Drinking Water Quality and Standardization in Pakistan Dr. BashirA. Chandio, Dr. M. Abdullah and M. A. Tahir

Environmental Pollution and Carcinogenesis Dr. S. Riaz-ud-Din

Water Borne Diseases Dr. Khurshid Ahmed & Dr. Athar Saeed Dii

Drinking Water Quality Guidelines Values: Chemical and Physical Aspects S. Shujah & M. Jaffar

Membranes and other Processes to Improve the Quality of Drinking Water Muhammad AshrafC/zaudhry Separation and Speciation of Organo-Phosphorus Pesticides Based on Hydrolysis Using Reverse Phase HPLL Jasmin Shah, M. Rasul Jan and Kahkeshan Saeed Drinking Water Quality Monitoring in the Rural Areas of Rawalpindi M Aslam Tahir, Dr. Ba.shirA. Chandio, Dr. M. Abdullah & Abid Rashid Synthetic Inorganic Ion Exchangers: Efficient Scaveñgé~rsfor Toxic Pollutants in Water Syed Moosa Hasany

Water Chemistry, Quality Control by Electrochemiçal Methods Riaz Ahmed

Nitrate Pollution in Drinking Water and its Measurement Muhammad Mansha Chaudhry, Tariq M. Naeem and Asmatuilah Analysis of Potable Water in Dera Ghazi Khan Rizwan Hussain and Abdul Mateen DRINKING WATER QUALITY AND STANDARDIZATION IN PAKISTAN

Bashir A. Chandio, M. Abdullah and M.A. Tahir Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources, Islamabad

ABSTRACT: Drinking water in Pakistan is required for aboui 136 million population out of which 68% is living in rural areas Though most of the drinking water supplies are drawn from surface water and groundwater, yet harvested rain water also makes some contribution in sandy deserts and hilly areas However, if the annual growth rate remains to be 2 7% then it would be very diflicult to enhance the safe water coverage to the masses within next 10 years Presently, the water quality is a more serious problem in this country than its volume because only about 40% of the total population is receiving potable water according to World Health Organization (WHO) standards The main quality problems related to drinking water have emanated from turbidity, inadequate sanitation, high bacterial load, unhygienic water storage, discharge of civil and industrial effluents into water bodies, and inflltration of toxic leachates from agricultural Odds The PCRWR has made water quality sampling from surface and groundwater sources around Islaniabad & Rawalpindi and has observed that most of the drinking water samples of the area are contaminated with bacterial load, while a few have high concentration of turbidity, nitrate nitrogen, sodium, iron and lead A number of preventive and corrective measures to standardize and purify the drinking water are therefore discussed in this paper

Introduction The increase in water demand proportionate to Water is an absolute necessity as well as a population growth is common every where. But universal solvent. It contains dissolved materials and better financial position and judicious resource allocation made by the developed countries have suspended particles even in its natural state . Though agriculture is its main consumer, other sectors are offset the consequences of population pressure on also competing and have potentials to pay more For available water resources. They have controlled the domestic purposes, it is required between 150 and population growth rate, have developed new 300 1/day-capita in which groundwater makes more resources and have managed the available resources -contribution because in principle it is clean and prudently. To meet with the increased population biologically uncontaminated, 70% of drinking water pressure of the city of Berlin on the water resources, supply comes from aquifers. Presently clean an integrated management approach for water drinking water supplies are required for an resources was planned through advanced treatment estimated population of about 136 millions, out of of available resources to meet the stringent quality which 68% is living in rural areas. requirements and to shift the treatment~towardsthe Whereas surface water pollution comes from sources of pollution to obtain an dptirnum water pathogens, chemicals, and untreated wastes; shallow resource protection. The low income countries aquifer pollution comes from infiltration of waste however adopt some relaxation. For example, in disposal, agro-chemicals, and other natural Morocco, maximum acceptable level for the total pollutants. The pollution problems and dissolved solids has been raised from 1500 to 2000 environmental concerns necessitate that all types of mg/I wastes should be treated before they are disposed, The presence of organic and inorganic however, implementation of such programs in compounds beyond threshold limit causes health developing countries is hindered by cost, availability problems Therefore water quality should be of resources, and the level of expertise required to maintained against diverse groups of organic operate the programs. chlorinated compounds, chlorophenols and The experts believe that the water quality is a polychiorinated biphenyls, fluorides, pH, chlorides, more serious problem in this country than its total hardness, specific conductivity and sulfates. quantity because only about 40% of the total Many public water supplies also contain chemicals population is receiving potable water according to that cause cancer It is necessary to detect the World Health Organization (WHO) standards The carcinogenic material level in the water for main quality problems related to drinking water prevention purposes Nonetheless it should be kept have emanated from turbidity, inadequate sanitation, in mind that a total absence of carcinogens in water high bacterial load, unhygiemc water storage is unrealistic. Regulating water quality with respect practices, discharge of civil and industrial effluents to carcinogens requires an assessment of the risks of into water bodies, and infiltration of toxic leachates exposure. Some so called qualities of drinking water from agricultural fields into aquifers. Future seem to be related to increased gastric cancer deterioration of water quality in developing incidence. They are soft water (poorly mineralized, countries should be a consequence of increased low in magnesium, and sometimes containing industrial production, rapid increase in water use, radioactive substances) and the presence of nitrogen deforestation, and the destruction of natural filter compounds (ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, systems such as wetlands. nitrosamines). Hard, highly mineralized water is 14 associated with lower cancer rates. One study Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade was associated high lead levels in water with cancers of launched in 1980 to provide potable water to all the stomach, kidney, and intestine and leukemia urban population and 66% of rural population. The It is very difficult to provide water for any priorities and targets of the decade were included in consumer at 100% uncontaminated form because of the 6th Five Year Plan. At the end of 7th Five Year inhibitively high cost of such type of treatment and Plan of the Government of Pakistan the proposed purification. Economics plays an mfluential role in coverage of safe water supplies was extended to the fmal decision by a community with respect to 75% of population, however, the above targets were the selection of their drinking water treatment not fully achieved, so that by the year 1993, only process. Fortunately, for most toxic effects there is 61 5% of the total country’s population had access a threshold level below which no harm occurs even to safe drinking water. Subsequently, the 8th Five over a lifetime of exposure. It is further observed Year Plan envisaged to provide drinking water that modernization of water sources alone is not a facilities to 95% of population. It is envisaged that sufficient measure for the improvement in clean in the next 10 years it would be very difficult to water supplies. As users have a strong influence on enhance the safe water coverage for the population the quality of their drinking water, their education which is increasing at a rate of 2.7%. and that of dwellers regarding management of their Allocation of funds to the water supply sector as sources is considered as next important factor to well as to other sectors would always remain short help improve the supply of clean water because of economical constraints and very high The quality enforcement efforts have in general population growth rate. Nonetheless planners and improved the performance of public and private decision makers would genuinely worry as how to facilities that obtam their drinking water from lakes, extend drinking water facilities to additional 3.5 rivers and streams, treat it and distribute it to their million per year It is feared that with this much customers Martapura River of Indonesia was growth rate our constrained economy may not be contaminated with total coliform, Escherichia coli, able to bear the consequent financial and and hydrogen sulfide but when that water was administrative responsibilities unless they are shared treated and chlorinated in a residual of 1 0 mg/L or completely off loaded by the private sector. A before it was distributed to the city, no coliform or change in the present policy is strongly required, hydrogen sulfide producing bacteria were detected. which might rotate around economics with a prime The distribution system itself can contribute to concern as how to provide safe drinking water this deterioration. Numerous examples of facilities to all consumers under a self sustained waterborne outbreaks have demonstrated the system importance of the distribution system in preventing Drinking Water Quality Assessment and disease The media, environmental groups and consumers therefore want to see tap water commg Impacts from those sources that are not polluted. The water The quality of surface and groundwater bemg industry, on the other hand, continues to reassure used for drinking by urban as well as rural the public that drinking water remains as good as it population is ‘poor’. It has been assessed that more was 50 years ago. than 40% end users are not receiving potable water Ground water is rather a main source of drinking as per WHO recommendations. The analysis of water because of its presumable uncontammatable water samples collected from Islamabad and situation. However, the analyses m the country like Rawalpindi by PCRWR have shown the similar USA have showed a relatively high concentrations results (Tables-5 & 6). Water quality survey of of dissolved lead, copper, iron, and zinc and trace Karachi and Lahore have revealed that majority of amounts of a few organic compounds In Pakistan, water samples contained high bacterial load and the potable groundwater is being drawn through tube- sewage organisms. wells, hand pumps, open wells, springs and karezes. Almost 95% of the wells of the Karachi city and However, where the groundwater is brackish or not its suburbs were highly polluted both easily available, the surface water is diverted to bacteriologically and chemically; the tested samples filtration plants where it is allowed to remain stagnant possessed contain high concentration of total for a specific period to achieve partial settlmg of dissolved salts as a result of sea water intrusion into suspended materials, then filtered, whereas in deserts fresh water aquifers in the coastal areas. Whereas or areas outside Indus basin, harvested rainwater is the quality of groundwater in Lahore is marginally used for drinking purposes permissible, water samples collected from the adjacent localities of Lahore found to be unfit for National Development Plans human consumption. Similar situation was observed Till the year 1980, only 33% of the total for the rural areas of NWFP, while the situation m population of Pakistan had the access to the Balochistan was worst. acceptable drmking water. Hence the International

15 The World Health Organization estimates that areas, rain water is harvested and used after simple 500 million diarrheal episodes occur each year in cloth filtration process. In mountainous areas, children under five years in Asia, Africa and Latin springs are mainly adopted as source of supply America. The extent of enteric diseases in different which is generally good in quality areas depends upon the extent to which a drinking In the areas where groundwater is brackish or water is exposed to contamination. Many incidence deep, surface water is invariably used for drinking of typhoid, dysentery, hepatitis and other enteric and purposes after passing through slow sand filters to respirator infections in many countries have been remove suspended solid materials. This filtered - reportedly transmitted through water The entry of water is then chlorinated in treatment plants to these water carried human diseases into water reduce the suspended and bacterial loads and is then bodies is to be prevented by proper water treatment pumped to various consumers in the urban areas like and enforcing quality standards. Karachi, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi and Islamabad In In addition to above, there are many other these treatment plants, Alum is bemg used as a diseases related to ingestion of toxic substances like coagulating agent. Then chemically mixed water is mercury, chromium, lead, zinc, cadmium, nickel, conveyed to a flocculation chamber until a thick floc sulphide, chlorine, ammonia, cyanide, and organic of settleable matter is formed which is removed in chemicals. The substances present in different sedimentation basins The clear water is finally industrial effluents in Karachi, and other cities filtered through rapid sand filter beds and in most alongwith their levels and maximum limit are briefly cases post chlorination is practiced. Despite the as given in Tabl- 1. excellent facilities for chlorination and treatment Table 1: Water Pollution Level in Karachi available in major cities, it has been observed that Substances Levels m Max. Limit (mg/I) the drinking water, finally supplied to users, is yet Industrial Effluent not “Safe” for drinking

Chromium (Cr) 200 0 5 Water Quality Standardization Lead (Pb) i2 0 3 Mercury (Hg) - 0 004 The standards for drinking water quality are Zinc (Zo) iOO& 5 always based on scientific research and Copper (Cu) 20 0 5 epidemiological findings and as such provide Nickel (Ni) i 2 0 3 guidance for making risk management decisions Cadmium (Cd) - 0 03 related to the protection of public health and the Cyanide (CN) - 0 iS preservation of the environment. Water quality Phenols - i 0 iron (Fe) 20 4 0 standards are legal impositions enacted by means of Oil & Grease 30 5 laws, regulations or technical procedures, which are established by countries by adapting guidelmes to It can be seen that contents of heavy metals are their national priorities and taking in account their alarmingly high Their presence is very logical techntcal, economical, social, cultural and political because textile, tanneries, and other industries characteristics and constraints established m Karachi are disposing their effluents containing above heavy metals without treatment Water intended for human consumption must be These effluents either dumped into Liyari and Malir free from harmful quantities of microbial organisms River or are pounded where from they arc leached and chemical substances which may pose a hazard to down and are mixed up with groundwater There health. Supply of drinking water should not only be are also evidences that enroute to their disposals, the safe and free from dangers to health but also be effluents mix up with drinking water through leaky aesthetically acceptable. The purpose of setting and damaged water supply lines. As a result of this standards is to define the quality of water that is safe contamination the people of Karachi are suffering as well as palatable for human consumption. from various diseases These effluents ultimately Pakistan Council of Research in Water “1 find their way in the sea where marine life is Resources had prepared a draft act on safe drinking affected adversely. water including standards in 1993 for Pakistan and It is estimated that 30 percent of all reported forwarded to Ministry of Science and Technology cases of illness and 40 percent of all deaths in for further process The standards contained in the Pakistan are attnbuted to water diseases Recently act were basically based on WHO water quality when survey conducted by PCRWR showed that guidelines but were further modified according to 81996 cases of water related diseases were fmancial, environmental and technical conditions. registered only in Basic Health Units of Rawalpmdi These standards were prepared in consultation with Division within a year. water quality experts of different relevant departments like PPH, Planning Commission, Status of Water Treatment PCSIR ctc. The proposed water quality standards In the areas where groundwater is potable, it is aie presented in Tables 2 to 4 being utilized directly. In semi-hilly and desert 16 Table 2 Bacteriolo2ical Standards Organisms Guideline Value a All water inteodeil for drinking E coli or thermotolerani coliform bacteria Must not be detectable in any 100-mi sample b Treated water entermg the distribution system E colt or thermotoiei-ant coliform bacteria Must not be detectable in any 100-mI sample Total coliform bacteria Must not be detectable in any 100-mi sample C Treated water in the distribution system E coli or therrnotoleranc coliform bacteria Must not be detectable ri any 100-mi sample In the case of large supplies, where sufficient samples are examined Total coliform bacteria Must not be present in 95% of samples taken throughout any 12 month period

SE coil is the ore precise Indicator of fecal pollution, the count of thermotolerant collforns bacteria Is an acceptable alternative. Turbidity should be <1 NTU: For disinfection, with chlorine. pH preferably <8.0 and residual free chlorine should be 0 2-0 5 mg/i with mInimum 30 minutes contact time.

Table 3. Standards for Inor2anic Health-related Constituents (These standards apply to water supplies) Constituent Unit Highest Maximum Permissible Tome Effects Desirable Level Level Lead mg/I 005 0 05 Children particularly susceptible to effects of lead oncentral nervous system Mercury mg/I 0001 0001 Nesrological effects Fluoride mg/I I 0 1 5 Dental Iluorosis in children, excessive concentrative may cause crippting_skeletal_fluorosis Nitrate (NOy mg/I 45 45 Infantile methetnoglobirssma

Table 4: Standardsjor Aesthetic and other Inorganic Health Related Constituents Conslatuenla Unit Hlghmt Maximum Undesirable Effects Desirable Level Permissible Level Turbidity N1’U 25 5 Unaesthetic decrease iii efficiency ofdisinfection Colour Pt, Co — 5 15 Unaesthetic Taste aisi Odour - linobjec Uriobjec Taste and Odour TDS mg/I 500 1500 Salty taste, corrosion or instruction Iron mg/I 0 1 I 0 Taste, discoloration Manganese mg/I 005 05 Taste, discoloration Magnesium mg/I 30 150 Stomach disturbances Copper mg/I - 05 I 5 Taste, corrosion of pipe & utensil taste Zinc mg/I 5 150 Taste Sulfate mg/I 2(X) 4~X) Corrosion, laxative effect Chloride mg/I 200 600 Taste, corrosion pH - 7 0-85 6 5-92 Taste, corrosion Hardness mg/I 200 500 Corrosion or scale formation Phenolic sub Mg/I 0001 0 002 Taste

Table 5: Pollution Problems in the Water Supply System ofIslamabad Sr No. Year Pollutants HighestDesirable Level Above the Health Effects (WHO) Acceptable Level (%age) 1 1989 (N0 3-N) 10mg/i 5 66 Disturbances instomach arid intestine, formation of methamnolobinaenua may cause death 2 1989 Bacterial NIL 6603 Cholera, typhoid, gastro enteritis etc 3 1997 Bacterial NIL 33 Cholera, typhoid, gastro enteritis etc

Table 6: Drinking Water Quality Profile (Exceeding WHO Standards) Rawalpindi District (1994) S WHO No Parameters Guide- Percentage ofSamples E,tceedlng WHO Guidelines Health Effects lines Tehsils Gujar Kahuta Murree Rawalpirsli Taxila Khan No of Samples 29 19 23 19 26 I Bacterial Indicator -E Coli -Coliform Nil 655 842 739 684 538 Diarrhea, Dysentery, Stomach & -Non Coli Nil 862 78 9 87 895 76 9 Intestinaldisturbances etc) Nil 862 895 87 895 731 2 Nitrate (N) 0 24 I 26 3 - - II 5 Infantile methaemoglo-binaemia, Gastrointes-tinal disturbances 3 Iron (1 3 - - 34 8 - - Hemochroma-tosis 4 Sodium 200 172 - - 105 - Vomiting, Muscular twitching, Hypertension 5 Manganese 0 I 862 63 2 26 1 105 100 No adverse health effects in humans were found Undesirable taste, Incrustation Pmt~an

17 Recommendations 8. Government of Pakistan, Planning Commission. In order to ensure the supply of quality water to (1988). “Physical planning and housing” In: entire population following recommendations are Seventh Five Year Plan 1988-93 and Perspective suggested Plan 1988-2(X)3. Islamabad. pp. 235-242. I An umbrella water quality momtormg and 9. Government of Pakistan, Planning Commission. evaluation cell should be established m the center (1988). “Physical planning and housing”. In: with its provincial branches, Eighth Five Year Plan 1993-98 and Perspective 2 to establish water quality standards for all sectors Plan 1988-2003. Islamabad. pp. 287-297 like bottling water quality; 10. Hamilton, K G. and Stringer, E.A. (1992). 3 to select and recommend appropriate technologies “Quality of Ground Water Used for Drinking at 22 Schools m Tennessee with Supply Systems for design, construction, operation and Classified as Non-Community, Non-Transient.” maintenance of drinking water supply systems, USGS Open-File Report 9 1-534 4 to arrange training programmes on water quality, 11. Heinzmann, B and Sarfert, F (1995). “An and its standards; integrated water management concept to ensure 5 to embark on awareness programmes about water a safe water supply and high drinking water quality, pollution and sanitation on Radio, TV and quality on an ecologically sound basis”. Newspapers; and International Conference on Integrated Water 6 to ensure implementation of drinking water Resources Management, Amsterdam quality standards all over Pakistan. (Netherlands) 26-29 Sep 1994 Integrated Water Resources Management Hosper,-S H.; Gulati,- References R D., Van-Liere,-L.; Rooijackers,-R M M. 1. Abouzaid, H. and Echthabi, L (1993). (eds.) pp. 281-291. “Drinking water quality and monitoring m 12 Hespanhol and Prost A M.E, 1994, “Water North Africa: The Moroccan experience” Resources WHO guidlmes and national standards Regional Meeting of the Society of for reuse and water quality”, Vol 28, No. 1, Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safely, Rome Great Britain, pp.119-124 (Italy) 26-29 Sep 1993. Environmental 13 Hickman, J.R, Toft, P; Armstrong, V C and Toxicology. Hazards to the Environment and Meek, M.E. (1989) “The New Guidelines for Man in the Mediterranean Region, Vittozzi, L. Canadian Drinking Water Quality”. In: (ed.) 1995. p.29-34 Drinking Water Treatment Small System 2. Benedek, P. (1991) “Water Quality and Alternatives. Pergamon Press, New York Health: Review of the International Drinking p 16-25 Water Supply and Samtation Decade”. Water 14. Houk, V.N. (1987). “Carcinogens in Drinking Science and Technology. 23(1/3): 229-235 Water and Water Quality Standards” In: 3 Calabrese, E.J. and Gilbert, C E (1989) Pesticides and Groundwater A Health Concern “Drinking Wa~rQuality and Water Treatment for the Midwest. Proceedings of a conference Practices Charting the Future” Safe Drinking sponsored by the Freshwater Foundation and Water Act: Amendments, Regulations and the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, St Standards Lewis Publishers, Inc., Chelsea Paul, MN, October 16-17, 1986. Freshwater Michigan p 113-142 Foundation, Navarre, Minnesota 1987 p.247- 4. Clark, R. M ; Goodrich,-J -A and Wymer, 252 L.J (1993). “Effect of the Distribution System 15. Kromoredjo, P. and Fujioka, R.S (1991). on Drinking-Water Quality”. Aqua 42(1): 30-38 “Evaluating Three Simple Methods to Assess 5. Consonery, P J.(1995) “Pennsylvania program the Microbial Quality of Drinking Water m helps improve drrnking water safety and Indonesia”. Environmental Toxicity and Water quality” Water-Eng.-Manage. 142(3) 30-32 Quality. 6(2): 259-270 6. Ghedm, E., Robidoux, L.; Handschumacher, 16. Mahrnood, S. (1988) “Treatment of water for P.; Hebrard, G. and Schmit,-J.P. (1993). drinking purposes for rural and urban areas”. “Quality of drinking water sources in two sub- International Seminar of SAARC Countries, desert Sahelian areas in north-western Kathmandu, Nepal Senegal”. mt. -J -Environ -Stud -Sect. -A.44(2- 17 Mohan, S V., Nithila, P. and Reddy, S.J. 3): 113-130 (1995). “Determination of fluoride content m 7. Government of Pakistan, Planning Commission drinking water and development of a model in (1983). “Water supply~ Farewell to polluted relation to some water quality parameters”. water” In: The Sixth Five Year Plan 1983-88. Fresenius-Environ.-Bull. 4(5): 297-302 Islamabad. pp 395-402.

18 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND CARCINOGENESIS S. Riaz-ud-Din Professor & Director, National Centre of Excellence in Molecular Biology University of the Punjab, Canal Bank Road, Thokar Niaz Baig, Lahore-53700

ABSTRACT: The quality of life at both ihe social and individual levels would be severely restricted if we had to live without petroleum products, plastics, synthetic textiles, man-made mineral fibers, antibiotics and synthetic drugs or without the synthetic materials needed to produce modem electronic devices In many ways chemicals are a basic factor in the well being and effective functioning of present day societies They may play the role of being essential in one way and responsible for deleterious effects under other conditions depending upon the nature and amount present Their effects in terms of environmental pollution especially related to the quality of drinking water are briefly discussed in this paper

Introduction Long ago, scientific communities warned about As in the case of drugs, the use of new the global pollution of the ecosystem, including chemicals implies not only the desired benefits but man ‘Chemicalizanon’ entails problems that were also adverse effects We are compelled to not perceived by decision-makers when early compromise between costs and benefits When the warnings were issued, now these problems are desired and the adverse effects of the use of appearing m concrete form before the chemicals are weighed, it is pertinent to ask whether administrators, and effective solutions are urgently we really need all the new chemicals that are needed. To a great extent the problems are synthesized annually and whether all the 60,000- international in character and, consequently, the 70,000 chemicals used daily in industrialized solutions require international action and societies are truly essential. Some people have collaboration. wondered how long our ecosystem can survive and Extent of Pollution how long the bio-system, man included, can tolerate Several governments and political and economic the doubling of the consumption of chemicals that associations including the European Economic occurs every 7-10 years Community, the Council of Mutual Economic In fact, all nations within the United Nations Assistance and the Organization for Economic family are faced today with growing problems of Cooperation and Development (OECD), and ‘chemicalization’, and questions of weighing risks international organizations within the United and benefits have become more and more relevant. Nations, have undertaken specific programmes to This is because all societies have become meet the problems caused by chemicals All the increasingly dependent on chemicals Severe international and national actions undertaken ihus to damage to the ecosystem has been recognized, such demonstrate the need for governments to regulate as damage due to acid rains, the pollution of solid the growing use of ‘chemicals’ in both developed and water and the increasing rates of certain types and developing countries Furthermore, an of cancer and allergies. Severe chemical accidents increasing number of international conventions and or epidemics, such as the poly-chlorinated biphenyls agreements have been compiled to prevent (PCBs) epidemics in Japan, Taiwan and the USA, transboundary effects of chemicals. Joint action for the dioxin accident in Italy, the mercury epidemics the monitoring of the exposure of both the in Iraq and Japan and the food-oil epidemic in ecosystem and the population always plays an Spain, have also emphasized the importance of -important role in thes~programmes and agreements chemical safety even in highly developed societies~’~ Several means can be applied to prevent In most European Countries, presently, 45% of chemical hazards The most effective one would be the labour force is exposed occupationally to to refrain from using hazardous substances and to chemicals during various stages of production, replace them with non-hazardous ones Not all packing and transport and the specific use of’ hazardous exposures, however, can be avoided, chemicals or in the handing of chemical wastes On because we simply do not know all the possible average some 3.5 % of the labour force is exposed to risks, despite extensive testing programmes. So far, carcinogens, but in the small industries 22% of the appropriate toxicity testing has been done only for workers face the possibility of exposure to about 10-25% of the chemicals used daily~2~ carcinogens and some 46% to allergens We are still Chlorination of water, presumably to kill its surrounded by facilities and apparatus containing microbial content, exposes the consumer to a variety PCBs. There are more than three million pieces of of hazardous compounds. The variables of electrical apparatus containing more than 2000 established importance in the production of tonnes of PCBs in a small country like Pakistan potentially toxic compounds are total organic (General Statistics) carbon, pH, ammomum and bromide ion 19 concentration and the qualitative composition of the alkylpurines, i.e. 3- and 7-substituted organic matter. The presence of the said impurities deoxyribonucleotides, is much more facile at neutral relate to the production of Trthalomethanes such as pH than that of the parent purines, as found first for chloroform, bromodichioromethane, chloro- 7-methylguanine. This would potentiate fission of the deoxyribose-phosphate chain of the DNA dibromo-methane etc. (3) Inorganic elements si~chas Arsenic, Brelium, macromolecule, thus accounting for the Cadmium, Chromium, Nickle, Lead, Selenium and “radiomimetic” nature of methylating, and other Zinc interact very strongly even at trace levels, both aliphatic, alkylating agents The methylation of with other trace elements and with substances DNA per se was also deduced to be a potential commonly present m the environment Some of source of cytotoxicity, since 3-methylpurines are these interactions have been found to be very removed from DNA by repair systems and alkylation of DNA at N3 of adenme or guamne is complex in their relevance to carcinogenesis Several of the elements have been shown both to therefore a significant interference with the function enhance and to inhibit experimental carcinogenesis of the DNA template for tumor growth, dependmg on the type of tumor, A further interesting feature of the tissue or carcinogenic agent administered DNA destabilization of the imidazole ring of guanine fidelity assays of 40 metal compounds, indicate that nucleotide by alkylation at N7 is the alkali catalysed cations of Hg, Be, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni and Pb ring fission to yield a 2,3-diamino-4-oxy-5- increase incorporation of nucleotide bases in the formamtdopyrimidin&5~This type of reaction has daughter strand of DNA that is synthesized in vitro recently sprung into prominence with the findings from polynucleotide templates by microbial DNA that not only does ionizing radiation (action through polymerases. It has been confirmed that OH radicals in aqueous media) attack the imidazole carcmogemc metal cations cause notable increases m ring of guanme in DNA but all DNA samples the mis-incorporation of all four nucleotides by contain comparatively large amounts of 8- DNA polymerases in vitro, whereas non- oxypurines and the ring-opened guanine derivative. Even more notable is the fmdmg that DNA from carcinogenic metals do not change the fidelity (4)~ breast tumors contains 8-17 times the amounts in Carcinogenesis control DNA, i e., over 106 molecules per human DNA Reactive compounds have proved to be diploid genome content, and the highest observed important in carcinogenesis. Damage to DNA can extent of chemical modification of DNA so far result in mutagenesis, which is mvolved in found~. carcinogenesis~4~.Early experimenters found that Early work in which biological action was carcmogenesis involved two distinct stages, for correlated with chemical damage to DNA showed which the terms ‘initiation’ and ‘promotion’ were clearly that cells were not inactivated reproducibly coined. Nowadays, initiation is generally equated by the very low doses that induced single lethal with mutagenesis, and promoters are thought to alter lesions, such as cross-links in DNA. Thus, with 325~ the balance between growth of initiated and normal labelled mustard gas, the dose required to give one cells in favour of initiated cells, the number of lethal hit in the genome (6x106 DNA-P) of which increase sufficiently to make probable a Escherichia coli was about 72 molecules of the second mutagemc process that confers malignancy. product of difunctional alkylation, di (guanin-7-yl) Such second mutations can be induced by mutagernc ethyl sulfide, whereas a single cross-link of this type carcinogens. sufficed to inactivate a double-stranded DNA phage Few studies were done on reactions of DNA T7, both inter- and intrastrand cross-links being before the advent of the Watson-Crick model of lethal. This discrepancy was explamed by the ability DNA and its replication. Although DNA was of the bacterial cell to remove the cross-links by an recognized as the genetic material, its possible role enzymic repair process; the mono-alkylguanine was as a receptor of carcmogens was confined to their not removed, showing it to be relatively non-lethal. -I binding by non-covalent van der Waals forces. A sensitive strain was unable to remove the cross- Alkylating agents attack nucleophthc basic atoms, links, as shown chemcially or physiocochemically, i.e , the ring-mtrogen atoms of DNA bases, thus when interestrand cross-linkage doubled the accounting for the resultant change in the ultraviolet molecular weight of the alkali-denatured absorption spectrum of DNA. Using dimethyl chromosome. During repair, DNA synthesis was sulfate it was found, that N7 of guanme was the temporarily halted. “Bulky” adducts, such as N2- most reactive atom and the more basic groups of aralkylguamne induced by 7-bromoethylbenz [a] adenine and cytosine were m fact less reactive in anthracene, also proved to be effecrtive lethal DNA. The methylation products of the latter basic lesions in T7 phage, i e. block the action of DNA groups were 1-methyladenme & 3-methylcytosine.~5~ polymerase~5~. Regarding the analogy between the action of The suspended lethal lesion, 3-methylademne, Alkylating agents and of acid on DNA, it was not and the promutagemc 06-methylguanine were also surprising to find that depurination of certain 20 found to be removed by repair enzymes, the lethal TA transversions. Thus, aralkylating agents induce 3-methyladenine was removed more rapidly. It was transversions with methylating agents, which give therefore surprising that an N-glycosylase enzyme GC-AT transitions. isolated from E.coli was reported to remove both Conclusions types of base. It was shown subsequently that O6~ Two base substitutions predominate GC-At methylguanine in DNA is repaired through transitions and GC-TA transversions, which demethylation, with transfer of the methyl group to experimentally would reflect the action of a cystemyl residue of an alkyl acceptor protein, methylatmg agents through 06-methylguanine or of which is thereby inactivated aralkylating agents through N2-aralkylguanines. The Whereas mouse cells, apart from liver, are not 6-methylguanme, current consensus is that the transitions are most as efficient as E coli in repairing 0 human cells appear to be generally proficient, probably due to hydrolysis of cytosme of 5- although some variation was found between methylcytosine in DNA. Hydrolysis of the latter to individuals. All mammalian cells are proficient in thymine would be more difficult to repasr, and its removal of 3-methyladenine predominance is supported by the observations that the majority of transitions occur at CpdG The “bulky” adducts and cross-links are removed by endonucleases related to those first “hotspots”. Deficiency in repair would be expected detected by their ability to repair ultraviolet light- to enhance initiation of tumours, and that was the induced pyrimidine dimmer. The important point to case for patients with the rare inherited disease emerge from these studies is that, although the xerodermá pigmentosium (4), cross-links are completely removed from DNA of E coli, mammalian cells effect incomplete removal References and appear to survive by the ability of DNA 1. Rantanen, J. (1984), IARC Publication No. 59, polymerase to “by-pass” potentially lethal lesions. p 13-15. Although the details of the mechanisms are 2 IARC Monographs, Vol. 58, (1993) uncertain, one outcome is that mutations are induced 3 IARC Monographs, Vol. 52, (1991) in which adenine is the base preferentially inserted opposite the “non-instructional” lesion Since most 4 Riazuddin, S (1984) “Repairable Revisions in “bulky” adducts are guamne derivatives, the Microorganisms” p 149-186 resulting mutations are most likely, but not 5. Lawley, P D (1994), IARC Publication No. inevitably, GC-TA transversion. Adenine 125, p. 3-22 derivatives are also induced, notably by metabolized 7, l2-dimethylbenz [a] anthracene, resulting in AT-

21 WATER BORNE DISEASES Khurshid Aluned Consultant Pathologist, KRL Hospital and Scientist Emeritus National Institute of Health, Islamabad

Athar Saeed Dii Joint Executive Director and Chief Public Health Division National Institute of Health, Islamabad

ABSTRACT Poor quality drinking water is the major factor in spreading of bacterial, viral ~nd parasitic diseases amongst human beings and other domesriL as well as wild animals

Introduction A brief account of microbiological and Water is a basic, indeed an absolute requirement epidemiological aspects of some of these diseases is for the survival of human race, potable and safe given in the following paragraphs drinking water being essential for the health and Salmonellosis well being of the community A broad term which is applied to a disease Over 70 percent of body mass in an average complex caused by infection with any of the more normal human adult consists of water This means than 2200 serotypes of Salmonellae, which are gram 50 liters of water in a 70 Kg man Without adequate negative motile rods inhabiting human and animal amount of water in the internal body environment, intestine Clinically and microbiologically, vital metabolic functions will be - seriously salmonella infection falls into two major patterns jeopardized in the human organism (Keusch 1991). Unfortunately clean water for human I Typhoidal Typhoid or Enteric Fever consumption is fast becoming a costly and difficult- 2 Non-typhoidal Entero-colitis to-obtain commodity available only to the lucky Each of these clinical entities is associated with few, particularly in the third world countries where specific salmonella serotypes and in both, the a major section of the population in the rural as well organisms are transmitted by ingestion of as urban communities is without clean drinking contaminated food and water water Water supplies, even in reasonably good set-ups Typhoid (Enteric Fever) are frequently subject to contamination by biological An acute febrile illness caused by S. typhi or S and to a lesser extent by chemical impurities which paratyphi-A & B and characterized by the invasion are responsible for a variety of illnesses in man. The of blood stream by salmonellae. Large outbreaks of causal agents of these illnesses commonly typhoid are usually water borne while small out transmitted through drinking water include breaks and sporadic cases are usually food borne. pathogenic organisms like bacteria, viruses, Incubation period varies from 10-14 days Man is protozoa and parasitic worms on the one hand and the only reservoir and source of infection, as no some poisonous chemical substances on the other animal is known to suffer from typhoid fever Table 1 lists major diseases which are Majority of cases can be traced to a human carrier. transmitted through the use of water with particular A patient or a carrier excretes viable salmonellae in reference to their prevalence in our country. stool which contaminate food and water, when taken by another individual, infection is promptly Table 1. Diseases due to Microbial Contamiruition transmitted. On reaching the intestine, organisms Bacterial Viral Parasitic invade the mononuclear phagocytes in the gut wall Salmonellosis Hepatitis A Amoebiasis through which they are carried to the blood stream Shigellosis Hepatitis E Giardiasis via the lymphatics causing a sustained bacteraemia Cholera Helminthiasis and septicaemia resulting in persistent fever Round worm Clinically, typhoid is characterized by a slow, Pin worm step-ladder type of rise in temperature over a period Guinae worm of 7-10 days. If untreated the fever lasts for 4-8 Amoebic weeks and may lead to haemorrhage and perforation nieningoencephalitis of the gut wall Specific treatment promptly cuts Lead poisoning (Plumbism) is the one of the short the course of the disease and prevents most important and the best known water borne complications. If untreated, typhoid mortality may diseases caused by a chemical poison followed by be as high as 10-15%. Specific Therapy reduces the fluorosis, dental caries and others. mortality to less than 1 % Typhoid is one of the two

22 treatable causes of fever commonly seen in our Epidemiology country, the other one being malaria. Source is almost always faecal contamination of A proportion of cases of typhoid may become water from an infected person, vibrios survive in carriers Temporary carriers (about 10%) excrete water for upto three weeks Since gastric acidity is salmonellae in their faeces for upto one year, 2-5% lethal to the vibrios, a high infective dose (upto 10) may become long term/permanent carriers, is required and only 1- 5% of those exposed become excreting the organisms intermittently or ill However, if gastric acidity is buffered by a continuously over prolonged periods. heavy meal, a lesser infective dose will initiate illness In between outbreaks and sporadic cases, Prevention & Control Vibrio cholerae is maintained by continuous Clean and potable drinking water is the mainstay transmission through subclinical infections of prevention and control of typhoid Carriers Management & Prevention should never be allowed to work as food handlers With modern approaches to management, no Enterocolitis patient of cholera should die if dehydration therapy Enterocolitis, commonly termed as is started in time along with appropriate antibiotics. gastroentritis, is by far the commonest manifestation Vibrio cholerae remains fully susceptible to of salmonella infection and is caused by serotypes doxycycline and nalidixic acid Sanitary measures other than S typhi and paratyphi, S typhimurium especially careful attention to water supply will being the commonest and the best known The effectively control the spread of cholera in the illness has an incubation period of 4- 48 hours and is community characterized by diarrhea, vomiting, colic and fever Water Borne Viral Hepatitis In the vast majority of cases, it is a self-limiting Among the several different forms of viral condition with complete recovery in 3-5 days As a hepatitis known so far (named alphabetically from A rule, salmonellae remain confined to the intestinal to G), only the causative agents of Hepatitis A and tract Unlike typhoid, these, serotypes also infect E are transmitted through the faecal-oral route. animals and poultry which are frequently the source Whereas drinking water is the major vehicle of of human infection. infection in Hepatitis E, water bone injection of Shigellosis Hepatitis A is not uncommon Shigellosis or bacillary dysentery is one of the Hepatitis A and E are the commonest causes of commonest causes of bloody diarrhea in this country jaundice in this country Hepatitis A, both overt and and is caused by any of the four species of Shigella, subclinical, is extremely common, by the age of 15, which are gram negative non-motile rods and which, 95% of the population becomes immune. Both the like typhoid salmonellae, are exclusively human viruses are excreted in stools of infected individuals pathogens, and the infection remains confined to and both produce essentially a benign and self- GIT Highly communicable from person to person limiting infection with no chronic sequelae with a low infective dose (1000 organisms only), However there are also significant differences shigella dysentery has an incubation period of 1-2 between the two as given in Table 2 days After ingestion of contaminated water or food Table 2 Important Indices ofHepatitus A & there is sudden onset of diarrhea with mucous and Hepatitis E blood, fever and abdominal colic 50% of the patients recover spontaneously in 2-5 days. Indices Hepatitus A Hepatitus E Shigellae are excreted in the faeces for 2-3 Incubation 15-45 days 3-9 weeks weeks. Chronic carriers are rare and the mortality is Period (Ave 23 days) (Ave 6 weeks) less than 1 % Age incidence Max upto 15 yrs Max 15-45 years Cholera Out breaks Moderate, person Large epidemics Predominantly as Asian disease with pandemic to person spread usually water- spread, cholera is characterized by explosive onset borne of profuse watery diarrhea with rice water stools and vomiting leading to rapid dehydration and Mortality < 0 1 % Upto 3%, 20-40% circulatory collapse If untreated, death occurs in pregnancy within a few hours in more than 50% cases. Immunity Life long Undetermined Vibrio cholera or comma bacillus, the etiological Household Attack rate 10 - < 3 % agent of cholera, is a highly motile gram negative contacts 20% curved rod which infects the human intestine and produces a powerful cholera toxin. This toxin causes There was a large out break of water-borne massive hyper-secretion of water and electrolytes Hepatitis E in two sectors of Islamabad in 1993-94 resulting in profuse watery diarrhea with fluid loss of upto 30 liters per 24 hours which affected 3700 inhabitants (almost 10% of the 23 population) in these sectors (Dil 1994) Serological Lead Poisoning - Plumbism and EM confirmation was made in selected cases. Lead is the commonest poisonous metal which Parasitic Infections may gain entry into water supplies Major source is Some of the common parasitic infections in the exhaust fumes from automobiles followed by which contaminated drrnking water plays a major lead pipes used in the past for water distribution and role in transmission, include Amoebiasis (amoebic leaded paints. dysentery), Giardiasis and the common round worm Exhaust fumes from leaded petrol are slowly infestation (Ascariasis) deposited on the soil and on the surface of large bodies of water (lakes and dams) from where the Amoebiasis metal gradually finds its way into drinking water. Primarily an intestinal infection by a Protozoan, Ingested lead is absorbed through GIT and produces Entamoeba histolytica, it can manifest itself as a cumulative effect over prolonged periods resulting Amoebic Dysentery (Intestinal Amoebiasis) or as in typical features of Plmbism like wrist drop and a Amoebic Hepatitis and liver abscess (Extra-intestinal characteristic blue line at the junction of gums and Amoebiasis). teeth Asymptomatic carriers usually pass several In a recent study (Hafeez & Malik, 1996), 90% million amoebic cysts daily in their stool which are of pre-school children aged between 1 and 5 were transmitted through contaminated water or food found to have blood levels above the acceptable among the general population limit of 10 ~tg/dl1 Besides drinking water, pica was According to conservative WHO estimates, 10% found to be a common source of increased lead population of the world at large and 50% in the levels in these children developing countries suffers from amoebiasis which References directly results in 40 million disabling infections and about 45000 deaths annually mostly in the third 1 Benenson, A.S ed. (1980). “Control of world countries Communicable Diseases in Man” 8th ed. American Public Health Association. Giardiasis Giardia lamblia, a common intestinal protozoan, 2 Dil, AS (1994) “Personal Communication” is probably the single most frequent cause of water- 3. Hafeez, A & Malik, Q.U (1996) “Blood Lead borne out breaks of diarrhea especially in young Levels n Pre-school Children in Rawalpmth” children More than 20% population of the JPMA, 46, 272, 1996. developing world is infected, with faecally 4. Jawetz, E, Melnick, J.L. & Adelberg, E A. eds contaminated water containing cysts being the major (1987) “Review of Medical Microbiology” 17th source of infection ed. Appleton & Lange Ascariasis 5 Keusch, G T (1962). “Harrison’s Principles of Ascaris lumbricoides is the largest round worm Internal Medicme”. Vol 1 12th ed. McGraw- which afflicts man and which has a world wide Hill distribution Prevalence may be as much as 50% in some communities and most susceptible section of 6. Piekarski, G. (1962) “Medical Parasitology”. the population appear to be children of pre-school Bayer AG and early school age. 7 Schroeder, S.A., Krupp, M.A.; Tierney, L.M. Each female round worm produces upto 200,000 & McPhee, S J eds. (1991) “Current Medical eggs per day which are passed in stool When the Diagnosis & Treatment” 30th ed. Prentice-Hall. larvae have developed in these eggs in 10-50 days, they are highly infective when ingested in water or green vegetables. Drinking boiled water, hand washing and avoiding raw vegetables or washing them before eating will effectively break the chain of transmission.

24 DRINKING WATER QUALITY GUIDELINE VALUES CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL ASPECTS

S. Shujah and M. Jaffar Department Of Chemistry, Quaid-e-Azam University, Islamabad (45320), Pakistan

ABSTRACT: The assessmeni of toxicity of drinking-water contaminants can be made relIably through quality guideline values based on drinking-water consumption as a function of body weight, ingestion and indirect exposure, health risk evaluation and tolerable daily intake limits Using existing international methodology, procedure is defined for obtaining guideline values, for inorgamc, organic, pesticide and disinfectant contaminants in drinking-water Tabulated data on these contaminants are made available for disseminationto environmental researchers engaged in water quality assessment or regulation

Introduction inorganic salts, cyanides, sulphates, nitrates polyphosphate and organometalhc compounds Water is a vital natural resource It covers about 80% of earth’s surface and plays a key role in Industrial wastes are the main culprit for water sustaining life on this planet. About 2 5 % of the pollution in areas close to Industrial zones The total 1,360 million km3 water on earth is fresh, most waste water generated by industries like textile, of it locked up in deep aquifers or frozen in ice caps pharmaceutical, tanneries, plastic and rubber, metal and only 33,400mi of water is available for and electroplating, glass and ceramics, chemical, drinking, agricultural, domestic and industrial soaps, detergents, paints, pesticides, food processing purposes. In the past years growth of population and and steel mills contain large amounts of organic rapid industrialization not only raised the demand pollutants, heavy metals, suspended and dissolved for more water but have played an instrumental role solids. Manufacturing industries also generate a in deteriorating the quality of aquifers. This has variety of solid or semi-solid waste having toxic resulted in a rise of water borne diseases . Over 70 organic and inorganic constituents Leaching of % of the world’s population depends on water from hazardous materials from solid waste (garbage, uncertain sources which may be contaminated with rubbish, pathological and agricultural waste) dumps industrial as well as domestic wastes It is estimated also pose threat to the nearby water bodies. In urban that, due to the anticipated doubling of the world areas the seepage of sewerage into the drinking- population as well as further industrialization and water distribution systems is also of utmost concern growth in the size and density of our urban centers, The problem of water pollution due to discharges the amount of fresh water available per person will of domestic and industrial wastes into aquatic decline by 24 % in the year 20001 systems has already become a serious problem in The unique solvent properties of water not only Pakistan24. Nearly 90% of Pakistan’s population is provide a base for different biological and phsico- exposed to unsafe drinking water According to an chemical processes but also make it susceptible to early estimate consumption of sewage contaminated contaminants arising from various anthropogenic water would account for 30 % of all reported and natural activities, consequently, pollutants from diseases and 40 % of all deaths in Pakistan5 In 1980 industrial processes, municipal waste and the WHO recorded 3150 cases of waterborne agricultural run-off enter the aquatic system directly diseases per million population6, another report or through different pathways, they change the showed that in 1981 there were at least 50,000 cases physico-chemical and biological properties of water of typhoid and paratyphoid fevers alone in Pakistan7, and render it unfit for human consumption The according to another estimate the annual number of water pollutants can be organic including oxygen cases of waterborne infections in Pakistan may be demanding wastes like domestic and animal sewage, close to 3 million8 The groundwaters are also under biodegradable organic compounds, wastes from food pollution stress, especially near industrial areas9. processing plants, meat-packing plants, slaughter- Improper waste disposal practices resulting in houses, paper and pulp mills, tanneries etc., disease- the death of humans through contamination of water causing agents including pathogenic microorganisms systems has raised worldwide concern. In order to (like viruses and bacteria responsible for dangerous ward off the human health against the ill effects of water-borne diseases like cholera, typhoid, contaminated waters, there is a dire need for dysentery, polio and hepatitis), synthetic organic establishing quality guideline value for the physical, compounds like pesticides, detergents, food microbiological and chemical safety of drinking additives, pharmaceuticals, insecticides, paints, water. The present attempt reflects this aspect. synthetic fibers, elastomers, solvents, plasticizers, Necessary Background Information plastic and oil or inorganic compnsing of metals or Following information is critical for monitoring metal compounds, trace elements, mineral acids, and impact assessment studies on water quality. Only brief outline in each case is provided. 25 Sources of Daily Intake have developed acceptable density intake ADIs for Inhalation, direct ingestion, dermal contact water Data relevant to water quality criteria are during bathmg and showering now summarized in Tables-i to 8 Risk Assessment Table I Chemicals not of health significance at Studies on human population, toxicity studies on concentrations normally found in drinking water lab animals, studies on dose - response Chemical Remarks relationship, expert judgment asbestos It is unnecessary to recommend a health based silver guideline value For these compounds because they are tits not hazardous to human health at concentrations Background data for Developing guidelines normally found in drinking water Published reports from open literature, government reports; unpublished proprietary data, Table 2: Variousparamerters and constituents existing international information, previous risk responsible for waterpollution assessment studies (Government & NGOs), World Physical parameters Colour, Hardness, pH, Taste 8c odour, TDS, authority data such as programme on chemical Inorganic constituents Turbidity Al, NH~,Sb, As, Asbestos, Ba, Be. B, Cd, Cl,, Cr, safety IPCS (International Health criteria), EHC Cu, CN, F, H~s,Fe, Pb, Mn, Hg, Mo, Ni, NO~, (Environmental Health criteria), IARC N0~,DO, Se, Ag, Na, SO~,Sn, U, Zn Organic Consiiiuents Carbon tetrachloride. dichloromethane, dichloroethane, (International Agency for Research on Cancer), and (cunsequetice ol trtchloroeiharic, vinyl chloride, diclsloroethane, FAQ/WHO expert committees, etc. disinfection) tn & tetracliloroethene, henzene, loluene, xylene, styrene,polynuclear aronsatic hydrocarbons, Water Consumption and Body Weight Criterion chlorobenzenes, pthalates, arnides, etc Water consumption data are limited, Pesticides & numerous (as many as 30) herbicides Consumption of water varies with climate, physical (agricultural run-off) activity and culture, and temperature, Dismufectants Chloramtues chlorine, Chlorates, Iodine, Bromates, For potentially hazardous chemicals, a daily per Clilorophenols, formaldehydes, trihalomethanes, Chloro acetone, halogenated acetonitriles capita consumption of 2L by a person weighing 60 Radiological (various kg is assumed, Lontaminants For high intakes (e g for infants and children) higher exposure is expected, Table 3 Bacteriological quality of drinking water Irreversible effects (social, public health) are Organisms Guideline value All water ititended for drinking more drastic in young age, E coli or therniotolerant Must not be detected in 100 ml sample Guidelines for 10kg child (1L/day) or 5kg infant coliform hacieria Treated water entering the (consuming 0 75 L/day) are different distribution system Must not be detected in 100 ml sample F colt or therinotolenant Must not be detected in 100 ml sample The Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI) coliforin bacteria This is defined as NOAEL and LOAEL given as Total colmform bacteria under alongwith a few other definitions Treated waler in the distribution system Must tiol be detected in 100 ml sample • NOAEL highest concentration of a substance E coli or thermotolerant Must not be detected in 00 ml sample In that causes no detectable adverse health effect, colilorm bacteria the case of large supplies, where sufficient Total coliform bacteria samples are examined, must not be present in • LOAEL: Lowest observed concentration of a 95 % of samples taken throughout any 12- substance at which there is a detectable adverse month period health effect, and Table 4: Chemicals ofhealth significance in • UF uncertainty factor, for interspecies drinking water variation, usually 1-10 A Inorgamc constituents ATDI = NOAEL (or LOAEL’) Gwdelme value tm&L) anitmony 0 005 (P) UF arsentc 0 Oi (P) Here, L~\TDI = f (amount of substance mg kg-l, bartum 0 7 ~ig kg-i of body weight that can be ingested daily berylitum NAD over a lifetime without appreciable health risk). boron 03 From ATDI, we obtam GV (guideline value) cadmtum 0 003 GV= TDIxWxP chromium 0 05 (P) copper 2 (P) C cyanide 0 07 Where fluoride I 5 W = 60kg body weight for adult, 10 kg for Lead 001 children, 5kg for infants, P Manganese 0 5 (P) = fraction of TDI allocated to drinkmg water Mercury (total) 0 001 and C = daily moly~ienum 0 07 consumption of drmking-water (2L for adults, 1L for children, 0 75L for mfants) ntckel 0 02 nttrate(as NO In view of all this, Joint FAO / WHO Expert 1’) 50 Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) and Jomt nttrtte (as NO~) 3(P) FAO/WHO Meeting on Pesticide Residues (JMPR) selenium 0 01 uranium NAD

26 B: Organic Constituents propanil 20 pyridate 100 Organic compound Guideline value (~ig/L) simazine 2 a. Chlorinated alkanes trifluralin 20 Carbon tetrachioride 2 chlorophenoxy herbicides other than Dichloromethane 20 2,4-D and MCPA 1,1-dichloroethane NAD 2,4-DB 90 1,2-dichloroethane 30 dichloroprop 100 i,l,1-trichloroethane 2000 (P) fenoprop 9 b. Chlonnated ethenes MCPB NAD Vinyl chloride 5 mecoprop 10 9 i , 1-dichloroethene 30 2,4,5-T . i,2-dichloroethene 50 trichloroethene 70 (P) D. Disinfectants and disinfectant by-products tetrachloroethene 40 Dismfectants Guideline value (mg/L) c. Aromatic hydrocarbons monochioramine 3 benzene iO di- and trichloramine 5 toluene 700 not established xylenes 500 chionne dioxide iodine NAD ethylbenzene 300 bromate 25 (P) styrene 20 chlorate NAD benzo[a]pyrene 0 7 chlorite 200 (P) d. Chlorma ted benzenes chloro henols monochlorobenzene 300 2-chlorophenol NAD 1 ,2-dichlorobenzene 1000 2,4-dichiorophenol NAD 1 ,3-dichlorobenzene NAD 2,4,6-tnchlorophenol 200 1 ,4-dichlorobenzene 300 formaldehyde 900 trichlorobenzene (total) 20 MX NAD e. Miscellaneous orgamcs trthalomethanes Di(2-ethyihexy!)adipate 80 bromoform 100 Di(2-ethylhexyl)- phthalate 8 dibromochioro-methane 100 Acrylamide 0 5 bromodichloro-metane 60 Epichlorohydrin 0 4 (P) chloroform 200 Hexachiorobutadiene 0 6 chlorinated acetic acids Edetic acid (EDTA) 200 (P) monochioro-acetic acid NAD Nitrilorriacetic acid 200 dichloroacetic acid 50 (P) trichloroacetic acid 100 (P) NAD Dialkyltins chioral hydrate Tributytin oxide 2 (trichloroacet-aldehyde) 10 (P) C: Pesticides chioroacetone NAD halogenated acetonitriles Pesticide Guideline vaiue dichloroaceto-nitrile 90 (P) (~.igIlitre) dibromoaceto-nitrile 100 (P) alachlor 20 bromochloro-acetonitnle NAD aldicarb 10 trichloroaceto-nitrile 1 (P) aldnn/dieldrin 0 03 cyanogen chlonde (as CN) 70 atrazine 2 chloropicrin NAD bentazone 30 (P) Provisional guideline value carbofuran 5 NAD No adequate data to permit recommendation of a chlordane 0 2 health-based guideline value chiorotoluron 30 DDT 2 Table 5. Maximum allowable concentration of 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane 1 various toxic elements and bacteriological quality of 2,4-D 30 drinking water 1,2-dichloro- propane 20 (P) i,3-dichloro- propane NAD Lead (as Pb) 0 1 mg/I 1 ,3-dichloro- propene ethylene 20 Selenium (as Se) 0 05 mg/I dibromide Arsenic (as As) 0 2 mg/I heptachior and heptachior epoxide 0 03 Chromium (as Cr Hexaalent) 0 05 mg/I Hexachloro-benzene Cyanide (as CN) 0 01 mg/I Isqproturon ~9______Fluorides 1 0-1 5 mg(max Lindane 2 0 5 mg/I (minimum MCPA 2 must) methoxychlor 20 Nitrates 50-100 mg/l metolachlor 10 Bacteriological Quality a) Untreated water molinate 6 MPN = 10 -20 b) Treated water MPN p~ndimethalin 20 =

consumer Taste Unobjectionable ------complainis Odour Unobjectionable —------Physleal paramrhrs Iron (Fe) 0 3 mg/I 1 0 mg/I Colour 15 TCU appearance Manganese (Mn) 0 1 mg/I 0 5 mg/I taste and odour - should be acceptable Copper (Cu) I 0 mg/I 1 5 mg/I Temperature - should be acceptable Turbidity 5 NTU apperance, for eftective Zinc (Zn) 5 0 mg/I 15 mg/I terminal disinfeciion, Calcium (Ca) 75 mg/I 200 mg/I median turbidity 1NTU, Magnesium (Mg) 50mg/I 150 mg/I single sample 5NTIJ 5ulphate (5O~’) 200 mg/I 400 mg/I b Inorganic eonstitu enS Chloride (CI) 200 mg/I 600 mg/I Aluminium 0 2 mg/L depositions, discoloration Ammonia 1 5 mg/L odour and taste pl-Irange 70-85 Notleasthan65or greater than 9 2 chloride 250 mg/L taste, corrosion Magnesium + sodium 500 mg/I 1000 mg/I copper I mg/L staining of laundry and sulphate sanitary ware (health- based provisional Phenolic substances 0 001 mg/I 0 002 mg/I guideline_value_2_mg/L) (as phenol)

hardness - high hardness scale deposition, scum formation References low hardness possible 1. Postel, S., (1985) “Thirsty in a water-rich corrosion world”. International Wildlife 15(6): 33-37 hydrogen sulfide 0 05 mg/L odour and taste 2. Beg, M.A.A , Mahmood, S.N. & Yousafzai, iron 0 3 mg/L staining of laundry and sanitary ware A.H.K. (1975) “Industrial effluent, their manganese 0 1 mg/L staining of laundry and nature and disposal m Karachi region: Part-i. sanitary ware (health- based provisional Survey of the polluted Lyari River”. Proc. guideline value 05 mg/L) PaksitanAcd. Sci., 12: ii5-i31. dissolved oxygen - indirect effects 3. Beg. M.A., Mahmood, S.N; Naeem, S.N & pH - low pH corrosion Yousafzai, A H.K. (1984). “Land based sodium ~00 mg/L taste pollution mid the marine environment of sulfate 250 mg/L taste, corrosion total dissolved solids 1000 mg/L taste Karachi Coast”, J Sci md.. Res. 27(4): 199- zinc 3 mg/L appearance, taste 210 Organic constitu eMs 4 IUCN & Government of NWFP, EP&D toluene 24-170 jig/L odour, taste (health-based Department (1994). “Kabul River Pollution”. guidelme value 700 tg/L) xylene 20-1800 ~ig/L odour, taste (health-based 5 WHO (1976). “Pakistan’ Report of Water guideline value 500 ig/L) Supply and Sewage Study”. Vol 1, ethylbenzene 2-200 t.tg/L odour, taste (health-based WHO/Workd Bank Cooperative Program. guideline value 300 jsg/L) Geneva styrene 4-2600 t.tg/L odour, taste (health-based guideline_value_20_.ig/L) 6. WHO (1984). “The International Water Supply monochloro-benzene 10-120 pig/L odour, taste (health-based and Sanitation Decade. Review of National guideline value 300 jtg/L) Baselme Data” Geneva I ,2-dichloro-benzene 1-10 sgIL odour, taste (health-based 7. WHO (1983). “World Health Statistics Annual guideline value 1000 ~ig/L) 1983”. Geneva. 1 ,4-dichloro-benzene 0 3-30 ~tg/L odour, taste (health-based 8. Sattar, Syed A. Sattar (1987). “Drinking Water guideline value 300 ~sg/L) and Human Health: An Expatriate’s Assessment tnchlorobenzene 5-50 pg/L odour, taste (health-based (total) guideline value 20 Rg/L) of the Situation in Pakistan”, Science

synthetic detergents - foaming, taste, odour Technology and Development, 6(6): 48-54 Disinfectants and 9. Bag, M.A.A.; Bag, S.N Mahmood and Sitwat disinfectant by- Naeem. (1989). Pak. J. Sd. md. Res. 32(12), products chlorine 600-1000 ~ig/L taste and odour (health- 795 based guideline value 5 10. WHO. (1988) “International Standards for mg/L) drinking water”. Geneva. chlorophenols

28 MEMBRANES AND OTHER PROCESSES TO IMPROVE THE QUALITY OF DRINKING WATER Muhammad Ashraf Chaudhry Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology,P 0. Box No.1356, Islamabad

ABSTRACT Recent developments in econoimcal and industrial fields, coupled with population enhanced load has resulted into further demands for the potable and drinking water supplies In the urban and rural areas ofPakistan the quality of drmking water has been a point of discussion and attention since long Contributions of the toxic metal ions and bacteria normally challenge the health of the people Recently available technology in the membrane field has provided reverse osmosis and electrodialysis processes for water demineralization and removal of the undesired components from Water for public consumption In fact reverse osmosis has gained lead over electrodialysis being a simple, type of filtration process, working under mechamcal pressure and also having applicability to sea water desalination The role of this and the other processes to remove the cations, anions and bacteria has been discussed The benefits of the reverse osmosis and other filtranon processes have been described for general awareness The use ofultraviolet light rays as a water disinfectant has aiso been discussed

ground saline water, which stresses the need for the Introduction desalting techniques to be applied to use the full The health of the people is of prime importance. potential of watçr for drinking as well as agriculture The drinking water supplies in Pakistan have been purpose. some times deteriorated to harm the health of the users. Therefore water quality is to be ensured. Limiting Values of Dissolved Ions Quality of water is challenged by (i) suspended The limiting amounts of various ions, which materials (ii) dissolved materials, which are both affect the quality of water are given in Table ~ It organic as well as inorganic in nature and (iii) may be noted that though the limiting values for bacteria, viruses, protozoa To get rid of these three different ions in different countries are not the same types of species, spoilmg water quality, there are but should not exceed certain maximum levels e.g. different water purification methods~~These are the toxic elements like, As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Fe, Mn, classical as well as modern techniques. The modern etc should not be allowed to be present above a techniques are based on membranes and other given concentration level, as shown in Table-i. chemical and physical processes The use of the Different Water Treatment Processes given processes depends upon the type of impurities There are different treatment techniques to present. In this article the role of some of these remove or reduce the level of dissolved metal ions processes to purify water has been described. This and bacteria from water, these are: article will be limited to some of the toxic metal (1) precipitation; ions with a brief reference to the bacteria and (ii) flocculation Sedimentation; viruses present in water and how to get rid of these (iii) filtration; It can be noticed that in Palustan 5.75 million (iv) desalting by membrane process and hectares of land has underground water with less distillation; and than 1000PPM concentration and 1.84 million (v) disinfection using U .V. radiation hectares with concentration range of 1000-3000PPM The use of these systems to remove various and 4.29 million hectares with concentration > impurities is provided below: 3000 PPM°8~As. such 52% of C.C.A. has under

Table 1: Limiting Values for ~‘raceMetals and other Ions inDrinking Water (Mg/M3) (4)

WHO E.C Switzerland France U.S.A. Germany Alurniniuxn(AiJ - 50 500 - - 200 Arsenic (As) 50 50 - 50 50 40 Barium (Ba) - 100 - - i000 - Lead (Pb) 100 50 50 50 50 40 Cadmium (Cd) 10 5 10 5 10 6

Chromium (Cr) - 50 20 50 50 50 Iron (Fe) iOO/100(Y 300 iOO 100 50-300 200 Fluonne (F) 600/1700’ 700-1500 1500 1500 i400-2400 1500 Copper (Cu) 50/1500’ 50 1500 50 200-1000 - Manganese(Mn) 50/500’ 50 50 50 iO-50 100 Nitrate (N0 3) 45 50 40 50/100 45 50-90 Mercury(Hg) 1 1 3 1 2 4

Selenium (Se) 10 iO - 10 10 8 Silver (Ag) - 10 200 - 50 100 Zinc (Zn) 5000/15000’ 100/2000 1500 - 5000 100/2000 *Hjghest required value/Maximum permissible value:

29 is to be given to the parameters described above, to Precipitation Flocculation and Filtration to get a good quality supply of water Remove Toxic Metal Ions Activated Alumina and Carbon Filters Removalof Fe and Mn Precipitation is an old method Removal of Fe (i) Alumina and Mn by this process is discussed here. In well Alumina is a porous form of Al 203 with 150- water Fe and Mn occurs as Fe~ & Mn~ and are 2 specific area per gm of A1 400m 203 and density to be removed for technical and hygiemc reasons. 3, used for the removal of As, Se and app 3.3gIcm These ions are oxidised by ozone, KMnO fluoride ions. It may be in different gram sizes. For 4 or usually present Fe, Se and As concentration levels, oxygen to Fe(1I1) and Mn(IV) , which precipitate at a pH of 5-5 5, alumma column can treat about and are removed after filtration Conversion of 1000 time volume of water compared to its own I, Fe(II) to Fe(III) i’s ~‘fastand that of Mn(II) to Mn(IV) volume, before regeneration with 0.5-1% NaOH is slow but Mn(OFI)4> Oxidation4 works asis anormallycatalyst todoneenhanceby The specific loadability is 50-70mg/din3, for Se and saturationthe reaction(of water with atmospheric oxygen 10-lSmg/dm3 for As(IV) and needs more conc of NaOH to regenerate the column. The system Removal of other Elements Among the condition of the removal of the toxic involves prior flocculation, sedimentation, settling, elements, like As, Ba, Cd, Cr (III & IV), Pb, Hg, sand filtration and then adsorption by alumina. Se, Ni, Cu and Zn, the parameters like pH of the Activated carbon filters remove both organic as feed water, valencey of metallic ions, amount of well as inorgamc Hg A contact time of 6-12 flocculate and the type of flocculant added, the minutes removes upto 200mg/dm3 of Hg initial concentration of the ions present, and the organometallic compounds of Hg. turbidity are to be determined and the feed (ii) Activated Carbon conditions are to be fixed. The metallic ions Absorbs low mol.wt. organics, chlorine, odour concentration limits are shown in Table-2. producing nutrients from water, works well on 60- Table 2: Limits ofMetallic Ions Concentration in 300 mol wt. materials. Does not remove salts but Water~6~ absorbs some metal ions. If not replaced after given Mm. g/m3 Max. intervals of time, produce large colonies of bacteria and large amounts of pyrogemc materials. 0.10 040 100 800 Membrane Processes 0.10 0 40 There are a number of water treatment systems 0.10 040 based on membranes. These are based on filtration or appear to be based on simple prmciple of 0.05 0.20 filtration. These are briefly described below. 0.01 0 05 There are different engineering configurationsW 0.01 0 04 of these processes modules e.g. spiral wound, 1.00 4 08 hollow fibre or tubular modules, which are not These elements behave differently and their described here in detail for the sake of brevity. removal depends on pH. usmg a pH of 6.5-7, and a (i) Microfi itration flocculant admixture of 5g/m3 Fe(III), As(IV), Removes from 100!.im to 0.10~imsize species Cr(III), Pb(II) is removed after precipitation up to from water e.g. pollen (100~im),starch (10l.Lm), > 90% or more under these conditions, Ba and blood cells (li.tm), bacteria (1!.tm to 0. 1~im) Cr(VI) are precipitated and removed to only a very small extent. (ii) Ultrafiltration

If we use a pH of 7.5 - 8, with all other Removes species from 0.0ll.tm to 0.OOlj.tm size conditions keeping the same, Ag, ~Cd and Hg are e.g. DNA, viruses (O.Olj.im), albumin (0 01l.tm), better precipitated Se(VI) precipitates poorly. glucose (0.001~im). Cr(VI) can be removed after reducing it with Fe~2 (iii) Reverse Osmosis (R. 0) orHyperfiltration and precipitatmg at pH 8-8 5. Upto 95% of Cr(VI) can be removed m this way. Removes all the above sized species along with dissolved solutes e.g. NaCl, Kcl. These all use At pH 10 - 10.5, by means of decarbomzation, flocculation, and scdementation by an admixture of membranes, which reject given species under different levels of mechamcally applied pressures, ~g/m3of Fe(I1I), good separation of a number of ~netalions along with Ba is possible but Cr(VI) and by p~impmg. The membi~ane life is 1-3 years. Se(IV) are not removed~6~ Removes all organics of mol.wt’ 200. Removes > These are just a few examples to indicate that 95% salts from brackish water. Two stages remove wiule treating the water a very careful consideration 99.9% salts. All bacteria, viruses and pyrogens are removed Membranes are affected by the pH and 30 chemical conditions It has been applied to both sea provide pure water The latent heat of water and brackish waters. It is cheaper, less capital freezing, being less than that of the latent heat of intensive, simple and easily applicable to home water vaporisation seems to have involved less water purification Systems which use low pressures energy, but this process efficiency is outset due to can be produced. For that purpose membranes, the difficulty in pumping or transporting solid water which have large fluxes, are to be used; which can crystals. be produced and applied in Pakistan It is now industrially preferred process to distillation in all (vi) Ion-exchange Process Ion exchange resins are used for deionisation respects. Consumes less energy. The users and The anion exchange resins (AER) can remove suppliers need to be educated for the type of membranes and R.O systems to suit their anions and cations exchange resins (CER), the cations. CER are regenerated to (H~)and AER to requirements. (-OH) forms As such Ca~,~ Na~and K~get (iv) Electrodialysis exchanged with W and Cl, S042, F, NO- 3, with - This process is based on cation (CEM) and anion OH The purified water as such will have H~and - (AEM) exchange membranes, which are arranged in OH which combine to form H2O. But the level of the form of a number of membrane pairs. Water is H~and 0H present in purified water may be in run between CEM and AEM, under the applied different amounts The ions are absorbed in the current and voltage. The ions are pulled out of the following order first2> Mg~2> K~ > Na~ > H~ flowing liquid through the membrane, thereby Cattons: Ca~ reducing the concentration from there (called diluate Anions NO- 3 > S042 > NO~ > Cl- > stream) and concentratmg the other stream known as HCO3 > OH = F (concentrate stream) 12 and Mg~2from This is why to remove Ca At a time hundreds of membrane pairs are fixed water the resins are regenerated by Na~or H~ So the energy consumed is economised This Deiomsers do not remove orgamcs, virus or process is applicable to water upto 3000ppm bacteria, but rather some times give way to bacterial concentration and normally used to reduce the colonies if not replaced for a longer periods. concentration upto 500-800ppm After that the Normally used for removing Ca~~and Mg~4ions from feed supplies, if present above a given level resistance of the system mcreases to enhance the overall energy required. This system works at a U.V. Disinfection pumping pressure of nearly 60 psi The U V. radiations are produced by passing (v) Distillation and Non-membrane Processes current through low pressure Hg vapours contained in an evacuated tube The U.V range for killing It is the change of the phase process and has been used extensively in the past In the present microbes is 200-300nm. The radiations kill viruses, algae, bacteria, protozoa and fungi. 254nm wave form, it exists as multistage flash distillation (Fig 3) length radiations are close to the most effective and multi-effect boiling, recovermg heat from the killing wavelength of 260nm being maximumly vapours, transferrmg to the incommg cold feed adsorbed E-coli require 7x103 microwatt/s cm2 and streams to increase the overall efficiency of the protozoa 10 5xl04 mw/sec cm2. U.V energy dose plant to distill water As such there are plants, = Intensity x contact time in seconds which can convert 12-16 k gms of water per Kg of steam. All the morgamc impurities, mcluding toxic U V.transmission at >75% is required at 254nm wavelength radiation So water to be treated should metals ions can be removed to recover pure water, which normally evaporate at temperature higher be free of suspended constituents than that of water. Hence for producing drinking Humic acid, tannins and Fe are found in water and absorb U V radiation to reduce its dismfectmg water quality, the distillate is mixed with higher if salinity water This consumes more energy, when action Ca and Mg ions precipitated may also reduce effectiveness of this process. So precipitate used for desalination of water. Many million gallons and filter the suspended precipitates from water per day capacity plants are working in different before applying U V. radiation parts of the world, including Middle East, Russia and Japan. It involves higher capital as well as The U V tube is recomm~ndedto be sleeved, rtinnmg costs to get distilled water The triple other wise its relative efficiency will decrease with distilled waters are used to get rid of pyrogens to be temperature 5-1000 gallon per minute purifier are used m dialysis of blood. available. The system life claimed is 6000 to 12000 hrs. Required dose for dismfectrion is 38000 Vapour compression based distillation systems are there as well. This is not competitive with mw/s cm2 for contaminated waters and 1600 mw/s cm2 for normally supplied water~7~ As membrane processes. Freezmg is another phase change process, which is based on the principle of different doses are to be given to kill different type freezing the saline water, when the crystals formed of harmful bacteria, so the product samples are are free of salts and after washing and melting 31 needed to the tested to fix the U V.dose and ensure to have R 0. membrane module industry in quality of water. Pakistan Chemical Disinfection (iii) Small units working on low pressures and There are different types of bacteria, enteric brackish waters are easy to make. This activity viruses and protozoa, which are dangerous to exist may be started locally. Traditional water in water, as they cause the diseases like, typhoid purification technology is already there fever, cholera, gastro-enteritis, heart enamohes and (iv) A combination of Ion-exchange RO and so many other diseases. Disinfection of these may Filtration + distillation and other such be performed by dosing the drinking water streams combinations must be looked into before designing a water purification plant with chlorine, 03, and C120, as higher the oxidation (v) R.O-cum-tubewell systems to convert brackish potential higher is the disinfection. The order of water to potable water may be used to recover disinfection power by various reagents is given part of saline water pumped and energy. below (vi) The Baluchistan coastal areas, and many parts 03 > Cl20 > Cl2 > Br2 > 12 They kill bacteria, reduce the slime growth on of Punjab, Sind and NWFP have underground brackish water, which can be purified using filters and in sedimentation basis. membrane techniques. It is recommended that 03 and Cl2 also reduce filter water turbidity proper attention be ginen to this. There are some ill effects of disinfection also e.g. Acknowledgement (i) Cl2 reacts with humic acid and low molecular The author likes to acknowledge the support of weight organic compounds to form toxic Dr. M. Zafarullah to provide the facilities to chlorinated organics complete this work and Mr. A. Hafeez to type this (ii) 03 forms aldehydes which are toxic in nature. manuscript. (iii) Cl20 forms chlorate and chlorite, which are also toxic in nature. References Therefore a calculated amount of oxidisers are to 1 Sourirajan (1976) “Reverse Osmosis and be used to avoid the above ill effects Symmetic Membranes”, National Research Council, Canda Reconunendations 2 Ashraf Chaudry (1980). The Nuclear, 17(1). 37-45 (i) To improve the water quality, different types of techniques should be used, keeping m view the 3 Ashraf Chaudry (1982). “Minimum Energy type of constituents present. Only filtration is Consuming Water Conversion Process” Proc. not the only solution as indicated in the First National Symposium on Energy previous pages Therefore all the systems must Conservation, Feb. 1980, Islamabad, Pakistan. be considered. 4. Ginocchio. (1982). Sulzer Technical Review. 65(1) 23-26 (ii) Reverse osmosis units are recommended to be produced locally For that collaboration with 5 Ginocchio, J. Tylmann (1980). Suizer firms, supplying such equipment in Pakistan, Technical Review. 63(1): 34 may be asked to provide technology of 6 Ginocchio et al 91980). Chemische Rundschau, membranes and module making/ manufacturing Zurich, No.29 in Pakistan. Initial investments may lead to 7. Carrigan et a! (1992). Engineering Horizons. large savings if Govt. supports I) research and 73(5) 3-7 development activity of membrane processes. 8 The World Bank (1967) “Study of Water and ii) encourage the investors and provides funds Power Resources of West Pakistan”.

32 SEPARATION AND SPECIATION OF ORGANO-PHOSPHORUS PESTICIDES BASED ON HYDROLYSIS USiNG REVERSE PHASE HPLC

Jasmm Shah, M. Rasul Jan and Kahkeshan Saeed Department of Chemistry, University of Peshawar

ABSTRACT~ A new method for separation and speclatlon of organophosphorus pesticides has been investigated using reverse phase HPLC Pesticides are hydrolyzed by the addition of sodium ethoxide, the organic layer is separated from the aqueous phase which contain the acidic hydrolyzed portion of the respective pesticides Different pesticides give different acidic products on hydrolysis leading to varianon in the retention time The hydrolyzed products are injected and separated on reverse phase HPLC Identification and quantification is done by running the respective standards

(2) Fumaric acid (1000 ppm) solutionS Introduction Stock solution of fumaric acid was Organophosphorus pesticides vary in toxicity and prepared by dissolving 0.1 g of fumaric half lives Due to their excessive use in recent years acid in distilled water and diluted upto 100 their determination in water bodies has become very ml in a volumetric flask. important This necessitated the determination of total pesticides on one hand and identification of (3) Sodium ethoxide (1%) solution: specific organophosphorus pesticides on the other. 1% solution of sodium ethoxide was Organophosphorus pesticides can be determined as a prepared by dissolving 1 g of sodium metal whole group by HPLC, gas chromatographic and in ethanol and diluted upto 100 ml thin layer chromatographic methods~8~Alternately phosphorus can be determined after decomposition (4) Mobile Phase. or hydrolysis by Spectrophotometric methodst9~i3) Water Methanol mobile phase was Moreover the non-phosphorus group after hydrolysis prepared in 1:1 ratio and degassed by can also be determined spectrophotometrically by a bubbling N reaction depending on some properties of the non- 2 gas through the solution for phosphorus group~4’7>. Non-phosphorus methods about 10 minutes can oftçn be made specific for a smgle pesticide, or Procedure atleast for a group of related pesticides Such Pesticide sample (0 1 ml) was taken in three specific methods are of advantage if one of several separate separatory funnels, 6 nil of 1 % sodium pesticides m a sample needs to be determined. In ethoxide, 5 ml of water and 5 ml of carbontetra this paper a new HPLC method capable of chloride were then added to each separatoiy funnel. speciation and determmation of organophosphorus The resulting solutions were mixed well using a pesticides based on hydrolysis is presented. This shaker for two minutes and transferred to respective could be used for a quality check and certification of beakers. The resulting solutions m beakers were the drmking water sources with respect to heated on water bath for 15 minutes at 60°C. The contamination originating from an excessive use of aqueous phase was separated from organic phase the fertilizers. using separating funnel The organic phase was Experimental retained for analysis by HPLC using reverse phase chromatography. Instrument HPLC system consisted of a Bacharach Coleman Results and Discussions Tn Det with a pecosphere 3x3 C18 cartridge Separation of pesticides is one of the key column, Perkm Elmer 100 series pump, recorder requirements for assessing the toxicity of a and thermostated water bath were used during this particular pesticide in the environment. Total investigation. organophosphorus pesticides can be determined by molybdenum blue method while sulphur containing Reagents pesticides could be determined by methylene blue p-mtrophenol, fumaric acid, carbontetra- method In the present work HPLC method was chloride, sodium metal, ethanol and methanol of exploited for the speclation and determination of A R. grade and commercially available pesticides organophosphorus pesticides The general structure were used without further purification. of the organophosphate pesticides may be Solutions represented as (1) p-mtrophenol (1000 ppm) solutionS Stock solution of p-mtrophenol was Where R1 and R2 are methyl or ethyl groups and X is an orgamc radical. The R1 and R2 substituent prepared by dissolving 0 1 g of the reagent in distilled water and dilutmg upto 100 ml groups are less easily hydrolyzed from the phosphorus than is the X group. In the hydrolysis in a volumetric flask. methods the pesticide is hydrolyzed with alkali to 33 break the P-O(S)-X link, and then the liberated well as quantified based On the retention time and organic substituent is isolated and determined. peak height data of the hydrolyzed products of the On hydrolysis methyl parathion give rise to the specific pesticide Speciation studies for malathion following products 0, 0-dimethylthiophosphate and and methyl parathion were conducted exploiting this p-nitrophenol technique using reverse phase HPLC with water- Similarly malathion was hydrolyzed into 0, 0- methanol as mobile phase and UV detection. After dimethydithiophosphate and fumarate as given optimization of mobile phase and the retention time below these pesticides were determined in different Conditions were optimized for the separation pesticide formulations The method is fairly simple, and identification of p-nitrophenol and fumaric acid economical and compare well in term of detection using reverse phase HPLC with UV detector (254 limit (30 ng) with the other standard established gas chromatographic methods nm) on a pecosphere Cl8 cartridge colunm Water: w Methanol (1 1) was chosen as the optimum mobile References phase with a flow rate of 1 0 mi/mm. The 1 Blanchet, P F (1979) J. Chromatog 179 123 identification of the components was made both by 2 H Egan, E.W.Hammond and J.Thomson following the retention time and the spiking method (1964) Analyst 89 175 data. As different pesticides leads to different 3 Dawson, J A, Donegan, L & Thain, E M hydrolyzed products leading to variation and this (1964) Analyst 89 495 property was exploited for speciation in mixture. 4. Watts, R R (1965) J.Assoc. of Agnc Chem. The retention time of fumaric acid and p- 48 1161 nitrophenol was found to be 0 2 and 0 6 minutes 5. Patil, V.B, Padahkar, S V & Kawale, G.B respectively Working standards of fumaric acid and (1987) Analyst, l12~1765 p-nitrophenol were injected in the range of 10-50 6 Bunyan, P J (1964) Analyst, 89 615 ppm, wherein the detection limits for p-nitrophenol 7. Kiso, Y Li, H, Shigetoh, K, Kitao, T& Jinno, and fumaric acid were found to be 3 0 ppm for both K (1996) J Chromatog 10 259 with 10111 injection volume The organic phase of 8 Ding, H.W & Amirav, A (1997). Anal. Chem. the hydrolyzed product of methyl parathion and 69 1426 malathion were similarly injected (10111) The active 9 Norris, M.V Vail, W A & Averell, P R. ingredients in the commercial products of these (1954) JAgric. Food Chem. 2 570 pesticides were calculated from the peak height of 10 Clark, E R. & Qazi, I A (1980) Analyst. 105 their organic hydrolyzed products using the 564 respective calibration plots. The results are given in 11 Seshaiah, K & Mowli, P (1987). Analyst. Table-l As can be seen from this table that the 112 118 concentration of pesticides in these commercially 12 Naidu, U V , Gangaiah, 1, Ramadevi, P, available pesticides are lower than the label value Seshaiah, K & Naidu, G R K. (1990) Talanta. Table 1 Determination of Active Ingredients In 37 761 Pesticides Usin Reverse Phase HPLC 13 Rasul Jan, M; Jasmin Shah & Rubna Masoud Pesticide Active Ingredient (g / ml) (1991) J Chem Soc Pak. 13~263 14. Santi, R & Bazzi, B (1957) Chem. Abstr. Found Label 4632 Value 15 Wollenburg, 0 & Schrader, G (1956). Angew Methyl Parathion 0 156 0 5 Chem 6841 Malathion 0 196 0 5 16 Averell, P R. & Norris, M V. (1948) Anal. Chem 20 753 Conclusion 17. Hall, S.A , Stohlman, J W. & Schechter, M S. Different pesticides lead to different products (1951) Anal Chem. 23:1866 after hydrolysis Pesticides could be identified as

34 DRINKING WATER QUALITY MONITORING IN THE RURAL AREAS OF RAWALPINDI

M. Aslam Tahir, Bashir A. Chandio, M. Abdullah & A. Rashid Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources

ABSTRACT. A case study to investigaie the status of drinking waler quality was conducted in the rural areas of Rawalpindi district covering Gujar Khan Kahuta, Murree. Rawalpindi and Taxila Tehsil For this purpose, water samples were collected and analyzed for about 24 water qualiiy parameters including physico-chemical. inorganic constituents, trace elements and bacterial indicators Drinking water quality profile of the survey area where the parameter exceeds the WHO guidelines are prepared and health effects are also highlighted Most of water samples are not found fit for drinking purposes due to presence of colitorm and E coli, Nitrate, Iron and Sodium are found in high concentration in sonic water samples This study demands the due attention of our policy makers and agencies responsible of drinking water schemes for the provision of safe drinking water especially in the rural areas

Introduction papers circulated in twin cities of Rawalpindi and The rapidly increasing pressure on available Islamabad It has been reported in the English water resources from agricultural as well as Newspapers that about 200 children as well as 40 to domestic section, less attention is being paid to 50 adult patients suffering of water borne diseases water quality As a result, water quality is being admitted daily to Rawalpindi hospitals, The deteriorating day by day and its consequent impacts patients suffering from such diseases mostly are becoming permanent in shape and deteriorating belonged to surrounding rural areas of Rawalpindi. human health in domestic sector and stagnant even Diseases like jaundice, gastro-enteritis (stomach degradation of agricultural yields This water is the diseases), diarrhea and typhoid are on the rise due to key to future of life sustainability and economic the consumption of unhygiemc water and mixing of development potable water with the sewerage water Some of Most of the communicable diseases are water those patients were brought to hospitals in serious borne and those diseases cause morbidity and condition and admitted to intensive care units (ICU) mortality. In Pakistan, despite of the high mortality Children easily fell victim to such diseases, they rate specially in the infants due to unsafe drinking generally used contaminated water and suffered water, no attention is being given to the drinking from lack of proper care To arrest the severity and water quality improvements. Neither the public nor to kiiow the causes of problem, the drinking water the decision maker are well aware of the gravity of quality monitoring study has been conducted of the drinking water situation However, in some Rawalpindi rural areas covering five Tehsil i.e places some remedial measures such as filtration and Gujar Khan, Kahuta, Murree, Rawalpindi and chlorination have been taken but these are quite in- Taxila This research study was confined to assess sufficient and in efficient and confined only in major the existing water quality status and to suggest urban areas covering 32% population of the country remedial measures for the improvement of drinking The remaining 68% of the rural population is water quality on the basis of research findings. drinking water of poor quality. Awareness among Methodology the masses about the safe drinking water is to be Total number of 29, 19, 23, 19 and 26 water propagated The poverty, low education rate, samples were collected randomly from Tehsil of political instability, socio-cultural problems and low Gujar Khan, Kahuta, Murree, Rawalpindi and priority to enhance safe water supply coverage to Taxila respectively About 24 water quality masses are major factors. parameters were determined to identify the pollution The water supply systems in most of the cities, problems i e. harness, alkalinity, aluminium, towns and villages carries numerous injurious sodium, calcium,, chloride, nitrate, conductivity, bacteria and other pollutants. Some of the colour, copper,. free carbondioxide, magnesium, contamination are due to the geological ~trucmre of pH, phosphate, potassium, taste, total dissolved the area bearing un-healthy minerals affecting the solids, iron, zinc and manganese contents, E. cob, taste and characteristics of water. Some examples of coliform and non coliform and the water quality these minerals are chloride, lime, magnesium, lead, parameters compared with WHO standards to chromium and zinc etc The composition of water differentiate the polluted and non polluted water varies widely in its main inorganic constituents samples the coliform bacteria are detected by their which are sodium, potassium, calcium barium, iron, ability to ferment lactose in culture at 35°Cor 37°C zinc, bicarbonate, chloride, sulphate, phosphate and The collected samples were brought to the PCRWR, nitrate. Orgamc compounds like pesticides, laboratory within the shortest possible time for detergents, lindane 2, 4-D, phenolic substances and reliable analysis. Some preliminary physico- carboxylic acids can also cause water pollution. chemical observations were recorded at site by using The news in respect of water borne diseases were become common feature in the daily news 35 field equipment and water pollution kit Standard contents and 7 samples having sodium more than analytical procedures and methods were adopted WHO standards however, water samples of other Results and Discussions Tehsil were within the limits in respect of chloride The topographical characteristics and water contents and sodium. sources of the study area from where the water samples were collected are given at Table I The Undesirable Water Quality Parameters The drinking water quality parameters were people of the study area usually fulfill their domestic and drinking water requirements by collecting water found above the highest desirable level of WHO from nearby wells, tubule wells, ponds, water standards are hardness, nitrate (N), chloride, iron supply schemes, hand pumps, springs etc. It was and sodium, Most of the tested water samples have observed during the water sampling that the close normal concentrations of chloride, iron and sodium and covered water supplying systems were in Kahuta, Rawalpindi and Taxila. However, 10.3% discharging more clean and transparent water than and 20 7% samples have more chloride and sodium I. he open air systems respectively in Gujar Khan, and Murree, 34 8% The Table 2 is depicting the mean values of samples have more iron than that water quality ‘p water quality parameters determined and then standards The mean values and ranges are shown in overall assessment of the water quality found in the Table 3 The results are discussed below. study area is drawn wherever the extreme (i) Hardness concentration / level of any parameter was observed Although the mean values of hardness in water the same has been elaborated in the text samples of Gujar Khan, Kahuta, Murree, In some area situation of water quality was very Rawalpindi and Taxila are found less than the inferior, alarming and unbelievable The two WHO highest desirable level (500 mg/I of hardness examples are given to show the picture regarding as CaCO3) 352 8, 440.8,335 8, 320 and 406.7 mg/l hygienic supply of water to the rural population. respectively, nevertheless about 14% 26% 4% 10% The village Dukhi Dukhli Begum in Tehsil Gujar and 11 % water samples collected from Gujar Khan Khan where uncovered ponds are being used as a (125 to 825 mg/l), Kahuta (250 to 762 mg/l), source of drinking water for human and livestock Murree (74 to 537 mg/I), Rawalpindi (58 to 687 The water contains growth of coliform, non mg/I and Taxila (262 to 525 mg/I) were possessing coliform and E cob. high values than WHO standards The literature has The village Gorakhpur (Udiala) in Tehsil indicated the reasons of high CaCO3 in water which Rawalpindi has higher nitrate contents i e. 63 3mg/I are i) Calcium and magnesium in the form of than the permissible limits of WHO (lOmg/l) minerals and lime stones + chalk (CaCO3) are Excess nitrate in water is harmful for human health present in soils and ultimately in water, ii) Industrial especially to the kids; causes blue baby disease, products as well as polyvalent ions of zinc, infantile methemoglobinemia and death Changes of manganese, aluminum, strontium, barium, iron are Nitrate (NO3) into Nitrite (NO7) in human mouth or responsible for hardness The presence of high contents of CaCO3 in water gut and forms-N- Nitosamine, a suspect carcinogen The date compared with WHO standards and a leads to an increased incidence of urolithiasis and number of pollutions were identified. Water quality possess laxative properties due to association of magnesium with the sulphate ions. A number of parameters having desirable values are collectively studies have demonstrated significant negative discussed association between water hardness and Desirable Water Quality Parameters cardiovascular diseases. Other diseases like certain About 24 water quality parameters were nervous system defects, anencephaly, prenatal analyzed to identify the pollution problems Water mortality and various types of cancer are correlated samples were found to be fit with respect to with hardness of water The hard water has been alkalinity, aluminum, calcium, chloride, reported the main causes of house hold pipes conductivity, colour, copper, free carbondioxide, choking with deposited scale, encrustation on magnesium, pH, phosphate, potassium, taste, total kitchen utensils and increasing soap consumption A dissolved solids and zinc contents. The values of hardness level of about 100 mg as CaCO3 per liter iron were found within the desirable level in the provides an acceptable balance between corrosion water samples of Gujar Khan, Kahuta, Rawalpindi and encrustation. and Taxila In samples of Rawalpindi and Murree the quantity of manganese was present in most cases (ii) Nitrate (N) under the desirable limits The water samples The mean concentrations of nitrate nitrogen collected from Murree and Rawalpindi Tehsil were (mg/i) in water samples was found more than WHO standards (10 mg/l) in study area viz Gujar Khan found safe in respect of nitrate WHO has given 250 mg/I and 200 mg/l a highest desirable levels for (11 4), Kahuta (17.7), Rawalpindi (17 5) and Taxila chloride contents and sodium respectively As per (8 67). A reasonable %age of water samples are not the limits, only 2 samples in respect of chloride fit for drinking purpose in Gujar Khan (24%), 36 Table 1 To’7ographical characteristics and water sources of the study area S.No Tehsi] Source Topography 1 Gujar Khan Well, Tube well, hand Pump, Water Supply, Pond Plain & Semi Hilly 2 Murree Spring, Well, Water Supply Hilly area 3 Kahuta Well, Hand Pump, Water Supply. Spring Hilly area 4 Taxila Well, Tube well, Spring Plain & Semi Hilly 5 Rawalpindi Well, Tube well, Hand Pump, Water Supply -do- Table 2. Intensify ofpollution found in water samples col lectedfrom the study area Water Quality WHO Gujar Khan Kahuta Murree Rawalpindi Taxila Parameiers Standards mg/I * ** * ** * ** * ** * **

Hardness 500 4 138 5 263 1 43 2 105 3 ii 5

Nitrate (N) 10 7 24 1 5 26 3 - - - 3 ii 5

Chloride 250 3 10 3 ------

iron 03 - - - - 8 348 - - - -

Sodium 200 5 17 2 - - 2 10 5 - -

E Cob - 19 65 5 16 84 2 17 73 9 13 68 4 14 53 8

Coliform - 25 86 2 15 78 9 20 87 17 89 5 20 76 9

Non-Coli - 25 86 2 17 89 5 20 87 17 89 5 19 73 1 Total No of samples 29 19 23 19 26 * Number of polluted samples, ** Percentage of polluted samples

Table 3 The Concentration ofNO3 (N), Cl, Na & Fe in water samples of study area Main Study Sampling Sites Water Source Conc (mg/I) Parameter Site/Range Gujar Khan Mera Shanis Well 12 7 NO3 (N) (0 3-72 2) Mohra Bhatian Well i3 0 -do- Galyana Well 42 5 -do- Chak Dolat Well 48 6 -do- Gohra Well 72 2 -do- Ranjali T Well 107 -do- Phadana Well 269 Ci Syed Adda Well 1540 -do- Manghot Well 513 -do- Galyana Well 360 Na Syed Adda Well 1520 -do- Manghot Well 420 -do- Jajjah Well 246 -do- Gorha Well 354 -do- Kahuta Police Station W Supply 108 NO3 (N) (02-111) Kalar Sydan Well 25 4 -do- Phakrhal Well 52 1 -do- Chani Bazar Well iii -do- FG Boys Schooi Dalla Well 13 3 -do- Rawalpindi Mara Mohra Well 26 NO3 (N) (0 25-92 1) Mudhal Well 13 -do- Jinnah Town Adyala G School Well 92 1 -do- Gorakhpur New Lala Zar Well 63 6 -do- Mara Mohra Well 61 2 -do- Dhok Badhal Well 202 -do- Well 230 -do- Taxila Umrial Well 11 2 NO3(N) (0 1-17 8) Thatta Khalil Well 71 8 -do- Pind Nowshehri Khan Well 61 -do- Chowkar Well 19 5 -do- Murree Romal Village Spring 0 37 Fe Gheka Gali Spring 0 36 -do- Aliot Spring 0 32 -do- Patriata Spring 0 32 -do- Abbasi Hotal L Topa Spring 0 39 -do- Ghurial Gheka Gab Spring 0 37 -do- Bansera Dali Spring 0 35 -do- Gorha Gali Spring 0 36 -do-

37 settles out as a rust coloured layer, such water often Kahuta (26%) and Rawalpindi (11%) due to high concentrations of nitrate nitrogen (Table-3). The taste unpalatable, stains laundry and plumbering fixtures WHO has recommended 0 3 mg/l as a chemical fertilizers, decay of vegetable and animal guideline value matter, domestic effluents, sewage sludge, industrial discharges, leachates from refuse dumps and Study Area ______Coliform (%) N______Coliform L%) atmospheric washout are considered the main Gujar Khan 86 2 86.2 contributors of nitrate (N) in water sources Higher Kahuta 78.9 89 5 levels of nitrate are found in ground water as Murree 87 0 87.0 compared to surface water. High levels of nitrate Rawalpindi 89.5 89.5 (N) are responsible for cause of infantile Taxila 73 1 73.1 methemoglobtnemia (30-40% lead to anoxia) and This study indicates clearly that the drinking V ultimate death Infants may suffer from gastro Water being supplied by water supply schemes and intestinal disturbances The pregnant women are at used by rural population of RaWalpindi district area greater risk than the general adult population. is not safe for drinking purpose 3 (iii) Sodium Measures for Safe Drinking Water A number of measures have been proposed for The NaCl salt is found in rocks (rocksal), silicate minerals, amphiboles and feldspars, sea provision of safe and pure drinking water to population ~f rural areas i) The contamination of water and it is present about 26 g/kg of the earth’s crust. Sodium salts are added in water system from water drawn from wells, ponds hand and other the washing of salt affected soils, domestic and pumps etc., is very common due to presence of sewerage used water and industries of glass, soap, nearby septic tanks and pit latrines in the rural areas The problem needs to be studied in detail to leather, pharmaceutical, chemical, treatment plants, ice and ice cream making, food industry Excessive arrive at appropriate designs of the whole system in intake of sodium chloride causes vomiting, order to get contamination free drinking water convulsions, muscular twisting, rigidity, cerebral ii) The biological contamination can be controlled by and pulmonary oedema, deterioration of chronic simple chlorination. The water supplied by regular congestive heart failure, hypeertension and ill schemes must be chlorinated before its discharge effects have also been documented. Fresh fruits and into the mam supply system Chlorine may be added vegetable contain from 10 mg to 1 g/kg of NaCI. to drinking water supplies to destroy harmful Milk contains a relatively high proportion of sodium bacteria Potassium permanganate and bleaching powder may also be used for the sterilizing of well chloride i e 1 5 g/kg The minimum NaC1 or pond Waters All domestic underground and over requirement is about 120 mg/day WHO has recommended 200 mg/l as a guideline value head tanks should be cleaned periodically iii) The new Water supply schemes may be approved and (iv) Chloride implemented only after investigation of Water It is distributed in the form of NaCI, KC1, quality. The Govt. must initiate safe “Water supply, CaC1,, salts in the soil and Water bodies, Effluents schemes in rural areas where chemicat of chemical industries, oil well operation, sewage contamination’s are in excess like iron, manganese, discharge, irrigation drainage, refuse leachates and Nitrate, etc the alternate sources of water may be sea Water intrusion in coastal areas are the major searched out by using Resistivity survey techniques. factors of chloride addition in water The Chloride iv) In-house water filters such as Ceramic Water is essential as about 530 mg of NaCI salts per day Filter using silver coated sand may be used for are excreted from the adult human body It is water decontammation and removal of dust, silt etc estimated that more than 9 mg of Cl per kg of body v) To set up guideline values continuous research ‘p weight is needed. The taste threshold levels for and monitoring National Water quality standards .4 NaCl, KCI, CaCI, in water are 210, 310,222 mg/l. strictly by enforced vi) Low cost water treatment Approx. 600 mg. of chloride per day are ingested in technologies be introduced for treating water supply a salt free diet. An average intake from drinking in rural areas. vii) The people to be educated on water is approx 100 mg/day. such techniques through mass contact by using (v) Iron mosque media, radio, television and other means of The Iron in water is present in the ferric (Fe~3) mass communication. state. It is added in water from rocks, minerals, acid mine drainage, iron related industries The Fe is References essential in human nutrition for body infrastructures 1. American Public Health Association. (1976) (bones) and nervous system and daily requirement is “Standards methods for the examination of 7-14 mg. The higher intake results water and Waste water”, 14th ed. Washington. hemochromatosis Ferrous salts are unstable and 2. “Water Borne Diseases-200 Children being precipitate as insoluble ferric hydro-oxide, which admitted daily to Pindi hospitals” The Daily Dawn, 6 June, 1998 Pakistan. 38 3 “Doctors caution against spread of hepatitis, 7. Us Environmental Protection Agency (1976). cholera”. The Daily Dawn, 13 July, 1998 “Quality Criteria for Water” Washington Pakistan. (Report No. 440/9-76-023) 4 Frazer, P , et al (1998) “Nitrate and human 8 WHO (1979) “Sodium, Chlorides and cancer, a review of the evidence” international Conductivity in Drinking Water”. WHO Journal of Epidemiology Regional Office of the Europe, Copenhagen, 5 Ministry of Supply and Services, Canada (EURO reports) (1978) “Guidelines for Canadian Drinking 9. WHO (1984). “Guidelines for drinking water Water Quality”. Queebee. quality” Geneva Vol 1&2 6 Jsuess, M (1982) “Examination of Water for Pollution Control. A Reference Handbook” Pergammon Press, Derunark Vol. 1&2

39 SYNTHETIC INORGANIC ION-EXCHANGERS: EFFICIENT SCAVENGERS FOR TOXIC POLLUTANTS IN WATER

Syed Moosa Hasany Nuclear Chemistry Division, Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology, P 0 Nilore, Islamabad, Pakistan

ABSTRACT Synthetic inorganic ion-exchangers are easy to prepare, siable towards heat and ionizing radianons, resistant to chemicals and have convenient properties as compared to their commercial organic counterpart They include hydrated metal oxides, acidic salts of polyvalent metals i e phosphates, arscnaies, molybdatcs, tungslares, antimonaics, selenites and vanadates, salts of heseropolyacids such as phosphomolybdates, tungstoarsenates, phosphosilicates, insoluble Ferro and ferricyanides, suiphides and alkaline earth sulphates They have been found to be very selective and efficient scavengers for the removal of toxic metal ions and organic pollutants present in water They have been discussed in detail giving specific examples where they can be successfully utilized for the purification and decontamination of water

Classification of Ion-Exchangers Introduction The inorganic ion-exchangers include hydrous Synthetic ion-exchangers are superior to their and non-hydrous metal oxides, acid salts of commercial organic counterparts due to their easy polyvalent elements i e phosphates, arsenates, preparation and low cost, stability towards heat and molybdates, tungtates, antimonates, selenites and ionizing radiation, resistance to acids, bases, organic vanadates, salts of heteropolyacids like solvents, oxidizing and reducing reagents and phosphomolybdates, tungstoarsenates, phospho- capacity over a wide range of acidity1° Because of their convenient chemical properties selectivity and silicates, insoluble ferro and ferric-yanides, efficiency, they have been extensively used in last sulphides, and alkaline earth sulphates Some typical four decades in Analytical Chemistry, inorganic ion-exchangers which have been used are Radiochemistry, Environmental Chemistry, Nuclear listed in Table I Technology, Hydrometallurgy and in metal Table 1. Synthetic ion - Exchangers recovery, water purification and decontamination, Antsnunaies Seienites Ti Cr Sn Ce, Ta Ti, Sn and in nuclear and Industrial waste management~2~ Arsenates Suipindes Ti, Zr Sn Fe, Cu, Ni, zn, As, Ag, Cd, Hg, Pb Applications of Inorganic Ion Exchangers Ferrocyanides Suiphates They have been utilized for the separation Ti, Mn, Fe, Cu, Ni, Cu, Zn, Zr Mn, Ca, Sr. Ba Ag, Cd, w, Pb, Bi, u preconcentration of analyte element in order to Mnlybdates Tungstates remove interferences or impurities and to achieve its Ti, Cr, Zn, Sn Ti, Cr, Ce detection limits before its actual measurement if its MOLYBDOPHOSPHATES Tungntnphonphates Li, NH4. Na, K Li, NH,, Na, K concentration is below the detection limit of that Oxides vanadates particular analytical method to be used Moreover, Mg. At, Si, Ti, v, Cr, Mn, Fe, Zn, Zr, At Nb, Mn, Ag, Sn, Sb, Ta, W, Ph, Th these ion-exchangers have been employed to have Plinspltates carrier-free production of radioisotopes as Ti, Cr, Zr, Sn, Ta generators. They have been applied to achieve the decontamination of coolant water in a reactor at high Essential and Toxic Elements temperature and pressure They are useful in the For biological systems including plant and removal of radioactivity or radionuclides present in animal life the elements can be classified into two large volumes of water or to achieve categories i e essential and non-essential elements. decontamination of vast area of floors They have The essential elements perform essential role in a also been employed successfully for water living organism and their deficiency consistently purification and decontamination They have also results in the impairment of a funcfion from optimal been used for the desalination of highly saline to suboptimal level The essential element is present water They have been used to process fresh and in all healthy tissues of all living things Its highly radioactive fuel They have useful withdrawal from the body induces some structural applications in the treatment and safe disposal of and physiological abnormalities, its addition either nuclear and industrial liquid waste into waterways removes or prevent these aboormalities, The They have been utilized for the purification and abnormalities due to their deficiency always isolation of transuranic elements from highly accompany pertinent and specific biochemical radioactive fission products in the spent nuclear changes and these changes can be cured or fuel12~ prevented when this deficiency IS removed°1 Another group of elements is known as toxic because their biological significance is confined to 40 Low-Melting Alloys, Welding, Fungicides and their toxic or potentially toxic properties at insecticides, Reactor Control Rods relatively low concentrations All trace elements are Sb Special Alloys, Pigments, Paints, Small Arms and Bullets, toxic if ingested or inhaled at sufficiently high levels Storage Batteries, Semiconductors, Electronic Devices, for long enough periods Continued ingestion of diet Medicines, Cable Sheathing. Flame-Proofing Compounds, Glass and Pottery, Linotyping or continued exposure to total environment that are Hg Fungicides, Dental Preparations, Electrical Apparatus. excessively high in a particular toxic element induce Industrial Control Instruments Dry Batteries. Paints. chaiiges in the functioning, forms, activities or Pharmaceuticals, Explosives, Metal Plating concentration of that element in the body tissues and TI Corrosion Resistance Alloys, Electronic Equipment, Photoelectric Cells, Optical Systems, Fiberglass, fluids so that they rise above the permissible limits Rodenticides, Insecticides In these circumstances biochemical defects develop, Pb Gasoline Additives. Ammunition, Metal Products, Paints, physiological functions are affected and structural Pigments, Storage Batteries. Glass Making, Plastics disorders rise in ways which differ with different Th Nuclear Fuel, Gas Mantles U Nuclear Fuel, Research, Ceramic Glazes, Alloys elements with the degree and duration of toxicity Pu Nuclear Fuel and with the age, sex and species of the animals Table 3 Tolerance Limits of Toxic Elements in involved (4) An element is said to be toxic if it Drinking Water and their Concentration in Fresh injures in the growth or metabolism when supplied Water above certain concentration. Toxicity is due to the Element Tolerance Fresh water binding at non-binding centers or precipitation of a iitmtst61 ~i g L-’ concentration~~tg L’

metal of the metalloenzymes and by the replacement Be - 001-i of essential elements in the molecules or enzymes. Cr 50 01-6 However, many clinical and pathological disorders As 20-50 02-230 in the animals as a consequence of the toxic Se iO 002-i Cd 5-10 001-3 elements excess cannot be explained in biochemical Sb 10-23 001-5 or enzymatic term. Their toxicity above certain Hg 1 00001-28 concentration level for biological systems has been TI - - proved. These elements are Be, Hg, Pb, Cd, Cr, Pb 50-100 006-120 As, Sb, Se, Ti, U, Th and Pu Chromium selenium Th . and arsenic are among essential trace elements U 12 002-5 Pu - - However, their deleterious effects and toxicity on biological systems have been proved in many Factors Controlling Sorption instances. The inorganic ion-exchangers due to their superiority over commercially available ion- Sources of Toxic Elements The major sources of toxic elements and their exchangers have been used for the removal of toxic metal ions present at low concentrations The compounds are listed (5) in Table-2 Because these sorption behaviour of these metal ions from toxic elements are harmful, their tolerance limits in air, food and water have been identified Table-3 different electrolytes under experimental conditions can be exploited to achieve this goal The sorption gives the tolerance limits of these elements in of metal ions onto inorganic ion-exchangers depends drinking water (6) and their concentration ranges on many factors~8~such as nature and composition of measured in fresh water~7~are very low as compared to their tolerance limits in drinking water except in electrolyte, its pH, temperature, equilibration time case of lead where higher concentration of lead between sorbent and sorbate, presence of found in fresh water is quite close to its tolerance complexing agents, anions and canons, iomc limit in drinkmg water. strength, aging of sorptive solution and sorbent and concentration of metal ions, surface area and other Table 2 Major Sources of Toxic Elements and their properties of sorbents. These parameters have to be Compounds Be Alloys, Ceramic and Refractory Products, Rocket Fuel, X- optimized to achieve maximum sorption Ray Tubes, Electronic tndustry Specific Examples of Sorption of Metal Ions Cr Stainless Steel, Chrome Plating, Non-Ferrous Alloys, In Table 4 few specific examples from current Leather Tanning, Pnnting, Dyes, Pigments. Paints, Refractones, Wood Preservatives, Welding, Batteries, literature are mentioned where inorganic ion- Catalysis exchangers can be used for the removal of toxic As Laser and Solid State Devicea, Herbicides, Wood elements from aqueous solutions In column 2 and 3 Preservatives, Medicinal And Vetennary Uses, Bottle of this table sorption and desorption conditions have Glass. Alloys Pigments, Textitle Printing, Taxidermy Se Laser Technology, Xerography, Infrared Photography, been enumerated For example U(VI), Cr(IH) and Photoelectric And Solar Cells, Storage Batteries Rectifiers, Sb(V) are sorbed almost quantitatively(iO) from Glass and Ceramic Industries, Pigments,Rubber, buffer solution of pH~6~onto tin oxide surface Lubricating Oils And Greases, Drugs and Special whereas these metal ions can be desorbed using Medicines Cd Electroplating, Pigments, Storage Batteries, Rubber, aqueous nitric acid solution Similarly, Cd(II) can Paints, Plastics, Pigments, Semiconductors, Brazing and be sorbed (> 99%) from its very dilute solution of

41 Table 4 Ion-Exchangers as Scavengers for Toxic Elements

Element Ion Exchanger Adsorption Conditions Desorption Conditions Ref Cr(iIi) tO’ M Iron Os~tde pl-1 6 5 - 9 UO,”, Cr”, Sb” Tin Oxide 50 ml! g pH 6, 98 9%, 963%, 99 8% (HNO, H,O) (I 3) 10 (5ppectively Cr(VI) 10’- 10’ M vanadium Oxide 48 mug pH 2, 90% II Cr (IV) i-6 x 10’ M Fe(IiI)/ Cr011) Hydroside l00% soTption pt-I 5 7 - 12 CD(II) 10’ M Hydrous Ceric Oxide 92 1% from pH 1047 solution 3% 13 ShO,’ AI,O, 99% 0 IM HNO, I M NH, 4 Hg (II) I 5 x 0’ M Manganese Dioxide 00% sorption at pH 6 I(X)% d4eSorption with 005 M EDTA IS solution Ph(1I) 10’ M Ferric Oxide, Manganese pH 8 00% 6 Oxide, Aluniiniun Oxide 00 ml! I) I mg Th(IV) Manganese Dioxide 200 pH 8 7 98% 17 nsl!250 ntg UO,’ 10’ M Silica Gel-Titania mixed 190% pH 4-7 solution 18 Pu (IV) Manganese Dioxide pH 8- 0, 90% 19 Se (IV) 7x10’-7x10’ M Titanium Oxide 45 mI!SO mg (101 M HCI, HNO,, HCIO, or . 20 H,SO, 99% Pb (II) Stanni,, Phosphate 99 2% at pH 6 5 . 2! Cd(lI) 10’ M Sodium Tilanate 00 mg!l0 n,l 992% Irons 10’ M FtCI or IM HCI or H,SO, 22 H,SO,_or_pH__4 5 solution Hg (II) 10’ 10’ M Potassiun, Titanate 974% from 0 I M O~alicAcid - 23 +_02_M_NaCI,_972%_aipH_65 Tb (IV) 10’- 10’ M Strontium Sulphate 972% (coin I M NaCI + 01 M - 24 H’SO, Tl(l), Cd(Il), Pb (II) Chrontium Ferrocyanide 98, 98, 92 6% pH 2-3 T!(I) Desorbed with 3 M mixture of 25 5x10’M NH,NO,+ HNO,

0 001 M HC1 or H, SO 22 The sorbed cadmium can be4 ontoremovedsodiumfromtitanatethe surface 11 Bhutani, A.K Mitra and R. kumari (1992). using comparatively concentrated solution of 1 M Radiochim, Acta 56~153-158. HCI or H 12 Namasivayam and K Ranganathan (1993) 7 SO4 These examples show that toxic Environ. Poll. 82: 255-261 elements can be removed from aqueous solutions 13 Mishra and V K Singh, Radiochim. Acta 68, using inorganic ion-exchangers effectively (1995), 251-256 Conclusions 14 Ernhard, J. Radtoanal. Nucl Chem. 177, It can be concluded that these ion-exchangers (1994) 321-325. may be used for the decontamination or purification 15 Thanabalasingam and W F Pickering, of water. They can be utilized to separate toxic Environ Poll. (B) 10, (1985), 115-118. elements from their very diluted solutions in water. 16. Gadde and H A. Laitmen, anal Chem. 46, They can also be employed for the removal of toxic (1974) 2022-2026 elements from industrial effluents before their safe 17 Gascon, M.T Grespo and M. L. Acena disposal into waterways. (1990). J. Radioanla. Nucl. Chem. 139,. 249- 254. References 18 Song Yinjie, Zhang Hui, Li Fuhang and Yang 1 Pekarek and V. Vesdey (1972) Talanta Quaolin (1995) J Radional Nucl. Chem 190 19(217) 1245 (1972) 155- 166 2 Dearfield (1982) “lnorgamc Ion-Exchanges 19. Wong, G. S Brown and v E Noshkin (1978). Materials”, Florida CRC Press, Boca Raton. J Radioanal NucI. Chem. 42: 7-15 3. Eichorn (1973). “Inorganic Biochemistry” Amsterdam. Elsevier 20 Hasany, A M Shamsi and M A Rauf (1997). 4. hertz, Federal Proceedings 29, 1482 (1970) Appi Radiat. isot. 48 595-600 5. Grayson (1979) Kivk Othmer Eweydoplkm of 21 Bhattacharyya and A De. (1986). J. Chemical Technology New York John Wiley Radioanal Nuci Chem 100: 277-285. 6. Reilley Metal Contaminationof Food”Applied 22 Misra, V. K. Singh and D Tiwari (1997). Science Publishers, U.K. 1980 AppI. Radiat, Isot 48. 435-440 7. IHQ 23 Mishra and Upadhyaya, S (1995) J. 8. Benes and V Major (1980). “Trace Chemistry Radioanal. Nuci Chem. 189 247-256 of Aqueous Solutions”. Amsterdam Edsevier 24. Lieser and K. Medert (1995) Radiochim Acta 9. Srivastava and C k. Jam (986). J. Radioanal. 68 191-195 Nucl. Chem 98 83-89. 25 Srivastava, G Bhattacharjee, S Kumar, C K. 10. Bhattachai-yya, N C Dutta and A De (1990). Oberoi and A. K Sharma (1980) J. Chem J Radzoanal. Nuci Chem 140: 121-131. Tech. Biotechnol. 30: 757-763.

42 WATER CHEMISTRY, QUALITY CONTROL BY ELECTROCHEMICAL METHODS

Riaz Abmed Nuclear Chemistry Division, PINSTECH, p o Nilore, Islamabad

ABSTRACT. Water is very good solvent It dissolves uiost of the salts and substances which cume in contact with it and to properties vary according to the solutes present in it Thus ionization of water, acid base equilibria, solubility constants, common ion effect, secondary salt effect, complexation, Redox process, corrosion processes, chemical kinetics, colloid and scale formation etc all depend on the solutes present in water Before carrying out any processes of water purification and treatment one has to take into consideration the properties of the solutes present and these can be well understood anti explained by electrochemical methods Most of the work in water purification, water sterilization, coagulation, filtration, screening, sedimentation etc involves solution chemistry For quality control of water elecrroehemical techniques are sensitive, reliable, cost- effective and can analyse a large number of constituents of significant importance Metals and other toxic substances have been effectively removed by electro--deposition, eiectrodialysis and electro-oxidation from industrial waste water All types of pollutants from waste water can he effectively removed using electroehemical reactors In power plants scale formation and water corrosion are most importani problems which are also electrochemical in nature

Introduction Results and Discussions Water is the most important constituents for Study about the behavior of different solutes human-life Without water life is not possible present in water is called water chemistry and because of its essentiality for life God has provided monitoring or analysis of different constituents in this on earth globe in abudance Nearly three fourth water is termed as quality control and there is third of the earth globe consists of water Human aspect known as water purification or treatment and populations have been concentrated in those areas for all of these three parameters electrocheimcal where drinking water was available in abudance methods are most convenient, useful, reliable and Natural waters are never completely pure. During above all cost- effective there precipitation and their passage over or through the ground they acquire a wide variety of dissolved Water Chemistry or suspended impurities This raw water must be Chemical substances of interest range from treated and purified before using for industrial and dissolved gases through inorganic salts and other drinking purposes1t1 For proper treatment of water, compounds to complex organic materials, both water chemistry must be known, which means the natural and synthetic, washed from fields and forests different constituents present in water and their and contained in municipal and industrial waste properties m so1ution~21 Due to industrialization a waters. Water chemistry refers to the chemical large number of pollutants have been added into properties of aqueous solutions contaimng any of the water sources It is necessary to do proper quality wide variety of substances, found as impurities in control of drinking and industrial water for different natural waters, added to water during treatment, constituents136~. picked up in the flow of water or imposed upon In this paper water chemistry is briefly water through domestic, mumcipal or industrial described water purification and treatment have uses been mentioned and water quality control have been Water ionizes into acid and basic radicals and discussed It has been shown that electrochemical thus can dissolve both types of substances i e; acid methods are simple, cost-effective, sensitive and as well as basic reliable for all purposes H 4 + OH 2H20 ~ H Experimental 2O ~ H~O~+ OR VA processor 646 Potentiograph 536 and pH For acidic substances ionization constants may meter 605 all from Metrohm, Switzerland, be given as Polarographic analyzer 174A Electrochemistry 4 +HCO H,CO3ty H 3 K = [Wi______[HCOJ system370 from Princeton Applied Research, USA were used. Codonductivity meter used was from 4 + COç 1H______24CO1[CO~131 HCO3 ~. H K2 = 1H Wescan,USA. [HCO 3I All the chemicals used were of proanalysis grade from E-Merck, Germany For basic compounds4ionization+ OFt Kconstants=INJJJJQLIJare Trace metals were analysed using differential NH3 +H2Oc~’NH4 [NH pulse anodic stripping voltammetry. Standard 3I electrochemical methods were used for all the Alkalinity of water is of paramount importance measurements. both for drinking and industrial purposes. It may be bicarbonate, carbonate or hydroxide alkalinity. 43 water are negatively charged. The stationary These can be calculated by simple method charged layer on the surface is surrounded by a P = Phenolphthahne alkalmity bound layer of water in which ions of opposite T = Total alkalinity charges drawn from bulk solution produce a rapid = PIT a drop in potential. This drop within the bound water If a = 0, bicarbonate alkalinity = T layer is called the stern potential, a more gradual If a < 0.5 = (1-2a)T drop, called the zeta potential occurs between the Carbonate alkalinity = 2aT shear surface of the bound water layer and the point If a=0.5 = T of electroneutrality in the solution. Stability of If a> 0.5 = 2(l-a)T colloids depends on the magnitude of the zeta Hydroxide alkalinity = (2a- 1 )T potential. Coagulation is a chemical technique If a=1 = T directed towards destabilization of colloidal particles Solubility constants (Pks) of some compounds by using polyelectrolytes. used in water treatment alongwith their applications Sterilization] Disinfection of water is mostly are important. Pks of Al(OH) 3 and Ca(OH)3 are 32.9 done by using chlorine and this chlorine is produced and 5.26 which are used for coagulation and by the electrochemical decomposition of brine. softening respectively (7) Quality Control Stability constants of hydroxocomplexes used for Electrochemical methods are frequently used for water treatment are also important. Both solubility constants and stability constants can be calculated by the quality control of drinking and industrial water. electrochemical methods. Mostly used electrochemical methods are potentiometry, ion-selective electrodes, Dechlorination, deoxygenation, inorganic biochemical metabolism have specific potentials conductometry, polarography, voltammetry, (Table. 1). Oxidation related to disinffection and stripping voltammetry and coulometry. odour control are also potential and pH dependent Potentiometry (Table-2) Water corrosion is also properly In this technique change in potential is measured explained and understood by electrochemical for the determination of different constituents A methods (Table-3). large number of constituents can be measured using Water Treat,nent this technique Some of the important constituents Major problem in water treatment is removal of which are measured in water by this technique are; colloidal particles. Colloidal particles as a result of pH, alkalmity, acidity, Aluminium, Silver, Amino their small size have a very large ratio of surface compounds, acetic acid, gold, bromme, boric acid, 3 of material if chloride, C1O dividedarea to volume.into cubesFor0.1mmexampleon1 aCmside will have a 3, dO4, cyanide, copper, calcium surface area of 0 06 m2, while if divided into cubes carbonate, carbonyl compounds, carboxyl acids, l0°mm on a side will have surface area of 600m2. cerium, calcium, phosphate, EDTA, NTA, Colloidal particles may be even smaller than 10 Mercury, Nickel and many others. 5mm Most colloidal particles in water and waste

Table: 1: Dechlorination, Deoxygenazion, inorganic Biochemical Metabolism

S.No. Reaction E°V Remarks

I S04 + 4H~+2e = H2S03+ H20 0 i72 Dechlorination,deoxygenation (4—)

2 SO4~+ 8H~+6e = S+4 H20 0375 Bacterial Reduction (—)(-O 21 at pH 7)

3 S + 2H~+ 2e = H2S ~ 0 142 Sulfer bacteria (—~)-033 at pH 7 4 4 HNO2+7H* + 6e = NH4~+2H2O 086 Nitrification(—)0 38 at pH 7

5 NO~+H20 ÷2e = N02:+2’0H 0 01 Nitrification (4—) at p1-I 7

Table 2. Oxidation Related to Disinfection and Odour Control

SNo. Reactuon E°V Remarks

1 O3+2H~+2e= 02+H20 2 07 Most powerful (—*)1 68 at pH 7

2 H202 + 2H~+2e = 2H20 1 77 1 26 at pH 7 (-÷)

3 MnO4+4H~-t-3e=MnO2+2H2O 1 68 Odor oxidation (—÷)113 at pH 7

4 HOCI+H~+2e=CF+H2O 1 49 1 28 atpll 7 (—*)

5 Cl2+2e = 2C1 i 358 (-3)

6 Ci02+e = C1O2 115 C102

7 Br~+2e= 28r 1 087 8 OCF + 2H20+2e = C1+20H 0 88 0C1 oxidation (—3) at pH 14

44 Table 3 Metallic Corrosion and Cathodic Protection

SNo. Reaction E°V Remarks

1 Mg~+2e = Mg -2 37 Sacrificial anode (<—) 2 Al+**~l~3e= Al -1 67 Sacrificial anode (4—)

3 Zn~* +2e = Zn -0 762 Sacrificial anode (4—)

4 Fe~* +2e = Fe -O 409 Initial corrosion (4—)

5 Pb~* +2e = Pb -0 126 Initial corrosion (4—) 6 Cu** +2e = Cu 0 345 Initial corrosion (÷—) 7 Fe~~+e= Fe~ 0771 Ferous oxidation(+—) 8 Fe(OH) 3+e = Fe(OH)2+0H -0 56 Rust formation (<—)

Ion-selective Electrodes lng/l A large number of trace metals can be These are electrodes prepared for the measured by this technique which include cadmium, measurement of specific constituents. A large lead, copper, silver, mercury, selemum, iron, number of ion- selective electrodes are available in manganese, barium, bismuth, cobalt, cesium, market. Some of the commonly used ion- selective nickel, cobalt, uranium, tin, zinc and many others, electrodes are Aluminium, Amlnoma, barium, iodide, acids, nitrate, ammoma, uranium etc. bromide, cadnuum, calcium, carbon dioxide, Conductometiy chloride, cobalt, copper, cyanide, fluoride, Conductivity is a measure of total dissolved fluoroborate, iodide, lead, lithium, magnesium, solids in waler. It is also used in ion manganese, mercury, molybdate, nickel, nitrate, chromatography as a detector system nitrite, perchlorate, phosphate, potassium, selenium, silver, sodium, strontium, sulfate, sulfide, telluride, Determination of heavy and toxic metals (Cd, Pb, thiocyanate, thiols, water hardness and zinc It may Cu and Zn) in drinking water. not be possible to purchase all the ion selective A large number of water samples were analysed electrodes and it is also not advisable because many from Rawalpindi and Islamabad area for these of these electrodes have a specific life period, but metals Samples were collected from Simly dam, some of the frequently used electrodes may be Rawal dam, and also many samples were collected purchased from specified areas of Rawalpindi and Islamabad. Well water and Tube well water samples were also Polarography analysed. Values of Cd, Pb, Cu and Zn in surface Polarography is very useful technique in which water samples were in the ranges of 0 01 to 0.24 potential is varied and the corresponding current j.tgIl, 2 4 to 14.2 pgIl, 1.2 to 4 3jig/l and from 4 39 produced due to the reduction or oxidation of the to 17.96 p.tg/l respectively. The values of Cd, Pb, analyte is measured and the measured current is Cu and Zn in ground water samples were m the directly proportional to the analyte concentration ranges of 0 08 to 0.38, 0.33 to 5.30, 0.56 to 4.93 Now most of the elements and compounds both and 5 4 to 200~ag/lrespectively. All the values are inorganic and organic have specific redox potentials well within limits. which can be exploited for their analysis It can be used for the analysis of heavy and toxic metals like, Analysis of mineral water samples nickel, cobalt, cadmium, lead, chromium, copper, Six types of mineral water samples were zinc, tin, arsenic, selemum, molybdenum and collected from the market and analysed for different aluminium It can also be used for the analysis of constituents. Values are given in Table-4. pH of all petroleum, mtrate, nicotine, fructose, org. the samples is about 8. Total hardness and chloride compounds, nitnlotriacetic acid (NTA), EDTA, contents of M1 sample are high. Levels of calcium, Vit C, 5, SO3, S203, cyanide, inorganic anions, magnesium, carbonates, sodium, potassium are quinine, ammoma, nitrite, styrene and many others. within the permissible limits. Stripping Voltammetry Removal of Pollutantsfrom Water Coulometiy Electrochemical methods are very good18for> Ecothe- In this technique the quantity of electricity Cellsremovalare ofavailabledifferentforpollutantsthe removalfromofwatertoxic metals required for an analyte to undergo a chemical from industrial waste>9>. Electrodialysis has been reaction is measured which is proportional to the used for the removal of salts from water. analyte concentration. This is a simple method for Electrochemical reactors are available for the the measurement of a large number of constituents removal of different pollutants from water~0~. e.g; chloride, bromide In this technique the anlyte to Electrochemical reactors consist of charcoal filters be measured is first preconcentrated electrolytically kept at a certain electrochermcal potential. Many on the electrode and then current is measured during organic toxic pollutants are reduced or oxidized at the stripping process. In this way analyte can be those potentials into non toxic compounds, whereas preconcentrated by more than ten thousands times in inorgamc ions are removed selectively by the electrode as compared to its concentration in the electrochemical deposition These electrochemical solution. This technique makes it possible to reactors can be regenerated by reversmg their measure trace metals in water upto the level of electrochemical potential.

45 Table 4: Analysis of Mineral Water Samples

M Constituents 1 M2 M3 M4 M~ M6 pH 80 81 79 55 83 83 Conductivity 1959 760 487 823 403 524 T Hardness 624 232 226 386 i40 180

Ca-Hardness 300 116 112 300 12 24 Mg Hardness 324 116 114 ~8 128 166 Chloride 570 102 17 47 60 85 Carbonates Nil 16 40 Nil Nil Ni! Bicarbonates 252 264 280 400 140 102 OH-Alkalinity 252 280 240 400 140 102 Sodium 200 75 95 24 24 25 Potassium 1 0 4 0 5 0 1 0 2 0 - Sulfate 120 40 40 25 2 0 -

References 6 Riaz Ahmed, et al (1998) “Quality control of Drinking and Industrial water” Report, I American Water Works Association (1971) NCD/P-116, 1-30 “Water quality and treatment A handbook of public water supplies”. Mc Graw-Hill 7 Fair, G M., Gayer, J C and Okun, D A “Water and Waste Water Engineering” Vol.2 2 Riaz Ahmed (1997). “Water Chemistry”. New York. John Wiley Proceedings of Training workshop on water chemistry and quality control Feb 16-20, 1997, 8 Pletcher, D (1982) “Industrial islamabad. Electrochemistry”. New York Chapman and Hall 3. ASTM (1966) “Manual on Industrial waste water”. ASTM Special Technical Publication 9 Riaz Ahmed. (1997) “Cost effective and No 148-1 simple solutions of environmental pollution by electrochemical methods” Proceedings of the 4 ASTM (1981) “Annual book of ASTM National Symposium on Environmental standards”. Vol--3 1 Pollution Feb 1997, Islamabad. 5 Riaz Ahmed; Roomina Tanwir and Qureshi, 10 Smyth, W F ed (1980) “Electroanalysis in I H (1984) “Chemical Analysis of surface and hygiene, environmental, clinical - and ground water of selected areas of Pakistan” phermaceutical Chemistry” Amsterdam Report. PINSTECH/NCD-107, 1-44 Elsevier.

4

46 NITRATE POLLUTION IN DRINKING WATER AND ITS MEASUREMENT

Muhammad Mansha Chaudhry, Tariq M. Naeem and Asmatullah

Pakistan institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences, P 0 Nilore , Pakistan

ABSTRACT A rapid and accurate method based on ultraviolet muitiwavelengib absorptiometi-y tor the direct determination of nitrate in natural and potable waters is used After acquisition ot data tor sample at 1 nni interval between 205-250 nm, the proposed computational procedure gives in a few seconds the concentration of nitrate The principle is to use a polynomial correction function to cancel numerically the interferences from suspended and organic nianers and to resolve the system torrned by the sum of the absorbance of nitrate and the interference tuoenon Matrix calculation is made with MATLAB® sottware. the least squares method minimizes the error between the measured absorbance and the model The characteristics of the UVMA methods and the residual interterences have been evaluated and comparison with the reference method has shown that nitrate measurement by UVMA is a valuable tool for the fast and br continuous monitoring

Introduction is an infinite number of organic components we The nitrate pollution in water has increased since would need to identify and characterise all of them 1960w and excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers to estimate their effect. Since this is not possible, have been blamed for it But other factors such as an estimation of these interferences can be changes in land use and recycling of sewage proposed, if we recognise that all ultraviolet spectra effluents in low land water although not large in of natural water or treated wastewater with low Pakistan must also be considered nitrate concentrations have the same form a featureless and decreasing shape The choice of an It is well known that nitrate combines with estimation function is of great importance and the human blood and forms methaeinoglobinemia>2> due to which oxygen carrying capacity of blood best adjustment has been obtained with a polynomial decreases and is mostly found in the bottle fed- function children Excess nitrogen causes eutrophication in So for each wavelength 2i, the measured surface waters and alongewith phosphates causes absorbance A(2i) is the sum of two absorbances. algae growth Also, ingested nitrate is reduced in adult stomach and after reaction with secondary amines forms N- nitroso compounds most of which 4(2;) = ii,n(2,) + c/(2i) * ( / (1) are carcinogenic Many methods are available in the literature for Where A(2i) is the measured absorbance value the determination of nitrate Ion selective electrode at the wavelength 2i, Arn(2i) the theoretical method, although rapid, but has the limitations such absorbance value given by the sum of all the as poor sensitivity and numerous interferences UV interfering species except the p components to be technique appears to be ideal as many people are measured, and e>(X,) and C are respectively the using it due to simplicity and speed inspite of absorptivity and the concentration of the jth interferences which have to be corrected by various component at wavelength 2i (optical pathlength is procedures Interferences are not eliminated assumed to be 1 cm) completely by two wavelength method>2> because Mathematically, this method is based on the fact regression parameters vary from sample to sample that any function Am can be approached by a and a calibration curve for each type of water is polynomial of q degrees From a numerical point of needed view, the advantage of polynomial modelling of the In the present study UVMA method proposed by function Am, is to replace a function which is the 0 Thomas13> has been utilized after interfacing of sum of an infinite number of unknown functions by UV-1201 Spectrophotometer (Shimadzu, Japan) a defined number of known functions with IBM PC This method has the advantage that it (1,2, 2~,2~, . .. ,2”) with a defined number of neither needs pretreatment nor pre-separation of unknown parameters (a components 0, ar,. ,aq) these parameters are in fact the polynomial coefficients UV1~’IAPrinciple which will be calculated with the unknown

The main problem with the previous methods is concentrations (C>, C2 ., C~)of the p components the need to take into account the numerous to be measured interferences in the region of interest Turbidity due The program computes simultaneously the to colloidal and suspended matter and organic polynomial coefficients and the unknown materials are the main factors of featureless concentrations of the components to be measured, ultraviolet spectra of water. If we assume that there by solving the system

47 absorptivities was carried out on a 4 0 mg/i nitrate standard solution (prepared with KNO3 and distilled water) The absorbances of the standard solution were measured at 1 nanometer intervals between C ~ =‘M (2) 205 and 250 nm and transferred to the computer ‘MM a program written in MATLAB ® for IBM personal 0 computer (PC) (which calculates and stords absorptivities as data) The sample was then directly placed into the 10 mm quartz cell without adding KA(An)) any reagent or pre-treatment, and the absorbance values were transferred and used as data in the Where M is the matrix program sl(2I) • .&ji(21) 1 21 .21” The computation is as described before (with a (3) polynomial of third degree for interference 4, elimination) with addition of the nitrate sl(An) ..tp(An) I An Aif’ 3~gives as its solution the values of concentration. The required time for the complete the Thecoefficientssystem~(a method, from setting the cell to the result is about 30s Another important feature of UVMA is that it 0, a1, . , a,~)and the concentrations

(C1, C2 , Cq) that minimise the difference needs no calibration curve. between measured and computed values of the Discussions absorbance, for each wavelength 2i in the least Figure 1 curve A shows the typical squares sense. spectrum of sample containing nitrate and suspended This method is very suitable for our purpose matter whereas curve B is the spectrum obtained by because polynomial restitution, with a degree 3, calculating Am from the coefficient calculated by leads to a close approximation of the background the said Matlab® program The difference between function. the two being the actual spectrum of nitrate present Procedure in water. Also, it is clear from the spectrum that A UV-1201 (Shimadzu, Japan) spectro- UV absorption due to suspended and orgamc matter photometer has been used for this work Before the is significant at the wavelength 205-230 nm where first measurement, the determination of the nitrate measurements are usually made.

0.55

A

0_sO

045

0.40 II

Ab.orb,nc,i 035 -f

0.30

0.24 0-25

WaAelength (micrometer)

Figure 1 (A) A typical UV spectrum of water sample (B) Computed2 + a spectrum3 (a of the backgroundfunction Am as Am=a0 + a1X + a1X, 3A~ 3= 4.372, a1 = -24273, a2 = -0005, a3 = 129035)

48 Table 1. Comparison of results b UVMA and Colorimetnc Reduction Method S. No. Water Sample UVMA (mg/L) Colorhnetric (mg/L) 1 Tube well near Nilore, Islamabad 0 19 ±0 01 0 2 2 Malal bridge site i) with suspended matter 1 30±0 06 1 2 ii) After centrifugation 1 41± 0 05 1 3 3 Standard addition of NET to 2 10 ±0 10 2 1 26 sample_2_(ii) ‘ 271±016 4 Waste Water (PlEAS) *Large error in polynomial 2 4 coeff . UVspectrum was not smooth so could not be fitted properly

The validation of the UVMA method has been done with samples of drinking water and wastewater References including surface and underground waters of various 1. Hussain, S D, Akram, W; Sajjad, M I and origm and compared with the reference method Iqbal, M Z (1993) J Env & Anal Chem (Colorimetric reduction method). All the 2(10). 5-10 concentrations found are withm the World Health 2 Standard Methods for the Examination of Water Organisation (WHO) limit of 50 mg/L as N0 and Waste waters, American Public Health 3 (4) Association, 16th Ed. 1985 The results obtained by UVMA method are in good 3. Thomas, S Gallot and N Mazas. (1998) agreement with those obtained by other reference Freseniusi Anal Chem 338 238-240 method But in case of wastewater the results 4. Water Analysis Hand Book, Hach Company, obtained by UVMA are not satisfactory and further Loveland, Colorado, USA, 1997 mvestigation is bemg done

49 ANALYSIS OF POTABLE WATER IN DERA GHAZI KHAN

Rizwan Hussain P 0 Box No 1331, PAEC, ISLAMABAD Abdul Mateen Pakistan Institute of Engineers and Applied Sciences, Islamabad

ABSTRACT Water used for daily life in D G Khan has been analyzed for estimation of total hardness, chlorides, sulfates, silica and other related parameters Samples of ground water (tube wells), canal water and water supplied by the local administration were collected for these studies The results show very high levels of hardness and sulfate concentrations in underground water sources Total dissolved solids in canal water are appreciably lower than those found in sub-surface Water samples The results are discussed with reference to the quality ofwater for drinking purpose Introduction relatively free of aluminum and iron impurities as visible from the analysis data Very high levels of Water for domestic purposes should be obtained total dissolved solids (TDS) particularly in sub from a source representing a clean and surface water (1616 and 1577 ppm) could be as a it uncontaminated supply and as far as possible result of the prolonged stagnation of water coming should be free of animal waste, vegetable matter and from the hilly terrains of Suleman range where the industrial effluents. Normally good quality water sedimentary rocks are known to bear water having should be clear, colourless, odorless, well aerated, high concentrations of salts In addition to this, the cool, soft and free from toxic pollutants, sediments high temperature and low annual precipitation (<10 and suspended matter~’2~ Although many parameters affect the quality of water, yet the pH, inches/year) may also contribute to the high total hardness, temperature, turbidity, coliform and concentration of TDS The sandy limestone clay phenols m certain cases my form the basis for the rich in carbonates and bicarbonates is the main selection of a water body for human consumption~3~ cause of hardness in these samples171 However, the This paper describes some of the results of running water collected from the canal has low level analysis carried out on drinking water samples taken of total hardness from within the main city of D G Khan Various Sulfate concentrations of 759 mg/I and 688 mg/I samples for this purpose were collected from in tube well water samples are higher than the underground sources, D G Khan canal and water permitted concentration of 200 mg /1 ~ This could supplied by the local administration be due to the fact that the most abundant mineral in Experimental the D G Khan division is Gypsum Establishment of a cement factory near D G. Khan city may Chlorides, alkalinity and total hardness were further strengthens the argument about the high determined employing titrimetry silica and concentrations of sulfates. However, water supplied phosphates were estimated by standard by the local administration has concentrations of spectrophotometric procedures. All the analytical sulfates within the permissible range181, which methods used conformed to the ASTM specified and suggests that water is chemically softened before recommended procedures (4) supplying to the house holds As a result of the Results and Discussion calcareous nature of the soil, silica content in these The results of analysis conducted on different water samples in low171, Low levels of chlorides water samples used for domestic purposes in D G point towards the presence of ca and Mg salts as Khan are presented in Table-i All the water TDS with very small contribution from NaCI As samples are slightly alkaline in nature Solubility of this type of soil is mature with practically no aluminum is <1 ppm between pH 4-9, whereas phosphate bearing minerals, very low concentrations most of the iron is precipitated out around pH-81561 of phosphates were detected in these water samples This suggested that these water samples would be Table 1 Results of Water Analysis Parameter Twa Twb Mca Mcb Cwa Cwb ..21i! ~55 76 76 80 805 TDS—mg/I 1616 1577 692 676 372 370 THard mg/I 679 648 308 319 122 143 SpCond ~iS/cm 1740 1590 810 - 894 240 363 Alkalinity mg/I 188 181 181 178 100 106 Chlorides mg/i 54 54 56 54 18 25 ...~j1atesmg/I 759 688 i22 134 34 28 Silicappm 160 164 154 39 57 81 ~~psphaies ppm I 0 I 0 < 1 0 i 0 I 0 < 1 0 ,,~spPart Mg/I Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Oil & Grease Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil 1w = Water from tube well, Mc = Water supplieu by the local adminisiration, Cw= Waier from D G Khan canal 50 this limited study for information of audience of the No suspended particles were detected in the water samples except in those taken format he canal. one day workshop on quality of drinkmg water. This is the result of the erosion of sandy soil19> coming in contact with water of D. g. Khan canal References originating from Tunsa barrage There was no bad I Gyngell, E S. (1960) “Applied Chemistry for odor, oil and grease in these water samples. Engineers” Edwards Arnold Publishers 3rd ed p 264 The results of analyses suggest that potable water 2 Friberg, L, Nordberg, G F. and Vouk, V eds. in D G Khan city is very hard having high levels (1980) “Handbook of Toxicology of Metals” of sulfates and TDS Maximum permissible levels New York . Elsevier Publishers approved by the Environmental Protection Agency 3 Kannan, K (1991) “Fundamentals of of Pakistan are 200,500 and 200 mg/l for total Environmental Pollution” S Chhand & hardness. TDS and sulfates respectively~°>This has company , India, p. 248 resulted in stomach and kidney stone problems in 4 ASTM (1983). “Annual Book of ASTM the city The cheapest remedy for softemng this Standards” Vol. 13 01 hard water is boiling before use. This has two fold 5 Brownlow, A H (1979) “Geochemistry” N J advantage of decreasing the hardness as well as Prentice Hall p.131 removing the harmful bacteria 6 Dungan, P R (1975) “Chemistry and Low concentration of chlorides in the potable Pollution”. Macmillan water supplied by the local administration mdicated 7 Huribut, C.S (1992). “Dana’s Manual of that the public health department is using a method Mineralogy” John Wiley & Sons other than chlorination for the sterilization of water 8 Truvedi, R P and Raj, G.eds. (1992). It may most probably be using the Lime-soda “Encyclopedia of Environmental Sciences”. process that softens water besides steriIization~8) Akashdep Publishmg House, India, Vol 20, This process precipitates out carbonates, p90 bicarbonates and sulfates of calcium and 9. Subramanian, S (1987) J Geol, Soc. India. magnesium 29, 205 These results are being presented with a view to 10 EPA. (1994) “Standards on Safe Drinking outline the drinkmg water quality data obtained in Water” letter No 2(43)193 dated 29th May 1994

5! ABSTRACTS OF SELECTED PAPERS

Clean and Safe Drinking Water for All Muhammad Akram Chughtai

Quality ~Contro1of Drinking Water Mian Muhammad Aslam

Parameters of Water Quality Dr. Iqbal H. Qureshi

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S.— CLEAN AND SAFE DRINKING WATER FOR ALL

Muhammad Akram Chughtai RAG Division, Service Industries Limited, Lahore

The main theme of this presentauon is to create an awareness for clean and safe drinking water amongst the people as contaminated water may lead to many health problems This paper covers the introduction to water purification systems, its different stages, materials used and their suitability including the process of purification itself Amongst the materials, aclivated carbon is considered to be very important component. It’s properties with reference to it’s use in water purification systems such as bulk density, ash contents, CTC valve, mesh size and hardness have been discussed Brief discussion on various disinfectants used in the purification systems to distroy the micro-organisms responsible for quality deterioration has also been mentioned at the end

QUALITY CONTROL OF DRINKING WATER

Mian Muhammad Aslam Water Quality Control Unit, Capital Development Authority (CDA), Islamabad

Significance of water testing has been highlighted with reference to Islamic Ideology and WHO guidelines. For the operation and maintenance control of a water-supply system critical parameter testing strategy has been preferred over less frequent lengthy testings A brief account regarding the water borne diseases emanating from the pathogens as well as from the inorganics has been. It has been recommended that sanitary inspection should take preference over analysis for the assessment of risk to human health due to contamination It has been elaborated that the CDA uses the conventional methods of coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration and disinfection for the preparation of potable water For the oxidation and disinfection purposes liquefied chlorine is used The major source of surface water for lslamabad is Simly Dam Ground water is obtained from the tubewells installed in the National Park area, and the spring water from the Saidpur, Noorpur and Shahdara-hill springs Finally a note explaining the reasons of polluted water complaints has been added

PARAMETERS OF WATER QUALITY Iqbal H. Qureshi Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology, lslamabad

Water is the most essential component of all living things and it supports the life process Without water it would not have been possible to sustain life on this planet The total quantity of water on earth is estimated to be 1 4 trillion cubic meter. Of this less than I % water present in rivers and ground resources is available to meet our requirements These resources are being contaminated with toxic substances due to ever increasing environmental pollution To reduce this contamination many countries have established standards for the discharge of municipal and industrial waste into water streams

54 is

RECOMMENDATiQN~,

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4~s~i~ 9~: ~-. it ~ RECOMMENDATIONS

The workshop feels that there is a general lack laboratories in respect of water treatment, of awareness in the masses regarding the potable water marketing, and quality diseases and ailments associated with poor assessment; and quality of drinking water. It is therefore, (c) to establish a panel of laboratories which recommended that a national level campaign may act as nucleus for standardization of should be launched through mass media to procedures required for quality control create general awareness in the public and quality assurance of drinking water. Different NGOs and the Government agencies should work together to create general 6 It is generally observed that Municipal Water awareness through trainings, workshops and Supply in Pakistan, even in big cities, does not outreach programmes. meet the WHO or any other laid standards. Due to poor maintenance practices a pipe lines at 2 This workshop notice that though various health places get damaged and result in getting mixed problems have emanated due to use of poor with the nearby leaking sewerage water. It is quality water yet country has not adopted recommended that steps should be undertaken drinking water quality standards. It is stressed to ensure that Municipal authorities undertake that these standards should be developed periodic random checking of water quality and immediately and enforced in accordance with take appropriate remedial measures to ensure the Pakistan Environmental Protection Act quality of the drinking water that reaches the passed by the Parliament in December, 1997. end users. 3. Pakistan has witnessed a modest growth in the 7. The contammation of water drawn from wells, mineral and natural water supply mdustry in the hand and other pumps etc. is very common due country over last few years. However, most of to presence of nearby septic tanks and pit the individual industries are not processing and latrines in the rural areas and small towns. The bottling water according to guidelines and problem needs to be studies in detail to arrive at standards set by WHO or national standards. appropriate designs 6,f the whole system in This workshop, therefore, stresses the necessity order to geL contamination~freedrinking water. to standardize all procedures and the techniques to process and bottle mineral/natural water 8. This workshop recommends that simple before marketing. The source of such water procedures and techniques such as simple should also be properly assessed and certified chlorination should be used for disinfection of by an authorized agency. drinking water stored in underground and overhead tanks. People to be educated on such 4 This workshop recommends that a federal water techniques through mass contact. quality monitormg and licensing agency should be established with a mandate to monitor the 9 Standards water quality analysis laboratories quality of drinking water and to ensure should be established in all provincial and implementation of water quality standards in the Divisional Headquarters. There is an urgent public as well as private sector. This agency need of a central well-equipped laboratory, may be mandated: which will act as the certification laboratory for all other laboratories available in the country. (a) to set up guideline values for water quality standards in Pakistan which may be updated time to time on the basis of Sd/- Sd/- continuous research and monitoring; Dr Bashir A. Chandio Dr. Din Muhammad (b) to set up standard procedures and Chairman, Pakistan Secretary, Workshop techniques for operation, maintenance Council of Research in Organizing Committee and certification for quality testing Water Resources

PCPP1—2436(99)PCRWR—i 7-4-99-—30~J

56