DOCSLIB.ORG

Memory: Organization

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text

Load more

MEMORY The persistence of learning over time through storage and retrieval of information 3 step process: . Encoding – processing info into memory system . Storage – retention of encoded info . Retrieval – process of getting info out of storage Memory is like a computer’s information processing system. Encoding Storage Retrieval MEMORY 3 basic stages of memories: . Sensory memory – immediate, brief recording of sensory info . Short term memory (STM)/ working memory – activated memory that holds a few items briefly before it is encoded and stored or discarded . Long term memory (LTM) - the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse MODIFIED 3 STAGE MODEL Atkinson-Shiffrin and Baddley Models combined Encoding STM or Sensory Attention Sensory Working LTM Memory Input Memory Encoding Retrieval Forgetting Forgetting Forgetting TEST YOURSELF Memory includes (in ABC order) long-term memory, sensory memory, and working/short-term memory. What’s the correct order of these three memory stages? 30 SEC TO REMEMBER THIS IN ORDER… O T T F F S S E N T ENCODING Automatic processing– effortless, unconscious encoding of info . Reading signs while driving Effortful processing – requires attention and conscious effort . Reading the psych text book for comprehension and understanding . Rehearsal – conscious repetition Spacing effect – memories are retained through distributed practice . Why cramming for tests is BAD Serial positioning effect – remembering the first and last items in a list Write the letters I asked you to memorize a few minutes ago. OTTFFSSENT ENCODING Visual encoding – encoding of picture images (ex: visualization of info on page) . Imagery – mental pictures . Mnemonic devices – memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices (ex: peg- method/memory palace) Acoustic encoding – encoding of sounds (ex: rhymes with, repetition of info out loud) Semantic encoding – encoding of meaning (ex: assigning/creating meaning) STOP & JOT How to improve your memory with memory palace technique? . Summarize the video in one sentence. What’s the biggest ah-ha moment? ORGANIZING INFO FOR PROCESSING Chunking – organizing items into familiar manageable units; often occurs automatically . 17761861191719412001 How can you chunk this? . How could you have chunked OTTFFSSENT? STORAGE Sensory Memory . Iconic memory – a momentary sensory memory of visual info (brief photographic memory) . You can briefly look a word’s spelling to copy the word, but cannot recall the spelling minutes later. Echoic memory – a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli, 3-4 seconds . Teacher asks you “what did I just say?” and you can recall the last few words STORAGE 8 volunteers - think of your favorite food. Now say your favorite food, plus everyone else’s favorite food before you. STM/Working memory . 7 +/- 2 . Importance of chunking STORAGE LTM – Unlimited . Implicit memory – procedures/skills (processed in part in the cerebellum) . Explicit memory – retention of facts and experiences that you can consciously declare (primarily processed/stored in hippocampus) . Semantic memory – general knowledge . Episodic memory – events . Prospective memory – remembering to do something in the future STORAGE Flashbulb memories – clear, vivid memory of an emotionally significant event . Episodic memory TEST YOURSELF Your friend tells you that her father experienced brain damage in an accident. She wonders if psychology can explain why he can still play checkers very well but has a hard time holding a sensible conversation. What can you tell her? LONG-TERM POTENTIATION Biological look at memory storage. Long-term potentiation (LTP) – an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory . As experience strengthens the pathways between neurons, synapses transmit signals more efficiently RETRIEVAL Getting memories out of storage Recall – retrieving info not in conscious awareness . Short answer questions, fill-in-the-blank questions Recognition – identifying items previously learned . Multiple choice questions Relearning – learning information a second time, faster than the first time . Test corrections CONTEXT EFFECTS ON MEMORY Déjà vu – the eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” . Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience. Context-dependent memories – memories are more easily recalled in the same context as when they were encoded State-dependent memories - memories are more easily recalled in the same state as when they were encoded Crash Course – Making Memories MEMORY: FORGETTING AND IMPROVEMENT FORGETTING Just as important as remembering avoid clutter Amnesia – the loss of memory . Biological – head injuries THREE SINS OF FORGETTING Absent-mindedness . Inattention to details; we cannot remember something we have not encoded. A THREE SINS OF FORGETTING Transience – storage decay . Even if we encode, we can still forget it later . Often unused info or info that no longer holds meaning. THREE SINS OF FORGETTING Blocking – inaccessibility of stored info (“it’s on the tip of my tongue…”) . Proactive interference – the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new info. Retroactive interference – the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old info. Motivated forgetting . Repression – in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety- arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories. Most psychologists today would agree that repressed memories do not exist. THREE SINS OF DISTORTION Source amnesia – attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, hear about, read about, or imagined. Misinformation effect – incorporating misleading info into one’s memory of an event. Loftus’ study on recollections of car accidents using leading questions. Bias – belief-colored recollections . Memories are perceptions of the past and as such are subject to expectations and bias. EYE WITNESS RECALL Eye witness recall is subject to false memory reconstruction. Misinformation effect . Presupposing and leading questions Children are more suggestible than adults can be lead to produce false memories through suggestive questions. Young children can recall events as they occurred if… . neutral adult asks non-leading questions . uses words they understand. IMPROVING MEMORY Study repeatedly to boost long term recall. Make material personally meaningful. Use mnemonic devices. Minimize interference. Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse the info and determine what you do not know yet. MEMORY AS BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL (PG. 390) Biological Psychological Social-cultural •LTP •Rehearsal •Misinformation •Automatic •Context effects effect processing •Priming •Flashbulb •Electric •Mood memories for current or head •Stress important events injury •Encoding and •Level of implied •Storage decay organizing strategies importance •Retrieval interference •Source amnesia •Memory construction VIDEOS 60 Minutes – Endless Memory (Pt. 1) Zimbardo – Remembering and Forgetting Brain Games – Remember This! Crash Course – Remembering and Forgetting .
Recommended publications
  • Probing Echoic Memory with Different Voices

    Probing Echoic Memory with Different Voices

    Memory & Cognition 1977, Vol. 5 (3),331-334 Probing echoic memory with different voices DAVID J. MADDEN and JARVIS BASTIAN University ofCalifornia, Davis, California 95616 Considerable evidence has indicated that some acoustical properties of spoken items are preserved in an "echoic" memory for approximately 2 sec. However, some of this evidence has also shown that changing the voice speaking the stimulus items has a disruptive effect on memory which persists longer than that of other acoustical variables. The present experiment examined the effect of voice changes on response bias as well as on accuracy in a recognition memory task. The task involved judging recognition probes as being present in or absent from sets of dichotically presented digits. Recognition of probes spoken in the same voice as that of the dichotic items was more accurate than recognition of different-voice probes at each of three retention intervals of up to 4 sec. Different-voice probes increased the likelihood of "absent" responses, but only up to a l.4-sec delay. These shifts in response bias may represent a property of echoic memory which should be investigated further. The concept of an "echoic" memory was first devel­ pairs of spoken consonants or vowels in a timed same/ oped by Neisser (1967), who proposed that a listener different recognition test. The items of a pair could be possesses a fairly literal but rapidly fading representation spoken in either the same voice or different voices, a of recent auditory events. Research motivated by this variable which was not relevant to the subjects' deci­ concept suggests that the exact time course of such sions.
  • The Integrated Nature of Metamemory and Memory

    The Integrated Nature of Metamemory and Memory

    The Integrated Nature of Metamemory and Memory John Dunlosky and Robert A. Bjork Introduction Memory has been of interest to scholars and laypeople alike for over 2,000 years. In a rather gruesome example from antiquity, Cicero tells the story of Simonides (557– 468 BC), who discovered the method of loci, which is a powerful mental mnemonic for enhancing one’s memory. Simonides was at a banquet of a nobleman, Scopas. To honor him, Simonides sang a poem, but to Scopas’s chagrin, the poem also honored two young men, Castor and Pollux. Being upset, Scopas told Simonides that he was to receive only half his wage. Simonides was later called from the banquet, and legend has it that the banquet room collapsed, and all those inside were crushed. To help bereaved families identify the victims, Simonides reportedly was able to name every- one according to the place where they sat at the table, which gave him the idea that order brings strength to our memories and that to employ this ability people “should choose localities, then form mental images of things they wanted to store in their memory, and place these in the localities” (Cicero, 2001). Tis example highlights an early discovery that has had important applied impli- cations for improving the functioning of memory (see, e.g., Yates, 1997). Memory theory was soon to follow. Aristotle (385–322 BC) claimed that memory arises from three processes: Events are associated (1) through their relative similarity or (2) rela- tive dissimilarity and (3) when they co-occur together in space and time.
  • Mnemonics in a Mnutshell: 32 Aids to Psychiatric Diagnosis

    Mnemonics in a Mnutshell: 32 Aids to Psychiatric Diagnosis

    Mnemonics in a mnutshell: 32 aids to psychiatric diagnosis Clever, irreverent, or amusing, a mnemonic you remember is a lifelong learning tool ® Dowden Health Media rom SIG: E CAPS to CAGE and WWHHHHIMPS, mnemonics help practitioners and trainees recall Fimportant lists (suchCopyright as criteriaFor for depression,personal use only screening questions for alcoholism, or life-threatening causes of delirium, respectively). Mnemonics’ effi cacy rests on the principle that grouped information is easi- er to remember than individual points of data. Not everyone loves mnemonics, but recollecting diagnostic criteria is useful in clinical practice and research, on board examinations, and for insurance reimbursement. Thus, tools that assist in recalling di- agnostic criteria have a role in psychiatric practice and IMAGES teaching. JUPITER In this article, we present 32 mnemonics to help cli- © nicians diagnose: • affective disorders (Box 1, page 28)1,2 Jason P. Caplan, MD Assistant clinical professor of psychiatry • anxiety disorders (Box 2, page 29)3-6 Creighton University School of Medicine 7,8 • medication adverse effects (Box 3, page 29) Omaha, NE • personality disorders (Box 4, page 30)9-11 Chief of psychiatry • addiction disorders (Box 5, page 32)12,13 St. Joseph’s Hospital and Medical Center Phoenix, AZ • causes of delirium (Box 6, page 32).14 We also discuss how mnemonics improve one’s Theodore A. Stern, MD Professor of psychiatry memory, based on the principles of learning theory. Harvard Medical School Chief, psychiatric consultation service Massachusetts General Hospital How mnemonics work Boston, MA A mnemonic—from the Greek word “mnemonikos” (“of memory”)—links new data with previously learned information.
  • Iconic Memory and Visible Persistence

    Iconic Memory and Visible Persistence

    Perception & Psychophysics 1980, Vol. 27 (3),183-228 Iconic memory and visible persistence MAX COLTHEART Birkbeck College, Malet Street, London WC1E 7HX, England There are three senses in which a visual stimulus may be said to persist psychologically for some time after its physical offset. First, neural activity in the visual system evoked by the stimulus may continue after stimulus offset ("neural persistence"). Second, the stimulus may continue to be visible for some time after its offset ("visible persistence"). Finally, information about visual properties of the stimulus may continue to be available to an observer for some time after stimulus offset ("informational persistence"). These three forms of visual persistence are widely assumed to reflect a single underlying process: a decaying visual trace that (1) con­ sists of afteractivity in the visual system, (2) is visible, and (3) is the source of visual informa­ tion in experiments on decaying visual memory. It is argued here that this assumption is incor­ rect. Studies of visible persistence are reviewed; seven different techniques that have been used for investigating visible persistence are identified, and it is pointed out that numerous studies using a variety of techniques have demonstrated two fundamental properties of visible per­ sistence: the inverse duration effect (the longer a stimulus lasts, the shorter is its persistence after stimulus offset) and the inverse intensity effect (the more intense the stimulus, the briefer its persistence). Only when stimuli are so intense as to produce afterimages do these two effects fail to occur. Work on neural persistences is briefly reviewed; such persistences exist at the photoreceptor level and at various stages in the visual pathways.
  • Memory Specificity, but Not Perceptual Load, Affects Susceptibility to Misleading Information

    Memory Specificity, but Not Perceptual Load, Affects Susceptibility to Misleading Information

    Memory specificity, but not perceptual load, affects susceptibility to misleading information Francesca R. Farina1,2,* & Ciara M. Greene1 1School of Psychology, University College Dublin, Ireland. 2Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland. Note: This paper has not yet been peer-reviewed. Please contact the authors before citing. Correspondence may be sent to Francesca Farina, Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland. Email: [email protected] 1 Abstract The purpose of this study was to examine the role of perceptual load in eyewitness memory accuracy and susceptibility to misinformation at immediate and delayed recall. Despite its relevance to real-world situations, previous research in this area is limited. A secondary aim was to establish whether trait-based memory specificity can protect against susceptibility to misinformation. Participants (n=264) viewed a 1-minute video depicting a crime and completed a memory questionnaire immediately afterwards and one week later. Memory specificity was measured via an online version of the Autobiographical Memory Test (AMT). We found a strong misinformation effect, but no effect of perceptual load on memory accuracy or suggestibility at either timepoint. Memory specificity was a significant predictor of accuracy for both neutrally phrased and leading questions, though the effect was weaker after a one-week delay. Results suggest that specific autobiographical memory, but not perceptual load, enhances eyewitness memory and protects against misinformation. Keywords Perceptual load; memory specificity; eyewitness; misinformation. 2 General Audience Summary The misinformation effect is a memory impairment for a past event that occurs when a person is presented with leading information. Leading information can distort the original details of a memory and produce false memories.
  • Memory Stores Iconic Memory Decays Very Quickly, and This Explains Why

    Memory Stores Iconic Memory Decays Very Quickly, and This Explains Why

    In the late 60's, serial position curves (Murdock, 1962) were used as evidence to support the MSM. Primacy efects were considered evidence of rehearsal and so long-term storage whereas recency efects were considered evidence of the short-term memory store. The serial position curve was shown to occur regardless of list length and recency was removed if there was a delay between rehearsal The initial approach was the information We will see why this is and recall. Evidence for the MSM processing approach which suggests that not the case sensory processes pass through several stores: throughout the Namely, the sensory memory store, the short- lectures. However, recency efects were demonstrated over term and then the long-term memory store. long time intervals by Baddeley et al. (1977). Recency is not reflect STM but a more general accessibility to more recent experiences. Memory Stores If short-term memory is post-categorical (as suggested by Neath and Merikle) then it requires information (category membership of letters) from long-term memory = There must be communication. Short-Term Memory Multi-Store Model (Atkinson & Shifrin, 1968) VS. Working Memory Short term is a simple store, whereas working memory is a 'mental workspace. STM is a part of working memory. Working memory allows manipulation to allow reasoning, learning and comprehension. It has a limited capacity, temporary store and has a speech like or phonological code (subvocal). Sensory Memory Baddeley (1966) Phonological Similarity: asked The Sufx Efect where a sufx (e.g spoken word Free Recall Studies where participants can participants to perform serial recall of 4 types of Visual Iconic Memory (Sperling, 1960) Purely at the end of the remembered list) drastically choose to recall from any part of the list.
  • How Trauma Impacts Four Different Types of Memory

    How Trauma Impacts Four Different Types of Memory

    How Trauma Impacts Four Different Types of Memory EXPLICIT MEMORY IMPLICIT MEMORY SEMANTIC MEMORY EPISODIC MEMORY EMOTIONAL MEMORY PROCEDURAL MEMORY What It Is What It Is What It Is What It Is The memory of general knowledge and The autobiographical memory of an event The memory of the emotions you felt The memory of how to perform a facts. or experience – including the who, what, during an experience. common task without actively thinking and where. Example Example Example Example You remember what a bicycle is. You remember who was there and what When a wave of shame or anxiety grabs You can ride a bicycle automatically, with- street you were on when you fell off your you the next time you see your bicycle out having to stop and recall how it’s bicycle in front of a crowd. after the big fall. done. How Trauma Can Affect It How Trauma Can Affect It How Trauma Can Affect It How Trauma Can Affect It Trauma can prevent information (like Trauma can shutdown episodic memory After trauma, a person may get triggered Trauma can change patterns of words, images, sounds, etc.) from differ- and fragment the sequence of events. and experience painful emotions, often procedural memory. For example, a ent parts of the brain from combining to without context. person might tense up and unconsciously make a semantic memory. alter their posture, which could lead to pain or even numbness. Related Brain Area Related Brain Area Related Brain Area Related Brain Area The temporal lobe and inferior parietal The hippocampus is responsible for The amygdala plays a key role in The striatum is associated with producing cortex collect information from different creating and recalling episodic memory.
  • Hippocampal–Caudate Nucleus Interactions Support Exceptional Memory Performance

    Hippocampal–Caudate Nucleus Interactions Support Exceptional Memory Performance

    Brain Struct Funct DOI 10.1007/s00429-017-1556-2 ORIGINAL ARTICLE Hippocampal–caudate nucleus interactions support exceptional memory performance Nils C. J. Müller1 · Boris N. Konrad1,2 · Nils Kohn1 · Monica Muñoz-López3 · Michael Czisch2 · Guillén Fernández1 · Martin Dresler1,2 Received: 1 December 2016 / Accepted: 24 October 2017 © The Author(s) 2017. This article is an open access publication Abstract Participants of the annual World Memory competitive interaction between hippocampus and caudate Championships regularly demonstrate extraordinary mem- nucleus is often observed in normal memory function, our ory feats, such as memorising the order of 52 playing cards findings suggest that a hippocampal–caudate nucleus in 20 s or 1000 binary digits in 5 min. On a cognitive level, cooperation may enable exceptional memory performance. memory athletes use well-known mnemonic strategies, We speculate that this cooperation reflects an integration of such as the method of loci. However, whether these feats the two memory systems at issue-enabling optimal com- are enabled solely through the use of mnemonic strategies bination of stimulus-response learning and map-based or whether they benefit additionally from optimised neural learning when using mnemonic strategies as for example circuits is still not fully clarified. Investigating 23 leading the method of loci. memory athletes, we found volumes of their right hip- pocampus and caudate nucleus were stronger correlated Keywords Memory athletes · Method of loci · Stimulus with each other compared to matched controls; both these response learning · Cognitive map · Hippocampus · volumes positively correlated with their position in the Caudate nucleus memory sports world ranking. Furthermore, we observed larger volumes of the right anterior hippocampus in ath- letes.
  • Cognitive Psychology

    Cognitive Psychology

    COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY PSYCH 126 Acknowledgements College of the Canyons would like to extend appreciation to the following people and organizations for allowing this textbook to be created: California Community Colleges Chancellor’s Office Chancellor Diane Van Hook Santa Clarita Community College District College of the Canyons Distance Learning Office In providing content for this textbook, the following professionals were invaluable: Mehgan Andrade, who was the major contributor and compiler of this work and Neil Walker, without whose help the book could not have been completed. Special Thank You to Trudi Radtke for editing, formatting, readability, and aesthetics. The contents of this textbook were developed under the Title V grant from the Department of Education (Award #P031S140092). However, those contents do not necessarily represent the policy of the Department of Education, and you should not assume endorsement by the Federal Government. Unless otherwise noted, the content in this textbook is licensed under CC BY 4.0 Table of Contents Psychology .................................................................................................................................................... 1 126 ................................................................................................................................................................ 1 Chapter 1 - History of Cognitive Psychology ............................................................................................. 7 Definition of Cognitive Psychology
  • Sleep's Role on Episodic Memory Consolidation

    Sleep's Role on Episodic Memory Consolidation

    SLEEP ’S ROLE ON EPISODIC MEMORY CONSOLIDATION IN ADULTS AND CHILDREN Dissertation zur Erlangung des Grades eines Doktors der Naturwissenschaften der Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät und der Medizinischen Fakultät der Eberhard-Karls-Universität Tübingen vorgelegt von Jing-Yi Wang aus Shijiazhuang, Hebei, Volksrepublik China Dezember, 2016 Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: February 22 , 2017 Dekan der Math.-Nat. Fakultät: Prof. Dr. W. Rosenstiel Dekan der Medizinischen Fakultät: Prof. Dr. I. B. Autenrieth 1. Berichterstatter: Prof. Dr. Jan Born 2. Berichterstatter: Prof. Dr. Steffen Gais Prüfungskommission: Prof. Manfred Hallschmid Prof. Dr. Steffen Gais Prof. Christoph Braun Prof. Caterina Gawrilow I Declaration: I hereby declare that I have produced the work entitled “Sleep’s Role on Episodic Memory Consolidation in Adults and Children”, submitted for the award of a doctorate, on my own (without external help), have used only the sources and aids indicated and have marked passages included from other works, whether verbatim or in content, as such. I swear upon oath that these statements are true and that I have not concealed anything. I am aware that making a false declaration under oath is punishable by a term of imprisonment of up to three years or by a fine. Tübingen, the December 5, 2016 ........................................................ Date Signature III To my beloved parents – Hui Jiao and Xuewei Wang, Grandfather – Jin Wang, and Frederik D. Weber 致我的父母：焦惠和王学伟 爷爷王金，以及 爱人王敬德 V Content Abbreviations ...................................................................................................................................................
  • CHAPTER 6: MEMORY STRATEGIES: MNEMONIC DEVICES in Order to Remember Information, You First Have to Find It Somewhere in Your Memory

    CHAPTER 6: MEMORY STRATEGIES: MNEMONIC DEVICES in Order to Remember Information, You First Have to Find It Somewhere in Your Memory

    CHAPTER 6: MEMORY STRATEGIES: MNEMONIC DEVICES In order to remember information, you first have to find it somewhere in your memory. To be successful in college you need to use active learning strategies that help you store information and retrieve it. Mnemonic devices can help you do that. Mnemonics are techniques for remembering information that is otherwise difficult to recall. The idea behind using mnemonics is to encode complex information in a way that is much easier to remember. Two common types of mnemonic devices are acronyms and acrostics. Acronyms Acronyms are words made up of the first letters of other words. As a mnemonic device, acronyms help you remember the first letters of items in a list, which in turn helps you remember the list itself. Instructor OLC to accompany 100% Online Student Success 1 Examples The following are examples of popular mnemonic acronyms: HOMES Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior Names of the Great Lakes FACE The letters of the treble clef notes in the spaces from bottom to top spells “FACE”. ROY G. BIV Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Colors of the spectrum Violet MRS GREN Movement, Respiration, Sensitivity, Growth, Common attributes of living Reproduction, Excretion, Nutrition things Create Your Own Acronym Now think of a few words you need to remember. This could be related to your studies, your work, or just a subject of interest. Five steps to creating acronyms are*: 1. List the information you need to learn in meaningful phrases. 2. Circle or underline a keyword in each phrase. 3. Write down the first letter of each keyword.
  • Effect of the Time-Of-Day of Training on Explicit Memory

    Effect of the Time-Of-Day of Training on Explicit Memory

    Time-of-dayBrazilian Journal of training of Medical and memory and Biological Research (2008) 41: 477-481 477 ISSN 0100-879X Effect of the time-of-day of training on explicit memory F.F. Barbosa and F.S. Albuquerque Departamento de Fisiologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brasil Correspondence to: F.F. Barbosa, Departamento de Fisiologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Lagoa Nova, Caixa Postal 1511, 59072-970 Natal, RN, Brasil Fax: +55-84-211-9206. E-mail: [email protected] Studies have shown a time-of-day of training effect on long-term explicit memory with a greater effect being shown in the afternoon than in the morning. However, these studies did not control the chronotype variable. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to assess if the time-of-day effect on explicit memory would continue if this variable were controlled, in addition to identifying the occurrence of a possible synchronic effect. A total of 68 undergraduates were classified as morning, intermediate, or afternoon types. The subjects listened to a list of 10 words during the training phase and immediately performed a recognition task, a procedure which they repeated twice. One week later, they underwent an unannounced recognition test. The target list and the distractor words were the same in all series. The subjects were allocated to two groups according to acquisition time: a morning group (N = 32), and an afternoon group (N = 36). One week later, some of the subjects in each of these groups were subjected to a test in the morning (N = 35) or in the afternoon (N = 33).