Burley Burley D. D. Fridley Fridley
G. G. R. R. Trimble Trimble Jr. Jr.
by by
Timber Timber Watershed Watershed and and Laboratory Laboratory
from from the the U.S. U.S. Forest Forest Service Service
A A progress progress report report
in in West West Virginia Virginia
RESEARCH RESEARCH
FORESTRY FORESTRY
13 13 Years Years of of
RALPH RALPH W . . MARQUIS. MARQUIS. DIRECTOR DIRECTOR
FO R EST EST SERV I CE. CE. U . S . . DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT OF OF AGR I CULTURE CULTURE
N OR THE A STERN STERN FOREST FOREST E X PERIMENT PERIMENT STATION . . UPPER UPPER DARBY . . P A. A.
1963 1963
U. U. S. S. FOREST FOREST SERVICE SERVICE RESEARCH RESEARCH PAPER PAPER NE-5 NE-5 ~ ~ The Authors: GEORGE R. TRIMBLE, JR., a research forester, is in charge of the Northeastern Forest Experiment Station's timber-man agement research project at Elkins, West Virginia. A graduate of the University of Maine Forestry School, he joined the U.S. Forest Service in 1939. He served for 4 years in the Flood Control Survey of the Northeast, and has served as project leader in watershed-management research in both New Hamp shire and West Virginia.
BURLEY D. FRIDLEY, a forestry aid in watershed-manage ment projects of the Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, has served since 1950 at the Fernow Experimental Forest, Parsons, West Virginia, where he has been variously engaged in weir construction, instrument installation and maintenance, record collection, and computation. As official photographer for the Northeastern Station's Timber and Watershed Labora tory, he made most of the photographs used in this paper. 13 Years of FORESTRY RES A c in West Virginia
•
CONTENTS
" . . . To conduct research"...... 1 The research program on the Fernow Experimental Forest . . . . 3 Timber-management research ...... 3 Compartment management ...... 3 Logging and skidroad studies ...... 7 Stand improvement ...... 11 Growth ...... 13 Hardwood log quality ...... 17 Reproduction ...... 19 Management unit ...... 23 Small forest properties ...... 24 Watershed-management research ...... 26 Gaged watersheds ...... 26 Other gaging studies ...... 34 Other watershed-management research ...... 34 Miscellaneous studies ...... 36 The research program on other areas ...... 39 Site-quality studies ...... 39 Species-conversion study ...... 44 Regenerating red spruce sites ...... 46 White pine plantation thinning ...... 47 Planting strip-mine spoil areas ...... 48 Genetics ...... 50 The Blue Creek Experimental Forest ...... 50 Forest-pathology investigations ...... 51 Research aspects ...... 51 Literature cited ...... 53
Parsons, Parsons, West West Virginia. Virginia.
Figure Figure 2. - Field Field offices offices near near
cilities cilities in in West West Virginia. Virginia.
the the forestry forestry research research fa
Figure Figure I. - Location Location of of
of of mixtures mixtures are are here here stands stands forest forest The The land. land. forest forest mountainous mountainous
managing managing in in studies studies for for laboratory laboratory outdoor outdoor an an as as unit unit research research
this this of of use use the the for for aside aside set set was was Forest, Forest, National National Monongahela Monongahela
the the on on tract tract acre acre 3,640 3,640 a a Forest, Forest, Experimental Experimental Fernow Fernow The The
unit. unit. research research
this this for for headquarters headquarters field field as as Parsons Parsons at at constructed constructed being being now now is is
laboratory laboratory new new ) . A A . ) 2 2 (fig. (fig. northeast northeast the the to to miles miles 2 2 2 2 Parsons, Parsons, of of
town town the the near near located located are are Forest, Forest, Experimental Experimental Fernow Fernow the the ing ing
includ facilities, facilities, research research the the of of most most However, However, . . 1) (fig. (fig. Virginia Virginia
West West Elkins, Elkins, at at Building Building Service Service Forest Forest S. S. . U the the in in headquarters headquarters
administrative administrative its its has has unit unit research research this this , , Laboratory Watershed Watershed
and and Timber Timber the the as as 1962 1962 since since and and Center, Center, Research Research Elkins Elkins the the as as
later later Center, Center, Research Research State State Mountain Mountain the the as as initially initially Known Known
existence. existence. of of years years 13 13 first first its its during during unit unit research research
this this of of accomplishments accomplishments and and activities activities the the on on report report progress progress
a a is is This This region. region. Mountain Mountain Appalachian Appalachian Northern Northern the the in in ment ment
manage watershed watershed and and forest forest in in research research conduct conduct to to unit unit field field a a
I
established established Agriculture, Agriculture, of of Department Department Service, Service, Forest Forest U.S. U.S.
the the of of Station Station Experiment Experiment Forest Forest Northeastern Northeastern the the 1948 1948 N N
Research'' Research'' Conduct Conduct To To ...... '' '' 1 1 Figure 3.-Typical forest land in West Virginia. The reseatch program here deals with managing forested mountain land for timber, water, and other uses.
old-growth and second-growth hardwoods dating from around 1905, when heavy cuttings were made. In topography, history of cutting, climate, and variety of species the Fernow Forest is representative of much of the timberland in West Virginia. and adjacent states (fig. 3). Though the Fernow Forest has been the main locale of the research program, other studies have been made in other parts of \Vest Virginia, in western Maryland, and in southwestern Pennsylvania. A number of study areas are located on the Mon ongahela National Forest. And in 1957 an agreement was made to cooperate in forest research with the Union Carbide-Olefins Company on their land near Charleston, West Virginia. Studies are now under way there on a 2,500-acre area known as the Blue Creek Experimental Forese The program of research at Elkins is concerned primarily with multiple use of forest land. It stresses integrated management studies aimed toward finding practical solutions to problems of managing the timber, water, and game resources of this area. Results from these studies should provide bases for judging com patibility of uses and determining use priorities. The pages to follow present an overall view of the Elkins research program and highlight the more significant results.
2
ing. ing.
used used in in a a study study of of deer deer brows
Figure Figure 4. - A A deer deer exclosure exclosure
of of the the total total program program on on the the compartments. compartments.
However, However, wildlife wildlife the studies studies make make up up a a comparatively comparatively small small part part
duction duction of of deer deer browse browse and and use use of of different different areas areas by by deer deer (fig. (fig. 4) 4) . .
Commission Commission are are studying studying the the effects effects of of different different practices practices on on pro
deer-management deer-management technicians technicians of of the the West West Virginia Virginia Conservation Conservation
Supplementing Supplementing these these studies studies under under the the multiple-use multiple-use concept, concept,
of of the the same same types types of of forest forest management. management.
pare pare quantity, quantity, distribution, distribution, and and quality quality of of water water yields yields under under some some
correlated correlated watershed-management watershed-management studies, studies, the the objective objective is is to to com
and and returns returns for for products products harvested harvested under under different different practices. practices. In In
the the principal principal objective objective of of the the studies studies is is to to compare compare roadside roadside costs costs
to to different different forest-management forest-management practices. practices. In In timber timber management, management,
on on the the Fernow Fernow Forest. Forest. These These compartments compartments are are treated treated according according
up up to to 100 100 acres) acres) are are an an important important part part of of the the research research program program
Management Management studies studies on on compartments compartments (areas (areas ranging ranging in in size size
Compartment Compartment Management Management
TIMBER TIMBER MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT RESEARCH RESEARCH
cooperative cooperative agreements agreements with with other other agencies. agencies.
Wildlife Wildlife studies studies have have been been integrated integrated with with this this work work through through
of of management, management, with with particular particular attention attention to to timber timber and and water. water.
Research Research efforts efforts here here have have been been concentrated concentrated in in the the field field
on on the the Fernow Fernow Experimental Experimental Forest Forest
The The Research Research Program Program 3 3 Table I.- Treatments on .forest-management research compartments on Fernow Experimental Forest (Number of areas in each category)
Site quality Treatment (oak site index) Total so 70 60 Commercial clearcut 2 2 0 4 Diameter limit 2 2 3 7 Extensive selection: 10-year cutting cycle 3 2 2 7 20-year cutting cycle 2 2 2 6 Intensive selection: 5-year cutting cycle 2 2 0 4 Flexible cutting cycle 3 2 2 7 Even-aged management 3 3 3 9 Check area 1 1 1 3 Total 18 16 13 47
The major factors in the timber-management compartment studies are site quality and stand treatment or management pro gram. Site quality is the potential of land to grow timber. It is expressed as site index, which is the height of dominant and codominant trees at 50 years of age according to Schnur's oak site index curves ( 19) . Site-index designations on the compartments were determined by use of a site-estimating equation. This was developed by the Elkins project (32) and is explained later under "Site Quality Studies." The major treatment variables or management programs are: commercial clearcutting, diameter-limit cutting, two levels of selection management, and three levels of even-aged management (table 1 and figs. 5 to 9) . A number of guides have been set up for the management programs. For the selection compartments, the guides specify the ultimate goals in terms of distribution of trees by diameter classes, number of trees per acre, volume to be left after cutting, and the size of trees that will be grown. For the even-aged compartments, they specify the different levels of intermediate treatments to be applied.
4 5
Figure 5.- A commercial clearcutting was made here. All merchantable stems were cut, including trees as small as 5 inches in diameter at breast height. Cull trees were left. Another profitable cutting will not be possible here for 60 or 70 years. An oak site index class 80.
Figure 6.- Here cutting was limited to merchantable trees 17 inches diameter and larger. Culls of this size were killed. It is expected that another cutting can be made here in about 20 years. An oak site index class 80.
6 6
per per year. year.
Site Site index index 80. 80. Growth Growth rate: rate: 500 500 board board feet feet per per acre acre
cut, cut, including including trees trees as as small small as as 5 5 inches. inches. Culls Culls are are killed. killed.
it it productive, productive, foresters foresters select select and and mark mark each each tree tree to to be be
made, made, at at 5 - year year intervals. intervals. To To improve improve the the stand stand and and keep keep
being being tested tested here, here, and and two two cuttings cuttings have have already already been been
Figure Figure 8. - An An intensive intensive type type of of selection selection management management is is
made made here here in in about about be be 10 10 years. years. Site Site index index is is 80. 80.
trees trees in in this this size size range range are are killed. killed. Another Another cutting cutting can can
ter, ter, foresters foresters select select and and mark mark each each tree tree to to be be cut. cut. Cull Cull
ment. ment. Working Working with with the the stand stand above above 11 11 inches inches in in diame
here. here. Only Only sawlog-size sawlog-size trees trees are are considered considered in in manage
Figure Figure 7. - Extensive Extensive selection selection management management is is being being tried tried
7 7
use use proper proper the the demonstrate demonstrate to to had had We We frills. frills. expensive expensive sidered sidered
con were were measures measures Cultural Cultural woods. woods. the the in in money money making making for for
requisites requisites primary primary were were cuttings cuttings acre acre - per heavy heavy very very and and roads roads
skid short short that that operators operators local local among among belief belief the the was was area area the the in in
management management forest forest good good of of practice practice the the to to obstacles obstacles biggest biggest the the
of of one one 1948, 1948, in in 1,1nit 1,1nit research research the the by by begun begun was was work work When When
Studies Studies Skidroad Skidroad and and Logging Logging
. . quality timber timber and and reproduction, reproduction,
growth, growth, improvement, improvement, stand stand practices, practices, logging logging on on information information
valuable valuable yielding yielding already already is is study study the the years, years, for for attained attained be be not not
will will returns, returns, and and costs costs to to relating relating one one principal principal the the including including
management, management, compartment compartment of of objectives objectives the the of of many many Though Though
forest. forest. even-aged even-aged an an as as managed managed
be be will will stand stand new new The The cut. cut. be be will will trees trees these these stand, stand,
new new a a started started has has trees trees these these from from seed seed After After left. left. were were
species, species, desired desired the the of of acre, acre, per per trees trees seed seed vigorous vigorous 10 10
About About here. here. made made was was cutting cutting seed-tree seed-tree 9.-A 9.-A Figure Figure
8 8
of of for for use use as as such such products products as as pulpwood, pulpwood, posts, posts, rails, rails, and and charcoal charcoal
and and top top and and limb limb wood wood from from sawlog sawlog cuttings cuttings thus thus are are disposed disposed
patible patible with with research research objectives . . Culls, Culls, trees trees of of undesirable undesirable species, species,
products products after after the the sawlog sawlog operations operations where where such such sales sales are are com
Recently Recently we we have have been been making making stumpage stumpage sales sales of of sma ll ll or or bulk bulk
ments ments to to the the Treasury Treasury of of the the United United States. States.
logging logging costs costs and, and, in in addition, addition, makes makes appropriate appropriate stumpage stumpage pay
picked picked up up by by the the cooperator cooperator (fig. (fig. 10). 10). The The cooperator cooperator pays pays the the
Logs Logs are are delivered delivered to to the the roadside roadside (truck (truck road) road) , , where where they they are are
crew crew under under a a cooperative cooperative agreement agreement with with a a local local operator sawmill . .
On On the the Fernow Fernow Forest, Forest, we we do do our our own own logging logging with with a a specia l l
operators operators and and landowners landowners became became interested interested in in practicing practicing forestry . .
ment ment was was compatible compatible with with reasonable reasonable logging logging costs, costs, many many private private
management. management. Once Once we we had had demonstrated demonstrated that that good good forest forest manage
much much interest interest in in any any but but the the more more ·e lementary lementary forms forms of of forest forest
skidding skidding methods methods and and skidroad skidroad layouts layouts before before we we could could arouse arouse
of of modern modern logging logging equipment equipment and and develop develop cheap cheap and and efficient efficient
length length logs. logs.
tractor tractor with with a a two - wheel wheel arch arch to to winch winch in in and and skid skid tree
Figure Figure ll. - The The Fernow Fernow Forest Forest personnel personnel use use a a crawler crawler
lo ca l l cooperator cooperator will will haul haul them them to to his his sawmill. sawmill.
from from the the Fernow Fernow Forest Forest in in experimental experimental cuttings. cuttings. The The
Figure Figure 10. - The The logs logs being being loaded loaded here here were were removed removed
9 9
lumber. lumber. of of grades grades highest highest the the
yield yield will will that that logs logs the the into into trees trees cut cut to to trained trained specially specially
man man a a by by done done is is bucking bucking The The scaled. scaled. and and graded, graded, bucked, bucked,
are are logs logs tree-length tree-length the the landing, landing, a a to to -Hauled -Hauled . 12 Figure Figure
species. species. and and grade grade of of basis basis the the on on logs logs the the for for pays pays
cooperator cooperator The The . . management of of goal goal a a as as quality quality log log demonstrate demonstrate
to to helps helps and and operation, operation, the the from from returns returns the the increases increases quality, quality,
on on information information gathering gathering facilitates facilitates This This ) . . ) 12 12 (fig. (fig. bucking bucking
the the all all does does grade, grade, recognize recognize trained trained to to specially specially man, man, one one where where
deck deck loading loading roadside roadside a a to to skidded skidded are are logs logs tree-length tree-length The The
. . feet 200 200 or or 100 100 another another out out
reach reach and and cable cable of of length length extra extra an an add add can can we we necessary necessary if if but but
feet, feet, 300 300 within within are are distances distances winching winching usual usual The The skidroads. skidroads. the the
hill hill down down to to and and up up both both winched winched are are logs logs Tree-length Tree-length woods. woods.
the the through through around around driven driven it it is is rarely rarely only only skidroads; skidroads; tractor tractor
on on mostly mostly operated operated is is rig rig This This 11). 11). (fig. (fig. arch arch two-wheeled two-wheeled a a
and and tractor tractor crawler crawler TD-9 TD-9 a a of of consists consists equipment equipment skidding skidding Our Our
volume. volume. sawlog sawlog is is which which of of most most annually, annually, harvested harvested
being being are are equivalent equivalent feet feet board board million million 3/4 3/4 about about all, all, In In wood. wood.
10 10
of of the the land land (fig. (fig. 13). 13).
mountain mountain horse-logging horse-logging job job seriously seriously disturbs disturbs 10 10 15 15 percent percent to to
roads roads and and 3.5 3.5 percent percent in in main main skidroads . . In In contrast, contrast, a a typical typical
breaks breaks down down to to about about 1.5 1.5 percent percent of of the the area area in in decks decks and and truck truck
of of the the forest forest area area is is required required for for the the transport transport system system ( ( This This 10) 10) . .
planned planned logging logging with with a a tractor tractor and and wheeled wheeled arch, arch, about about 5 5 percent percent
Area Area required required for for logging logging transport transport system. system. - In In well
grades grades of of 5 5 to to 15 15 percent percent ( ( 7) 7) . .
ment, ment, the the lowest lowest costs costs were were recorded recorded in in downhill downhill skidding skidding on on
Effect Effect of of grade grade on on skidding skidding costs. - With With Fernow Fernow equip
inches inches d.b . h.) h.) ; ; the the reverse reverse was was true true for for the the larger larger trees. trees.
greater greater than than skidding skidding dam~ge dam~ge among among the the smaller smaller trees trees ( 5 5 ( to to 11 11
3 3 to to 5 5 percent percent of of the the residual residual trees trees (28). (28). Felling Felling damage damage was was
enough enough to to warrant warrant removal removal before before the the next next cutting cutting were were done done to to
Logging Logging damage damage during during selection selection cutting.-Injuries cutting.-Injuries severe severe
studies studies on on logging logging operations . . Some Some of of the the results results follow: follow:
Our Our control control of of the the woods woods work work has has enabled enabled us us conduct conduct to to several several
typical typical of of a a horse-logging horse-logging operation . .
Figure Figure 13. - The The pattern pattern of of up-and-down-hill up-and-down-hill skidroads skidroads
11 11
amine amine an an of of applications applications frill frill include include successfully successfully less less tried tried been been
have have that that methods methods Other Other job job . . logging logging a a (34) of of part part as as done done is is
treatment treatment cull cull when when particularly particularly used, used, sometimes sometimes are are girdling girdling saw saw
chain and and ax ax both both However, However, 14). 14). (fig. (fig. elimination elimination cull cull for for Forest Forest
Fernow Fernow the the on on used used widely widely most most method method the is is tree tree the the in in chopped chopped
notches notches or or cups cups in in applied applied crystals crystals ammate ammate with with Poisoning Poisoning
operations. operations. logging logging
during during girdling girdling by by conveniently conveniently most most treated treated be be can can encountered encountered
are are that that trees trees cull cull few few the the stands stands managed managed in in cuttings cuttings later later the the in in
and and smaller, smaller, progressively progressively becomes becomes job job cull-killing cull-killing the the cuttings cuttings
succeeding succeeding In In . . harvest commercial commercial the the from from separately separately done done be be best best
can can and and operation operation major major a a is is killing killing cull cull stands, stands, such such in in cutting cutting
conditioning conditioning or or first first the the During During stands. stands. unmanaged unmanaged previously previously in in
priority priority in in first first rated rated is is removal removal cull cull measures measures these these among among and and
measures, measures, stand-improvement stand-improvement includes includes management management Selection Selection
. . acre per per feet feet board board 2,000 2,000 and and 1,500 1,500 between between averaged averaged volume volume
gross gross culls culls larger larger and and 11-inch 11-inch In In h. h. . d.b inches inches 11 11 exceeded exceeded trees trees 5 5
which which of of acre, acre, per per b.h. b.h. . d inches inches 5 5 than than larger larger culls culls 12 12 were were there there
average, average, the the On On harvesting. harvesting. justify justify to to defective defective too too trees trees - trees cull cull
many many contained contained Forest Forest Fernow Fernow the the on on stands stands unmanaged unmanaged The The
Improvement Improvement Stand Stand
(26). (26). work work
stabilization stabilization after-logging after-logging and and location location road road charged charged was was acre acre to to
per per $0.90 $0.90 which which of of $4.70, $4.70, about about was was acre acre per per cost cost Total Total acres. acres.
38 38 for for collectively) collectively) types types (both (both skidroad skidroad of of mile mile 1 1 about about to to out out
figured figured This This acre. acre. per per constructed constructed were were road road spur spur nonbulldozed nonbulldozed of of
feet feet 74 74 and and skidroad skidroad bulldozed bulldozed of of feet feet 65 65 of of average average an an Forest, Forest,
Fernow Fernow the the on on acres acres 660 660 logging logging For For - costs. costs. Skidroad Skidroad
developed. developed. be be to to
remams remams purpose purpose this this for for tool tool light-weight light-weight efficient efficient An An (23). (23).
woods woods the the in in use use for for cumbersome cumbersome and and heavy heavy inconveniently inconveniently them them
found found but but job job this this for for jacks jacks tried tried have have We We . . wedging conventional conventional
than than nudging nudging of of means means effective effective more more require require Fernow Fernow the the on on trees trees
the the of of 38 percent percent 38 to to 15 15 saw, saw, power power a a using using when when direction direction ferred ferred
pre the the in in trees trees fell fell To To felling. felling. crosscut-saw crosscut-saw than than control control tional tional
direc less less permits permits felling felling Power-saw Power-saw - felling. Directional Directional
12 12
c c 5 / 57 57 37 37 6 / 60 60 238 238 14.9 14.9 91 91 14.5 14.5
8 / 58 58 6 / 60 60 B B 235 235 22 22 16.4 16.4 14 . 6 6 66 66
A A 5 / 60 60 6 / 60 60 1 1 24 4 4 13.7 13.7 10 . 8 8 45 45
M?nths M?nths No. No. Inches Inches Inches Inches Percent Percent
trees trees trees trees ment ment vation vation
time time
examined examined
observed observed of of dead dead killed killed Area Area obser- treat -
Elap s ed ed Trees Trees
d.b.h. d.b.h. of of d.b.h . . Trees Trees Date Date Date Date of of of of
Average Average Average Average
different different intervals intervals of of time time
Table Table 2. - Kills Kills of of ammate - treated treated culls culls on on three three areas areas after after
cent cent on on the the few few trees trees st i ll ll showing showing life. life.
were were dead dead after after 3 3 years years (table (table 2), 2), and and crown crown kill kill exceeded exceeded 95 95 per
foliage . . On On another another area, area, 91 91 percent percent of of the the treated treated trees trees definitely definitely
and and the the others others had had lost, lost, on on the the average, average, about about 85 85 percent percent of of their their
one one area area were were found found to to be be completely completely defoliated defoliated within within 30 30 days days
(39). (39). In In follow - up up surveys, surveys, 45 45 percent percent of of the the treated treated trees trees on on
Ammate Ammate treatment treatment on on culls culls acts acts quickly quickly and and is is highly highly effective effective
ester ester ( ( 42) . .
salt salt formulation formulation of of 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-T and and injector injector applications applications of of 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-T
prove prove the the stand. stand.
tree tree and and thus thus will will Im
will will kill kill this this worthless worthless
icals icals placed placed in in these these cups cups
cups cups in in a a cull cull tree. tree. Chem
14. Figure Figure - Chopping Chopping
13 13
systems, systems, management management between between growth growth of of comparisons comparisons firm firm permit permit
to to short short too too been been have have periods periods measuring measuring the the Although Although years. years. 6 6
only only for for made made been been have have stocking stocking of of degrees degrees and and sites sites of of range range
a a over over measurements measurements and and years, years, 10 10 is is date date to to period period measuring measuring
longest longest The The 16). 16). and and 15 15 (figs. (figs. plots plots growing-stock-level growing-stock-level Y2 Y2 acre acre 2 2
twelve twelve on on and and ( ( 11), 11), woodlots woodlots on on ( ( 25), 25), plots plots 8, 8, ment-intensity ment-intensity
manage acre acre - 5 on on compartments, compartments, the the on on study study under under is is Growth Growth
area. area. basal basal and and classes, classes, log-grade log-grade different different in in feet feet board board sawtimber, sawtimber,
of of feet feet board board feet, feet, cubic cubic units: units: volume volume following following the the in in it, it, of of
components components various various for for or or d.b.h., d.b.h., inches inches 5.0 5.0 over over stand stand total total the the for for
expressed expressed is is It It stocking. stocking. and and capability, capability, site site system, system, management management
forest the the to to relation relation in in studied studied is is Growth Growth . . growth stand stand studying studying
in in used used are are inventories inventories 00-percent 00-percent 1 1 -Periodic -Periodic growth. growth. Stand Stand
. . growth tree tree individual individual and and growth growth
stand stand studied: studied: being being are are growth growth of of aspects aspects Two Two budget. budget. cutting cutting
any any or or plan plan management management any any of of basis basis the the is is growth growth timber timber of of Rate Rate
it. it. with with associated associated rate rate growth growth the the is is management management forest forest of of system system
any any evaluating evaluating in in used used criteria criteria important important most most the the of of One One
Growth Growth
scale. scale. small small a a on on studied studied being being are are plants plants these these controlling controlling
for for Methods Methods species. species. weed weed troublesome troublesome most most our our are are dendron dendron
rhodo and and vines vines grape grape places, places, In In stands. stands. young young of of thinning thinning any any
done done yet yet not not have have we we Forest; Forest; Fernow Fernow the the on on started started been been recently recently
only only has has pruning pruning hardwood hardwood and and weeding weeding in in Work Work pruning. pruning. and and
thinning, thinning, weeding, weeding, include include measures measures stand-improvement stand-improvement Other Other
$0.017. $0.017. was was diameter-inch diameter-inch per per cost cost Average Average . . area unit unit
per per costs costs with with well well correlates correlates it it and and treated, treated, timber timber of of amount amount of of
measure measure convenient convenient a a is is height height breast breast at at tree-diameter-inches tree-diameter-inches Total Total
ammate. ammate. of of pound pound per per diameter-inches diameter-inches 44 44 treated treated and and man-hour, man-hour,
per per tree-diameter-inches tree-diameter-inches 108 108 treated treated crews crews our our average, average, the the On On
. . terrain of of roughness roughness and and area, area, of of accessibility accessibility labor, labor, of of competence competence
with with also also but but acre acre per per number number and and culls culls of of size size with with only only not not
varied varied Costs Costs included. included. not not were were costs costs supervisory supervisory and and marking marking
Tree Tree pound. pound. a a 24Y2c 24Y2c at at ammate ammate and and hour hour an an $1.20 $1.20 at at labor labor
on on based based were were costs costs These These acre. acre. per per $3.61 $3.61 to to $1.32 $1.32 from from ranging ranging
costs costs at at treated treated were were acre acre per per culls culls 15 15 6 6 tests, tests, ammate ammate the the In In to to Figure 15.-Growth studies indicate that this stand, on an excellent site, contains about 20,000 board feet per acre in trees larger than 11 inches d.b.h. 14
15 15
site. site. of of importance importance the the demonstrate demonstrate studies studies Growth Growth
larger. larger. and and inches inches 11 11 trees trees in in acre acre per per feet feet board board 4,000 4,000
about about contains contains site, site, fair fair a a on on stand, stand, 16.-This 16.-This Figure Figure
16 16
8-inch 8-inch top top diameter diameter inside inside bark. bark.
Based Based on on International International I I 1/ 1/ 4-inch 4-inch kerf kerf rule , , for for trees trees over over 11 11 inches inches d.b.h . . to to an an
in in merchantable merchantable height. height. Periodic Periodic measurements measurements are are being being taken taken
about about the the factors factors affecting affecting growth growth in in diameter, diameter, in in total total height, height, and and
We We have have started started an an individual-tree individual-tree study study to to learn learn more more in in detail detail
well - stocked, stocked, even-aged even-aged stands. stands.
cantly cantly related related to to d . b.h . . class. class. These These data, data, too, too, were were collected collected in in
species, species, red red oak, oak, and and only only among among Vigor-! Vigor-! trees trees was was growth growth signifi
among among vigor vigor classes classes and and site-index site-index classes classes (fig. (fig. 17). 17). In In only only one one
to to site site index index (38, (38, Significant Significant 24). 24). growth growth differences differences were were found found
oaks oaks in in relation relation to to the the same same vigor vigor classes, classes, to to d.b.h . . class, class, and and also also
The The second second study study dealt dealt with with diameter diameter growth growth of of five five upland upland
to to tree tree size size only only among among trees trees in in vigor vigor class class I. I.
stands stands on on good good to to excellent excellent sites. sites. Growth Growth was was significantly significantly related related
The The data data were were taken taken m m well - stocked, stocked, - even aged aged yellow - poplar poplar
IV IV 1.07 1.07
III III 1.76 1.76
II II 2.56 2.56
I I 3.29 3.29
class class (inche s ) )
Vigo1' Vigo1' grow th th
diameter diameter
Average Average
found found to to be be significantly significantly related related to to vigor vigor class: class:
size, size, in in descending descending order order of of vigor - 10-year 10-year diameter diameter growth growth was was
classes classes I, I, II, II, III, III, and and IV-based IV-based largely largely on on crown crown position position and and
class class and and to to tree tree diameter diameter of of yellow-poplar yellow-poplar ( ( 6). 6). Using Using vigor vigor
One One study study dealt dealt with with diameter diameter growth growth in in relation relation to to tree - vigor vigor
survey-type survey-type studies studies have have been been made made and and reported. reported.
only only on on the the Fernow Fernow Forest Forest but but throughout throughout West West Virginia. Virginia. Two Two
Tree Tree growth. growth. - Individual Individual tree tree growth growth has has been been studied studied not not
(55 60 60 - 64) - fair fair 100 100 250 250 to to
70 70 (65-74)- good good 250 250 400 400 to to
80 80 5 5 ( ( 7 7 -84) -84) - excellent excellent 400 400 600 600 to to
Site Site index index growth growth per per acre
1 1
Annual Annual board-foot board-foot
(site (site indexes indexes for for oak) oak) are are about about as as follows: follows:
rates rates under under selection selection management management for for three three site-capability site-capability classes classes
the short the - term term data data indicate indicate that that the the ranges ranges of of board - foot foot growth growth
17 17
1949. 1949. pp., pp., 15 15 7, 7, D D 1 7 3 3 7 1 Rpt. Rpt. Lab. Lab. Prod. Prod. S. S. Forest Forest U. U. . . RESULTS AND AND
PROPOSALS PROPOSALS . . LUMBER STANDARD STANDARD FOR FOR GRADES GRADES LOG LOG HARDWOOD HARDWOOD in in published published as as
standards standards Laboratory Laboratory Products Products Forest Forest the the was was here here used used quality quality to to yardstick yardstick 2The 2The
. . culls Eliminate Eliminate • •
program: program: management management hardwood hardwood every every of of part part be be
should should stands stands forest forest in in grade grade improve improve steps steps to to following following The The
loss. loss. a a at at operated operated are are often often sawlogs sawlogs grade grade - Lower
respectively. respectively. 0.09 0.09 : : 0.5 0.5 1 : : 1 of of ratio ratio approximate approximate an an in in stand stand 3 3 and and
2, 2, 1, 1, log-grades log-grades of of values values stumpage stumpage relative relative the the Forest, Forest, Fernow Fernow
the the on on species species lumber lumber better better the the For For wide. wide. very very is is grades grades different different
of of logs logs among among value value stumpage stumpage in in spread spread The The management. management. forest forest
hardwood hardwood
profitable profitable for for requirement requirement basic basic a a is is quality, lumber lumber
2 2
improved improved into into translates translates which which quality, quality, log log in in Improvement Improvement
Quality Quality Log Log Hardwood Hardwood
area. area. Appalachian Appalachian northern northern the the in in species species major major of the the of all all study study to to
eventually eventually plan plan We We growth. growth. affect affect quality quality site site and and characteristics, characteristics,
crown crown density, density, stand stand size, size, tree tree how how define define trees trees to to 1,200 1,200 about about on on
averages. averages. or or relationships relationships percentage percentage either either lines lines dashed dashed
regressions, regressions, represent represent lines lines Solid Solid index. index. site site over over bark) bark)
inside inside inches, inches, (in (in growth growth d.b.h. d.b.h. 10-year 10-year show show Curves Curves dex. dex.
in site site
to to relations relations growth growth and and 17.-Regressions 17.-Regressions Figure Figure
INDEX INDEX SITE SITE INDEX INDEX SITE SITE
------OAK~ OAK~ - WHITE WHITE AND AND SCARLET, SCARLET, CHESTNUT, CHESTNUT, Dr Dr VIGOR VIGOR
~ ~
" "
"' "'
<:> <:> "' "'
,.-
:; :;
~ ~
20 20 ~ ~ "' "'
.. ..
OAKS OAKS WHITE WHITE AND AND OAKS OAKS BLACK BLACK
SCARLET SCARLET CHESTNUT. CHESTNUT. RED RED AND AND
18 18
3Class 3Class 6 6 represents represents cull cull material material i n n merchantable merchantable trees. trees.
(1959) (1959)
9,685 9,685 5,036 5,036 4,465 4,465 184 184
After After last last cut cut
(1949) (1949)
10,580 10,580
2,768 2,768 6,459 6,459 1,353 1,353
Before Before first first cut cut
Area2 Area2
(1959) (1959)
4,978 4,978
1,318 1,318 3,564 3,564 96 96
After After last last cut cut
(1949) (1949)
5,357 5,357
3,735 3,735 876 876 746 746
Before Before first first cut cut
Area Area 1 1 per per acre acre 6 1&2 1&2 3, 3, 4, 4, 5 5 & & cull cull trees trees
3 3
Total Total log log grades grades log log grades grades In In
In In In In
quality quality separately separately for for each each area: area:
The The tabulation tabulation below, below, in in board board feet, feet, shows shows the the changes changes in in timber timber
the the volume volume in in grades grades 1 1 and and has has been been substantially substantially increased. increased. 2 2
harvest harvest cuttings cuttings were were made made in in each. each. Here Here too, too, the the proportion proportion of of
woodlots woodlots intensively intensively managed managed over over a a 1 1 0 - year year period . . Annual Annual
sampling sampling grades grades in in standing standing trees) trees) were were made made on on two two 30-acre 30-acre
On On small small woodlots. - Estimates Estimates of of log log grades grades (based (based on on
(1959) (1959)
9,553 9,553
3,916 3,916
5,636 5,636 0 0
After After second second cut cut
(1949) (1949)
3,790 3,790 14,152 14,152
9,718 9,718
1,24 5 5
Before Before first first cut cut
3,4 3,4 5 5 per per acre acre I&2 I&2 & & cull cull trees trees
Total Total lo g g grades grades log log grades grades In In
hz hz In In
both both plots) plots) : :
as as shown shown in in the the tabulation tabulation below below (averages, (averages, in in board board feet, feet, for for
of of the the volume volume in in grades grades 1 1 and and has has 2 2 been been substantially substantially increased, increased,
in in stand stand quality. quality. Culls Culls have have been been eliminated, eliminated, and and the the proportion proportion
in in the the brief brief span span of of 10 10 years years has has resulted resulted in in a a marked marked improvement improvement
selectively selectively cut cut first first in in 1949 1949 and and again again in in 1959, 1959, good good management management
On On management-intensity management-intensity plots. - On On two two 5 - acre acre plots, plots,
to to excellent excellent sites sites (site (site index index 7 7 0 -8 0 0 for for oak). oak).
and and our our small small woodlots woodlots are are given given below . . All All stands stands were were on on good good
1 1 0 - year year period. period. Some Some results results from from our our management - intensity intensity plots plots
the the effectiveness effectiveness of of management management in in improving improving log log quality quality in in a a
Selectively Selectively managed managed areas areas on on the the Fernow Fernow Forest Forest demonstrate demonstrate
stand stand of of straight, straight, clean - boled boled trees trees of of desirable desirable lumbe r r species. species.
• • As As periodic periodic cuttings cuttings are are made , , mark mark to to develop develop a a well - stocked stocked
• • Grow Grow large large trees trees (large (large saw saw logs logs produce produce more more grade grade lumber). lumber).
19 19
sites sites excellent excellent on on areas areas cut cut heavily heavily on on abundant abundant is is reproduction reproduction
yellow-poplar yellow-poplar example, example, For For reproduction. reproduction. the the of of composition composition
species species in in differences differences in in reflected reflected are are quality quality site site in in Differences Differences • •
stems. stems. sprout sprout percent percent 10 10 than than less less containing containing stands stands
in in result result will will probably probably cutting cutting selection selection light light sprouts; sprouts; more more or or
percent percent 35 35 of of composed composed stands stands will produce produce will probably probably cuttings cuttings
clear commercial commercial that that indicate indicate Fernow Fernow the the on on Studies Studies growth. growth.
sprout sprout of of proportions proportions higher higher to to predispose predispose cuttings cuttings Heavier Heavier • •
19). 19). 18 18 and and (figs. (figs. followed followed
1s 1s method method group-selection group-selection a a unless unless species species tolerant tolerant of of largely largely
composed composed reproduction reproduction in in result result to to tends tends cutting cutting selection selection Light Light • •
determined. determined. be be to to
remams remams development development later later establish; establish; to to easy easy is is Reproduction Reproduction • •
that: that:
said said be be can can it it data, data, survey survey reproduction reproduction of the the of summation summation In In
cuts. cuts. original original of of effects effects the the modify modify will will cuttings cuttings subsequent subsequent and and
any, any, if if treatments, treatments, cultural cultural of of timing timing and and nature nature the the Moreover, Moreover,
obtained. obtained. be be regeneration regeneration stand stand and and method method cutting cutting between between
relationships relationships the the of of picture picture clear clear a a will will size size pole-timber pole-timber reached reached
have have saplings saplings and and seedlings seedlings present present the the until until not not longest); longest); the the
at at years years 10 10 ( ( effects effects short-term short-term the the only only reflect reflect surveys surveys These These
reproduction. reproduction.
the the of of composition composition species species and and distribution, distribution, growth, growth, amount, amount, the the
affect affect cutting cutting the the of of severity severity the the and and site site the the of of quality quality the the that that
also also show show They They species. species. commercial commercial of of reproduction reproduction abundant abundant
in in result result will will stands stands sawtimber sawtimber cutting in in cutting of of kind kind any any almost almost that that
showed showed plots plots and and compartments compartments Fernow Fernow the the on on surveys surveys The The
study. study. site-index site-index
oak oak an an during during Maryland Maryland western western in in and and Virginia Virginia West West in in sites sites of of
range range a a across across stands stands well-stocked well-stocked in in made made were were observations observations tion tion
reproduc addition, addition, In In . . 27) ( ( studies studies plot plot many many with with connection connection in in
and and Fernow compartments compartments Fernow all all on on made made been been have have surveys surveys duction duction
repro periodic periodic However, However, project. project. Elkins Elkins the the by by undertaken undertaken been been
studies studies reproduction reproduction hardwood hardwood intensive intensive have have recently recently Only Only Reproduction Reproduction
20 20
tion tion of of tolerant tolerant sugar sugar maple . .
Figure Figure 18. - A A light light selection selection cutting, cutting, showing showing reproduc
21 21
. . opening an an in in poplar poplar - yellow of of reproduction reproduction
good good
showing showing cutting, cutting, selection selection group group A A .- 19 Figure Figure '·i\·. '·i\·.
22 22
3 3 80 80 15 15 80 80 . 1,000 1,000 9th 9th 32 32
70 70 24 24 3rd 3rd 400 400 .) ,000 ,000 14 14 47 47
60 60 17 17 4 ,200 ,200 1 , 100 100 26 26 1st 1st 62 62
50 50 5 5 30 30 4 ,800 ,800 1,480 1,480 1sr 1sr 82 82
40 40 4 4 . 1,600 1,600 1,700 1,700 47 47 lsr lsr 82 82
No. No. No . . N'J. N'J. Percent Percent Percent Percent
are are oaks oaks
speoes speoes
frequency frequency
species species ~11 ~11
over over that that
Per Per acre acre of of all all index index
Relative Relative
Plots Plots per per acre, acre,
d.b.h. d.b.h. and and Percent Percent Site Site
Trees Trees inches inches
Oak Oak reproduction reproduction Trees Trees 5.0 5.0
Table Table 3. - Natural Natural reproduction reproduction under under oak oak stands, stands, by by site site index index
different different oak oak species species and and site site quality quality (table (table 4). 4). Northern Northern red red oak oak
There There is is a a definite definite correlation correlation between between the the prevalence prevalence of of the the
conditions conditions less less conducive conducive to to the the establishment establishment of of oaks. oaks.
from from faster faster growing growing or or more more tolerant tolerant species species appears appears to to make make
on on areas areas with with a a site site index index 65 65 or or lower. lower. On On better better sites, sites, competition competition
Indications Indications are are that that oaks oaks may may maintain maintain themselves themselves pretty pretty well well
more more prevalent prevalent on on the the medium medium to to poor poor s i tes tes (table (table 3) 3) . .
Natural Natural oak oak reproduction, reproduction, like like the the distribution distribution of of oak oak trees, trees, was was
oak oak species species made made up up 30 30 percent percent or or more more of of the the overstory overstory (38). (38).
The The oak oak site-index site-index study study sampled sampled fully fully stocked stocked stands stands in in which which
much much more more abundant abundant in in openings openings than than under under canopy . .
• • On On partially partially cut cut areas, areas, reproduction reproduction of of intolerants intolerants was was relatively relatively
elevations, elevations, where where beech beech and and sassafras sassafras were were more more abundant. abundant.
2 . . On On very very lightly lightly cut cut areas areas on on good good and and fair fair sites sites at at lower lower
poplar poplar was was more more numerous. numerous.
1. 1. On On excellent excellent sites sites following following clearcuttings, clearcuttings, where where yellow
exceptions: exceptions:
on on all all sites sites and and following following all all degrees degrees of of cutting, cutting, with with these these
• • In In our our observations, observations, sugar sugar maple maple was was the the most most prolific prolific species species
good good sites, sites, and and is is moderately moderately plentiful plentiful on on the the fair fair sites. sites.
the the overstory), overstory), is is represented represented consistently consistently but but sparingly sparingly on on the the
absent absent on on excellent excellent sites sites ( even even with with oak oak seed seed trees trees present present in in
but but rare rare on on heavily heavily cut cut fair fair sites . . Oak Oak reproduction, reproduction, almost almost
23 23
factors. factors. economic economic other other and and portation, portation,
trans supply, supply, labor labor markets, markets, of of conditions conditions local local current current under under
operated operated forest forest private private a a to to comparable comparable is is unit unit management management The The
value. value. demonstration demonstration considerable considerable with with economics, economics, in in ject ject
pro research research a a is is It It holdings. holdings. forest forest medium-sized medium-sized for for plans plans ment ment
manage better better for for guides guides into into results results research research translating translating toward toward
ep ep st a a be be will will study study The The return. return. continuous continuous maximum maximum a a ing ing
obtain on on emphasis emphasis with with hardwoods, hardwoods, of of tract tract 600-acre 600-acre a a methods methods
practical practical simple, simple, by by manage manage to to is is project project this this in in objective objective The The
Unit Unit Management Management
. . classes tree-age tree-age and and diameter, diameter,
stump stump species, species, by by growth growth sprout sprout evaluate evaluate and and measure measure To To • •
. . intolerant) intolerant) them them of of (most (most
species species tree tree desirable desirable certain certain of of reproduction reproduction encourage encourage or or mit mit
per will will cutting cutting of of this type type this that that hypothesis hypothesis the the locally locally test test To To • •
sprouting. sprouting. of of occurrence occurrence and and rates, rates, growth growth duction, duction,
repro of of quality quality and and quantity quantity composition, composition, species species observe observe To To • •
are: are:
study study the the of of Objectives Objectives later. later. years years 3 3 harvested harvested be be will will they they cut; cut;
reproduction reproduction first first the the following following left left were were trees trees Seed Seed 80. 80. and and 70, 70, 60, 60,
indexes indexes site site oak oak of of areas areas included included It It compartments. compartments. management management
even-aged even-aged the the on on started started was was study study reproduction reproduction a a 1960 1960 In In
sites. sites. better better the the from from
absent absent is is oak oak scarlet scarlet and and index index site site lowest lowest of of areas areas the the on on absent absent is is
80 80
0 0 26 26 0 0 54 54 15 15
80 80
00 00 4
0 0 34 34 308 308 58 58 24 24 70 70
1,100 1,100 130 130 60 60 400 400 520 520 17 17
60 60
1,480 1,480 80 80 560 560 440 440 5 5 400 400 50 50
1,700 1,700 300 300
300 300 1,100 1,100 0 0 4 4 40 40
acre acre
oak oak oak oak oak oak oak oak
per per
Scarlet Scarlet plots plots White White index index Chestnut Chestnut Red Red
Total Total
of of No. No. Site Site
trees trees of of Number Number
index index site site and and species species by by reproduction, reproduction, oak oak of of 4.-Distribution 4.-Distribution Table Table
24 24
feet feet per per acre acre on on Area Area 2. 2. The The increase increase in in stand stand value value came came about about
mately mately 2,000 2,000 board board feet feet per per acre acre on on Area Area 1 1 3,750 3,750 and and board board
The The cuttings cuttings during during the the 10 - year year period period have have yielded yielded approxi
cuttings, cuttings, and and ( ( 2) 2) increased increased value value of of the the stands. stands.
realized realized in in two two forms: forms: ( 1 1 ( ) ) monetary monetary returns returns from from the the annual annual
Returns Returns from from management management of of the the woodlot woodlot areas areas have have been been
10 10 years years of of management. management.
shows shows stand stand data data for for the the two two areas areas in in the the beginning beginning and and after after
stand stand capital capital in in 1948 1948 was was much much less less here here than than in in 5 5 Area Area 2. 2. Table Table
also also had had been been burned burned more more severely. severely. Consequently, Consequently, the the initial initial
nearer nearer an an old old logging logging railroad, railroad, had had been been cut cut more more heavily; heavily; it it
sawlogs sawlogs about about 40 40 years years before before the the study study was was begun . . Area Area 1, 1, being being
Each Each stand stand is is on on a a good good site. site. Both Both areas areas had had been been cut cut for for
both both silvicultural silvicultural and and economic economic aspects. aspects.
of of management management have have been been analyzed analyzed ( ( The The analysis analysis 11). 11). covers covers
have have been been made made in in each each wcodlot, wcodlot, and and results results for for the the first first decade decade
quality quality and and value value for for increasingly increasingly higher higher returns. returns. Annual Annual cuttings cuttings
it it each each year year while while at at the the same same time time he he could could build build up up stand stand
the the owner owner of of a a small small woodlot woodlot could could obtain obtain some some income income ·f rom rom
3 1 3 - acre acre demonstration demonstration woodlots. woodlots. The The purpose purpose was was to to show show that that
In In 1948, 1948, intensive intensive selection selection management management was was started started on on two two
Small Small Forest Forest Pro perti es es
the the second second cutting. cutting.
envisioned. envisioned. Approximately Approximately a a 20-year 20-year period period will will elapse elapse before before
marking marking on on a a selection selection basis; basis; a a system system of of all-aged all-aged silviculture silviculture is is
The The cutting cutting program program is is under under way. way. The The first first operations operations follow follow
and and management management inventory . .
objective objective of of the the study study is is evaluate evaluate such such forestry forestry to to costs costs as as marking marking
kept kept for for the the purpose purpose of of calculating calculating net net returns. returns. An An important important
best best possible possible within within the the limitations. limitations. Simplified Simplified records records are are being being
management management applied, applied, including including al al cultur measures , , will will be be the the
ment ment costs, costs, and and yield yield a a fair fair stumpage stumpage return. return. The The type type of of forest forest
tion tion must must pay pay all all costs, costs, including including the the appropriate appropriate forest-manage
provide provide material material for for to to our our cooperator's cooperator's mill. mill. Second, Second, the the opera
First, First, the the woods woods must must be be cut cut under under a a sustained-yield sustained-yield schedule schedule
Some Some limitations limitations and and imperatives imperatives are are involved involved in in the the study: study:
25 25
1969 1969 80 80 60 60 10,000 10,000
1959 1959 9 , 500 500 76 76 47 47
,1rea ,1rea 2: 2:
1989 1989 80 80 10,000 10,000 60 60
1979 1979 80 80 50 50 8,100 8,100
1969 1969 80 80 6,400 6,400 40 40
1959 1959 76 76 4,880 4,880 27 27
Area Area 1: 1:
Year Year rb d. d. ft.) ft.) !percent) !percent) percent) percent) I I
z · olume/ olume/ species species acre acre 1&2 1&2
Merchantable Merchantable in in high - value value in in log log grades grades
Sawlog Sawlog Sawlog Sawlog volume volume volume volume
scheduled scheduled below: below:
these these goals goals be be realistic realistic and and to to attainable attainable approximately approximately as as
terms terms of of merchantable merchantable volume volume and and timber timber quality. quality. We We believe believe
We We have have set set up up management management goals goals for for each each woodlot woodlot area area in in
provement provement in in log log grade grade or or quality. quality.
creased creased volume volume in in high-value high-value species; species; and and ( ( 3) 3) through through an an im
volume; volume; ( ( 2) 2) through through a a change change in in species species composition, composition, with with in
m m these these ways: ways: ( ( 1 1 ) ) through through a a small small increase increase in in merchantable merchantable
Includes Includes material material removed removed as as well well as as changes changes in in stand stand volumes. volumes. 1 1
1959 1959 9,500 9,500 76 76 1.8 1.8 47 47 400 400
1949 1949 69 69 30 30 9,200 9,200 10 . 0 0
Area Area 2: 2:
1959 1959 76 76 4,880 4,880 27 27 1.7 1.7 230 230
1949 1949 19 19 56 56 4,600 4,600 6.5 6.5
Area Area 1: 1:
Bd.ft. Bd.ft. Percent Percent Percent Percent Bd Percent Percent . ft . .
1 1 and and 2 2 period
per per acre acre species species
culls culls
1 1
grades grades for for the the
volume volume In In high
- value value
In In
Date Date In In log log growth growth
chamable chamable area area
per per acre acre
volume volume Mer-
Basal Basal
Annual Annual Percent Percent of of merchantable merchantable
on on small small woodlots woodlots
Table Table occurring occurring 5.-Changes 5.-Changes during during of of management management 10 10 years years WATERSHED-MANAGEMENT RESEARCH
The watershed-management-research program, from its incep tion in 1950 to the present, has grown in importance and com plexity. Since watershed mc.nagement is one of the main elements in multiple-use management of forest land, many aspects of watershed-management research impinge on timber-management practices, and vice versa. From the beginning, we have viewed watershed management and timber management as interrelated and complementary facets of forest-land management. In our watershed studies we have always tried to recognize the timber management implications, and have tried to integrate our research in the two fields. The broad objective o:5 the watershed-management-research program is to determine the effects of land-use changes and forest practices on the quality and quantity of streamflow, and its distribution in time. Recommendations and prescriptions are com ing from this research. The research program can be divided into two parts: studies of gaged watersheds, and other studies. Most of the research effort has gone into the gaged watersheds.
Gaged U:7 atersheds Because reports recently published ( 16, 18) treat in detail the work on gaged watersheds, only the highlights will be covered here. In the spring of 195 1 observations and records were started on five gaged watersheds on the Fernow Experimental Forest. Research installations included stream-gaging stations with V-notch weirs, water-level recorders, a weather station, and a rain gage network of three recording and nine standard gages (figs. 20 and 21 ) . The forest areas behind the stream gages range from 38 to 96 acres. In 1951, all were undisturbed and supported well stocked stands of hardwood timber. The five watersheds are nearly contiguous and are reasonably similar in forest types, soils, and topography (table 6) . 26
27 27
cover. cover. forest forest to to behavior behavior stream stream relating relating for for
base base a a provide provide to to and and treatments, treatments, cutting cutting specifying specifying and and planning planning
for for base base a a provide provide to to purposes: purposes: two two served served inventories inventories the the study, study,
compartment compartment management management - timber the the in in replicates replicates as as function function to to
treatment, treatment, after after destined, destined, were were watersheds watersheds the the Since Since . . period tion tion
calibra the the during during made made were were timber timber the the of of inventories inventories Also, Also,
( ( . . years years 13) 13) and and seasons, seasons, , , months by by compiled compiled data data cipitation cipitation
pre and and streamflow streamflow of of analyses analyses statistical statistical interim interim by by determined determined
was was period period calibration calibration of of length length requisite requisite the the yardstick, yardstick, reliable reliable
a a provide provide To To quality. quality. water water and and runoff runoff on on treatments treatments watershed watershed
subsequent subsequent of of effects effects the the judging judging for for yardstick yardstick a a as as served served then then
which which behavior, behavior, natural natural of of patterns patterns the the established established This This . . period
calibration calibration year year - 6 a over over watersheds watersheds turbed turbed s undi the the on on ered ered
gath were were quality quality water water and and runoff, runoff, precipitation, precipitation, on on Records Records
. . upstream
from from view view a a is is This This studies. studies. management management - watershed
in in used used type type the the of of house house gage gage and and weir weir A A - 20. Figure Figure
28 28
stricted. stricted. On On the the other other two two watersheds, watersheds, where where road road layouts layouts were were
in in the the study, study, and and skidroad skidroad locations locations were were unplanned unplanned and and unre
and and on on one one cut cut to to a a diameter diameter limit. limit. These These were were the the heavier heavier cuttings cuttings
Serious Serious stream stream pollution pollution occurred occurred on on the the clearcut clearcut watershed watershed
56,000 56,000 ppm . . on on the the clearcut clearcut watershed. watershed.
The The water water turbidity turbidity ranged ranged from from 15 15 ppm. ppm. on on the the control control to to
is is expressed expressed in in parts parts of of soil soil per per million million parts parts of of water-ppm.) water-ppm.)
the the striking striking results results of of the the different different logging logging practices. practices. (Turbidity (Turbidity
Water Water quality.-Water quality.-Water turbidities turbidities after after treatment treatment illustrate illustrate
1960 1960 growing growing season. season.
treatment treatment through through April April 1960 ; ; some some data data also also are are given given for for the the
flow flow are are discussed discussed below below for for the the 3 - year year period period from from the the start start of of
Effects Effects of of the the treatments treatments in in terms terms of of water water quality quality and and stream stream
skidroads skidroads restricted restricted low low grades grades to to (table (table 6) 6) . .
selection selection system system of of cutting, cutting, with with carefully carefully laid laid out out and and drained drained
by by the the loggers loggers up up to to maximum maximum operable operable grades, grades, a a conservative conservative to to
ranged ranged from from a a commercial commercial clearcutting, clearcutting, with with skidroads skidroads located located
treated treated areas areas were were cut cut over over according according to to different different systems. systems. These These
February February 195 195 9 ; ; the the fifth fifth was was left left undisturbed undisturbed as as a a control. control. The The
Four Four of of the the watersheds watersheds were were treated treated b etween etween May May 1957 1957 and and
shelter. shelter.
a a weather-instrument weather-instrument
rain rain gage. gage. Background, Background,
tance, tance, left, left, a a recording recording
rain rain gage. gage. Middle Middle dis · ·
foreground, foreground, a a standard standard
watershed watershed studies. studies. Right Right
installations installations used used in in
Figure Figure 21. - lnstrument lnstrument
29 29
increased increased on on the the clearcut clearcut area area by by about about 8° 8° F . , , and and dormant dormant season season
the the average, average, growing-season growing-season maximums maximums in in 1958 1958 and and 1959 1959 were were
Heavy Heavy cutting cutting widened widened the the extremes extremes of of water water temperatures. temperatures. On On
Second Second year year after after logging logging 0 0 0 0
6 6 First First year year after after logging logging 0-88 0-88
897 897 0-5000 0-5000 During During logging logging
Diameter-limit: Diameter-limit:
Second Second 0-53 0-53 year year 1 1 after after logging logging
38 38 0-700 0-700 First First year year after after logging logging
During During logging logging 490 490 0-5000 0-5000
Commercial Commercial clearcut: clearcut:
rppm.) rppm.) turbidity turbidity
Average Average turbiditJ! turbiditJ! Range Range in in
the the clearcut clearcut and and diameter-limit diameter-limit watersheds: watersheds:
of of periodic periodic turbidity turbidity measurements measurements made made during during and and after after logging logging
logging logging was was in in progress . . This This is is shown shown below below by by some some averages averages
The The impact impact of of logging logging on on water water quality quality was was greatest greatest while while the the
on on water water quality quality was was negligible . .
other, other, cut cut according according intensive intensive selection selection standards, standards, the the effect effect to to
quality quality was was not not serious serious and and subsided subsided soon soon after after logging; logging; on on the the
according according extensive extensive selection selection standards, standards, the the effect effect to to on on water water
tive, tive, pollution pollution was was much much less . . On On one one of of these these watersheds, watersheds, cut cut
planned planned according according grade grade specifications specifications the the and cutting cutting was was selec to to
Soils Soils are are medium medium texture texture on on all all areas, areas, mosrly mosrly well-drained well-drained silt silt loams. loams. 1
Control Control 96 96 4 4 105.7 105.7 0 0 2,400 - 2,820 2,820 0 0 0 0
selection selection
3 3 85 85 104.6 104.6 32 32 14.8 14.8 2,400-2,810 2,400-2,810 1 1
Intensive Intensive
selection selection
5 5 90 90 1.4 1.4 24.0 24.0 7 7 2,400-2,760 2,400-2,760 II II 64 64
Extensive Extensive
limit limit
.14.3 .14.3 38 38 2 2 95.0 95.0 80 80 2,350-2,620 2,350-2,620 8 8
Diameter Diameter
clearcut clearcut
98.2 98.2 78 78 81.0 81.0 74 74 2,040-2,610 2,040-2,610 46 46
Commercial Commercial
AC1·es AC1·es Sq . . ft ./ ./ acre acre F eet eet Percent Percent
10% 10% Original Original Removed Removed 20 % %
No. No. practice practice
inches inches d.b.h. d.b.h. elevation elevation shed shed management management Area Area
trees trees over over 5.0 5.0 Range Range in in steeper steeper than- Water - Timber Timber
Basal Basal area area in in Skidroad Skidroad area area
Experimental Experimental Forest
1 1
Table Table 6. - Characteristics Characteristics of of five five gaged gaged watersheds watersheds on on the the Fernow Fernow
30 30
Most Most of the the of increase increase occurred occurred in in the the summer summer and and early early fall. fall.
more more or or less less in in proportion proportion to to the the amount amount of of timber timber cut cut (fig. (fig. 22). 22).
in in the the undisturbed undisturbed stands. stands. The The treatments treatments increa sed sed discharge, discharge, total
have have occurred occurred under under comparable comparable rainfall rainfall and and weather weather regimens regimens
after - treatment treatment flow flow could could be be compared compared to to the the flow flow that that would would
CUT CUT OR OR KILLED, KILLED, SQUARE SQUARE FEET FEET
BASAL BASAL AREA AREA OF OF T1 T1 MBER MBER
20 20 40 40 60 60 80 80 100 100 0 0
I I
i i season. season.
charge, charge, 1959 1959 growing growing I I
increase increase in in stream stream dis
ber ber cut cut or or killed killed and and
./ ./
between between amount amount of of tim
/ /
Figure Figure 22. - Relationship Relationship
/ /
By By using using equations equations determined determined during during the the calibration calibration period, period,
flows; flows; flow flow duration; duration; and and runoff runoff as as a a percentage percentage of of precipitation . .
total total discharge discharge by by years, years, seasons, seasons, and and months; months; low low flows; flows; high high
Streamflow. - Treatment Treatment effects effects were were analyzed analyzed in in terms terms of: of:
after after the the other other three treatments. treatments. three
alkalinity alkalinity rose rose about about 2 2 ppm. ppm. No No appreciable appreciable changes changes occurred occurred
of of clear clear cutting : : pH pH increased increased by by about about 0.3 0.3 and and methyl methyl orange orange
Slight Slight chemical chemical changes changes in in the the water water were were also also noted noted as as a a result result
preciable preciable effects effects were were evident evident on on the the two two selection selection watersheds. watersheds.
sort sort were were observed observed on on the the diameter-limit diameter-limit watershed. watershed. But But no no ap
mm1mums mm1mums we r e e reduced reduced about about 3 3 Slight Slight effects effects \~ \~ of of the the same same o . .
\.).) \.).)
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2
IIncrease IIncrease
• •
Dormant Dormant
Growing Growing
Negative Negative
Increase Increase
1958-59 1958-59
1959-60 1959-60
1957-58 1957-58
1960 1960
1959 1959
1958 1958
Year Year
is is
is is
value value
season season season season
expressed expressed
statistically statistically
Table Table
denotes denotes
as as
7.-Effect 7.-Effect
inches inches
Area
significant significant
a a
a a
0.9 0.9
4.4~' 4.4~'
3.0* 3.0*
1.8* 1.8*
decrease. decrease.
percentage percentage
.
.6 .6
Commercial Commercial
5 5
-
clear clear
cut cut
at at
Per
cent cent
of of
111 111
5
of of
35 35
34 34
-
percent percent
5 5
4 4
3 3
-
expected expected
watershed watershed
inches inches
level. level.
Ar
disch
1.8
ea-
.8 .8
.2 .2
.
7~
Diameter Diameter
~' ~'
' '
treatment treatment
a
l
rge. rge.
imit imit
Per-
cent cent
Increase Increase
53 53
11 11
4 4
I I
on on
in in
inches inches
Ar
discharge, discharge,
2-.3 2-.3
-.I -.I
flow
-.6 -.6
1.4
ea-
Extensive Extensive
se
* *
1 1
l
ection ection
cent cent
Per
by by
33 33
2 2
4 4
1 1
-
seasons seasons
inche.r inche.r
Ar
0.3 0.3
e
0 0
.4 .4
? ?
a-
Intensive Intensive
se
l
ection ection
Per-
cent cent
0 0
2 2
9 9 7 7
32 32
•Decrease •Decrease is is statistically statistically significant significant at at 5·percent 5·percent level. level.
1960 1960
20 20 7 7
13* 13*
Intensive Intensive selection selection
1959 1959 65 65 60 60 5 5
1960 1960 3 3
17 17
14* 14*
Extensive Extensive selection selection
1959 1959 37 37 58 58 21* 21*
1960 1960 29 29 2 2 27* 27*
Diameter Diameter limit limit 1959 1959 74 74 27 27 47* 47*
1958 1958 22 22 0 0 22* 22*
1960 1960 46 46 7 7 39* 39*
1959 1959 99 99 36 36
63* 63*
Commercial Commercial
clearcut clearcut
1958 1958 38 38 0 0 38* 38*
1957 1957 124 124 52 52 72* 72*
Expected Expected Measured Measured Decrease Decrease
Treatment Treatment Year Year
Number Number of of days days of of low low flow flow
low low flow flow (below (below 0.05 0.05 csm) csm)
Table Table 8 . -Effect -Effect of of treatment treatment on on number number of of days days of of
increa s e e in in flow. flow.
measured measured column column indicates indicates that that the the treatment treatment resulted resulted in in an an
measured measured low low flow flow under under the the treatments. treatments. Fewer Fewer days days in in the the
days days of of low low flow flow under under no no treatment treatment and and the the actual actual days days of of
per per day) day) if if no no cutting cutting had had been been done. done. Table Table 8 8 shows shows the the expected expected
flow flow would would have have fallen fallen below below 0.05 0.05 (about (about 50 50 gallons gallons per per acre acre
derived derived for for predicting predicting the the number number of of days days in in the the year year that that its its
ticularly ticularly striking. striking. For For each each treated treated watershed, watershed, equations equations were were
Effects Effects of of the the treatments treatments in in augmenting augmenting low low flow flow were were par
clearcut clearcut watershed, watershed, were were not not statistically statistically significant. significant.
Dormant - season season mcreases, mcreases, ranging ranging up up to to 5 5 percent percent on on the the
diminishing. diminishing.
that that the the increases increases m m runoff runoff due due to to cutting cutting treatments treatments are are
the the short short period period of of observation, observation, the the streamflow streamflow records records indicate indicate
pattern pattern in in relation relation results results on on to to the the other other watersheds. watersheds. Even Even in in
or or more more than than 8,000 8,000 gallons gallons per per acre; acre; and and it it fell fell into into a a logical logical
intensive-selection intensive-selection watershed watershed was was estimated estimated to to be be 0.3 0.3 area-inch, area-inch,
shed . . Although Although not not statistically statistically significant, significant, the the increase increase on on the the
where where the the cutting cutting was was lightest - on on the the intensive intensive selection selection water
curred curred on on the the clearcut clearcut watershed; watershed; and and the the smallest smallest increase increase was was
was was completed. completed. The The largest largest increase, increase, as as would would be be expected, expected, oc BEFORE CUTT lNG
>200 2400 1200
JULY 9~ 1955 JULY 10 I JULY 1 r Figure 23. - Sample storm hydrographs of clearcut and control wa 14 ,------. tersheds before and after AFTER treatment. >2 CUTTING CLEARCUT 10 ~ ~ 8
;,' 6 "~ CONTROL ,_j ------"' ------1200 2400 1200 2400 1200
JULY II, 1958 I JULY 12 JULY 13
There was a definite effect of treatment on high flow, at least on the clearcut watershed. This effect was much more difficult to analyze than the effects ·on other aspects of streamflow. The high-flow responses after treatment were not consistent for differ ent storms. The variations appear to be associated with time of year, antecedent precipitation and soil-moisture conditions, pres ence or absence of snow, and other factors. Too few high flows occurred to permit stratification by these factors. Under some conditions, storm flow from the clearcut watershed was several times that from the control. Figure 23 shows sample hydrographs for these two watersheds before and after treatment. The two pretreatment hydrographs are similar; the rounded peaks are characteristic of undisturbed forested watersheds where over land flow is negligible. In an effort to define the effects of heavy cutting on storm flow, several different analyses were made. Two of these are noted below. All were in general agreement in indicating higher high flows after the treatment than before. One analysis compared predicted and measured values of instantaneous peak flows. On
33
34 34
be be mentioned mentioned briefly. briefly.
Fernow Fernow program. program. Several Several other other small small miscellaneous miscellaneous studies studies will will
erosion erosion on on logging logging roads. roads. This This work work was was started started early early in in the the
h as as concerned concerned pract i ces ces and and after - logg i ng ng treatments treatments to to control control
Besides Besides the the gaging gaging studies , , our our most most notable notable watershed watershed research research
Other Other Watershed-Management Watershed-Management Research Research
water water quality . .
conversion conversion to to forest forest will will be be studied studied in in relation relation to to streamflow streamflow and and
are are reverting reverting n aturally aturally woodland . . On On these these areas areas methods methods of of to to
Two Two others others are are brushy brushy mountain mountain pastures pastures off off the the forest forest that that now now
additional additional studies studies of of cutt i ng ng effects effects will will be be made made in in a a few few years . .
f orested orested watersheds watersheds on on the the Fernow Fernow Experimental Experimental Forest Forest where where
Four Four untreated untreated watersheds watersheds are are now now being being calibrated. calibrated. Two Two are are
Other Other Gaging Gaging Studies Studies
components components in in the the overall overall relationships . .
water water should should give give a a better better understanding understanding the the of role role of of these these three three
of of streamflow streamflow into into surface surface runoff, runoff, subsurface subsurface flow, flow, and and ground ground
as as temperature temperature and and humidity humidity remains remains be be explored. explored. Separation Separation to to
The The possibility possibility of of relating relating streamflow streamflow t o o such such weather weather variables variables
derstanding derstanding of of precipitation - streamflow-treatment streamflow-treatment relationships . .
Additional Additional analyses analyses of of accumulated accumulated data data may may enhance enhance our our un
vegetation vegetation and and learn learn the the effects effects of of future future cuts . . to to
determine determine changes changes in in streamflow streamflow result i ng ng from from regrowth regrowth of of the the
This This study study of of gaged gaged tre a ted ted watersheds watersheds is is being being cont i nued nued to to
as as compared compared to to those those on on the the clearcut clearcut area. area.
effects effects on on hig h h flows flows on on the the other other three three watersheds watersheds we r e e small small
accounted accounted for for most most of of the the dormant - season season variations. variations. Treatment Treatment
curred. curred. Effects Effects of of treatment treatment on on the the rate rate of of snow snow melt melt probably probably
dormant dormant season : : both both small small de c reases reases and and small small increases increases oc
The The treatments treatments had had little little effect effect on on high high flows flows during during the the
season season was was increased increased 7 5 5 7 percent . .
fl ow. ow. On On the the average, average, flow flow above above 10 10 csm . . during during the the growing growing
of of discharge discharge above above 10 10 csm. csm. was was determined determined for for the the period period of of high high
seasons seasons was was increased increased 21 21 percent. percent. In In another another analysis, analysis, the the volume volume
the the average, average, the the absolute absolute height height of of peaks peaks during during the the growing growing
35 35
sec- one one in in concentrated concentrated be be should should Logging Logging out. out. get get and and Log Log • •
. . grade
in in breaks breaks and and dips dips frequent frequent make make road, road, a a bulldozing bulldozing When When • •
topsoil. topsoil. than than slowly slowly
more more stabilizes stabilizes it it nd nd a erosion erosion to to susceptible susceptible more more is is Subsoil Subsoil
. . roads permanent permanent for for only only and and necessary necessary where where only only Bulldoze Bulldoze • •
drained. drained. adequately adequately be be can can they they so so slopes slopes side side on on roads roads Locate Locate • •
location). location). road road in in do do to to not not what what illustrates illustrates 24 24 (fig. (fig.
possible possible if if percent, percent, 10 10 under under roads roads bulldozed bulldozed of of grades grades Keep Keep • •
roads. roads. of of mileage mileage
minimum minimum a a construct construct and and plan plan possible; possible; as as soil soil little little as as Disturb Disturb • •
area: area: chian chian
Appala northern northern general general the the for for recommendations recommendations following following the the
to to led led have have findings findings study study The The 22). 22). , , 21 , , 31 , , 36 , , 29 35, 35, , , (33 tions tions
publica of of number number a a in in reported reported been been have have studies studies these these of of Results Results
· · . measures revegetation revegetation and and factors, factors, soil soil use, use, of of intensity intensity age, age,
drain for for provision provision slope, slope, of of steepness steepness to to relation relation in in studied studied was was
eros10n eros10n Logging-road Logging-road - erosion erosion road road - logging of of Control Control
. . rain every every
with with gully gully and and wash wash
hill, hill, the the down down and and up up
straight straight running running roads, roads,
skid - These These 24. Figure Figure
36 36
compared compared with with similar similar measurements measurements in in the the open. open. The The results results
flow - is is excluded) . . Maximum Maximum 5 - and and 15-minute 15-minute inten s ities ities were were
tree crowns; crowns; tree the the amount amount that that runs runs down down the the tree tree trunks - stem
a a period period of of 1 1 year. year. (Throughfall (Throughfall is is the the rain rain falls falls that through through the the
fall fall were were measured measured under under a a fully fully stocked stocked hardwood hardwood forest forest over over
Ground Ground rainfall rainfall intensity .- Rainfall Rainfall intensities intensities and and through
Miscellaneous Miscellaneous Studies Studies
cereal cereal grasses grasses for for additional additional erosion erosion control control (fig . . 25). 25).
after after drainage drainage has has been been installed, installed, and and seed seed coarse coarse meadow meadow or or
• • On On areas areas of of high high erosion erosion hazard, hazard, apply apply lime lime and and fertilizer fertilizer
of of the the road road into into 1,000. 1,000.
in in feet feet between between drainage drainage points points is is to to divide divide the the slope slope percent percent
grade. grade. A A workable workable rule rule of of thumb thumb for for determining determining the the spacing spacing
outslope outslope drainage drainage at at appropriate appropriate intervals intervals determined determined by by the the
• • When When skidding skidding on on a a road road is is finished, finished, install install water water bars bars or or
sediment sediment can can be be filtered filtered out, out, rather rather than than directly directly into into streams. streams.
Divert Divert water water from from skidroads skidroads onto onto the the forest forest floor floor where where the the
• • Keep Keep road - building building and and skidding skidding away away from from stream stream courses. courses.
period period of of use use (table (table 9) 9) . .
can can be be reduced reduced to to a a minimum. minimum. Erosion Erosion is is greatest greatest during during the the
tion tion of of a a loggi!lg loggi!lg chance chance at at a a time time so so that that the the skidding skidding period period
o ther ther ro a ds. ds.
Water Water
bars bars were were installed installed after after logging logging on on both both No. No. 1 1 roads roads bur bur not not on on the the 2
This This covers covers the the period period until until the the road road surface surface was was considered considered to to be be stabilized. stabilized. 1
No . 3 3 .8 .8 . 1 1 .7 .7
1.3 1.3 No.2 No.2 .3 .3 1.0 1.0
No . 1 1 . 8 8 .1 .1 2.8 2.8
Lightly Lightly used used
No.2 No.2 2.0 2.0 1.1 1.1 2.1 2.1
5.4 5.4 No . 1 1 0. 4 4 21.8 21.8
Heavily Heavily used used
skidding skidding
erosion' erosion'
skidding skidding
Road Road months months after after logging logging
During During
First First two two Total Total after · ·
Table Table 9. - Soilloss Soilloss from from skidroads, skidroads, by by intensity intensity of of use, use, in in inches inches
37 37
logging. logging. after after
Y2 Y2 years years 1 1 taken taken were were photos photos Both Both seeded. seeded. not not was was deck deck
log log this this cover. cover. new new B, B, produce produce to to seeded seeded was was deck deck log log
this this erosion. erosion. A, A, of of source source a a be be can can decks decks 25.-Log 25.-Log Figure Figure Figure 26.- A small filter dam, used to trap sedi ment. The dam was made of a crosslog, posts, stock wire, and straw.
were analyzed separately for bare-canopy winter and for full-leaf summer conditions. Regression equations were calculated for esti mating intensities and throughfall under canopy from measured rainfall in the open. In the study, low rainfall intensities were reduced more by summer canopy, and high intensities were reduced more by winter canopy. Throughfall was reduced about the same amount in both summer and winter ( 3 0) . Streamfilter. - A small filter dam was developed to catch stream sediment from an area that was being logged without regard for watershed damage. Several of these dams on the stream prevented much of the sediment from moving into a municipal reservoir below ( 14) (fig. 2 6) . Humus studies.- On several watersheds periodic observations are being made to determine the effects of different intensities of cutting on type and depth of humus. Humus depth 3 years after the commercial clearcutting showed a significant reduction of 1/3 inch in the A1 horizon. Automatic water sampler and trash screen lifter. - The Elkins and Laconia (New Hampshire) projects jointly developed a "Rube Goldberg" type of automatic apparatus for collecting water samples and raising trash screens when streamflow reaches predetermined stages ( 1 7) . The apparatus is operated by tripping devices activated by rising water in the weir pond.
38 Soil-moisture study.-Some soil-moisture investigative work has been done on the watersheds both by conventional gravimetric sampling and with one of the earlier types of neutron moisture probes. This work, while inconclusive, did lead to the development of certain hypotheses concerning soil moisture in this area. These may form the bases of future soil-moisture research. Also in connection with our soil-moisture work, a method was developed to adjust moisture content for stone volume ( 15). In gravimetric sampling, moisture-content estimates can be improved by removing stones from the samples and deducting the weight of stones .from total soil weight and the weight of moisture in stones from weight of moisture in the sample. Adjustments must also be made when determining soil bulk density if moisture content by volume is desired, and in applying soil-moisture values to soil areas that include stone.
The Research Program On Other Areas
SITE-QUALITY STUDIES
Soon after establishment of the Elkins projects, we became aware that forest land site quality (the potential of land to grow timber) in this area varies greatly, even over short distances. Variations in site, accompanied as they are by differences in species composition and growth rates, obviously would have to be con sidered, both in studies of treatment effects and in the development of forest management and silvicultural prescriptions. The most readily available and best recognized measures of site quality were the standard site indexes-the heights of domi nant and codominant trees at 50 years of age. But site index can be determined accurately only from trees growing in undisturbed, reasonably well-stocked, even-aged stands. Many-probably most -of our forest stands fail to meet these conditions. Therefore
39 other methods of determining forest land productivity were needed. In 195 3 work was begun to find ways of determining site index, from the site itself, for the principal timber species in this general area. We started with the oaks because they comprise at least half of the timber resource in the area, and because good site curves and yield-table4 data were available ( 19). From this work an estimating equation was developed by regression analysis for well-drained, medium-textured soils origi nating from sandstone and shale, except the Ashby series. The equation applies to the Allegheny Plateau and Allegheny Moun tain regions of northeastern West Virginia and western Maryland (32, 3 7) . We found the following four variables to have a major influence on site index of a given plot of land: ( 1) aspect or compass direction faced by the slope of the land; ( 2) its position on the slope- that is, its distance from the ridge line in percentage of total length of the slope; ( 3) its grade or percentage of slope; and ( 4) soil depth to rock. In the regression equation, site index ( Y) is expressed as its logarithm to the base 10. The four independent variables named above were made linear with respect to site index by expressing them as follows:
1. Aspect ( X 1 ) as the sine of the azimuth taken clockwise from the southeast and adding 1.
2 .. Slope position ( X 2 ) as the percentage of distance from the ridge line.
3. Grade (X:1 ) as the percent slope.
4. Soil depth to bedrock ( X 4 ) as its reciprocal in feet. Or, more concisely, the elements in the equation were defined as shown below: Y = log site index
X 1 = sine (azimuth from SE) + 1 x2 = percent distance from the ridgeline
X 3 = percent slope X4 = 1 soil depth in feet
4Yield tables, based on actual measurements in well-stocked stands, indicate the approximate timber yields that can be expected from different sites.
40
41 41
3 . 0 0 95 95 79 79 87 87 95 95 72 72 79 79 104 104 87 87
( ( 45°) 45°) 2.0 2.0 90 90 99 99 75 75 82 82 90 90 68 68 75 75 82 82
NE NE 1.0 1.0 76 69 69 76 63 63 57 57 83 83 76 69 69 76 63 63
53 53 0.5 0.5 49 49 58 58 53 53 44 44 41 41 49 49 44 44
3.0 3.0 83 83 75 75 69 69 63 63 83 83 91 91
75 75 69 69
SE SE (135 (135
o) o)
2.0 2.0
59 59 78 78
65 65 71 71 85 85 78 78 65 65 71 71
and and
1.0 1.0 so so
66 66
55 55 60 60 66 66 72 72 60 60 54 54
NW NW (315°) (315°)
39 39 0.5 0.5 35 35 46 46 42 42 50 50 38 38 46 46 42 42
3.0 3.0 59 59 65 65 72 72 54 54 78 78 65 65 72 72 60 60
( ( 225°) 225°) 2.0 2.0 68 68 56 56 62 62 51 51 74 74 68 68 62 62 56 56
sw sw 57 57 1.0 1.0 52 52 47 47 43 43 57 57 62 62 52 52 47 47
37 37 33 33 0.5 0.5 40 40 30 30 33 33 37 37 44 44 40 40
LOWER LOWER SLOPE SLOPE BOTTOM BOTTOM OF OF SLOPE SLOPE
3.0 3.0 73 73 80 80 79 79 66 66 60 60 87 87 72 72 66 66
(45°) (45°) 2.0 2.0 75 75 69 69 63 63 57 57 68 68 82 82 74 74 62 62
NE NE 1.0 1.0 63 63 53 53 58 58 69 69 63 63 57 57 48 48 52 52
37 37 0.5 0.5 45 45 41 41 34 34 49 49 37 37 44 44 41 41
3.0 3.0 69 69 63 63 57 57
52 52 75 75 69 69 63 63 57 57
SE SE (135°) (135°)
59 59 2.0 2.0 65 65 49 49
59 59 54 54 65 65 54 54 71 71
and and
so so 55 55 so so 1.0 1.0
55 55
46 46 42 42 60 60 45 45
NW NW (315°) (315°)
39 39 35 35 39 39 0 . 5 5 32 32 29 29 35 35 32 32 42 42
so so 55 55 3 . 0 0 so so 60 60 45 45 65 65 60 60 54 54
57 57 (225 52 52 °) °) 2.0 2.0 43 43 56 56 51 51 47 47 62 62 47 47
sw sw 1.0 1.0 43 43 39 39 36 36 46 46 40 40 52 52 43 43 47 47
34 34 33 33 31 31 0.5 0.5 37 37 31 31 28 26 26 28 28 28
TOP TOP OF OF SLOPE SLOPE UPPER UPPER SLOPE SLOPE
I I
in in feet feet so so so so 30 30 30 30 70 70 10 10 10 10 70 70
Aspect Aspect depth depth
Slope Slope percent percent Soil Soil
slope slope percent, percent, and and soil soil depth depth
Table Table 10. - Site Site index index of of oak oak as as related related to to aspect, aspect, slope slope position, position,
work work (32). (32).
of of these these variables variables are are discussed discussed in in the the technical technical report report of of this this
ture, ture, drainage, drainage, and and stoniness, stoniness, also also modify modify site site quality. quality. The The effects. effects.
Factors Factors other other than than those those used used in in the the equation, equation, such such as as soil soil tex
factors factors can can best best be be seen seen when when expressed expressed in in tabular tabular form form (table (table 10) 10) . .
at at the the point point of of average average site site index-66 index-66 feet. feet. The The effect effect of of these these
level. level. The The standard standard error error of of estimate estimate is is approximately approximately 9 9 percent percent
correlation correlation coefficient coefficient of of 0.8683 0.8683 is is significant significant at at the the 1 - percent percent
+ + X1 X1 X2 X2 0 . 0618 0618 - 0 . 0012 0012 - 0.0020 0.0020 X•. X•. 0 X:~ X:~ . 1509 1509 The The
= = The The equation equation developed developed from from the the study study is: is: Y Y 1.9702 1.9702 - After the results of this study had been published, further analysis- strengthened by the addition of more data- showed that site index could be estimated without the measurement of soil depth. Otherwise, the same factors were used; that is, XI (aspect) , X2 (position on slope) , and X3 (percent slope) . Elimination of soil depth as a separate variable resulted in an equation almost as precise as the original one. This does not mean that soil depth has little effect on site index. On the contrary, it is a most impor tant factor, as is shown in figure 27. It can be omitted from the equation without much loss of precision only because of the close correlation that exists betv.:een soil depth and the slope factors. The shorter equation is: Y = 1.9375 - 0.07036 XI + 0.00132 X2 - 0.00267 X3. The use of an equation without soil depth permits much quicker and easier measurements of the variables in the field. A supplemental site study on the limestone-derived Belmont soils was recently completed for the same area covered in the
80
.... ~ 70 v --
60 /
~ 50 I I
40
10
0 a .. 1.0 1.5 2.0 2 . 5 3.0 3 .5 4 .0 SOl L DEPTH, IN FEET Figure 27 .- Site index in relation to soil depth. Other factors are constant: 30-percent slope, one-third distance from bottom, aspect southeast.
42
43 43
sandstone sandstone of of group group same same the the concerns concerns One One Maryland. Maryland. Western Western
and and Virginia Virginia West West in in s s Alleghenie the the of of ridge ridge main main the the of of east east
area area the the in in way way under under are are now now studies studies site site oak oak additional additional Two Two
preparation. preparation. in in is is work work this this on on cation cation
publi A A 28). 28). (fig. (fig. soils soils Belmont Belmont on on better better no no be be would would index index the the
soils, soils, shale shale - sandstone on on feet feet 83 83 be be would would index index site site the the that that so so
enough enough favorable favorable depth depth soil soil and and topography topography of of combinations combinations For For
insignificant. insignificant. was was sites, sites, excellent excellent the the on on and, and, declined declined itself soil soil the the
of of influence influence the the favorable, favorable, more more became became factors factors depth depth - soil and and
location location the the as as However, However, feet. feet. 74 74 about about of of index index an an had had situations situations
similar similar in in soils soils Belmont Belmont feet, feet, 60 60 say, say, of, of, index index an an had had soils soils shale shale
sandstone where where situations situations in in example, example, For For soils. soils. sandstone-shale sandstone-shale
the the than than indexes indexes site site higher higher considerably considerably had had soils soils Belmont Belmont
the the sites, sites, poorer poorer the the with with associated associated are are that that depth depth soil soil and and
topography topography of of combinations combinations the the For For . . soils shale shale and and sandstone sandstone the the
on on indexes indexes site site to to relationship relationship unique unique a a showed showed indexes indexes site site oak oak
soils soils Belmont Belmont the the On On . . soils shale shale and and sandstone sandstone on on study study original original
index. index. site site oak oak for for soils, soils, limestone limestone Belmont Belmont and and
soils soils shale shale - sandstone between between Relationship Relationship .- 28 Figure Figure
ION) ION) EOUAT EOUAT SOIL SOIL
(SANDSTONE-SHALE (SANDSTONE-SHALE
INDEX INDEX SITE SITE PREDICTED PREDICTED
90 90 50 50 70 70 80 80 60 60 60 60
~ ~ __.. __..
~ ~
.,-
~ ~ 90 90 and shale soils that was studied originally in the Plateau and Mountain sections. The other deals with the Ashby soils, which also are derived from sandstone and shale but seem to support distinctly poorer tree growch than other soils in the region. For that reason, we are examining the Ashby soils separately.
SPECIES-CONVERSION STUDY
It is generally believed that our northern Appalachian forests contained considerably more white pine in the past than they do now. Heavy early cutting and fires probably reduced this species. There are indications that, on poor sites, white pine will grow better and produce more high-quality timber than the oaks and other hardwoods that now occupy such sites. In 1954 a small study was started to: ( 1) identify the sites where white pine should be favored or could profitably be intro duced in mixture with the hardwoods; and ( 2) to determine, by oak site-index classes, the cultural measures needed to establish white pine and to enable it to compete successfully with the hardwoods. The 6-year results of this study ( 40) are in accord with findings from other places in the range of white pine ( 9, 20). These results show that on fair to good sites white pine should not be introduced because of the intense competition from the hardwood undergrowth; whereas on poor sites, where the undergrowth typi cally is less aggressive, pine can be planted with good chances for success (figs. 29 and 30) . The results indicate further that:
• Where 50-year or older hardwood stands occupy land of site index 40 to 60 for oaks, white pine can be planted with reasonable success after a heavy cutting of all hardwoods down to about 5 inches d.b.h. Trees above about 5 inches d.b.h. that are not harvested should be girdled or poisoned. A mixed white pine-hardwood stand should result, with a fair number of the planted pines in the dominant canopy. • From 3 to 5 years after planting, a release from hardwood
44 Figure 29. - Planted white pine on site index 60 for oaks. Here hard~ wood brush is competing strongly against the pine.
Figure 30.--0n oak site index 43, this planted white pine is outgrow ing the competing hard wood brush.
45
46 46
while while information: information:
results results were were far far from from conclusive, conclusive, the the study study produced produced some some worth
where where most most of of the the organic organic soil soil had had been been burned burned off. off. Although Although the the
red red spruce spruce and and southern southern balsam balsam fir fir (Abies (Abies on on rocky rocky fraseri) fraseri) sites sites
red red spruce, spruce, and and another another experiment experiment compared compared seeded seeded and and planted planted
another another dealt dealt with with the the effects effects of of release release cuttings cuttings on on established established
vegetative vegetative cover cover on on planted planted and and seeded seeded red red spruce spruce and and red red pine; pine;
survival survival and and growth, growth, were were begun. begun. One One dealt dealt with with the the effects effects of of
the the century. century. Several Several experiments, experiments, all all concerned concerned with with seedling seedling
spruce spruce stands stands had had been been clearcut clearcut and and burned burned around around the the turn turn of of
The The areas areas involved involved were were high-country high-country sites sites where where the the virgin virgin
in in 1954 1954 (1). (1).
ings ings seedlings seedlings and in in our our territory territory in in 1950, 1950, and and reported reported on on them them
northern northern West West Virginia. Virginia. re-examined re-examined some some of of the the test test plant \1\Te \1\Te
spruce spruce sites sites in in the the Appalachians, Appalachians, including including several several locations locations in in
in in seeding seeding and and planting planting experiments experiments on on a a number number of of former former red red
In In 1940-41 1940-41 the the Southeastern Southeastern Forest Forest Experiment Experiment Station Station put put
RED RED SPRUCE SPRUCE SITES SITES
REGENERATING REGENERATING
sites. sites.
Virginia Virginia pine. pine. More More research research is is needed needed on on these these extremely extremely poor poor
version version should should be be based based upon upon less less demanding demanding species, species, such such as as
not not be be good good enough enough for for white white pine, pine, and and on on them them perhaps perhaps con
index index 40 40 for for oak oak is is not not available available from from this this study. study. Such Such sites sites may may
Information Information on on species species conversion conversion on on sites sites poorer poorer than than site site
somewhat somewhat higher. higher.
use use of of herbicides, herbicides, the the marginal marginal site site index index could could probably probably be be
treatments. treatments. However, However, it it may may be be pointed pointed out out that, that, by by proper proper
study study did did not not include include the the more more intensive intensive types types of of release release
stands stands appears appears to to be be between between site site indexes indexes 50 50 and and 60. 60. This This
marginal marginal site site for for the the introduction introduction of of white white pine pine into into hardwood hardwood
little little • • If If or or no no after-logging after-logging release release is is be be done, done, the the upper upper to to
come come through through without without release. release.
of of the the pines . . However, However, a a fair fair proportion proportion of of the the pines pines should should
sprouts sprouts will, will, in in most most instances, instances, increase increase survival survival and and growth growth
pine pine plantation. plantation.
Figure Figure 31.-A 31.-A light light thinning thinning in in the the Clover Clover Run Run white white
plantations plantations of of 4, 4, eastern eastern 41). 41). white white pine pine (2, (2,
feet feet tall tall (site (site index index 100), 100), this this probably probably is is one one of of the the best best existing existing
17,000 17,000 board board feet feet per per acre acre at at 27 27 years years of of age, age, with with trees trees 70 70 75 75 to to
stocking stocking for for maximum maximum board-foot board-foot volume volume yields. yields. Averaging Averaging about about
a a small small study study is is under under way way to to determine determine the the approximate approximate level level of of
plantation) plantation) on on the the Monongahela Monongahela National National Forest, Forest, near near Parsons, Parsons,
In In a a fast-growing fast-growing white white pine pine plantation plantation (the (the Clover Clover Run Run
PLANTATION PLANTATION THINNING THINNING
WHITE WHITE PINE PINE
fir, fir, but but the the fir fir grew grew faster. faster.
• • On On the the rocky rocky sites, sites, planted planted spruce spruce survived survived better better than than planted planted
better better for for the the fir fir for for than the the spruce. spruce.
catches catches from from direct direct seeding, seeding, although although poor, poor, were were somewhat somewhat
• • Direct Direct seeding seeding failed failed with with all all species. species. On On the the rocky rocky sites sites the the
effect effect on on height height growth. growth.
• • Early Early release release of of red red spruce spruce increased increased survival survival but but had had little little
woody woody shrubs shrubs and and trees. trees.
than than with with red red pine. pine. Spruce Spruce competed competed better better with with over-topping over-topping
• • Bracken Bracken fern fern interfered interfered more more seriously seriously with with red red planted spruce spruce 47 47 Three treatments have been applied to twice replicated plots: ( 1) control- unthinned; ( 2) thinned from below, leaving suffi cient trees so that crowns touch but do not overlap; ( 3) thinned in general from below but removing enough trees in the dominant canopy so that crowns of residual trees are approximately ·5 feet apart (fig. 31). Ten permanent sample trees were designated on each plot to provide data on height and d.b.h. growth of individual trees. Stands will be thinned at 5-year intervals.
PLANTING OF STRIP MINE SPOIL AREAS Stripping for coal has drastically disturbed the surface of many forested areas in West Virginia (fig. 32). The resultant spoils have created problems of water pollution, wasted land resources, and dreary repellent landscapes. Although revegetation to trees appeared to be the best form of land use for most of the stripped areas, no comprehensive studies of tree establishment on strippings in West Virginia had been made up to 1949. Accordingly, a survey type of study was made at that time to assemble information on the possibility of planting trees on the spoil banks. The study included examination of such earlier plantings as could be found, but did not include planting tests. Results of this study were published in 19 5 1 ( 12) . Some findings were:
• Ungraded or partially graded spoils appeared to offer better survival and growing conditions for trees than completely graded spoils. • Revegetation was definitely related to acidity of the spoil material. Where pH values were lower than 4.0, less than 1. percent of the area had revegetated naturally; where the values were 4.0 or higher, herbaceous and woody species generally were becoming established in some abundance. • Except where limited by excessive soil acidity, natural revege tation increased with age of the spoil area. Average density of cover for 1-year-old ungraded spoils was about 8 percent, 48 Figure 32.- An area disturbed by strip mining.
and for 3-year-old spoils about 48 percent. After 3 years the rate of increase tapers off, but most 5-year spoils were more than 50 percent covered. In contrast, graded spoil areas showed only 2 percent cover at 1 year and 12 percent at 3 years. • As a result of this survey and of planting studies in nearby states, the following tree species were recommended for plant ings on West Virginia mine-spoils of pH 4.0 and higher: Conifers Hardwoods Red pine Black locust Pitch pine Yellow-poplar Jack pine Red maple Virginia pine Sycamore Hybrid-poplar clonal test-planting on acid strip-mine spoil banks at high elevations in West Virginia gave poor results after 11 years. Liming resulted in some-not much- improvement in survival and growth. In 1958 and 1959 the Elkins project participated, along with The Pennsylvania State University, in a study of mine-spoil plant ings in Pennsylvania ( 5 ) .
49
50 50
and and 40 40 levels: levels: growing-stock growing-stock two two at at production production compare compare to to site site
excellent excellent an an on on study study plot plot replicated replicated a a on on way way under under is is Work Work
. . variables
dependent dependent principal principal the the are are quality quality log log and and characteristics, characteristics, duction duction
repro Growth, Growth, treatment. treatment. and and site site are are variables variables independent independent main main
The The site. site. poorer poorer of of area area nearby nearby a a to to later later extended extended be be to to is is it it site; site;
excellent excellent an an on on plots plots replicated replicated 5-acre 5-acre on on begun begun been been has has ting, ting,
cut partial partial of of methods methods different different several several involving involving study, study, One One
started. started. been been
have have studies studies management management - timber three three far, far, program. program. So So research research
joint joint a a in in used used be be will will land, land, company company of of acres acres 2,500 2,500 some some ing ing
compris Forest, Forest, Experimental Experimental The The . . Fernow the the on on stands stands the the than than
forests forests hardwood hardwood mountain mountain Appalachian Appalachian southern southern of of sentative sentative
repre more more are are there there stands stands the the of of composition composition species species and and sites, sites,
, , Climate Virginia. Virginia. West West southern southern in in Charleston, Charleston, from from miles miles 25 25
Forest, Forest, Experimental Experimental Creek Creek Blue Blue the the of of establishment establishment the the to to led led
Station, Station, Experiment Experiment Forest Northeastern Northeastern the the and and Company Company Olefins Olefins
Carbide 7 7 Union Union the the by by 195 195 in in into into entered entered agreement, agreement, An An
FOREST FOREST EXPERIMENTAL EXPERIMENTAL
CREEK CREEK BLUE BLUE THE THE
. . test this this in in studied studied
being being are are areas areas many many from from seedlings seedlings of of survival survival and and Growth Growth
. . Parsons near near is is plantings plantings field field the the of of one one which which in in test test provenance provenance
pine pine white white a a conducting conducting is is also also Station Station Northeastern Northeastern The The
. . maximowiciii of of P. P.
hybrids hybrids all all are are They They . . better or or year year per per feet feet 3.6 3.6 of of rates rates average average
at at grew grew all all clones clones seven seven These These area area test test Virginia Virginia (3). (3). West West the the
t t a those those to to similar similar conditions conditions climatic climatic and and soil soil under under planting planting for for
recommended recommended be be to to enough enough well well done done have have appear appear clones clones the the of of to to
Seven Seven . . years 11 11 for for Parsons Parsons near near observation observation under under been been have have ings ings
plant replicatt;d replicatt;d in in clones clones 0 0 5 (Populus), (Populus), poplars poplars hybrid hybrid for for gram gram
pro testing testing over-all over-all s s ' Station Northeastern Northeastern the the in in However, However, here. here.
program program the the of of part part specific specific a a been been not not has has - research research Genetics Genetics GENETICS GENETICS
51 51
plantations. plantations. conifer conifer to to menace menace serious serious
a a is is This This conifers. conifers. in in rots rots butt butt and and root root causes causes that that fungus fungus a a is is annosus annosus 5Fomes 5Fomes
testing. testing. hypothesis hypothesis exemplify exemplify
water) water) and and timber timber both both (for (for studies studies management management - compartment
The The scale. scale. large large a a on on compared compared and and practiced practiced are are management management
land land forest forest of of types types various various where where hypotheses hypotheses of of Testing Testing 2. 2.
examples. examples. few few a a are are flow flow
stream of of analysis analysis of of methods methods of of development development and and erosion, erosion, road road
affecting affecting factors factors the the of of studies studies reproduction, reproduction, to to site site and and methods methods
cutting cutting of of hip hip s relation the the tigations, tigations, s inve capability capability - site studies, studies,
quality quality and and growth growth tree tree - individual and and Stand Stand defined. defined. and and studied studied
are are management management of of tools tools the the where where depth, depth, in in Research Research 1. 1.
aspects: aspects: three three has has program program our our ophically, ophically, s Philo
Aspects Aspects Research Research
oaks. oaks. scarlet scarlet and and red red of of decline decline the the to to factors factors various various
of of relationships relationships the the and and infection; infection; rust rust blister blister to to seedlings seedlings pine pine
white white of of resistance resistance on on (phytoactin) (phytoactin) treatments treatments antibiotic antibiotic of of ness ness
effective the the pathogen; pathogen; wilt wilt oak oak the the of of transmission transmission the the chestnut; chestnut;
native native of of sprouts sprouts in in blight blight chestnut chestnut combating combating in in actidione actidione of of
effectiveness effectiveness the the treatment; treatment; and and occurrence occurrence its its - annosul Fomes Fomes
on: on: studies studies are are planned, planned, or or way, way, under under Currently Currently unit. unit. Elkins Elkins
the the at at begun begun were were investigations investigations pathology pathology forest forest 1961 1961 In In
INVESTIGATIONS INVESTIGATIONS
PATHOLOGY PATHOLOGY - FOREST
. . trees sample sample of of number number a a on on studied studied be be will will development development quality quality
and and growth growth tree tree Individual Individual quality. quality. log log and and produced produced volume volume
are are variables variables dependent dependent The The thinning. thinning. selection selection and and thinning thinning low low
methods two two by by intervals intervals year year - 1 0 1 at at stocking stocking full full of of percent percent 60 60
to to thinned thinned be be will will plots plots replicated replicated yellow-poplar: yellow-poplar: and and basswood basswood
mixed mixed of of stands stands aged aged - even in in test test thinning a a is is study study third third The The
b.h. b.h. . d inches inches 0 0 . 9 over over trees trees in in acre acre per per area area basal basal of of feet feet square square 80 80
52 52
• •
given given to to research research in in depth. depth.
"How?" "How?" realm. realm. This This means means that that more more attention attention today today is is being being
the the realm realm of of "What "What happens?" happens?" to to those those in in the the "Why?" "Why?" and and
program program has has shifted shifted over over the the years years from from answering answering questions questions in in
role role to to play play in in resource resource development, development, emphasis emphasis in in the the research research
forestry forestry and and the the rising rising awareness awareness that that forestry forestry has has a a multiple - use use
With With the the increasing increasing interest interest in in the the practice practice of of more more intensive intensive
better better forestry forestry in in this this area, area, and and they they still still do. do.
program program played played an an important important role role in in arousing arousing general general interest interest in in
hypothesis hypothesis testing testing and and demonstration demonstration aspects aspects of of the the early early research research
areas, areas, provide provide the the data data and and the the locale locale for for economic economic studies. studies. The The
and and the the management management unit, unit, organized organized primarily primarily as as demonstration demonstration
provide provide excellent excellent demonstration demonstration areas. areas. The The small small forest forest properties properties
testing testing are are the the framework framework for for much much research research in in depth depth and and also also
gories. gories. For For instance, instance, the the compartments compartments designed designed for for hypothesis hypothesis
Many Many studies studies overlap overlap into into two two or or all all three three of of the the above above cate
agement agement unit unit fall fall in in this this category . .
experimental experimental purposes. purposes. The The small small forest forest properties properties and and the the man
out, out, as as the the name name implies, implies, primarily primarily for for demonstration demonstration rather rather than than
3. 3. Demonstration, Demonstration, where where certain certain forest forest practices practices are are carried carried
53 53
Sta. Sta. . . Expt Forest Forest . . Northeast illus. illus. 19 19 pp., pp., 73. 73.
. . Serv Forest Forest S. S. . . U . . WEIRS AT AT Paper Paper . . Sta ., ., Sta Expt. Expt. est est
SCREENS SCREENS TRASH TRASH ADJUST ADJUST TO TO For Northeast. Northeast. Serv. Serv. Forest Forest
AND AND SAMPLES SAMPLES WATER WATER TAKE TAKE S. S. U. U. STANDS. STANDS. HARDWOOD HARDWOOD
TO TO DEVICES DEVICES AUTOMATIC AUTOMATIC 1961. 1961. MOUNTAIN MOUNTAIN CUTTING CUTTING 1954. 1954.
E. E. . . G . . Jr Carl. Carl. Holcomb, Holcomb, and and Sidney, Sidney,
, , Hart and and E., E., R. R. .. .. Leonard, Leonard, ... . ) ) 17 ( ( Weitzman, Weitzman, W., W., Ralph Ralph Marquis, Marquis, (8) (8)
. . illus 2445, 2445, 4 4 pp. pp. 71. 71. Note Note . . Res est est
2433- : : 67 . . Res Geophys. Geophys. For Sta., Sta., Expt. Expt. Forest Forest east. east.
Jour. Jour. . . VIRGINIA WEST WEST OF OF North Serv. Serv. Forest Forest S. S. U. U.
MOUNTAINS MOUNTAINS PALACHIAN PALACHIAN SKIDDING. SKIDDING. FASTER FASTER MEAN MEAN
AP THE THE IN IN PRACTICES PRACTICES EST EST ROADS ROADS GENTLE-GRADE GENTLE-GRADE 1957. 1957.
FOR DIFFERENT DIFFERENT FOUR FOUR OF OF Sidney. Sidney. man, man,
FLOW FLOW STREAM STREAM ON ON . . EFFECT EFFECT 1962 Weitz and and J., J., Russell Russell Hutnik, Hutnik, (7) (7)
. . R A. A. Eschner, Eschner, and and
......
. .
) ) (16
. . 28 28 pp 52. 52. Paper Paper . . Sta
. . 270 ., ., Sta Expt. Expt. Forest Forest Northeast. Northeast.
268- , , (4) 25 25 : : . Proc Amer. Amer. . . Serv Forest Forest . . S U. U. . . CUTTING
Soc. Soc. Sci. Sci. Soil Soil UREMENT. UREMENT. SELECTIVE SELECTIVE TO TO GUIDE GUIDE A A AS AS
MEAS SOIL-MOISTURE SOIL-MOISTURE IN IN VIRGINIA VIRGINIA WEST WEST IN IN CIES CIES
STONES STONES OF OF PROBLEM PROBLEM THE THE 1961. 1961. SPE ASSOCIATED ASSOCIATED AND AND LAR LAR
(15) (15) YELLOW-POP OF OF GROWTH GROWTH 1952. 1952.
. . us ill ill ., ., pp 107.4 107.4 . . Allen C. C.
, , J., J., Bickford and and Carl Carl Note Note Holcomb, Holcomb, Res. Res. Forest Forest 6) 6) ( ( Sta. Sta. Expt. Expt.
Forest Forest . . Northeast . . Serv est est us. us. ill ill
For U.S. U.S. STREAMS. STREAMS. SMALL SMALL 36 36 pp., pp., 136. 136. Paper Paper Sta. Sta.
FOR FOR DAM DAM FILTER FILTER SIMPLE SIMPLE A A 1960. 1960. Sta., Sta., Expt. Expt. Forest Forest . . Northeast
(14) (14) Serv. Serv. Forest Forest S. S. U. U. . . LANDS
STRIP-MINED STRIP-MINED FOR FOR . . TREES TREES 1960 . . us ill ill
, , R. R. 933-936 38: 38: liam liam Trans. Trans. Union Union
Wil Byrnes, Byrnes, and and George, George, Hart, Hart, 5) 5) ( ( Geophys. Geophys. Amer. Amer. . . SHEDS
WATER FORESTED FORESTED SMALL SMALL . . us ill ill
FIVE FIVE OF OF CALIBRATION CALIBRATION 1958. 1958. 40-41, 40-41, 10-11, 10-11, 5): 5): ( ( 10 10
K. K. . . G Reinhart, Reinhart, ) ) (13 (13 Logger Logger Northeast. Northeast. . . TION
PLANTA RUN RUN CLOVER CLOVER 1961. 1961. illus. illus. 28 28 pp., pp., 43. 43. Paper Paper Sta. Sta.
B. B. Sta., Sta., Carter Carter Expt. Expt. Forest Forest Northeast. Northeast.
, , Gibbs and and ., ., A Jack Jack . . Serv Godden, Godden, Forest Forest . . U.S 4) 4) . . ( ( VIRGINIA
WEST WEST IN IN LANDS LANDS MINED MINED . . illus 4 4 pp., pp., 111. 111. Note Note . . Res
STRIP OF OF REFORESTATION REFORESTATION 1951. 1951. Forest Forest Sta. Sta. . . Expt Forest Forest east. east.
Jr. Jr. R., R., George George Trimble, Trimble, and and ney, ney, North Serv. Serv. Forest Forest . . S U. U.
Sid Weitzman, Weitzman, Spencer, Spencer, H. H. Potter, Potter, 12) 12) ( ( VIRGINIA. VIRGINIA. WEST WEST IN IN ING ING
PLANT TEST TEST us. us. ill ill POPLAR POPLAR , , . 31 31 pp BRID BRID 145. 145.
HY A A ON ON Paper Paper . . Sta Sta., Sta., . . OBSERVATIONS OBSERVATIONS 1961. 1961. Expt Forest Forest
. . Northeast Serv. Serv. Forest Forest . . S R. R. U. U. Arthur Arthur Eschner, Eschner, (3) (3)
WOODLANDS. WOODLANDS. SMALL SMALL TWO TWO illus. illus. , , . 2 2 pp 141. 141. Note Note . . Res
FROM FROM EARNINGS EARNINGS YEARS YEARS TEN TEN 1961. 1961. . . Sta . . Expt Forest Forest Southeast. Southeast.
. . H Henry Henry Webster, Webster, ...... and and . . ) ) 11 11 ( ( Serv. Serv. Forest Forest . . S U. U. ANS. ANS.
illus. illus. 10-12, 10-12, 57, 57, Forestry Forestry APPALACHI SOUTHERN SOUTHERN
Jour. Jour. SYSTEM? SYSTEM? TRANSPORT TRANSPORT THE THE IN IN PINE PINE WHITE WHITE
LOGGING LOGGING THE THE FOR FOR NEEDED NEEDED OF OF STANDS STANDS NATURAL NATURAL
IS IS LAND LAND MUCH MUCH How How 1959. 1959. FOR FOR CURVES CURVES INDEX INDEX . . SITE SITE 1960
. . Jr , , . R G. G. ble, ble, P. P. John John merstedt, merstedt,
Trim and and C., C., Wilfred Wilfred Mitchell, Mitchell, Vim 0) 0) and and (1 (1 , , . T Warren Warren Doolittle, Doolittle, (2) (2)
6 6 pp. pp. 7-431. 7-431. :42 :42 52 52 Forestry Forestry Jour. Jour.
134. 134. Paper Paper Tech. Tech. Sta. Sta. . . Expt VIRGINIA. VIRGINIA. WEST WEST IN IN TYPE TYPE
Forest Forest States States Central Central Serv. Serv. SPRUCE SPRUCE THE THE IN IN PLANTINGS PLANTINGS
Forest Forest S. S. U. U. PINE. PINE. GOOD GOOD EXPERIMENTAL EXPERIMENTAL 1940-41 1940-41 OF OF
GROW GROW MAY MAY SITES SITES POOR POOR 1953. 1953. GROWTH GROWTH AND AND SURVIVAL SURVIVAL 1954. 1954.
S. S. Leon Leon , , Minckler (9) (9) . . G Thomas Thomas Clark, Clark, 1) 1) ( (
Cited Cited Literature Literature
54 54
Forest Forest Res. Res. Note Note 97 . . 4 4 pp. pp. ill ill us. us.
Northeast. Northeast. Forest Forest Expt. Expt. Sta . . serv. serv. 10 10 ( ( 5) 5) : : 228 - 232, 232,
VIRGINIA. VIRGINIA. U . . S. S. Forest Forest Serv. Serv. Jour. Jour. Soil Soil and and Water Water Con
ARCH ARCH LOGGING LOGGING IN IN WEST WEST TION TION FOR FOR FOREST FOREST LAND . .
1960. 1960. COST COST OF OF SKID SKID ROADS ROADS FOR FOR 1955. 1955. A A CAPABILITY CAPABILITY CLASSIFICA
Carl Carl R. R. (37) (37) ...... and and Trimble, Trimble, G. G. R., R., Jr. Jr.
( ( 26) 26) Trimble, Trimble, G. G. R., R., Jr., Jr., and and Barr, Barr,
10 10 (2): (2): 70-75, 70-75, illus. illus.
ill ill us. us. Soil Soil and and Water Water Conserv . .
Sta., Sta., Sta. Sta. Paper Paper IN IN MOUNTAIN MOUNTAIN 143. 143. 25 25 pp., pp., AREAS. AREAS. Jour . .
Serv. Serv. Northea s t. t. Forest Forest Expt. Expt. WATERSHED WATERSHED MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT
APPRAISAL. APPRAISAL. 1955 . . INTEGRATING INTEGRATING U. U. S. S. Forest Forest T'MBER T'MBER AND AND
(36) (36) HARDWOODS ...... and and - A A Trimble, Trimble, TEN TEN YEAR YEAR G . . R., R., Jr. Jr.
1961. 1961. MANAGING MANAGING MOUNTAIN MOUNTAIN 122 - 124, 124, illus . .
(25) (25)
Water Water Conserv. Conserv. 7 7 (3): (3):
BE BE REDUCED. REDUCED. Jour. Jour. Soil Soil and and 58: 58: 111-115. 111-115.
1952. 1952. SKID SKID ROAD ROAD EROSION EROSION CAN CAN VIRGINIA . . Jour . . Forestry Forestry
(35) (35) ...... and and Trimble, Trimble, G. G. R., R., Jr. Jr. UPLAND UPLAND OAKS OAKS IN IN WEST WEST
GROWTH GROWTH RATES RATES OF OF FIVE FIVE 4-7, 4-7, illus. illus.
1960. 1960. RELATIVE RELATIVE DIAMETER DIAMETER TREES . . Va. Va. Forests Forests 11 11 ( ( 4) 4) : :
(24) (24) 1956. 1956. ELIMINATE ELIMINATE WORTHLESS WORTHLESS
(34) (34) ...... and and Lindahl, Lindahl, Robert Robert R. R. 56, 56, illus . .
Logger Logger 8 8 32-33, 32-33, (5): (5): 41, 41, (3): (3): 16-21, 16-21, illus. illus.
AL AL FELLING. FELLING. Northeast. Northeast. TION. TION. W. W. Va. Va. Conserv . . 16 16
1959. 1959. THE THE CASE CASE FOR FOR DIRECTION DESIGN DESIGN AND AND CONSTRUC
(23) (23) 1952. 1952. MOUNTAIN MOUNTAIN LOG LOG ROADS
(33) (33) 407-410. 407-410. Weitzman, Weitzman, Sidney . .
Water Water Works Works Assoc . . 51 51 : : ill ill us. us.
WATERSHEDS. WATERSHEDS. Jour. Jour. Amer. Amer. ANS. ANS. Forest Forest Sci . . 2 : : 162-173, 162-173,
EASTERN EASTERN MUNICIPAL MUNICIPAL NORTHERN NORTHERN APPALACHI
1959. 1959. LOGGING LOGGING ROADS ROADS IN IN NORTH UPLAND UPLAND OAKS OAKS IN IN THE THE
( 22) 22) 1956. 1956. SITE SITE INDEX INDEX STUDIES STUDIES OF OF
Forest Forest Res . . 77. 77. Note Note 2 2 pp . . (32) (32) ...... and and Weitzman, Weitzman, Sidney. Sidney.
Northeast Northeast Forest Forest Expt. Expt. Sta . . ill ill us. us.
TION . . U . S. S. Forest Forest Serv . . Conserv. Conserv. 19 19 (12): (12): 12-13, 12-13,
INHIBIT INHIBIT TREE TREE REPRODUC LOGGING LOGGING ROADS. ROADS. W. W. Va. Va.
1957. 1957. CHAFF CHAFF
SEEDLING SEEDLING DOES DOES NOT NOT SWER SWER TO TO SOIL SOIL WASHING WASHING ON ON
(21) (21) Trimble, Trimble, G. G. R., R., Jr. Jr. 1956. 1956. CHAFF CHAFF SEEDING--ONE SEEDING--ONE AN
(31) (31) ...... and and Weitzman, Weitzman, Sidney. Sidney. Note Note 21. 21. 2 2 pp . .
Wis . . Univ. Univ. Forestry Forestry Res. Res. 226-234, 226-234, illus . .
PINE PINE CONVERSION CONVERSION STUDY. STUDY. Geophys. Geophys. Union, Union, Trans. Trans. 3 3 5: 5:
1955 . . FACTORS FACTORS IN IN AN AN OAK-TO· OAK-TO· FALL FALL INTENSITIES. INTENSITIES. Amer. Amer.
(20) (20) Trenk, Trenk, Fred Fred B. B. FOREST FOREST CANOPY CANOPY ON ON RAIN
1954. 1954. EFFECT EFFECT OF OF A A HARDWOOD HARDWOOD ill ill us. us.
(30) (30) ...... and and Weitzman, Weitzman, Sidney. Sidney. 88 88 Tech. Tech. Bul. Bul. 560. 560. pp., pp.,
ESTS . . U. U. S . . Dept. Dept. Agr. Agr. Proc . . 17: 17: 152-154. 152-154.
AGED AGED UPLAND UPLAND OAK OAK FOR ROADS. ROADS. Soil Soil Sci. Sci. Soc. Soc. Amer. Amer.
UME UME TABLE TABLE FOR FOR EVEN 1953. 1953. SOIL SOIL EROSION EROSION ON ON LOGGING LOGGING
1937 . . YIELD , , STAND, STAND, AND AND VOL (29 ) ) ...... and and Weitzman, Weitzman, Sidney. Sidney.
( ( 19) 19) Schnur, Schnur, G . . Luther. Luther. 12-13, 12-13, 38. 38. illus. illus.
pp., pp., illus. illus. Northeast. Northeast. Logger, Logger, 7 ( ( 7 7) 7) : :
Serv. Serv. Res. Res. Paper Paper NE-1. NE-1. 79 79 IN IN PARTIAL PARTIAL CUTTING . .
per per Darby, Darby, Pa . , , U. U. S . . Forest Forest 1959. 1959. LOGGING LOGGING DAMAGE DAMAGE SLIGHT SLIGHT
east. east. Forest Forest Expt. Expt. Sta., Sta., Up Barr, Barr, Carl Carl R. R.
INTERIM INTERIM REPORT. REPORT. North ( ( 28) 28) ...... Mitchell, Mitchell, Wilfred Wilfred C. , , and and
OF OF WEST WEST VIRGINIA . -AN -AN ill ill us . .
APPALACHIAN APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS MOUNTAINS
Sta. Sta. Paper Paper 162 . . 22 22 pp., pp.,
EST EST PRACTICES PRACTICES
IN IN
THE THE
Northeast . . Forest Forest Expt . . Sta., Sta.,
OF OF FOUR FOUR DIFFERENT DIFFERENT
FOR
STANDS
. . U. U.
S . .
Forest Forest Serv. Serv.
1963. 1963. EFFECT EFFECT ON ON STREAMFLOW STREAMFLOW
LACHIAN LACHIAN
HARDWOOD HARDWOOD
and and Trimble, Trimble, George George
R., R.,
Jr. Jr.
TING TING IN IN NORTHERN NORTHERN APPA
(18) (18) Reinhart, Reinhart, G., G., Eschner, Eschner, K. K.
A. A. R. , ,
REPRODUCTION REPRODUCTION AFTER AFTER CUT
pp . , , illus . . 1961. 1961. AN AN APPRAISAL APPRAISAL OF OF EARLY EARLY
Forest Forest Res . . Note Note 112. 112. 7 7 ( ( 2 7) 7) ...... and and Hart, Hart, George. George.
55 55
• •
WEST WEST IN IN STANDS STANDS WOOD WOOD
. . pp 4 4 . . 128 HARD POOR-SITE POOR-SITE INTO INTO
Note Note Res. Res. Forest Forest . . Sta pt. pt. x E PINE PINE WHITE WHITE INTRODUCING INTRODUCING 1961. 1961.
rest rest o F Northeast. Northeast. Serv. Serv. est est . . W Harry Harry ney, ney, w Ya ) ) 40 (
For . . U.S VIRGINIA. VIRGINIA. WEST WEST . . us ill ill
IN IN CULLS CULLS HARDWOOD HARDWOOD ., ., pp 4 4 . . 120 Note Note . . Res Forest Forest
FRILLING FRILLING FOR FOR OMMENDED OMMENDED . . Sta Expt. Expt. Forest Forest . . Northeast
REC NOT NOT AMINE AMINE 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-T 1962. 1962. Serv. Serv. Forest Forest . . U.S STUDY. STUDY.
CASE CASE A A - CRYSTALS MATE MATE (42) (42)
illus. illus. 851, 851, - 849 AM WITH WITH CULLS CULLS KILLING KILLING 1961. 1961.
56: 56: Forestry Forestry Jour. Jour. . . TION W. W. Harry Harry Yawney, Yawney, (39) (39)
PLANTA· PLANTA· PINE PINE WHITE WHITE AL AL illus. illus. pp., pp., 40 40
· · UNUSU VIRGINIA'S VIRGINIA'S WEST WEST 1958. 1958. . . 88 Paper Paper Sta. Sta. , , . Sta . . Expt est est
. . G Jr. Jr. , , . R Trimble, Trimble, and and ...... 1) 1) ( 4 ( For t. t. s Northea . . Serv Forest Forest
. . ill ill us U.S. U.S. OAKS. OAKS. OF OF AGEMENT AGEMENT
, , . pp 10 10 154. 154. Paper Paper . . Sta MAN THE THE GOVERN GOVERN THAT THAT
., ., Sta . . Expt Forest Forest . . Northeast FACTORS FACTORS NATURAL NATURAL SOME SOME 7. 7. 195
Serv. Serv. Forest Forest . . U.S VIRGINIA. VIRGINIA. . . G . . Jr ., ., R , , Trimble and and ...... 8) 8) ( 3 (