Notes

Introduction

1. Michael Edwardes, A Season in Hell: The Defense of the Lucknow Residency (New York, 1973), p. 249. 2. T. Henry Kavanagh, How I Won the Victoria Cross (London, 1860), p. 22. 3. Kavanagh, Victoria Cross, pp. 81, 82. 4. At the time, the Victoria Cross was a relatively new honor, established toward the end of the Crimean War to reward exceptional individual acts of heroism. 5. Joany Hichberger, ‘Democraticising Glory? The Victoria Cross Paintings of Louis Desanges,’ Oxford Art Journal 7: 2 (1984), pp. 42–51. 6. S.O. Beeton, Our Soldiers and the Victoria Cross (London, 1867), pp. 221–35. 7. Times, 25 April 1905. 8. Kavanagh, Victoria Cross, p. 219. 9. Times, 29 September 1859. 10. A.L. Haydon, The Book of the V.C. (London, 1906), p. 111; and Philip A. Wilkins, The History of the Victoria Cross (London, 1904), p. 390. 11. Kavanagh, Victoria Cross, pp. 17, 219. 12. Ibid., p. 64. 13. Edwardes, Season in Hell, p. 249. 14. No. 80 of 1858, 9 June 1858, GOI Home (Public) No. 46, NA India. 15. Richard Doherty and David Truesdale, Irish Winners of the Victoria Cross (Dublin, 2000), p. 55. 16. Kavanagh, Victoria Cross, p. 219. 17. Thomas Henry Kavanagh, Guilty or Not Guilty of Conduct Unbecoming an Officer and a Gentleman (Lucknow, 1876), p. 11. 18. R.F. Foster, ‘Marginal Men and Micks on the Make: The Uses of Irish Exile, c. 1840–1922,’ in his Paddy and Mr. Punch: Connections in Irish and English History (London, 1993), pp. 281–305. Kavanagh was far from modest; he became known as ‘Lucknow Kavanagh’ partly because he was so inclined to boast about his feats. Doherty and Truesdale, Victoria Cross, p. 55. 19. Kavanagh, Victoria Cross, np; and George MacDonald Fraser, Flashman in the Great Game (1975; London, 2006), pp. 276, 280. 20. One exception is Scott B. Cook’s unpublished dissertation, which combines anal- ysis of Irish imperial service with Irish–Indian nationalist relationships. Scott B. Cook, ‘The Example of Ireland: Political and Administrative Aspects of the Imperial Relationship with British India, 1855–1922,’ Ph.d. diss., Rutgers Uni- versity, 1987. The essays in Tadhg Foley and Maureen O’Connor, eds, Ireland and India: Colonies, Culture and Empire (Dublin, 2006) also give emphasis to both aspects, as well as the diversity of Irish–Indian interactions and comparisons. Nini Rodgers’ analysis of Irish involvement with the slave trade and abolition also illus- trates the diversity of Irish imperial relationships. Ireland, Slavery and Anti-Slavery: 1612–1865 (Houndmills, Basingstoke, 2007). 21. Joe Cleary, ‘Amongst Empires: A Short History of Ireland and Empire Studies in International Context,’ Éire-Ireland 42: 1 and 2 (2007), p. 45.

215 216 Notes

22. Simon J. Potter, ‘Empire, Culture and Identities in Nineteenth- and Twentieth- Century Britain,’ History Compass 5: 1 (2007), pp. 51–71; and Andrew Thompson, The Empire Strikes Back? The Impact of Imperialism on Britain from the Mid-Nineteenth Century (London, 2005). 23. Joseph Lennon, Irish Orientalism: A Literary and Intellectual History (Syracuse, NY, 2004), p. xxxi. 24. David Harkness, ‘Ireland,’ in Robin W. Winks, ed., The Oxford History of the British Empire. Volume V: Historiography (Oxford, 1999), p. 115; Kevin Kenny, ‘Ireland and the British Empire: An Introduction,’ in Kevin Kenny, ed., Ireland and the British Empire (Oxford, 2004), p. 3; Mike Cronin and Daryl Adair, The Wearing of the Green: A History of St. Patrick’s Day (London and New York: Routledge, 2002), p. xxvi; and Seán Ryder, ‘Ireland, India and Popular Nationalism in the Early Nineteenth Century,’ in Foley and O’Connor, Ireland and India, p. 12. As Kevin Kenny observes, ‘Ambiguous, anomalous, complex, exceptional, unique, or even paradoxical: these are the words most commonly used to describe Ireland’s his- torical relationship with the British Empire. Yet the past is often ambiguous and always complex. Categories of this sort cannot take us very far in historical inquiry.’ 25. Sean T. O’Ceallaigh, India and Ireland (New York, 1925), p. 9. 26. For example of the latter, see Barry Crosbie’s forthcoming analysis of the career of an outspoken Irish imperial servant of nationalist views, C.J. O’Donnell. Barry Crosbie, ‘ “L’enfant terrible of the ICS”: C.J. O’Donnell and the British adminis- tration of Bengal, 1872–1882,’ in Robert Blythe and Keith Jeffery, eds, The British Empire and Its Contested Pasts (Dublin, 2009) pp. 115–35. For the shift from impe- rial service to anti-imperialism, see also the essays on Roger Casement and Erskine Childers in Eóin Flannery and Angus Mitchell, eds, Enemies of Empire: New Per- spectives on Imperialism, Literature and Historiography (Dublin, 2007) and Séamas Ó Síocháin, Roger Casement: Imperialist, Rebel, Revolutionary (Dublin, 2007). 27. T.G. Fraser, ‘Ireland and India,’ in Keith Jeffery, ed., An Irish Empire? Aspects of Ireland and the British Empire (Manchester, 1996), p. 77. 28. Tony Ballantyne, ‘The Sinews of Empire: Ireland, India and the Construction of British Colonial Knowledge,’ in Terrence McDonough, ed., Was Ireland a Colony? Economics, Politics and Culture in Nineteenth-century Ireland (Dublin, 2005), pp. 145–61. David Fitzpatrick notes that the Union masked ‘a hybrid adminis- tration with manifest colonial elements,’ and that ‘Ireland’s rulers, whether grim or benevolent, tended to regard the Irish as a separate and subject native pop- ulation rather than an integral element of a united people.’ David Fitzpatrick, ‘Ireland and the Empire,’ in Andrew Porter, ed., The Oxford History of the British Empire. Volume III: The Nineteenth Century (Oxford, 1999), pp. 494–521 (quota- tions on pp. 494, 498). For the role of Irish precedents and Irish imperial servants in shaping land legislation in late nineteenth-century India, see S.B. Cook, Impe- rial Affinities: Nineteenth Century Analogies and Exchanges between India and Ireland (New Delhi, Newbury Park, CA and London, 1993), pp. 81–107. 29. Piers Brendon, The Decline and Fall of the British Empire 1781–1997 (New York, 2008), p. 316. 30. The literature on this topic will be discussed in Chapter 1. 31. On the transnational nature of the British Empire, see Durba Ghosh and Dane Kennedy, eds, Decentring Empire: Britain, India and the Transcolonial World (Delhi, 2006); and Kevin Grant, Philippa Levine and Frank Trentmann, eds, Beyond Sovereignty: Britain, Empire and Transnationalism, c. 1880–1950 (Houndmills, Basingstoke, 2007). Notes 217

32. Rudyard Kipling, ‘The Mutiny of the Mavericks,’ in Life’s Handicap (1891; Oxford and New York, 1987), pp. 159–77; and A. Conan Doyle, ‘The Green Flag,’ in The Green Flag and Other Stories (New York, 1900), pp. 21, 23. For an analy- sis of the ‘fiction of counter-insurgency’ which Doyle’s writings represent, see Yumna Siddiqi, Anxieties of Empire and the Fiction of Intrigue (New York, 2008), pp. 86–121. 33. John Buchan, The Three Hostages (Boston, 1924), p. 169. 34. John Masters, Nightrunners of Bengal (London, 1951), pp. 324–25. A similar theme is presented in the novel by former British Army officer Tom Gibson, A Soldier of India (London, 1982), in which an Irish officer, Martin Lalor, who sympathizes with the struggle of the Rani of Jhansi against the British, is accused of giving aid and comfort to the enemy and is court-martialed for conduct unbecoming an officer. 35. Pamela Clayton, ‘Two Kinds of Colony: “Rebel Ireland” and the “Imperial Province”,’ in McDonough, ed., Was Ireland a Colony?, pp. 235–46. 36. W.H. Fitchett, The Tale of the Great Mutiny (London, 1901), pp. 97–98. 37. Jennifer Ridden, ‘Britishness as an Imperial and Diasporic Identity: Irish Elite Perspectives, c. 1820–70s,’ in Peter Gray, ed., Victoria’s Ireland? Irishness and Britishness, 1837–1901 (Dublin, 2004), pp. 88–105. 38. Terence Denman, ‘Ethnic Soldiers Pure and Simple? The Irish in the Late Victorian Army,’ War in History 3 (1996), pp. 253–73 (quotation on p. 273). 39. Thomas Bartlett, ‘The Irish Soldier in India, 1750–1947,’ in Michael Holmes and Denis Holmes, eds, Ireland and India: Connections, Comparisons, Contrasts (Dublin, 1997), pp. 12–28; and Scott B. Cook, ‘The Irish Raj: Social Origins and Careers of Irishmen in the Indian Civil Service, 1855–1914,’ Journal of Social History 20: 3 (1987), pp. 507–29. 40. Ryder, ‘Ireland, India and Popular Nationalism,’ pp. 12–25. 41. The poem was reprinted in the Ballymena Observer, 3 October 1857. 42. Elizabeth Buettner, ‘Haggis in the Raj: Private and Public Celebrations of Scot- tishness in Late Imperial India,’ Scottish Historical Review LXXXI: 2 (2002), pp. 212–39. 43. Cook, ‘The Irish Raj,’ p. 509. 44. Cronin and Adair, Wearing of the Green, pp. 77–93, 110–32, 138–46. 45. Irish Times, 23 April 1869. 46. See the Irish Times for 20 April 1907, 8 April 1908 and 7 April 1913. 47. Irish Times, 10 April 1924. 48. Of 106 Irish members of the ICS, only three retired prematurely as a result of the Anglo-Irish War or the Irish Civil War. Cook, ‘The Example of Ireland,’ p. 182. 49. J.W. Dulanty to the Sec., Dept. of External Affairs, Dublin, 20 August 1940, DFA A6,NAI. 50. Joe Cleary, ‘Postcolonial Ireland,’ in Kenny, ed., Ireland and the British Empire, p. 256. 51. V.V. Giri, My Life and Times, Vol. I (Delhi, 1976), p. 14. 52. Irish Times, 16 December 1946. 53. Kate O’Malley, Ireland, India and Empire: Indo-Irish Radical Connections, 1919–1964 (Manchester, 2008), pp. 64–65. The IRA also delivered a message to Gandhi via his son ‘wishing him success and warning him to be careful “not to repeat errors made by Michael Collins, Arthur Griffith and Co.” ’ in settling for less than com- plete independence from the British Empire. Extract from New Scotland Yard Report dated 30 September 1931, IPI, L/P&J/12/235, OIOC. 54. Aubrey Menen, Dead Man in the Silver Market (New York, 1953), p. 78. 218 Notes

55. Hindustan Times, 26 September 1964, clipping in Dept. of the Taoiseach, S 17563/95, NAI. 56. Yvonne Whelan, Reinventing Modern Dublin: Streetscape, Iconography and the Politics of Identity (Dublin, 2003), p. 192. 57. Guy Beiner, ‘Between Trauma and Triumphalism: The Easter Rising, the Somme, and the Crux of Deep Memory in Modern Ireland,’ Journal of British Studies 46 (2007), pp. 366–89 (quotation on p. 367). 58. Alvin Jackson, ‘Ireland, the Union, and the Empire, 1800–1960,’ in Kenny, ed., Ireland and the British Empire, p. 122. 59. O’Malley, Ireland, India and Empire. 60. Cleary, ‘Amongst Empires,’ p. 37; and Eileen Hewitt, The Forgotten Irish: Memorials of the Raj (Wem, England, 2004). 61. Paul A. Townend, ‘Between Two Worlds: Irish Nationalists and Imperial Crisis 1878–1880,’ Past and Present 194 (2007), p. 141; and Kevin Kenny, ‘The Irish in the Empire,’ in Kenny, ed., Ireland and the British Empire, p. 94. 62. Amitav Ghosh, ‘Mutinies: India, Ireland and Imperialism,’ in Clare Carroll and Patricia King, eds, Ireland and Postcolonial Theory (South Bend, IN, 2003), pp. 122–28 (quotation on p. 123). 63. Erez Manela, The Wilsonian Moment: Self-Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism (Oxford and New York, 2007).

1 ‘An Assertion of Liberty Incarnate’: Irish and Indian Nationalists in North America

1. Michael Doorley, Irish–American Diaspora Nationalism: The Friends of Irish Free- dom, 1916–1935 (Dublin, 2005). 2. New York Times, 18 March 1920. 3. The Irish World, 27 March 1920, clipping in Frank P. Walsh Papers, Vol. 10, NYPL. 4. Support for Irish nationalism was, for example, far more pronounced in the United States than among Irish emigrants of the ‘white dominions’ of Australia, Canada and New Zealand. Malcolm Campbell, Ireland’s New Worlds: Immigrants, Politics and Society in the United States and Australia, 1815–1922 (Madison, 2008); and Lawrence J. McCaffrey, ‘Diaspora Comparisons and Irish–American Unique- ness,’ in Charles Fanning, ed., New Perspectives on the Irish Diaspora (Carbondale and Edwardsville, Illinois, 2000), pp. 19–20. 5. Lajpat Rai, ‘Recollections of his life and work for an independent India while living in the United States and Japan 1914–1917,’ p. 44 (microfilm), 6 June 1919, NYPL. 6. Sandhya Shukla, India Abroad: Diasporic Communities of Postwar America and Eng- land (Princeton, 2003), p. 13. Shukla refers primarily to differing conceptions of the nation within nationalist movements at home and abroad, but her comment also applies forcefully to the interaction of two different diasporic nationalist movements, as in the case of Ireland and India. 7. Kevin Kenny, ‘Diaspora and Comparison: The Global Irish as a Case Study,’ Journal of American History 90: 1 (2003), pp. 134–62. 8. Niamh Lynch, ‘Defining Irish Nationalist Anti-imperialism: Thomas Davis and John Mitchel,’ Éire-Ireland 42: 1 and 2 (2007), pp. 82–107. 9. Lynch, ‘Anti-imperialism,’ p. 93. 10. Ibid., pp. 94–103. Notes 219

11. Carla King, ‘Michael Davitt, Irish Nationalism and the British Empire in the Late Nineteenth Century,’ in Gray, ed., Victoria’s Ireland?, pp. 116–30. 12. For the place of India in Irish political discourse in the early- and mid-nineteenth century, see Ryder, ‘Ireland, India and Popular Nationalism,’ pp. 12–25. 13. Salahuddin Malik, 1857: War of Independence or Clash of Civilizations? (Delhi, 2008), pp. 2, 60, 62, 199 (quotation on p. 199). 14. Belfast News-Letter, 2 November 1857. For a survey of press reactions to 1857 in Ireland, see Jill C. Bender, ‘Mutiny or Freedom Fight? The 1857 Indian Mutiny and the Irish Press,’ in Simon J. Potter, ed., Newspapers and Empire in Ireland and Britain: Reporting the British Empire, c. 1857–1921 (Dublin, 2004), pp. 92–108; and Jennifer M. Regan, ‘ “We Could Be of Service to Other Suffering People”: Representations of India in the Irish Nationalist Press, c. 1857–1887,’ Victo- rian Periodicals Review 41: 1 (2008), pp. 61–77. Ulster reactions to 1857 will be discussed in Chapter 4. 15. Regan, ‘Representations of India,’ pp. 63–66, 73 (quotation on p. 65). 16. Jill C. Bender, ‘The Imperial Politics of Famine: The 1873–74 Bengal Famine and Irish Parliamentary Natonalism,’ Éire-Ireland 42: 1 and 2 (2007), pp. 132–56. 17. Townend, ‘Between Two Worlds,’ p. 172. 18. There is a substantial literature on the connections between Irish and Indian nationalism before the First World War, most, but not all, of which focuses on constitutional nationalists in both countries. See C.A. Bayly, ‘Ireland, India and the Empire: 1780–1914,’ Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 10 (2001), pp. 377–97; Sarmila Bose and Elilis Ward, ‘ “India’s Cause is Ireland’s Cause”: Elite Links and Nationalist Politics,’ in Holmes and Holmes, eds, Ire- land and India, pp. 52–73; Howard Brasted, ‘Indian Nationalist Development and the Influence of Irish Home Rule, 1870–1886,’ Modern Asian Studies 14: 1 (1980), pp. 37–63; his ‘Irish Models and the Indian National Congress, 1870– 1922,’ South Asia New Ser. 8: 1–2 (1985), pp. 24–45; his ‘Irish Nationalism and the British Empire in the Late Nineteenth Century,’ in Oliver MacDonagh, W.F. Mandle and Pauric Travers, eds, Irish Culture and Nationalism, 1750–1950 (London, 1986), pp. 83–103; Cook, ‘The Example of Ireland,’ Part Three; Richard P. Davis, ‘India in Irish Revolutionary Propaganda, 1905–1922,’ Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bangladesh 22: 1 (1977), pp. 66–89; and his ‘The Influence of the Irish Revolution on Indian Nationalism: the Evidence of the Indian Press, 1916–1922,’ South Asia New Ser. 9: 2 (1986), pp. 55–68. 19. Brasted, ‘Indian Nationalist Development,’ p. 47. 20. Marie-Louise Legg, ed., Alfred Webb: The Autobiography of a Quaker Nationalist (Cork, 1999), pp. 67–72. At this point, the Indian National Congress did not have an institutional existence outside of its annual meetings. The 1894 meeting lasted for four days. Jennifer Regan-Lefebvre’s forthcoming study of Alfred Webb will further illuminate his anti-imperial activism. 21. Jonathan Schneer, London 1900: The Imperial Metropolis (New Haven and Lon- don, 1999), p. 185. 22. Lynch, ‘Anti-imperialism,’ p. 106; and Bender, ‘Imperial Politics of Famine,’ pp. 149–50. 23. Brasted, ‘Irish Nationalism and the British Empire,’ p. 95. In 1892, Naoroji was elected as a Liberal candidate for the Central Finsbury constituency in London. 24. In his discussion of Irish reactions to the Anglo-Zulu War, Paul A. Townend observes that ‘The imperial relationship remained both complex and contin- gent, and imperial concerns ebbed and flowed over time within nationalist 220 Notes

movements at both the elite and popular level.’ Townend, ‘Between Two Worlds,’ p. 173. 25. According to Howard Brasted, ‘Nationalism, as revealed by Ireland, was always regarded as a model as much to avoid as to emulate. Instead of an inflexibly designed blueprint, Ireland presented an agenda for debate and supplied a frame of reference that permitted India to define its own attitudes to British rule.’ Brasted, ‘Indian Nationalist Development,’ p. 42. 26. Bayly, ‘Ireland, India and the Empire,’ p. 378. 27. Ibid., p. 395. 28. ‘The Irish American Fenian, who could strike anywhere in Britain with little care for collateral casualties, replaced the savage peasants of 1798 as the popular image of Irish rebellion and disaffection.’ Michael De Nie, The Eternal Paddy: Irish Identity and the British Press, 1798–1882 (Madison, WI, 2004), p. 167. 29. Kevin Kenny, The American Irish: A History (New York, 2000), pp. 171–72. On the radical dimensions of late nineteenth-century Irish–American nationalism, see also Eric Foner, ‘Class, Ethnicity and Radicalism in the Gilded Age: The Land League and Irish-America,’ in his Politics and Ideology in the Age of the Civil War (New York and Oxford, 1980), pp. 150–200. 30. Kenny, The American Irish, p. 173. 31. Niall Whelehan, ‘Skirmishing, the Irish World, and Empire, 1876–86,’ Éire- Ireland 42: 1 and 2 (2007), p. 198. 32. Una Ni Bhroimeil, ‘The South African War, Empire and the Irish World, 1899– 1902,’ in Potter, ed., Newspapers and Empire, pp. 195–216. 33. Patrick Ford, The Criminal History of the British Empire (New York, 1915), p. 44. 34. Whelehan, ‘Skirmishing,’ p. 190. 35. Vivek Bald, ‘Overlapping Diasporas, Multiracial Lives: South Asian Muslims in U.S. Communities of Color, 1880–1950,’ Souls 8: 4 (2006), pp. 3–18. 36. In addition, in 1900 there were just under 3.4 million second-generation Irish Americans. S. Chandrasekhar, ed., From India to America (La Jolla, CA, 1982); and Kenny, American Irish, p. 184. 37. Judith M. Brown, Global South Asians: Introducing the Modern Diaspora (Cam- bridge, 2006) Chapter 1. For Indian migration to the United States in this era, see Joan M. Jensen, Passage from India: Asian Indian Immigrants in North America (New Haven and London, 1988); and Lavina Dhingra Shankar and Pallassana R. Balgopal, ‘South Asian Immigrants Before 1950: The Forma- tion of Ethnic, Symbolic, and Group Identity,’ Amerasia Journal 27: 1 (2001), pp. 55–84. 38. Sugata Bose, A Hundred Horizons: The Indian Ocean in the Age of Global Empire (Cambridge, MA, 2006), p. 148. 39. Schneer, London 1900, pp. 184–202 (quotation on p. 201). 40. ‘Memorandum on the Anti-British Agitation Among Natives of India in England. Parts One to Four,’ (1909–1910) in A.K. Samanta, ed., Terrorism in Bengal: A Collection of Documents [TIB] (Calcutta, 1995) V: 248. 41. ‘Memorandum on the Anti-British Agitation,’ in TIB V: 245–455 (quotation on p. 248); and Richard J. Popplewell, Intelligence and Imperial Defence: British Intelli- gence and the Defense of the Indian Empire 1904–1924 (London, 1995), pp. 125–46 (quotation on p. 125). 42. ‘Memorandum on the Anti-British Agitation,’ in TIB V: 260, 320, 368, 445. See also Nicholas J. Owen, The British Left and India: Metropolitan Anti-Imperialism, 1885–1947 (Oxford, 2007), pp. 22–77. Notes 221

43. Peter Heehs, ‘Foreign Influences on Bengali Revolutionary Terrorism 1902– 1908,’ Modern Asian Studies 28: 3 (1994), pp. 537–51. 44. Don Dignan, ‘The Hindu Conspiracy in Anglo-American Relations During World War I,’ Pacific Historical Review XL: 1 (1971), p. 61. 45. Jensen, Passage from India, pp. 22–23. 46. For a brief survey of American attitudes toward India and Indians prior to the Second World War, see Kenton J. Clymer, Quest for Freedom: The United States and India’s Independence (New York, 1995), pp. 1–10; and Gary R. Hess, America Encounters India, 1941–1947 (Baltimore and London, 1971), pp. 1–16. South Asians in the United States in this era were commonly referred to by the white population as ‘Hindus,’ (in other words, natives of Hindustan) no matter what their religion. For Canadian opposition to Indian migration, which led a number of Sikhs to relocate to the western United States, see T.G. Fraser, ‘The Sikh Problem in Canada and its Political Consequences,’ Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 7: 1 (1978), pp. 35–55. 47. As Mark Juergensmeyer has observed, ‘The struggle against the oppression in America and in India became fused into one struggle.’ Mark Juergensmeyer, ‘The Gadar Syndrome: Ethnic Anger and Nationalist Pride,’ in Chandrasekhar, ed., From India to America, p. 48. 48. Emily C. Brown, ‘Revolution in India: Made in America,’ in Chandrasekhar, ed., From India to America, p. 43. The party’s name, meaning ‘mutiny’ or ‘revolt,’ and spelled as ‘Gadar,’ ‘Ghadr’ or sometimes ‘Ghadar,’ referred to the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The Gadarites also expanded the meaning of the term to include ‘freedom.’ Following the practice of other historians, I have used the spelling ‘Gadar’ to refer to the political movement, and ‘Ghadr’ to refer to the party’s newspaper. 49. Kenny, The American Irish, p. 157. 50. Davis, ‘India in Irish Revolutionary Propaganda, 1905–1922,’ p. 74. 51. Arun Coomer Bose, ‘Indian Nationalist Agitations in the U.S.A. and Canada till the Arrival of Har Dayal in 1911,’ Journal of Indian History 43: 27 (1965), pp. 228–29. 52. Gaelic American, 12 August 1905. 53. Syed Razi Wasti, Lord Minto and the Indian Nationalist Movement 1905–1910 (Oxford, 1964), p. 90. 54. Cook, ‘The Example of Ireland,’ pp. 431–33; and Bose, ‘Indian Nationalist Agitations,’ p. 229. 55. Popplewell, Intelligence and Imperial Defence, p. 152. 56. Ibid., pp. 147–64, 236–57, 321–24. 57. Note by C.J. Stevenson-Moore, 11 July 1907, GOI Home Dept. (Political) [Home (Pol)] A, August 1907, 243–50, NA India. 58. Jensen, Passage from India, pp. 190–93. 59. Popplewell, Intelligence and Imperial Defence, pp. 167–74. 60. On what became known as the ‘Hindu-German conspiracy’ see Thomas G. Fraser, ‘Germany and the Indian Revolution,’ Journal of Contemporary History 12: 2 (1977), pp. 255–72; Jensen, Passage from India, pp. 194–225; and Popplewell, Intelligence and Imperial Defence, pp. 236–57. 61. Thomas G. Fraser contrasts this seriousness of purpose with the much better- known but ‘curiously lukewarm relationship with Irish nationalism in the person of Roger Casement.’ Fraser, ‘Germany and the Indian Revolution,’ pp. 255, 263. 222 Notes

62. Although Matthew Erin Plowman has highlighted both Irish support for and involvement in the Indo-German conspiracy, it is difficult to agree with his conclusion that during the First World War ‘Irish involvement in such Indian revolutionary activities as the Indo-German Conspiracy was far more instrumen- tal than that of the Germans.’ Matthew Erin Plowman, ‘Irish Republicans and the Indo-German Conspiracy of World War I,’ New Hibernia Review 7: 3 (2003), pp. 81–105 (quotation on p. 105). 63. Plowman, ‘Indo-German Conspiracy,’ pp. 97–99. 64. Translations and abstracts of Ghadr can be found in MSS Eur. E 288/3, OIOC. Some entries feature full articles, others abstracts or the title only. After a split in the party in early 1917, two Ghadr newspapers were published, one by Ram Chandra and one by Bhagwan Singh. 65. In 1917, for example, Ghadr reported that 3000 people in Ireland had died of famine while thousands were reduced to eating grass. Translation of Ghadr [Ram Chandra], 22 April 1917, MSS Eur. E 288/3, OIOC. 66. Translation of Ghadr, 10 May 1916, MSS Eur. E 288/3, OIOC. 67. Translation of Ghadr [Bhagwan Singh], 19 August 1917, MSS Eur. E 288/3, OIOC. 68. Milton Israel, Communications and Power: Propaganda and the Press in the Indian Nationalist Struggle, 1920–1947 (Cambridge, 1994), p. 279. For Lajpat Rai’s career in the United States see Manela, The Wilsonian Moment, pp. 85–97; Naeem Gul Rathore, ‘Indian Nationalist Agitation in the United States: A Study of Lala Laj- pat Rai and the India Home Rule League of America, 1914–1920,’ Ph.d. diss., Columbia University, 1965; and Rai’s unpublished memoirs, cited above. 69. Schneer, London 1900, p. 183. Matthew Pratt Guterl observes that ‘By the end of the Great War ...events in the United States as well as in Ireland, Egypt, India, and Haiti had put the question of empire at the center of American internationalism, eventually making Manhattan, and not London, the center of metropolitan anticolonialism.’ Matthew Pratt Guterl, The Color of Race in America 1900–1940 (Cambridge, MA, 2001), p. 69. 70. On the formation of the Lusk Committee, see Todd J. Pfannestiel, Rethinking the Red Scare: The Lusk Committee and New York’s Crusade against Radicalism, 1919– 1923 (New York and London, 2003), pp. 19–35. 71. Dudley Field Malone, ‘India and Freedom,’ in his ‘Unaccustomed as I am—’ Miscellaneous Speeches by Dudley Field Malone (New York, 1929), p. 178. 72. Davis, ‘India in Irish Revolutionary Propaganda,’ p. 82. 73. Cook, ‘The Example of Ireland,’ pp. 453–54. 74. Unless otherwise stated, information in the following paragraphs is taken from the History Sheet of Sailendranath Ghose, IPI, L/P&J/12/197, OIOC. 75. Barry Carr, ‘Marxism and Anarchism in the Formation of the Mexican Com- munist Party, 1910–19,’ The Hispanic American Historical Review 63: 2 (1983), pp. 291–92. 76. Jan MacKinnon and Steve MacKinnon, eds, ‘Agnes Smedley’s “Cell Mates”,’ Signs 3: 2 (1977), pp. 531–32. 77. T.A. Shone, British Embassy, Washington, D.C., to Wilbur J. Carr, State Dept., 19 December 1932, IPI, L/P&J/12/437, OIOC. 78. Ronald Spector, ‘The Vermont Education of Taraknath Das: An Episode in British-American-Indian Relations,’ Vermont History 48: 2 (1980), pp. 89–95. 79. For Bengali ambivalence toward Gandhi, see David M. Laushey, ‘The Terror- ist and Marxist Challenges to Gandhian Leadership of the Indian Nationalist Movement in Bengal,’ Journal of Third World Studies 3: 2 (1986), pp. 32–41; and Notes 223

Leonard A. Gordon, Bengal: The Nationalist Movement 1876–1940 (New York, 1973). In 1922, Ghose’s Bengali associate Basanta Kumar Roy predicted that following Gandhi’s arrest and the end of the non-cooperation campaign, revolu- tionary forces would take control of the INC and India would win independence by arms. San Antonio Evening News, 23 March 1922. 80. New York Times, 29 June 1925. 81. Gerald Campbell, Consul General, New York, to Sir Roinald Lindsay, British Embassy, Washington, D.C., 28 December 1932, IPI, L/P&J/12/437, OIOC. 82. Undated notes on activities of Tarak Nath Das, April 1921–February 1923, IPI, L/P&J/12/166, OIOC. Das’ biographer comments that ‘The British feared Tarak- nath’s pen more than his attempt to smuggle arms into India,’ although both activities appear in intelligence reports. Tapan K. Mukherjee, Taraknath Das: Life and Letters of a Revolutionary in Exile (Calcutta, 1998), p. 103. 83. T.N. Das, ‘The De Facto Irish Republic and the Republic of the United States of India,’ typescript, 29 July 1920, Frank P. Walsh Papers, Box 9, NYPL. An article by Das in the Irish Press on 20 August 1921 made a similar argument, predicting ‘the downfall of British imperialism and mentioning resolutions calling upon the Indian Congress to declare the independence of India formally as the martyrs of Easter week did in Ireland.’ 84. For Walsh’s career, see Harold Charles Bradley, ‘Frank P. Walsh and Postwar America,’ PhD diss. (St. Louis University, 1966); Joseph McCartin, ‘Frank P. Walsh,’ in Anne Cipriano Venzon, ed., The United States in the First World War (New York, 1995), p. 772; and Julie E. Manning, Frank P. Walsh and the Irish Question: An American Proposal (Washington, D.C., 1989). 85. Undated legal memo by Walsh, Frank P. Walsh Papers, Box 109, NYPL. 86. Walsh to William Marion Reedy, 24 July 1919 and 29 July 1919, Frank P. Walsh Papers, Box 8, NYPL. 87. David Fitzpatrick, Harry Boland’s Irish Revolution, 1887–1922 (Cork, 2003), pp. 133–34. 88. Fitzpatrick, Harry Boland’s Irish Revolution, pp. 138–39. 89. Garvey had patterned the International Convention of the Negro Peoples of the World, which took place at the time of the strikes, on Irish Race Conventions of 1916, 1918 and 1919. Joe Doyle, ‘Striking for Ireland on the New York Docks,’ in Ronald H. Bayor and Timothy J. Meagher, eds, The New York Irish (Baltimore, 1996), pp. 366–67; Matthew Pratt Guterl, ‘The New Race Consciousness: Race, Nation, and Empire in American Culture, 1910–1925,’ Journal of World History 10: 2 (1999), pp. 325–27; and ‘Report by Special Agent P-138,’ 20 September 1920, in Robert A. Hill, ed., The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers (Berkeley and London, 1984) 3: 12–13. 90. Irish Times, 3 August 1921. On African–American contacts with Indian national- ism in this era, see Gerald Horne, The End of Empires: African Americans and India (Philadelphia, 2008), pp. 47–92. 91. Hill, ed., Marcus Garvey 3: 13–14. 92. Similar committees were organized for India and China. Arthur Upham Pope to Frank P. Walsh, 13 December 1919, Frank P. Walsh Papers, Box 8, NYPL. 93. Fitzpatrick, Harry Boland’s Irish Revolution, pp. 178–79. 94. Ibid., p. 200. 95. Cook, ‘The Example of Ireland,’ p. 457. 96. C. Desmond Greaves, Liam Mellows and the Irish Revolution (London, 1971), p. 205. 224 Notes

97. In both cases, the results of the alleged arms smuggling are inconclusive. Extract from Despatch from British Consulate General, 22 December 1921; and Tele- gram from Viceroy to Sec. of State for India, 23 July 1921, IPI, L/P&J/12/88, OIOC. 98. Note on Tarak Nath Das (‘in continuation of note in M.I.5 B.L. Volume XXI’), 8 March 1923, IPI, L/P&J/12/166, OIOC. 99. The Friends of Freedom for India, ‘Our First Year of Work,’ Frank P. Walsh Papers, Box 109, NYPL. 100. Ed Gammons, The Tragedy of India (San Francisco, 1919). Several branches of the FOIF, as well as the Ancient Order of Hibernians of South Bend, Indiana, also passed resolutions in protest of the deportations. Agnes Smedley, Sec., FOFI, to ‘Dear Comrades,’ 24 August 1919, FOFI Collection, Bancroft Library, University of California at Berkeley. 101. New York Times, 29 August 1921. 102. Young India 2: 10 (October 1919), p. 221; and ‘Remember Limerick’: 1965 Diamond Jubilee Dinner Journal of the Limerick Men’s Benevolent and Social Association, Inc., Irish Organizations Collection, Box 1, Folder 18, AIHS. On Indian support for the dock strike, see Doyle, ‘Striking for Ireland,’ p. 663, fn 47. 103. For Golden’s life, see Jim Herlihy, Peter Golden: The Voice of Ireland (Ballincollig, Cork, 1994). 104. Herlihy, Peter Golden,p.40. 105. Ibid., pp. 50–52 (quotation on p. 51). 106. J. Driscoll, Special Agent, to R.W. Finch, Chief Investigator, 4 July 1919. Box One, Folder 12, L0039, Investigation Subject Files, 1919–1920 (Lusk Commit- tee), NY State Archives (microfilm). The Rowlatt Act, aimed primarily at the suppression of terrorism in Bengal, extended wartime legislation which allowed for detention without trial. The act in turn became the focus of Gandhi’s first major all-India campaign in 1919. 107. Irish Press, 15, 22, 29 October 1921. 108. Advertisements appeared in the Irish Press on 26 November and 3 December. 109. Friends of Freedom for India leaflet [nd], CO 904/161/1, NA UK. 110. Basanta Koomar Roy, The Labor Revolt in India (New York, 1920), p. 22; and Davis, ‘India in Irish Revolutionary Propaganda,’ pp. 79–80. 111. Newsletter of the FOIF, 48: (29 May 1920), p. 4. FOIF Collection, Box 4, Folder 8, AIHS. 112. Irish Press, 25 March 1922. While the India Office explored the possibility of recruiting former members of the Royal Irish Constabulary for police work in India, British officials explicitly rejected the idea of recruiting ‘Black and Tans’ or Auxiliaries. P&J No. 2092 of 1922, L/Public & Judicial [P&J]/6/1800, OIOC. 113. Ed Gammons, ‘Gadar Party Honors President De Valera,’ in India in Revolt (1919), FOIF Collection, Box 20, Folder 16, AIHS. The Gadar Party also reported on a ‘thrilling speech’ which De Valera gave in Chicago in March 1920, in which he spoke of the slaughter of Irish troops at Gallipoli. The story was titled ‘An Irish Amritsar.’ Ed Gammons, Invincible India (San Francisco, [1920]). 114. Agnes Smedley to ‘Dear Friends,’ 1 March 1920, FOFI Collection, Bancroft Library, University of California at Berkeley. 115. Eamon De Valera, India and Ireland (New York, 1920). The Punjabi-language version, entitled ‘Hindustan Atte Airlaind,’ is in the South Asians in North American collection of the Bancroft Library, University of California at Berkeley. 116. Cook, ‘The Example of Ireland,’ p. 460. Notes 225

117. Agnes Smedley characterized De Valera’s donation as ‘a legacy to the cause of Indian independence’ which ‘will form the most formidable link between Ire- land and India in their work for the independence of their countries from the yoke of British imperialism.’ Smedley to De Valera, 9 March 1920, P 150/1053, De Valera Papers, University College Dublin Archives. 118. Walsh to Agnes Smedley, Sec., FOFI, 21 November 1919, Frank P. Walsh Papers, Box 8, NYPL. In spite of the extraordinarily generous salary of $75,000 that Walsh received for his role, he ‘offered little’ to the Bond Drive ‘but his name on the Commission’s letterhead.’ Fitzpatrick, Harry Boland’s Irish Revolution, p. 144. 119. For Walsh’s continuing support of Egyptian and Indian nationalism, see the report of his October 1921 speech at the Catholic University in Washington, D.C. in the Irish Press, 22 October 1921. 120. National Executive Minutes, FOIF, 12 April 1920 and 31 August 1920, Box 6, Folder 3; and National Executive Minutes, FOIF, 4 January 1921, Box 6, Folder 4, FOIF Coll., AIHS. 121. National Executive Minutes, FOIF, 21 October 1921, FOIF Coll., Box 6, Folder 3, AIHS. 122. ‘Murderous British Rule in India,’ Gaelic American, 5 August 1905; and Gaelic American, February 1914, cited in Davis, ‘India in Irish Revolutionary Propa- ganda,’ p. 74. 123. ‘A Protest against the Immigration Law of 1924,’ FOIF Coll., Box 8, Folder 10, AIHS. 124. Michael G. Malouf, ‘With Dev in America: Sinn Féin and Recognition Politics, 1919–21,’ Interventions: International Journal in Postcolonial Studies 4: 1 (2002), p. 27. 125. My reading of the racial dimension of Irish–Indian relationships in the United States differs from that of Matthew Pratt Guterl, who argues that by placing the Irish ‘struggle in a global, anti-colonial context,’ nationalists reinforced the status of the Irish as a ‘white’ race. Guterl, ‘The New Race Consciousness,’ p. 324; and Guterl, The Color of Race in America, Chapter 2. 126. Indian seamen, who were predominantly Bengali Muslims, did seem to have influenced the policies of the FOFI on at least one occasion. In 1920, the organi- zation launched appeals to improve the conditions of Indian seamen on British ships. See the correspondence between Frank P. Walsh, Agnes Smedley and Saliendranath Ghose on this issue in the Walsh Papers. A meeting was held in August 1920, which Ghose noted attracted the enthusiastic support of English and American seamen as well, Ghose to Walsh, 29 August 1920, Frank P. Walsh Papers, Box 9, NYPL. On the participation of Bengali Muslims in the FOFI, see Bald, ‘Overlapping Diasporas,’ pp. 11, 18. 127. Cited in Fitzpatrick, Harry Boland’s Irish Revolution, p. 138. 128. Bridgeport Telegram, 1 November 1920. 129. The United States of India 3: 10 (August 1926), p. 2. 130. United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind (261 U.S. 204). For the issue of South Asian naturalization in the early twentieth century, see Jensen, Passage from India, pp. 246–69. 131. As Milton Israel observes, ‘Rather than a well-organized, centrally controlled publicity network, Indian nationalism was represented in Britain, Europe, and the United States by a range of individuals and organizations, often self- appointed, who worked for the cause according to their own views and desired for India’s future.’ Israel, Communications and Power, p. 255. 226 Notes

132. History Sheet of Sailendra Nath Ghosh, 28 November 1929, IPI, L/P&J/12/197, OIOC. In a 1927 letter to Lala Lajpat Rai, former FOFI member Agnes Smed- ley described Ghose as ‘a swindler to whom no money should be sent.’ Agnes Smedley to Lala Lajpat Rai, 24 August 1927; IPI, L/P&J/12/197, OIOC. 133. History Sheet of Sailendra Nath Ghosh, 28 November 1929, IPI, L/P&J/12/197, OIOC; and Mohandas Gandhi to the Rev. John Haynes Holmes (cable), March 1930, http://www.mkgandhi.org/letters/chrchmisn/holmes.htm Viewed 27April 2004. 134. For a concise account of the bitter dispute between De Valera and Cohalan and Devoy see Troy D. Davis, ‘Eamon De Valera’s Political Education: The American Tour of 1919–1920,’ New Hibernia Review 10: 1 (2006), pp. 65–78. 135. National Executive Minutes, FOIF, 21 October 1921, FOIF Coll., Box 6, Folder 3, AIHS. 136. Josephine Bennett, General Secretary, FOFI, to Walsh, 8 February 1921, Frank P. Walsh papers, Box 29, NYPL. 137. New York Times, 11 May 1923 and 13 May 1923. 138. New York Times, 12 May 1930. 139. Nonetheless, in California in particular, Irish–American nationalists retained close links with Eamon De Valera until the mid-1930s, and De Valera helped to establish an Irish Press newspaper in California as well. See Timothy J. Sarbaugh, ‘The AARIR of California and the De Valera Connection, 1923– 1936,’ Southern California Quarterly 69: 3 (1987), pp. 223–40; and ‘Eamon De Valera and the Irish Press in California, 1928–1931,’ Éire-Ireland 20: 4 (1985), pp. 15–22. 140. Two resolutions critical of British policies in Egypt, India and Mesopotamia were passed in 1923 and 1925. National Council Minutes, FOIF, 17 January 1923, and 23 January 1925, Box 8, Folders 9–10, FOIF Coll., AIHS. National Council Minutes, FOIF, 23 January 1925, Box 8, F. 10, AIHS. 141. Brian Hanley, The IRA, 1926–1936 (Dublin, 2002), p. 173. 142. Harry Gloster Armstrong, Consul General, NY to Ambassador, Washington, D.C., 14 June 1922, Dept. of Taoiseach, S 2068, NAI. 143. One leaflet read, ‘The Anti-Republicans claim that the Treaty entitles Ireland to admission in the League of Nations. India has a representative in the League of Nations. Is India Free?’ Another stated that the ‘Curse of Cromwell’ and ‘the Curse of the Famine’ ‘is the same Curse that is over India, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Palestine and South Africa To-day.’ Anti-Treaty Leaflets (c. 1923), ILB 300, Items 101 and 52, National Library of Ireland. 144. Gloster Armstrong, Consul General, NY, to Secretary of State, 23 November 1922, Dept. of the Taoiseach, S 1976, NAI. 145. Undated notes on activities of Tarak Nath Das, April 1921–February 1923, IPI, L/P&J/12/166, OIOC. 146. History Sheet of Sailendra Nath Ghosh, 28 November 1929, IPI, L/P&J/12/197, OIOC; and An Phoblacht, 17 July 1925. I am grateful to Joseph Lennon for this reference. 147. Fraser, ‘Germany and the Indian Revolution,’ pp. 268–69. 148. The United States of India 2: 2 (August 1924). 149. Translated summary of the Hindustan Ghadr, 14 October and December 1930, IPI, L/P&J/12/755, OIOC. 150. ‘Ireland and India: The Day of Empires is Passing—Especially of British Empire,’ The United States of India 2: 2 (August 1924). Notes 227

151. ‘Ireland and India,’ The United States of India 2: 2 (August 1924); and ‘The Irish Situation,’ The United States of India 1: 1 (July 1923). 152. ‘The Defeat of Mahatma Gandhi,’ The United States of India 2: 3 (September 1924). 153. In 1919, MI5 noted that ‘the Hindus in San Francisco presented DE VALERA with a sword. The presentation was made by representatives of the Ghadr Party.’ Eunan O’Halpin, ‘Long Fellow, Long Story: MI5 and de Valera,’ Irish Studies in International Affairs 14 (2003), pp. 187–88. 154. Israel, Communications and Power, pp. 303–5. 155. Consul General, NY, to Sir Ronald Lindsay, British Embassy, Washington, D.C., 29 October 1931, IPI, L/P&J/12/197, OIOC. 156. Inter-Departmental Committee on Eastern Unrest memorandum on ‘Russia and India,’ 28 April 1927, IPI, L/P&J/12/155, OIOC. 157. Note by Basanta Kumar Roy [September 1932], Frank P. Walsh Papers, NYPL. 158. New York Times, 4 October 1931. 159. Israel, Communications and Power, p. 307; and translated summaries of Hindustan Ghadr, 14 October 1930 and December 1930, IPI, L/P&J/12/755, OIOC.

2 ‘The Sinn Féin of India’: The Reception of Irish Revolutionary Nationalism in Bengal

1. R.E.A. Ray, ‘Report on the Activities of Terrorists in Bengal During the Period from April to December 1930’ (1931) in TIB, I: 604, 607. 2. The Director of Criminal Intelligence of the Government of India in fact dis- counted any desire of the revolutionaries to tie their campaign that of Gandhi’s. ‘To the ordinary observer, the Chittagong outrage may appear to be very closely connected with Mr. Gandhi’s Civil Disobedience campaign. It is certain, how- ever, that the Violence party have no belief in Mr. Gandhi, and no use for his policy or methods. They have all along, gone their own way, and pursued their own line of action.’ Extracts from Weekly Report of the Director, Intelli- gence Bureau [Dir., IB] of the Home Dept., GOI, 17 April 1930, L/P&J/12/389, OIOC. 3. Extracts from Weekly Report of Dir., IB of the Home Dept., GOI, 17 April 1930, L/P&J/12/389, OIOC. For a history of the Chittagong Armory Raid and its impact, see Manini Chatterjee, Do and Die: The Chittagong Rising, 1930–34 (New Delhi, 1999). 4. Ashis Nandy, The Illegimitimacy of Nationalism (New Delhi, 1994), p. 43. 5. Lindsay Clutterbuck, ‘The Progenitors of Terrorism: Russian Revolutionaries or Extreme Irish Republicans?’ Terrorism and Political Violence 16: 1 (2004), pp. 154–81. 6. Richard English, Armed Struggle: The History of the IRA (Oxford, 2003), p. 11. 7. Kevin Grant, ‘The Transcolonial World of Hunger Strikes and Political Fasts, c. 1909–1935,’ in Ghosh and Kennedy, eds, Decentring Empire, p. 260. 8. Young India, 1 September 1920, in The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi (New Delhi, 1965), XVIII: 219. 9. Brasted, ‘Irish Models,’ p. 36. 10. Keith Jeffrey argues that ‘in India ...the Irish model of guerilla warfare that developed in 1919–21 was not followed.’ ‘Introduction,’ in his An Irish Empire?, p. 9. 228 Notes

11. Hanley, The IRA; Caoilfhionn Ní Bheacháin, ‘ “Ireland a Warning to India”: Anti- imperialist Solidarity in the Irish Free State,’ in Foley and O’Connor, eds, Ireland and India, pp. 268–78; Caoilfhionn Ní Bheacháin, ‘ “The Mosquito Press”: Anti- Imperialist Rhetoric in Republican Journalism, 1926–39,’ Éire-Ireland 42: 1 and 2 (2007), pp. 256–89; O’Malley, Ireland, India and Empire. 12. ‘Good Luck India!’ Dept. of the Taoiseach, S 58464B, NAI. 13. Ní Bheacháin, ‘ “The Mosquito Press,” ’ p. 287. 14. Partha Chatterjee identifies three stages of the colonial nationalist encounter with the West. By the last of these stages, ‘the moment of arrival,’ he argues that nationalist thought has become a ‘discourse of order,’ and ‘the rational organi- zation of power.’ Partha Chatterjee, Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World: A Derivative Discourse? (1986; Minneapolis, 1993), pp. 42, 50–1. For a critique of Chatterjee along these lines, see Sugata Bose, ‘Nation as Mother: Representations and Contestations of “India” in Bengali Literature and Culture,’ in Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal, eds, Nationalism, Democracy and Development: State and Politics in India (Delhi, 1997), pp. 50–75. 15. John Gallagher, ‘Nationalisms and the Crisis of Empire, 1919–1922,’ Modern Asian Studies 15: 3 (1981), p. 355; and Priya Satia, Spies in Arabia: The Great War and the Cultural Foundations of Britain’s Covert Empire in the Middle East (Oxford and New York, 2008), p. 221. 16. W.K. Hancock, Survey of British Commonwealth Affairs. Volume I: Problems of Nationality 1918–1936 (London, 1937), p. 92. D.W. Harkness argues that from Ireland’s first participation in the Imperial Conference of 1923, the Irish Free State acted as a spur to greater autonomy for the dominions within the British Empire. R.F. Holland, however, stresses the ‘passivity and concern with domestic matters’ of Irish governments prior to 1932. D.W. Harkness, The Restless Domin- ion: The Irish Free State and the British Commonwealth of Nations, 1921–31 (Lon- don, 1969); and R.F. Holland, Britain and the Commonwealth Alliance 1918–1939 (London, 1981), p. 153. 17. Holland, Britain and the Commonwealth Alliance, Chapter 9; and Deirdre McMahon, Republicans and Imperialists: Anglo-Irish Relations in the 1930s (New Haven and London, 1984). 18. McMahon adds that ‘The comparison between de Valera and Gandhi was a recurring one in British minds.’ McMahon, Republicans and Imperialists, p. 30. 19. Cited in Ibid., pp. 183–84. 20. Christy Campbell, The Maharajah’s Box: An Imperial Story of Conspiracy, Love and a Guru’s Prophecy (London, 2000), p. 272. See also Whelehan, ‘Skirmishing,’ pp. 180–200. 21. Thuggee and Dacoity Department. Special Branch, Abstract of Intelligence (1888), pp. I: 2, I: 24, D/1071/H/M/11/2, Dufferin Collection, PRONI. 22. Lennon, Irish Orientalism, pp. 333–42. 23. Telegram from Viceroy, Home Dept., GOI, 7 January1920, J&P 281/20, L/P&J/6/1661, OIOC. 24. Edmundo Murray, ‘Bulfin, Eamon (1892–1968),’ in Irish Migration Studies in Latin America November–December 2005 (www.irlandeses.org). Revised (November 2006). Accessed 25 September 2007. 25. Eamon Bulfin was born in Argentina, where his father William, an Irish nationalist and supporter of the Gaelic League, who worked as a journalist and editor of the Southern Cross newspaper of Buenos Aires. J&P Minute, 26 February 1920; and Note by Malcolm Seton, 27 February 1920. J&P 281/20, L/P&J/6/1661, OIOC. Notes 229

26. ‘Notes made by Mr. Kidd in London regarding Indian agitation abroad,’ GOB Intelligence Branch No. 83, WBSA; and Arthur Mitchell, Revolutionary Govern- ment in Ireland: Dáil Éireann, 1919–22 (Dublin, 1995), pp. 257–58. 27. ‘The Irish Communist Party and Comintern,’ and ‘United Committee of Action. Irish, Indians and Egyptians.’ HO 317/59, NA UK. I am grateful to Paul McMahon for bringing this reference to my attention. 28. Dan Breen, My Fight for Irish Freedom (1924; Rev. ed. Dublin, 1964), p. 179. 29. There is a large, often uncritical, literature on Nivedita and her involvement with Indian nationalism. For an analysis of Nivedita’s cross-cultural and cross- nationalist relationships, see Elleke Boehmer, ‘Friable Transnationalism: The Question of the South African Gandhi and the Irish Nivedita,’ in Foley and O’Connor, eds, Ireland and India, pp. 58–67; and her Empire, the National and the Postcolonial, 1890–1920: Resistance in Interaction (Oxford, 2002), especially pp. 34–124. 30. When she returned to London due to health problems, a prominent Bengali revolutionary named Girindra Nath Mukherjee, stayed at her flat there. C.A. Tegart, ‘A Note on the Ramkrishna Mission’ (1914) in TIB IV: 1350–52. 31. As Peter Heehs observes, the argument that this was due to Nivedita’s skill at avoiding police surveillance is not a convincing one. Heehs, in his well- researched history of early revolutionary terrorism in Bengal, does not find any archival evidence of Nivedita’s involvement with revolutionary groups. Peter Heehs, The Bomb in Bengal: The Rise of Revolutionary Terrorism in India 1900–1910 (Delhi, 1993), pp. 264–66. The one discussion of Nivedita in police intelligence archives that I have been able to discover, which is cited above, is from a report written three years after her death. 32. Boehmer, Empire, the National and the Postcolonial, p. 117. Elleke Boehmer cau- tions against an uncomplicated reading of Nivedita’s ‘Irishness’ as the catalyst for her Indian nationalist activities, observing ‘that her tendency to identify with India was chiefly attributable to her Irish “blood” or cultural disposition must remain questionable.’ Boehmer, Empire, the National and the Postcolonial, p. 72. 33. For the history of ‘Bengali terrorism,’ see Hiren Chakrabarti, Political Protest in Bengal: Boycott and Terrorism 1905–1918 (Calcutta, 1992); Durba Ghosh, ‘Terror- ism in Bengal: Political Violence in the Interwar Years,’ in Ghosh and Kennedy, eds, Decentering Empire, pp. 270–92; Heehs, Bomb in Bengal; David M. Laushey, Bengal Terrorism and the Marxist Left (Calcutta, 1975); Rajat Kanta Ray, Social Con- flict and Political Unrest in Bengal 1875–1927 (Delhi, 1984); and Michael Silvestri, ‘The Bomb, Bhadralok, Bhagavad Gita, and Dan Breen: Terrorism in Bengal and Its Relation to the European Experience,’ Terrorism and Political Violence 21: 1 (2009), pp. 1–27. 34. For the blend of violent and non-violent resistance in the HSRA, see Neeti Nair, ‘Bhagat Singh as “Satyaghrahi”: The Limits to Non-violence in Late Colonial India,’ Modern Asian Studies 43: 3 (2008), pp. 1–33. For the popu- larity of Bhagat Singh in Bengal after his execution, see the reports in IPI, L/P&J/12/390, OIOC. 35. ‘Terrorism in India. A Summary of Activities up to March, 1933,’ p. 10. (11 May 1933) WO 106/5445, NA UK; and H.W. Hale, Terrorism in India, 1917–1936 (1937; New Delhi, 1974), p. 5. The label of ‘terrorism’ applied by the British, was, however, rejected emphatically by Bengali nationalists. For the applicability of the label ‘terrorist’ to the Bengali revolutionaries, see Silvestri, ‘Bomb, Bhadralok, Bhagavad Gita,’ pp. 2–3. 230 Notes

36. Mrinalini Sinha, Colonial Masculinity: The ‘Manly Englishman’ and the ‘Effem- inate Bengali’ in the Late Nineteenth Century (Manchester, 1995); and John Rosselli, ‘The Self-Image of Effeteness: Physical Education and Nationalism in Nineteenth-Century Bengal,’ Past and Present 86 (1980), pp. 121–48. 37. Rajat Kanta Ray, Social Conflict, p. 141. For the influence of Russo-Japanese War on Indian nationalism, see Steven G. Marks, ‘ “Bravo, Brave Tiger of the East!” The Russo-Japanese War and the Rise of Nationalism in British Egypt and India,’ in John Steinberg et al., eds, The Russo-Japanese War in Global Perspective (Boston and Leiden, 2005), pp. 609–27. 38. According to the Rowlatt Committee (1918), 89 percent of the 186 persons killed or convicted of ‘revolutionary crimes’ in Bengal from 1907 to 1917 belonged to the three chief bhadralok castes of Brahmin, Kayastha or Baidya. The largest sin- gle occupation listed for the terrorists was ‘student,’ while a significant number were professionals such as teachers or in Government service. Heehs, Bomb in Bengal, pp. 268–71. 39. Popplewell, Intelligence and Imperial Defence,p.5. 40. H.J. Twynham and R.E.A. Ray, Enquiry into Temporary Establishments of the Central and District Intelligence Branches of the Bengal Police (Alipore, 1936), pp. 9–10. 41. Rajat Kanta Ray writes, ‘In the grim battle between the police and the revolu- tionaries, the sympathy of large sections of Bengali society lay with the latter,’ Social Conflict, p. 182. 42. R.E.A. Ray, Brief Note on the Alliance of Congress with Terrorism in Bengal (1932), in TIB III: 933. 43. Leonard A. Gordon, Brothers Against the Raj: A Biography of the Indian Nationalists Subhas and Sarat Chandra Bose (New York, 1989), p. 229. 44. Ray, Social Conflict, pp. 324–25. 45. Although Subhas Bose certainly did have connections to Bengali revolutionaries, many of the tales of his involvement with revolutionary organizations in Bengal were wildly exaggerated. Gordon, Brothers Against the Raj, p. 194. 46. Valentine Chirol, Indian Unrest (London, 1910), p. 146. 47. Notes by H. LeMesurier, Inspector General of Police, Eastern Bengal and Assam, 5 July 1908, 15 June 1908, Home Dept. (Political) Confidential [Home (Pol) Conf.] No. 390/C of 1909, WBSA. 48. Although Peter Heehs argues that revolutionary terrorism in Bengal was purely a ‘natural and indigenous response to British imperial domination,’ his article pro- vides numerous examples of the influence of European revolutionaries. Heehs, ‘Foreign Influences,’ pp. 533–56. 49. The deed was seen as surpassing the latter since the approver in Bengal ‘had been murdered before he could complete his “treachery”, whereas the murder of Carey had been only a tardy “retribution” which could not undo the past.’ Chirol, Indian Unrest, p. 146. 50. Heehs, ‘Foreign Influences,’ p. 536. Ghose’s comments also, however, seem to indicate the profound later influence of the Irish example on Bengali revolutionaries, which he projected back into an earlier period. 51. Nirad C. Chaudhuri, The Autobiography of an Unknown Indian (London, 1951), p. 224. 52. For Victorian constructions of the Irish as a racialized ‘Other’ see L.P. Curtis, Jr., Apes and Angels: The Irishman in Victorian Caricature (Rev. ed. Washington, D.C., 1997). This issue of racial stereotyping of the Irish in the nineteenth century has Notes 231

generated a vigorous debate, which is discussed by Curtis in the revised edition of Apes and Angels. 53. According to Richard P. Davis, ‘Common Aryan origin was one argument used to encourage Indo-Hibernian solidarity’ by Sinn Féin publicists. Davis, ‘India in Irish Revolutionary Propaganda,’ p. 66. 54. Amrita Bazar Patrika, 17 July 1902, BRNP [Report on the Native Papers in Bengal], Week Ending 26 July 1902, p. 296. In the previous year, the Amrita Bazar Patrika, in reporting on an Irish nationalist meeting in Chicago attended by Maude Gonne, commented that ‘there is humour in the open way the Irish preach sedition and the English tolerate it.’ Amrita Bazar Patrika, 4 April 1901, BRNP, Week Ending 6 April 1901, p. 223. 55. Hindi Bangavasi, 5 August 1907 and Amrita Bazar Patrika, 27 July 1907, in Reports of Native Newpapers in Bengal [BRNN] (1907), p. 322. 56. Bangali, 8 February 1920, in BRNP (1920), p. 96. WBSA. 57. Ronaldshay to Montagu, 9 June 1920, Montagu Collection, MSS Eur. D 523/31, OIOC. 58. Ronaldshay to Montagu, 5 September 1921, Montagu Collection, MSS Eur. D 523/32, OIOC. 59. Daily Mail, 12 February 1926, clipping in Tegart Papers, Centre of South Asian Studies Archive, Cambridge University. 60. Nirad C. Chaudhuri, Thy Hand Great Anarch! India 1921–1952 (London, 1987), pp. 292, 298. 61. Memo by J.H. Colson, 28 June 1934, IPI, L/P&J/12/399, OIOC. 62. Bose later wrote, ‘In my part of India—Bengal—there is hardly an educated fam- ily where books about the Irish heroes are not read and if I may say so, devoured.’ Subhas Bose to Mrs. Woods, 7 December 1933 and 21 December 1935, Subhas Chandra Bose Papers, Netaji Research Bureau, Calcutta. 63. On Bose’s visit to Ireland, see O’Malley, Ireland, India and Empire, pp. 95–110, and also Gordon, Brothers Against the Raj, pp. 303–6; and the IPI report on ‘Subhas Chandra Bose,’ 13 February 1936, IPI, L/P&J/12/299, OIOC. 64. James Nolan, Detective, Garda, Kingstown, to Special Branch, Dublin Cas- tle, 31 January 1936, Department of Justice, JUS 8/443, NAI; and O’Malley, Ireland, India and Empire, p. 106. As O’Malley observes, the neutral report which the Garda Síochána sent to the British Special Branch stating that Bose’s visit was ‘uneventful’ glossed over the extensive press coverage he received in Ireland and the official receptions which the Irish government held for him. 65. IPI report on ‘Subhas Chandra Bose,’ 13 February 1936, IPI, L/P&J/12/299, OIOC. 66. Ray, Social Conflict, pp. 185, 376. 67. Tanika Sarkar, ‘Bengali Middle-Class Nationalism and Literature: A Study of Saratchandra’s “Pather Dabi” and Rabindranath’s “Char Adhyay,” ’ in D.N. Pan- igrahi, ed., Economy, Society and Politics in Modern India (New Delhi, 1985), p. 451. 68. Charles Townshend, Britain’s Civil Wars: Counter-insurgency in the Twentieth Century (London, 1986), p. 146. 69. The register listing the file, but not the file itself, is available in the National Archives of India, New Delhi. GOI Home (Pol) No. 228 of 1926, NA India. 70. Student, 8 January 1920, in BRNP (1920), p. 72; and Soltan, 30 November 1923, in BRNP (1923), p. 1098. 232 Notes

71. Serialized accounts of de Valera’s life appeared in Sankha, September–October 1923; Barisal September 1923; Ananda Bazar Patrika, March, 1925; and Swadeshi Bazaar, September–December 1928. Citations may be found in BRNP (1923), pp. 836, 876, 935, 958, 985; BRNP (1925), pp. 213, 265; BRNP (1928), pp. 526, 559, 567, 609, 622; and BRNP (1929), pp. 28, 44. For Bengali interest in the 1932 Irish elections, see the Fortnightly Reports on the Political Situation in Bengal, First Half of March and First Half of April, 1932, L/P&J/12/36, OIOC. 72. The Calcutta nationalist newspaper Forward carried a weekly column on Irish affairs during the 1920s. See Gordon, Bengal, p. 338. 73. John Mitchel O Biplabi Ireland [John Mitchel and Revolutionary Ireland], p. 3. Proscribed Literature Collection, IOR MIC 11599/9, OIOC. This interpretation of Irish history was consistent with that of the contemporary Irish Free State, where a stress on ‘the supposed message of Irish history’ was used to assert a separate Irish identity after 1922. As R.F. Foster writes, this involved ‘a necessary degree of deliberate amnesia,’ in which ‘the record of parliamentary nationalism [was] more or less dismissed.’ R.F. Foster, Modern Ireland: 1600 to 1972 (New York, 1988), p. 535. 74. I owe this point to Partha Chatterjee. 75. Surendra Mohan Ghose, Oral History Transcript, Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, New Delhi [NMML]. One revolutionary deported to the Andaman Islands before the First World War, Hrishikesh Kunji Lal, was known among the prison staff as ‘All for Ireland’ for his attempts to enlist an Irish jailor’s sympathy ‘as another oppressed subject of the British Crown, saying “We fought for the Irish also, we are all for Ireland.” ’ C.A. Tegart, Notes on the Andaman Enquiries (August 1913), pp. 27–8, GOB Home (Pol) Conf. No. 293 of 1913, WBSA. 76. Irish Press, 12 February 1936, cited in Gordon, Brothers Against the Raj, p. 693. 77. ‘The Youths of Bengal’ [1929], cited in Hale, Terrorism in India, p. 214. 78. Chaudhuri, Thy Hand Great Anarch!, p. 314; An Phoblacht, 29 September 1929, GOI Home (Pol) No. 28/6 of 1929, NA India; and Gordon, Brothers Against the Raj, pp. 417–18. 79. My Fight for Irish Freedom was originally published in Dublin by the Talbot Press in 1924. Breen, a native of County Tipperary and member of the Tip- perary Volunteers, was involved in an attack at Soloheadbeg, near Tipperary, in January, 1919, in which two Royal Irish Constabulary officers were killed. He later opposed the Anglo-Irish Treaty and was elected to the Dáil. To many republicans, he epitomized the Irish ‘gunman’ who took arms against the British. 80. Sir John Anderson, Governor of Bengal, to H.D. Craik, Home Dept., GOI, 28 October 1935, GOI Home (Pol) No. 41/6 of 1935, NA India. 81. Dan Breen, Irish Freedom, pp. 75, 83. 82. There were at least two translations of Dan Breen’s My Fight for Irish Freedom into Hindi and one each into Punjabi and Tamil, all of which were proscribed. For details, see Graham Shaw and Mary Lloyd, eds, Publications Proscribed by the Gov- ernment of India (London, 1985). A copy of one Hindi edition of Breen, Ireland Ka Svatantraya Yudh (Kanpur, 1928) is in the collection of Indian Proscribed Tracts, 1907–1947 (microfilm), NMML. My Fight for Irish Freedom was also translated into Burmese by the All Burma Youth League. Ian F.W. Beckett, Modern Insur- gencies and Counter-insurgencies: Guerillas and their Opponents Since 1750 (London and New York, 2001), p. 17. Notes 233

83. Cited in Gordon, Brothers Against the Raj, p. 103. 84. R.E.A. Ray, Report on the Activities of Terrorists in Bengal (1930), in TIB, I: 603. 85. Gordon, Brothers Against the Raj, p. 103; and Kalpana Dutt, Chittagong Armoury Raiders: Reminiscences (Rev. ed. Delhi, 1979), p. 13. 86. For Breen’s influence among the Chittagong revolutionaries, see I. Mallikar- juna Sharma, Easter Rebellion in India: The Chittagong Uprising (Hyderabad, 1993), pp. 82, 111, 128, 132. 87. Surya Sen was executed in Chittagong Jail on 15 January 1934. 88. R.E.A. Ray, Report on the Activities of Terrorists in Bengal (1931) in TIB I: 608. 89. C.E.S. Fairweather, ‘Report on the Work of the Central and District Intelligence Branches for the Three Years 1930, 1931 and 1932,’ IPI, L/P&J/12/466, OIOC. 90. Dutt, Chittagong Armoury Raiders, p. 13. 91. Bhupati Mazumdar, Oral History Transcript, NMML; and R.C. Majumdar, His- tory of Modern Bengal. Part Two (1905–1947): Freedom Movement (Calcutta, 1981), p. 263. 92. J.R. Johnson, Sptd. of Police, Chittagong, to F.J. Lowman, Inspector General, Bengal Police, 24 April 1930, GOI Home (Pol) No. 335 of 1930, NA India. 93. H.R. Wilkinson, District Magistrate, Chittagong, to H. Tufnell-Barrett, Pol. Dept., GOB, 10 October 1930, GOB Home (Pol) Conf. No. 749 of 1930, WBSA. 94. Ray, Report on the Activities of Terrorists in Bengal (1931), in TIB I: 608–9. 95. Cited in Sharma, Easter Rebellion in India, p. 159. 96. Dutt, Chittagong Armoury Raiders,p.ix. 97. Sharma, Easter Rebellion in India, p. 17; and Dutt, Chittagong Armoury Raiders, p. ix. 98. Bengal Police Intelligence Branch, ‘Existence of a Revolutionary Conspiracy,’ Indian Police Collection, MSS Eur. F 161/36, OIOC. 99. R.E.A. Ray, Terrorist Conspiracy in Bengal from 1st January to 30th June 1926 (1926), Indian Police Collection, MSS Eur. F 161/36, OIOC. 100. See the Web Site for the Daniel J. Leab Collection, Brown University Library, Providence, RI. http://www.brown.edu/Facilities/University_Library/libs/hay/ collections/orwell/leab.html. 101. I.G.H. Holman memoirs, pp. 272–73, Holman Papers, MSS Eur. D 884, OIOC. 102. J.A. Goldie to Chief Sec. to GOB, September 1921; and G.W. Dixon to Chief Sec. to GOB, 6 January 1922, GOI Home (Police) No. 409 of 1922, NA India. 103. Hale, Terrorism in India, p. 23; and J.C. Farmer, Bengal Police Intelligence Branch, to T.J.A. Craig, Inspector General, Bengal Police, 5 May 1931, GOB Home (Pol) Conf. No. 296 of 1931, WBSA. 104. The vast majority of works banned by the Government of India were those seen as seditious or revolutionary, although some were banned on the grounds of inflaming communal sentiments. For lists and details of proscribed works and the machinery of proscription, see Shaw and Lloyd, Publications Proscribed by the Government of India; and N.G. Barrier, Banned: Controversial Literature and Political Control in British India (Columbus, MO, 1971). A Bengali language compilation with a summary in English of books banned in Bengal is Hiranmay Bhat- tacharya, Nirbasita Sahitya [‘Proscribed Bengali Books’] Vols I and II (Calcutta, 1981 and 1987). 105. See Chapter 1. 106. Note by H.A. Stuart, 18 July 1907, GOI Home (Pol) A, August 1907, 243–50. 107. C.A. Tegart, Note on the Chandernagore Gang, 20 July 1913, GOB Home (Pol) Conf. No. 342 of 1913, WBSA. 234 Notes

108. Davis, ‘Irish Revolution,’ p. 55; and Note by H.W. Vincent, 1 May 1918, GOI Home (Pol) Deposit, May 1918, No. 39, NA India. 109. Publications, Etc., Proscribed Under Section 12 (I) of the Indian Press Act, 1910 and Since Its Repeal, Under Section 99-A, of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1920 TO 1924 (October) (1924), in TIB IV: 57–8; and ‘Prohibition under the Sea Customs Act of the Importation in British India of Copies of Publications Issued by Rev- olutionary Societies in Foreign Countries,’ GOB Home (Pol) Conf. No. 317 of 1920, WBSA. 110. The District Magistrate of Chittagong, who was unaware of the proscription order, wrote to the Government of Bengal in October 1930 requesting that My Fight for Irish Freedom be banned, for reasons of its ‘injurious influence’ on ‘impressionable minds’ as well the application of its ideas by revolutionaries in the Chittagong Armory Raid. H.R. Wilkinson, District Magistrate, Chittagong, to H. Tufnell-Barrett, Second Additional Sec. to GOB, 10 October 1930, GOB Home (Pol) Conf. No. 749 of 1930, WBSA. 111. An Phoblacht, 28 September 1929, GOI Home (Pol) No. 28/VI of 1929, NA India. 112. An Phoblacht, 29 September 1929, GOI Home (Pol) No. 28/VI of 1929, NA India. 113. A Hindi language biography of de Valera published in Calcutta was also proscribed by the Government of India. See Shaw and Lloyd, Publications Proscribed. 114. Note on Vidrohi Ireland, GOI Home (Pol) No. 27/I of 1929 (IOL microfilm IOR POS 32153, OIOC). 115. Johnston, Calcutta Special Branch, to Director, Intelligence Bureau, GOI, 10 September 1935, GOI Home (Pol) No. 41/6 of 1935, NA India. 116. Note by H. Williamson, 17 September 1935, GOI Home (Pol) No. 41/6 of 1935, NAI. 117. Note by H.D. Craik, 25 October 1935; and Anderson to Craik, 28 October 1935, GOI Home (Pol) No. 41/6 of 1935, NA India. 118. Eunan O’Halpin, ‘Historical Revisit: Dorothy Macardle, The Irish Republic (1937),’ Irish Historical Studies 31: 123 (1999), pp. 389–94. 119. Note by W.F.A. Hamilton, 13 April 1937, GOI Home (Pol) No. 41/7 of 1937, NA India. One copy was also seized in the United Provinces. The Government of India’s attention was apparently drawn to the book after its appearance in Victor Gollancz’s Spring 1937 list, which included extracts of a preface by de Valera. 120. R. Peel, IO, to G.W. McElhinny, Home Dept. GOI, 6 April 1937; Note by W.F.A. Hamilton, 18 December 1936; and Note by H.S. Stephenson, 2 May 1937. GOI Home (Pol) No. 41/7 of 1937, NA India. 121. W.F.A. Hamilton noted that there was ‘a most objectionable chapter in which the need for assassination of police officers is stressed,’ but added ‘that the assas- sination of the Royal Irish Constabulary was a feature of the Sinn Féin trouble is ancient history, and is as well known to Indian revolutionaries as to the Irish themselves.’ Note by W.F.A. Hamilton, 13 April 1937, GOI Home (Pol) No. 41/7 of 1937, NA India. 122. Cook, Imperial Affinities. 123. Two examples were the Vernacular Press Act of 1878 and the Indian Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1908. Cook, Imperial Affinities, pp. 32–6. 124. In addition to the Irish influence on policing in India, the Royal Irish Con- stabulary, and until 1932 the Royal Ulster Constabulary, provided training for colonial police officers. Georgina Sinclair concludes that ‘The history and the Notes 235

traditions of the Palestine Police stemmed directly from the Royal Irish Con- stabulary.’ Georgina Sinclair, ‘ “Get into a Crack Force and Earn £20 a Month and all found ...”: The Influence of the Palestine Police upon Colonial Policing 1922–1948,’ European Review of History 13: 1 (2006), pp. 49–65 (quotation on p. 50). 125. Kent Fedorowich, ‘The Problems of Disbandment: The Royal Irish Constabu- lary and Imperial Migration, 1919–29,’ Irish Historical Studies 30: 117 (1996), pp. 88–110. 126. Seton to W.H. Vincent, Home Dept., GOI, 13 April 1922, GOI Home (Police) No. 627 of 1922, NA India. 127. Churchill commented that ‘The Palestine gendarmerie are said to be a magnif- icent body of men.’ Winston Churchill to Robert Peel, 20 April 1922. P&J No. 2092 of 1922, L/P&J/6/1800, OIOC. 128. Lionel Curtis, Colonial Office, to Sir William Duke, India Office, 25 August 1922, P&J No. 2092 of 1922, L/P&J/6/1800, OIOC. 129. J. Lazell to Sec to Irish Office, 26 October 1922, P&J No. 2092 of 1922, L/P&J/6/1800, OIOC. Malcolm Seton wrote of the ‘desirability that this special recruitment should not be criticised in India as a drafting of “Black and Tans” to inaugurate new methods of repression.’ Sir Malcolm Seton to Sir W. Duke, 19 May 1922, P&J No. 2092 of 1922, L/P&J/6/1800, OIOC. 130. According to Thomas Mockaitis, the Anglo-Irish War was ‘part of a long series of internal-security operations that collectively gave rise to a traditional wisdom on how to combat irregulars.’ Thomas Mockaitis, British Counter-insurgency, 1919– 1960 (London, 1990), p. 12. 131. These began with the Public Safety [Emergency Powers] Act of 1 August 1923, and extended to the Offenses against the State Act of 1939. 132. GOI Home (Pol) No. 4/66 of 1932, NA India. The 1927 Public Safety Act, passed after the assassination of Minister for Justice and External Affairs Kevin O’Higgins by an IRA gunman, provided for the establishment of ‘Special Courts’ consisting of three or more members. The courts were established to try a range of offenses including murder, attempted murder or conspiracy to murder the Governor-General of Ireland or any member of the Irish legislature or judges. There was no appeal from the tribunals’ decisions. 133. Suspects had to be brought before tribunals within one month and three days of arrest. The India Office noted that ‘the powers of detention are not so great’ as those in India, although ‘the reasons justifying detention without trial in India do not however exist in Ireland in virtue of the power of the Tribunal to order its procedure.’ Note by W. Johnston, 26 October 1931, L/P&J/7/235, OIOC. 134. British legislation to combat terrorism in India was based largely on the Defense of India Act of 1915, which allowed for detention without trial and the trial of terrorist suspects by tribunal rather than by jury. 135. Minute by Malcolm Seton, 27 October 1931, L/P&J/7/235, OIOC. 136. At the same time, the Government of Bengal also examined the Irish Free State Fire Arms Act of 1925 and the Treasonable Offenses Act of 1925. See GOB Home (Pol) Conf. No. 825 of 1931, WBSA. The Government of the Punjab also requested to see copies of the 1931 act. GOI Home (Pol) No. 295 of 1931, NA India. 137. Note by H. Twynham, 14 December 1931; and Note by R.E.A. Ray, 29 October 1931, GOB Home (Pol) Conf. No. of 825 of 1931, WBSA. 236 Notes

138. As Charles Townshend observes, the result was not achieved. Charles Town- shend, The British Campaign in Ireland, 1919–1921 (Oxford, 1975), p. 73. 139. John W. Wheeler-Bennett, John Anderson: Viscount Waverly (London, 1962), pp. 67–8. For a more critical assessment of Anderson’s role, see Townshend, British Campaign, p. 80. 140. Anderson to Samuel Hoare, Sec. of State for India, 13 January 1933, Templewood Collection, MSS Eur. E 240/9, OIOC. 141. Lionel Curtis to Anderson, 27 February 1932, Anderson Collection, MSS Eur. F 207/5, OIOC. 142. Lothian to Anderson, 12 March 1932; and Macready to Anderson, 24 November 1931, Anderson Collection, MSS Eur. F 207/3 and F 207/1, OIOC. 143. R.N. Reid recalled that Anderson ‘could expound with equal facility the methods used to repress terrorism in Ireland or the niceties of Parliamentary procedure.’ Robert Reid, Years of Change in Bengal and Assam (London, 1966), p. 70. 144. Anderson to Findlater Stewart, 17 November 1932; and Anderson to Samuel Hoare, 29 July 1933, Anderson Collection, MSS Eur. F 207/5, OIOC. 145. In response to King George V’s query ‘What is wrong with Bengal?,’ Anderson replied in June, 1932 that ‘the most conspicuous and the most urgent of our problems is without question the suppression of terrorism.’ Wheeler-Bennett, John Anderson, p. 126; and John Anderson, ‘The Situation in Bengal,’ June 1932, Anderson Collection, MSS Eur. F 207/14, OIOC. 146. In 1932, the Government of Bengal requested copies of ‘Orders for Internment Camps in Ireland,’ although the exact content is not clear, since the relevant file has not been transferred to the archives. GOI Home (Pol) No. 59 of 1932, NA India. 147. Note by R.N. Reid, 29 June 1932, GOB Home (Pol) Conf. No. 685 of 1932, WBSA. 148. Note by H.G. Haig, 25 October 1932, GOI Home (Pol) No. 4/66 of 1932, NA India. 149. H.G. Haig to Anderson, 19 November 1932; and Anderson to Haig, 22 November 1932, Anderson Collection, MSS Eur. F 207/3, OIOC. 150. A conference of officials from the Government of Bengal and the Government of India in November, 1931 noted a ‘very real danger of the European population taking the law into their own hands, if outrages continue.’ H.W. Emerson, ‘Note on Discussion with the Bengal Government,’ 5 November 1931, L/P&J/7/242, OIOC. 151. Note by R.E.A. Ray, 29 October 1931, GOB Home (Pol) Conf. No. of 825 of 1931, WBSA; and Note by R.N. Reid, 24 March 1932, Anderson Collection, MSS Eur. F 207/12, OIOC. For the origins of reprisals during the Anglo-Irish War, see Townshend, British Campaign, pp. 95–7. 152. Reid, Years of Change, p. 70. In his memoirs, Reid does not, however, mention his own advocacy of reprisals against terrorists. 153. R.N. Reid, ‘Bomb and Pistol in a Bengal District,’ Reid Collection, MSS Eur. E 278/2, OIOC. 154. John Hunt, Life is Meeting (London, 1978), pp. 21–2. 155. Hoare to Anderson, 14 October 1932, Templewood Collection, MSS Eur. E 240/9, OIOC; and translations of Ananda Bazar Patrika, 23 November 1937 and Advance, 22 November 1937, Anderson Collection, MSS Eur. F 207/22, OIOC. 156. For Tegart’s career, see Michael Silvestri, ‘ “An Irishman is Specially Suited to be a Policeman”: Sir Charles Tegart and the Policing of Revolutionary Terrorism in Bengal,’ History Ireland 8: 4 (2000), pp. 40–44. Notes 237

157. David Arnold, Police Power and Colonial Rule: Madras 1859–1947 (Delhi, 1986), pp. 74–5. 158. P&J Proceedings, No. 696 of 1895, L/P&J/6/395, OIOC and P&J Proceedings, No. 1275 of 1895, L/P&J/6/401, OIOC. 159. Kate O’Malley, ‘Indian Political Intelligence (IPI): The Monitoring of Real and Possible Danger?’ in Eunan O’Halpin, Robert Armstrong and Jane Ohlmeyer, eds, Intelligence, Statecraft and International Power (Dublin, 2006), pp. 175–85. 160. Before the mission began, Tegart wrote, ‘The situation in Ireland is, I imag- ine, infinitely more difficult to tackle than anything we were up against in India and unfortunately I am entirely ignorant of details.’ Tegart to Sir Mal- colm Seton, 1 July 1920, HO 317/59, NA UK. I am grateful for Paul McMahon for this reference. Tegart’s abilities to conduct any useful intelligence assess- ment in Ireland in 1920 and during a later intelligence mission in 1940 were severely hampered by the fact that his ‘Irish’ contacts extended no further than the Anglo–Irish community. Paul McMahon, British Spies and Irish Rebels: British Intelligence and Ireland, 1916–1945 (London, 2008), pp. 1–2. 161. J.W. Dulanty to the Sec., Dept. of External Affairs, Dublin, 20 August 1940, DFA A6,NAI. 162. The cartoon of Tegart is in the Tegart papers in the Centre of South Asian Studies Archive, Cambridge University. For Tegart’s interrogation techniques, see the Indian Police Collection, MSS Eur. F 161/247, OIOC. 163. Leonard A. Gordon concludes his biography of Subhas and Sarat Chandra Bose by observing that ‘of all the foreign nationalists, both the Boses had a special feeling for the Irish. Both visited Ireland, both talked of the lessons which India had to learn from the bravery of Irish patriots and the determination with which the Irish worked for complete independence from the British Empire.’ Gordon, Brothers Against the Raj, p. 618. 164. Breen, My Fight for Irish Freedom, p. 179; Robert Briscoe with Alden Hatch, For the Life of Me (Boston and Toronto, 1958), p. 141; and George Gilmore, The Irish Republican Congress (Rev. ed. Cork, 1978), p. 30. 165. Charles Townshend, ‘The IRA and the Development of Guerilla Warfare, 1916– 1921,’ English Historical Review XCIV: 371 (1979), p. 344. 166. Pamela Clayton, ‘Two Kinds of Colony,’ pp. 235–46.

3 ‘Lord and Master Nikkal Seyn’: The Construction of John Nicholson as a British Imperial Hero

1. Flora Annie Steel, On the Face of the Waters (1896; London, 1903), pp. 339, 400, 425, 432. 2. Max Jones, ‘What Should Historians Do With Heroes? Reflections on Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Britain,’ History Compass 5 (2007), pp. 439–54. 3. Alvin Jackson, ‘Irish Unionists and the Empire, 1880–1920: Classes and Masses,’ in Jeffery, ed., An Irish Empire?, p. 131. 4. As Nicholas Rogers observes in his insightful study of General James Wolfe, there is often ‘nothing intrinsically heroic’ about the actions of imperial heroes; instead, their heroism ‘is constructed by others out of the filaments of their lives and refashioned into different narratives over the course of time.’ Nicholas 238 Notes

Rogers, ‘ “Brave Wolfe”: The Making of A Hero in Mid-eighteenth Century Britain and America,’ in Kathleen Wilson, ed., A New Imperial History: Culture, Identity and Modernity in Britain and the Empire 1660–1840 (Cambridge, 2004), pp. 239–59 (quotation on p. 239). For an analysis of the changing reputation of a prominent imperial hero, see Glyn Williams, The Death of Captain Cook: A Hero Made and Unmade (London, 2008). 5. There are two book-length biographies of Nicholson: Lionel Trotter, The Life of John Nicholson, Soldier and Administrator (London, Edinburgh and Dublin, 1897) and Hesketh Pearson, The Hero of Delhi: A Life of John Nicholson, Saviour of India, and a History of his Wars (London, 1939). Other extended biographi- cal treatments include Achmed Abdullah and T. Compton Pakenham, Dreamers of Empire (1928; New York, 1929); Charles Allen, Soldier Sahibs: The Men Who Made the North-West Frontier (London, 2000); and John William Kaye, Lives of Indian Officers, Illustrative of the History of the Civil and Military Service of India, Vol. 3 (London, 1869), pp. 296–399. Evelyn Werge authored an unpublished biography of Nicholson, and collected many primary sources relating to his life and posthumous reputation, which are in the Werge collection, MSS Eur. F 171, OIOC. 6. Pearson, Hero of Delhi, p. 15. 7. Unpublished biography of Nicholson by Evelyn Werge (p. 18), MSS Eur. F 171/97/1, OIOC. 8. Kaye, Lives of Indian Officers, p. 297. 9. Ibid., p. 419. 10. William Dalrymple, The Last Mughal: The Fall of a Dynasty, Delhi, 1857 (Delhi, 2006), pp. 58–63. 11. Pearson, Hero of Delhi, p. 18. 12. Allen, Soldier Sahibs, pp. 53–54; and Trotter, John Nicholson, p. 46. 13. For the careers of John and Henry Lawrence, see Harold Lee, Brothers in the Raj: The Lives of John and Henry Lawrence (Delhi, 2002). 14. Raymond Callahan, ‘The Great Sepoy Mutiny,’ in Daniel P. Marston and Chan- dar S. Sundaram, eds, A Military History of India and South Asia: From the East India Company to the Nuclear Era (Westport, CT, 2007), pp. 19–20. 15. The best account of Nicholson’s career on the Northwest frontier is Charles Allen, Soldier Sahibs. 16. Following the practice of Elizabeth Buettner, I am using the term ‘British–Indian’ rather than ‘Anglo-Indian’ to refer to the British community in India. Although the term was not commonly used during the British raj, it is a more accurate label than ‘Anglo-Indian’ given the large numbers of Scots and Irish involved with Britain’s empire in India. Elizabeth Buettner, Empire Families: Britons and Late Imperial India (Oxford, 2004), p. 13. 17. Allen, Soldier Sahibs, p. 244. 18. Cited in Ibid., p. 243. 19. Pearson, Hero of Delhi, p. 223. 20. Cited in Lewis D. Wurgaft, The Imperial Imagination: Magic and Myth in Kipling’s India (Middletown, CT, 1983), pp. 93–4. 21. R.H. Haigh and P.W. Turner, John Nicholson, the Battle of Najafgarh and the Siege of Delhi (Sheffield, 1983). 22. For the British recapture of Delhi, see Saul David, The Indian Mutiny (London, 2002), pp. 283–308. 23. For an overview of the experience of Irish soldiers in India, see Bartlett, ‘The Irish Soldier,’ in Holmes and Holmes, eds, Ireland and India, pp. 12–28. Notes 239

24. As Thomas Barlett observes, the main Irish military presence in mid-eighteenth century India was to found in the French forces. At the battle of Wandiwash, fought between French and Company forces in 1760, both commanders, Count Lally-Tollendal of Galway and Sir Eyre Coote of Limerick, respectively, were Irish, and Irish soldiers fought on both sides. Bartlett, ‘The Irish Soldier,’ p. 13. 25. Maya Jasanoff, Edge of Empire: Lives, Culture and Conquest in the East 1750– 1850 (New York, 2005), pp. 50–51. See also Arthur N. Gilbert, ‘Recruitment and Reform in the East India Company Army, 1760–1800,’ Journal of British Studies 15: 1 (1975), pp. 89–111. Factoring in the totals of Irishmen in England who enlisted, Gilbert estimates that almost half of recruits during this period were of ‘Irish extraction.’ 26. Peter Bailey, ‘Irishmen in the East India Company Army,’ Irish Family History 17 (2001), pp. 84–92; Kevin Kenny, ‘The Irish in the Empire,’ in Kenny, ed., Ireland and the British Empire, pp. 104–5; and Keith Jeffery, ‘The Irish Military Tradition and the British Empire,’ in Jeffery, ed., An Irish Empire?, pp. 94–95. Peter Stanley cautions that the East India Company’s armies were never predominantly Irish, however. ‘Rather than constituting a predominantly Irish force throughout the period, Irish recruits comprised between a third and three-quarters of particu- lar drafts, and predominated only in the late 1830s and the late 1840s.’ Peter Stanley, White Mutiny: British Military Culture in India (New York, 1998), p. 17. 27. Linda Colley, Captives: Britain, Empire and the World 1600–1850 (London, 2002), p. 310. 28. See P.R. Innes, The History of the Bengal European Regiment, Now the Munster Fusiliers, and How It Helped to Win India (London, 1885), especially pp. 449–527. 29. Innes, Bengal European Regiment, p. 482; and Doherty and Truesdale, Victoria Cross, pp. 48, 219 and 230. 30. Stanley, White Mutiny, p. 13. 31. T.G. Fraser, ‘The Graham Family, John Nicholson, and the Ulster-Indian Con- nection,’ in A.T. Harrison, ed., The Graham Indian Mutiny Papers (Belfast, 1980), p. ix. 32. Alexander, a lieutenant in the East India Company, was killed during the Afghan Wars in 1841. A second son, William, had died in an accident while a mem- ber of the 27th regiment at Sukkur in 1849, while Charles John Nicholson was wounded during the British recapture of Delhi, and died in December 1862 from the effects of his wound. A memorial tablet to Charles Nicholson and his wife Lizzie, who died five months afterward, stands just above that of John Nicholson in Lisburn Cathedral. 33. Thomas R. Metcalf, Ideologies of the Raj: The New Cambridge History of India, Vol. III: 4 (Cambridge, 1994), especially pp. 43–59. For contrasting analyses of Victo- rian reactions to the ‘Mutiny,’ see Gautam Chakravarty, The Indian Mutiny and the British Imagination (Cambridge, 2005); and Christopher Herbert, War of No Pity: The Indian Mutiny and Victorian Trauma (Princeton, 2008). 34. Nancy L. Paxton, ‘Mobilizing Chivalry: Rape in British Novels about the Indian Uprising of 1857,’ Victorian Studies (Fall, 1992), pp. 5–30. 35. Heather Streets, Martial Races: The Military, Race and the Masculinity in British Imperial Culture, 1857–1914 (Manchester, 2005), p. 41. As Patrick Brantlinger observes, ‘By the turn of the century Nana Sahib, Satanic locus of all oriental treachery, lust, and murder, was one of the most familiar villains in nov- els and melodramas, and by far the most familiar Indian character.’ Patrick Brantlinger, Rule of Darkness: British Literature and Imperialism, 1830–1914 (Ithaca and London, 1988), p. 204. 240 Notes

36. David, Indian Mutiny, p. 318. 37. Streets, Martial Races, p. 37. 38. John M. MacKenzie, ‘Heroic Myths of Empire,’ in John MacKenzie, ed., Pop- ular Imperialism and the Military 1850–1950 (Manchester, 1992), p. 117. For the importance of concepts of chivalry in the nineteenth century, see Mark Girouard, The Return to Camelot: Chivalry and the English Gentleman (New Haven and London, 1981). 39. Cited in Girouard, Return to Camelot, p. 220. 40. Eric Stokes, The Peasant Armed: The Indian Revolt of 1857 (Oxford, 1986), p. 1. 41. Streets, Martial Races, pp. 53–57. 42. Graham Dawson, Soldier Heroes: British Adventure, Empire and the Imagining of Masculinities (London, 1994), p. 83. 43. For Havelock’s fame, see MacKenzie, ‘Heroic Myths of Empire,’ and Dawson, Soldier Heroes. 44. Conference on Missions Held in 1860 at Liverpool (London, 1860), p. 347. 45. Nicholson’s obscurity in England illustrated by the fact that during the first decade of his imperial service, his only mention in the Times was the inclusion of his name in a list of prisoners released from Kabul on 21 September 1842. Times, 5 December 1842. 46. Times, 15 June 1850. 47. Innes, Bengal European Regiment, p. 475. 48. Cited in Narayani Gupta, Delhi Between Two Empires 1803–1921: Society, Govern- ment and Urban Growth (Delhi, 1981), p. 21. For the assault on Delhi and the slaughter and destruction which followed it, see Dalrymple, The Last Mughal, pp. 346–445. 49. Gupta, Delhi Between Two Empires, pp. 21–32. 50. Nayanjot Lahiri, ‘Commemorating and Remembering 1857: The Revolt in Delhi and Its Afterlife,’ World Archaeology 35: 1 (2003), pp. 35–60. Similar memo- rial landscapes were created at Cawnpore and Lucknow. For Cawnpore, see Stephen Heathorn, ‘Angel of Empire: The Cawnpore Memorial Well as a British Site of Imperial Remembrance,’ Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History 8: 3 (2007) http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_colonialism_and_colonial_ history/v008/8.3heathorn.html. For Lucknow, see Kevin Hannam, ‘Contested Representations of War and Heritage at the Residency, Lucknow, India,’ Interna- tional Journal of Tourism Research 8 (2006), pp. 199–212. 51. George William De Rhé-Philipe and Miles Irving, Soldiers of the Raj (1910, 1912; London, 1989), pp. 24–27. 52. De Rhé-Philipe and Irving, Soldiers of the Raj, p. 28. 53. Ibid., pp. 17–19. 54. John Edward Whorton Rotton, Chaplain’s Narrative of the Siege of Delhi from the Outbreak at Meerut to the Capture of Delhi (London, 1858), pp. 320–21. 55. John Murray, A Handbook for Travellers in India and Ceylon (London, 1891), p. 140; Allen, Soldier Sahibs, p. 328; and Lahiri, ‘1857,’ p. 44. 56. John W. Cell, Hailey: A Study in British Imperialism 1872–1969 (Cambridge, 2002), p. 4. On the ‘Punjab style’ of governance, see also Wurgaft, The Imperial Imagination, pp. 32–41. 57. Douglas M. Peers, ‘ “Those Noble Exemplars of the True Military Tradition”: Con- structions of the Indian Army in the Mid-Victorian Press,’ Modern Asian Studies 31: 1 (1997), pp. 132–40 (quotation on p. 140). 58. De Rhé-Philipe and Irving, Soldiers of the Raj, p. 173; and Trotter, John Nicholson, p. 362. Notes 241

59. Letter from Herbert B. Edwardes ‘To the Friends, Public and Private, of the late Brigadier General John Nicholson, C.B,’ 9 August 1858, Edwardes Collection, MSS Eur. E 211/14, OIOC. 60. Trotter, John Nicholson, pp. 89–91 61. Letter from Herbert B. Edwardes ‘To the Friends, Public and Private, of the late Brigadier General John Nicholson, C.B,’ 9 August 1858, Edwardes Collection, MSS Eur. E 211/14, OIOC. 62. A. Cameron Taylor, General Sir Alex Taylor G.C.B.: His Times, His Friends, and His Work (London, 1913), II: 167, I: 189. 63. Handbook for Travellers in India, p. 210. 64. ‘Delhi,’ in Charles Arthur Kelly, Delhi and Other Poems (London and Calcutta, 1864), pp. 32–33. 65. H., ‘The Indian Services,’ The Chameleon, New Series No. III (April 1873), pp. 17, 20. 66. Heathorn, ‘Angel of Empire.’ 67. Mary E. Leslie, Sorrows, Aspirations, and Legends (London, 1858), p. 33. 68. David, Indian Mutiny, pp. 236, 258–59. 69. The residents of his birthplace of Ayr raised over £1250 to construct an eques- trian statue of him, which was unveiled amid scenes of public celebration in 1859. Glasgow Herald, 12 October 1859. In the following year, a copy of the statue was erected in Madras by public subscription. 70. Herbert, War of No Pity, pp. 44, 52. 71. Kaye, Lives of Indian Officers, pp. 293–94. 72. Review of Reginald G. Wilberforce, An Unrecorded Chapter of the Indian Mutiny. Being the Personal Reminiscences of Reginald G. Wilberforce, Late 52nd Light Infantry. (2nd ed. London, 1894). Undated press clipping, Werge Collection, MSS Eur. F 171/137/1, OIOC. 73. Olive Anderson, ‘The Growth of Christian Militarism in Mid-Victorian Britain,’ English Historical Review 86: 338 (1971), pp. 46–72. For Gordon, see Cynthia F. Behrman, ‘The After-Life of General Gordon,’ Albion 3: 2 (1971), pp. 47–61; Dou- glas H. Johnson, ‘The Death of Gordon: A Victorian Myth,’ Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 10 (1982), pp. 285–310; and MacKenzie, ‘Heroic Myths of Empire.’ For the prominence of militarism in late nineteenth-century British culture, see Robert H. MacDonald, The Language of Empire: Myths and Metaphors of Popular Imperialism, 1880–1918 (Manchester, 1994); Michael Paris, Warrior Nation: Images of War in British Popular Culture, 1850–2000 (London, 2000); and Streets, Martial Races, pp. 116–50. 74. On this, see Catherine Hall, Civilizing Subjects: Metropole and Colony in the English Imagination, 1830–1867 (Chicago and London, 2002); and Sinha, Colonial Masculinity. 75. Chakravarty, Indian Mutiny,p.3. 76. For these novels, see Chakravarty, Indian Mutiny; and Brantlinger, Rule of Dark- ness, pp. 199–224. Steel’s reading of the Mutiny is complex and at times questions, rather than consistently upholds, the moral superiority of the British. Her portrait of John Nicholson is, however, undoubtedly a heroic one. See Ann- Barbara Graff, ‘Gender, History, and the Art of Mutiny: Flora Annie Steel’s On the Face of the Waters,’ in Lynette Felber, ed., Clio’s Daughters: British Women Mak- ing History, 1790–1899 (Newark, DE, 2007), pp. 43–68. For Nicholson’s similarity to Philip Lennox, the protagonist of R.E. Forrest’s Eight Days, see H.C. Gregg, ‘John Nicholson of Delhi,’ Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine 163 (February 1898), 242 Notes

p. 207. Other examples of protagonists with marked similarities to Nicholson include Ralph Cunningham of Rung Ho! and James Purefoy of A Man of Honour. See Chakravarty, Indian Mutiny, pp. 148–55. 77. As Ian Beckett observes, Henry Havelock, the embodiment of the ideal of mid-Victorian ‘Christian militarism,’ ‘increasingly became lauded for his sec- ular military qualities’ in the late nineteenth century. This formulation of heroism was applied to other public heroes such as Lord Roberts and Lord Kitchener as well. Ian Beckett, The Victorians at War (London, 2003), p. 16. For the widespread glorification of war, sacrifice and martial virtues in ele- mentary education, see Stephen Heathorn, ‘Representations of War and Martial Heroes in English Elementary School Reading and Rituals, 1885–1914,’ in James Marten, ed., Children and War: An Interdisciplinary Anthology (New York, 2002), pp. 103–25. 78. MacDonald, Language of Empire, pp. 89–90. 79. For the genesis and impact of ‘martial race’ theory, and the parallels drawn between Scottish Highland, Gurkha and Sikh soldiers, see Streets, Martial Races. For the Irish, see also Denman, ‘Ethnic Soldiers.’ 80. Douglas M. Peers, ‘The Martial Races and the Indian Army in the Victorian Era,’ in Marston and Sundaram, eds, A Military History of India, pp. 34–52. 81. Charles Raikes, Notes on the Revolt in the North-western Provinces of India (London, 1858), p.135. 82. John William Younghusband to Herbert Benjamin Edwardes, 19 April 1866, Edwardes Collection, MSS Eur. B 252, OIOC. 83. Cited in Trotter, John Nicholson, p. 318. John Lawrence regarded the translation as ‘admirable and most creditable,’ and promised to send a copy to Nicholson’s mother. Trotter, John Nicholson, p. 319. 84. ‘Supplement to the Indian Public Opinion,’ Lahore, 19 April 1867, Werge Collec- tion, MSS Eur. F 171/137/1, OIOC. 85. The poem is reproduced in Trotter, John Nicholson, pp. 367–71, as ‘Death of Nicholson.’ The ‘Towanna Horse’ was a body of irregular cavalry from the Punjab. 86. David Ross, The Land of the Five Rivers and Sidh: Sketches Historical and Descriptive (London, 1883), pp. 174–76. 87. Richard G. Fox, Lions of the Punjab: Culture in the Making (Berkeley, 1985). As Douglas M. Peers observes, ‘The resilience of martial race theory ultimately depended on the willingness of groups so identified to respond to the oppor- tunities afforded to them, and in a manner consistent with the theory.’ Peers, ‘The Martial Races,’ p. 37. 88. Fox, Lions of the Punjab,p.4. 89. For an analysis of the Irish dimensions of Kim and Kipling’s other writings, see Kaori Nagai, Empire of Analogies: Kipling, India and Ireland (Cork, 2006). 90. Rudyard Kipling, Kim, ed. Zohreh T. Sullivan (New York and London, 2002), pp. 42, 47, 51. 91. As Elleke Boehmer observes, the international growth of Scouting—including throughout the British Empire—led to the removal of the Nicholson playlet from subsequent editions of Scouting for Boys. Robert Baden-Powell, Scouting for Boys: The Original 1908 Edition, Elleke Boehmer, ed. (Oxford, 2004), pp. xxiii, 279–80. 92. ‘The Ballad of John Nicholson,’ in Henry Newbolt, Admirals All and Other Verses (1897; 5th ed. London, 1898). 93. Newbolt, ‘The Ballad of John Nicholson,’ pp. 24–25. Notes 243

94. Katherine Tidrick credits Nicholson as having ‘the distinction of being an origi- nal of all those stories, so popular later in the nineteenth century, of the white man who was worshipped as a god.’ Katherine Tidrick, Empire and the English Character (London, 1990), p. 19. 95. Dalrymple, The Last Mughal, p. 199. 96. For example, Alexander Taylor reported, ‘One day ...while I was sitting in my small bungalow at Hassan Abdal, half way between Rawalpindi and Attock, some twenty helmeted men, very quaintly dressed, filed in, one after another, and after a courteous salute, but without speaking a word, squatted down in a row, opposite me. I was much taken aback at this strange apparition. I looked at them, and they at me, till at last one of them gave utterance to their thoughts and objects. “We are Nikkul Seyn’s Fakirs,” he said, “you are a white Sahib, and we are come to pay our respects to you as one of Nikkul Seyn’s race.” ’ Taylor, General Sir Alex Taylor, I: 144–45. 97. Kaye, Lives of Indian Officers, II: 447–48. 98. Monier Williams, Indian Wisdom, or Examples of the Religious, Philosophical, and Ethical Doctrines of the Hindus (3rd ed. London, 1876), p. 321. 99. ‘The Punjab in 1857,’ Blackwood’s Magazine LXXXIX: No. DXLVI (April 1861), p. 513. 100. Wilberforce, An Unrecorded Chapter, pp. 28–31. 101. Trotter, John Nicholson, p. 154. 102. Ibid., p. 155. 103. Wilberforce, An Unrecorded Chapter, pp. 30–31. 104. Heather Streets, ‘Military Influence in the Late Victorian and Edwardian Popular Media: The Case of Frederick Roberts,’ Journal of Victorian Culture 8: 2 (2003), pp. 231–56. 105. Streets, Martial Races, p. 121. 106. Streets, ‘Military Influence,’ pp. 234–40. 107. Streets, Martial Races, pp. 132–42. 108. G.W. Forrest, Sepoy Generals: Wellington to Roberts (London, 1901), pp. 330–31. 109. Typescript of Lord Robert’s address at the Commemoration of the Indian Mutiny Jubilee, The Albert Hall, London, 23 December 1907, MSS Eur. D 905, OIOC. 110. Streets, ‘Military Influence,’ p. 244. 111. Frederick Sleigh Roberts, Forty-One Years in India (London, 1897), I: vii–viii, 227–28. 112. Ibid., 1: 59–60. 113. MacDonald, Language of Empire, p. 91. Robert Falcon Scott’s Antarctic expedition was compared to a litany of male heroes, mostly military figures, who had died at their post. Max Jones, The Last Great Quest: Captain Scott’s Antarctic Sacrifice (Oxford and New York, 2003), p. 220. 114. David Gilmour, Curzon (London, 1994), pp. 212–13. In his quest for scrupulous accuracy, Curzon discovered that a memorial tablet to Henry Lawrence had been placed in the wrong room at the Residency in Lucknow, and had it moved to the place where he had died. 115. Thomas R. Metcalf, ‘Monuments and Memorials: Lord Curzon’s Creation of a Past for the Raj,’ in his Forging the Raj: Essays on British India in the Heyday of Empire (New Delhi, 2005), pp. 152–68. 116. Ethel M. Hogg, Quinton Hogg: A Biography (1904; London, 1906), p. 120. 117. Hugh Tinker, The Ordeal of Love: C.F. Andrews and India (Delhi, 1979), p. 25. 244 Notes

118. Bernard S. Cohn, ‘Representing Authority in Victorian India,’ in Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds, The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1983), p. 179. 119. Manu Goswami, ‘ “Englishness” on the Imperial Circuit: Mutiny Tours in Colo- nial South Asia,’ Journal of Historical Sociology 9: 1 (1996), pp. 54–84. Murray’s Handbook devoted ten pages to Lucknow, including the memorial there to Henry Lawrence and the cemetery where ‘two thousand heroic men and women’ lie, and four pages to Cawmpore. Handbook for Travellers in India, pp. 231–40, 252–55. 120. Heathorn, ‘Angel of Cawnpore.’ 121. Goswami, ‘ “Englishness,” ’ pp. 72–73. 122. Murray’s Handbook, for example, devoted two pages to ‘Delhi under the Hindu Kings,’ ‘The Mahommedan Conquest,’ and ‘Modern Delhi’ (to 1857), and over four pages to the siege of Delhi in 1857. See pp. 130–36. 123. The guidebook also gave detailed instructions on how to reach ‘the splendid monument to Nicholson’ near Rawalpindi in the Punjab. Handbook for Travellers, pp. 136, 140, 210. 124. Times, 7 August 1902. The appeal was reproduced in other newspapers as well; see, for example, Daily Graphic, 7 August 1902. 125. Roberts, Forty-One Years,I:ix. 126. Roberts to W.R. Lawrence, 14 February 1902, reproduced in Daily Graphic,7 August 1902. 127. Times, 8 April 1907. 128. Irish Times, 2 September 1905. Foley’s memorial to Nicholson will be discussed in the following chapter. 129. Times, 7 August 1902; and undated clipping from the Statesman [1906], Werge Collection, MSS Eur. F 171/137/1, OIOC. 130. Times, 9 April 1906. See also Brock’s obituary in the Times, 23 August 1922. 131. Times, 9 April 1906; and Minto to John Morley, 9 April 1906, Morley Collection, MSS Eur. D 573/8, OIOC. 132. Minto to Morley, 2 May 1906; and ‘Viceroy’s Address at the Nicholson Unveil- ing Ceremony, Delhi,’ enclosure to Minto to Morley, 9 April 1906, Morley Collection, MSS Eur. D 573/8, OIOC. 133. See, e.g., Norah Rowan Hamilton, Through Wonderful India and Beyond (London, 1915), pp. 137–47. 134. Album of Delhi Guide (Delhi, nd). 135. John M. MacKenzie, ‘The Persistence of Empire in Metropolitan Culture,’ in Stuart Ward, ed., British Culture and the End of Empire (Manchester, 2001), pp. 21–36. 136. John Lendrum, ‘Nicholson the Hero,’ The Nineteenth Century and After XCIII: 551 (January 1923), pp. 107–13 (quotation on p. 107). 137. John O’ London’s Weekly, 9 September 1933. 138. George Macmunn, Leadership Through the Ages (1935; reprint Freeport, NY, 1968), p. 191. 139. Kelly Boyd, ‘ “Half-Caste Bob” or Race and Caste in the Late-Victorian Boys’ Story Paper,’ in Douglas M. Peers and David Finkelstein, eds, Negotiating India in the Nineteenth-century Media (London, 2000), pp. 63–83, 66–67. 140. J. Claverdon Wood, When Nicholson Kept the Border (London, 1920) and Ernest Gray, Nikkal Seyn: A Tale of John Nicholson, Hero of Delhi, Saviour of India (London and Glasgow, 1947). 141. Gray, Nikkal Seyn, p. 156; and Wood, When Nicholson Kept the Border, p. 132. In the interwar period, the story of the cult of ‘Nikkal Seyn’ also appeared not only Notes 245

in boys’ adventure stories and newspapers such as the Times and the Irish Times, but as part of syndicated features which appeared in North American newspa- pers. A Ripley’s Believe It or Not cartoon from 1938 labeled him ‘The White God of the Hindus,’ and stated that ‘John Nicholson—born in Dublin—was worshipped as Nikkul-Seyn in India.’ Lima [Ohio] News, 28 June 1938. 142. Pamela Hinkson, Indian Harvest (London, 1941), pp. 117–18. 143. ‘Notes on Records in Delhi,’ 18 March 1940, Werge Collection, MSS Eur. F 171/105, OIOC. 144. Mary Lago, ‘India’s Prisoner’: A Biography of Edward John Thompson, 1886– 1946 (Columbia, MO, and London, 2001); and Hugh Tinker, The Ordeal of Love. 145. Tribune (Lahore), 27 November 1920, Punjab Press Abstracts, 4 December 1920, p. 492 L/R/5/202, OIOC. 146. Edward Thompson, The Other Side of the Medal (1926; reprint Westport, CT, 1974), p. 131. 147. ‘Nicholson’ was published in Andrews’ The Motherland, and Other Poems (Alla- habad, 1915). See Tinker, The Ordeal of Love, p. 118. Tinker observes that the poem ‘only seems to have the loosest connection with hard, grim Nicholson of historical reality (as well as being terrible poetry).’ 148. Tribune (Lahore), 27 November 1920. 149. Thompson, Other Side of the Medal, pp. 98, 100. 150. Metcalf, ‘Monuments and Memorials,’ p. 166. 151. Rastgo (Allahabad), April 1907, in Selections from the Native Newspapers Pub- lished in the United Provinces Received up to 18 May 1907, p. 600, L/R/5, OIOC. 152. Times, 12 November 1921 and 6 July 1923; and Israel, Communications and Power, pp. 26–29. 153. Times, 9 September 1927. 154. Young India, 13 October 1927, in M.K. Gandhi, Non-Violent Resistance (New York, 1961), pp. 74–75. As David Arnold observes, many of those involved in the Neill satyagraha were nationalists who had become disillusioned with the Congress leadership in Madras after the end of non-cooperation and were inspired by a ‘a zest for physical and verbal violence’ and a ‘contempt for Europeans.’ David Arnold, The Congress in Tamilnad: Nationalist Politics in South India, 1919–1937 (London and Dublin, 1977), p. 143. 155. Tribune (Lahore), 27 November 1920. 156. Tribune (Lahore), 11 April 1906, Selections from the Native Newspapers Pub- lished in the Punjab, Received up to 14 April 1906, pp. 93–94, L/R/5, OIOC. 157. Jan Morris, Heaven’s Command: An Imperial Progress (1973; London, 1998), p.188. 158. Fraser, Flashman in the Great Game, pp. 66–67. 159. Kenneth Griffith, The Discovery of Nehru: An Experience of India (London, 1989), pp. 52–70. 160. Dalrymple, The Last Mughal, p. xxiii. 161. Rudrangshu Mukherjee, ‘ “Satan Let Lose Upon the Earth’: The Kanpur Mas- sacres in India in the Revolt of 1857,’ Past & Present 128 (1990), p. 93. See also Gavin Rand, ‘ “Martial Races” and “Imperial Subjects”: Violence and Gov- ernance in Colonial India, 1857–1914,’ European Review of History 13: 1 (2006), pp. 1–20. 162. Ronald Hyam, Empire and Sexuality: The British Experience (Manchester, 1990), pp. 29–30. 246 Notes

163. MacDonald, Language of Empire, p. 36. 164. R.E. Cholmeley, John Nicholson: ‘The Lion of the Panjaub’ (London, 1908), p. 52. 165. Michael Edwardes, Bound to Exile: The Victorians in India (London, 1969), p. 100. 166. Christopher Hibbert, The Great Mutiny: India 1857 (New York, 1978), pp. 292, 293. 167. Frank M. Richardson, Mars Without Venus: A Study of Some Homosexual Gen- erals (Edinburgh, 1981), pp. 131, 151. A.N. Wilson also refers to Nicholson as a ‘tormented homosexual soldier’ in The Victorians (New York, 2004), p. 210. 168. Aldrich writes,

Lack of interest in women, close association with other men or an inclina- tion to ‘feminine’ pursuits do not prove homosexuality. On the other hand, neither an engagement (or even marriage) to a woman, nor strongly held and publicly expressed religious beliefs preclude homosexual interests. Mili- tary officers do, of necessity, associate closely with fit young men, but that in itself does not guarantee either homosexual or heterosexual tastes. Evidence can be read either way.

Robert Aldrich, Colonialism and Homosexuality (London and New York, 2003), p. 71. 169. Wilberforce, An Unrecorded Chapter, p. 217. 170. Cited in Lahiri, ‘1857,’ p. 44. 171. Elizabeth Buettner, ‘Cemeteries, Public Memory and Raj Nostalgia in Postcolo- nial Britain and India,’ History & Memory 18: 1 (2006), pp. 12–13. 172. Buettner, ‘Cemeteries,’ pp. 20–23, 26–27. 173. Ibid., p. 17. 174. ‘Support of Christian Cemeteries in Delhi,’ 8 July 1949, R/4/55, OIOC; and ‘List of Government Maintained Cemeteries in India Transferred to the High Com- missioner for United Kingdom W.E. From 1 April 1948,’ 17 November 1950, R/4/57, OIOC. 175. Hindustan Times, 25 October 2006. 176. Times, 3 June 1995. 177. Daily Telegraph, 6 November 2004. 178. R.V. Smith, The Delhi That No-one Knows (Delhi, 2005), pp. xvii–xviii. 179. The Telegraph (Calcutta), 25 October 2006. 180. Financial Times, 28 October 2006. 181. Times of India, 30 April 2007. 182. The Hindu, 28 October 2006; and Hindustan Times, 25 October 2006. 183. Financial Times, 28 October 2006; and Times, 6 November 2006. 184. Times, 6 November 2006. 185. The Telegraph (Calcutta), 25 October 2006. 186. Financial Times, 28 October 2006. 187. Times, 6 November 2006. 188. Financial Times, 28 October 2006. 189. Rudrangshu Mukherjee, ‘More than Grave—Remembering 1857 Should be Free of Revenge,’ The Telegraph (Calcutta), 5 November 2006. 190. The Hindu, 8 October 2007. 191. http://www.sandhurstfoundation.org/bookreviews.asp. Accessed 19 March 2008. 192. Irish Times, 29 December 2006. Notes 247

193. Irish Times, 29 December 2006; Financial Times, 28 October 2006; and Times,6 November 2006.

4 An ‘Irish Paladin’: John Nicholson as an Ulster and Irish Imperial Hero

1. Belfast Telegraph, 13 April 1960. 2. Brian Mackey, Lisburn: The Town and Its People 1873–1973 (Belfast, 2000), p. 15. 3. Rev. Stanley W. Thompson, Chairman, Royal School Dungannon Board of Governors, to Prime Minister, Stormont, 28 October 1958, DO 35/9041, NA UK. 4. Thompson, Empire Strikes Back, pp.198–99. 5. Jonathan Bardon, A History of Ulster (New ed. Belfast, 2005). Bardon gives this title to the chapter covering Ulster’s history from 1850 to 1890. 6. Stephen Howe, Ireland and Empire: Colonial Legacies in Irish History and Culture (Oxford, 2000), p. 201. 7. Ian McBride, The Siege of Derry in Ulster Protestant Mythology (Dublin, 1997). 8. Mark McGovern, ‘ “A Besieged Outpost”: The Imagination of Empire and the Siege Myth, 1860–1900,’ in D. George Boyce and Roger Swift, eds, Problems and Perspective in Irish History since 1800: Essays in Honour of Patrick Buckland (Dublin, 2004), pp. 32–53 (quotations on pp. 49, 50). McGovern also notes that this impe- rial interpretation of the Siege, with a focus on loyalty to crown and Empire, could also legitimize a rejection of the authority of Parliament. 9. A Concise History of Lisburn and Neighbourhood: Comprising the Social, Industrial, Religious, and Education Life of the People (Belfast, 1906), p. 31. 10. By the beginning of the twentieth century, the Fulton family members resided in various parts of the British Empire, including England, India, New Zealand and Australia. A family history observed that ‘no representative of it is now known to exist in the north of Ireland.’ Theodore C. Hope, Memoirs of the Fultons of Lisburn (privately printed, 1903), p. 11, 59–61. I am grateful to Brian Mackey for bringing this reference to my attention. 11. Both the Fultons and the Grahams had migrated from Scotland to Ireland in the seventeenth century. Along with Dr. James Graham, his three sons also entered the service of the East India Company. All three were born in India but were probably educated, like Nicholson, at the Dungannon School. Both Dr. Graham and his namesake son also perished in the mutiny. T.G. Fraser, ‘The Graham Family,’ pp. ix–x, xv. 12. The memorial records that Dobbs’s body ‘rests in that element/On which Great Britain has long rode triumphant/By the exertions of men like him.’ 13. Hope, Fultons of Lisburn, p. 59. 14. In addition to the memorials to Fulton and Dobbs, there is also one to John Nicholson’s brother Charles, who died in 1862 on the way to join his station ‘from the effects of a wound received in Delhi,’ and to Colonel James Graham, a member of the Bengal Staff Corps. The bronze memorial tablet notes that he ‘served in the Indian Mutiny Campaign including the siege and capture of Luc- know, 1857–1858.’ Two more memorials honor members of the Mercer family who died on imperial service in the 1860s, one in India and the second in battle in New Zealand. Along the south wall of the nave is a memorial to an officer killed in the Boer War. 15. Belfast News-letter, 28 May 1850. All of the descriptions of this event are taken from this article. 248 Notes

16. As T.G. Fraser observes, ‘Many Ulster families ...felt personally involved in Indian affairs, and they must have read the mutiny battle reports and casualty lists in the Ulster newspapers with concern.’ T.G. Fraser, ‘The Graham Family,’ p. ix. 17. See Bender, ‘Mutiny or Freedom Fight?’; Regan, ‘Representations of India,’ pp. 61–77; and ‘Ulster Attitudes to the Indian Mutiny,’ in Graham Indian Mutiny Papers, pp. 142–50. 18. The Ulsterman, 1 July 1857 and Report of the proceedings of the Grand Orange Lodge of Ireland at the half yearly meeting held at Newry, 26–27 May 1858, cited in Graham Indian Mutiny Papers, pp. 144–46. 19. Northern Whig, 15 February 1858, cited in Graham Indian Mutiny Papers, pp. 149–50. 20. William S. Graham, Delhi, to Daniel Cullimore, 27 September 1857, in Graham Indian Mutiny Papers, pp. 80–81. 21. James Graham, Landour, to his sister Anne, Co. Antrim, 1 October 1857, in Graham Indian Mutiny Papers, p. 84. For the political outlook of the various Ulster papers, see the Graham Indian Mutiny Papers, pp. 142–50 (quotation on p. 142). 22. See the Belfast News-letter, Belfast Daily Mercury and the Northern Whig of 14 November 1857. 23. Belfast Daily Mercury, 14 November 1857. For the newspaper’s criticism of recruit- ing to the East India Company, see the Belfast Daily Mercury, 30 June 1857, cited in Graham Indian Mutiny Papers, pp. 142–3. 24. Belfast News-letter, 16 November and 9 November 1857. 25. Belfast News-letter, 26 November 1857. The writer was identified only as ‘T.’ 26. Trotter, John Nicholson, pp. 361, 362; and Letter from Herbert B. Edwardes ‘To the Friends, Public and Private, of the late Brigadier General John Nicholson, C.B.’ 9 August 1858. Edwardes Collection, MSS Eur. E 211/14, OIOC. Not long after the conquest of Delhi, General Neville Chamberlain wrote to Herbert Edwardes of the need for a memorial in ‘the parish church attended by the family,’ which was ‘the place where the record will be most valued and be longest remembered.’ Neville Chamberlain to Herbert Edwardes, 20 November 1857, in Memorials of the Life of Major-General Herbert B. Edwardes (London, 1886), II: 66. 27. For a survey of Foley’s career, see Benedict Read, ‘John Henry Foley,’ The Connoisseur 186: 750 (1974), pp. 262–71. 28. Benedict Read writes that in his statues Foley ‘achieved a distinction in handling unsurpassed by any of his contemporaries.’ Read, ‘John Henry Foley,’ p. 267. 29. S.A., Arts and Industries in Ireland: I. John Henry Foley, R.A.: A Sketch of the Life and Works of the Sculptor of the O’Connell Monument (Dublin, 1882), p. 36. Gough was created 1st Viscount Gough for his services during the Second Anglo-Sikh War, although he was also replaced as commander-in-chief by Sir Charles Napier. For Gough’s career during the Anglo-Sikh Wars, see Saul David, Victoria’s Wars: The Rise of Empire (London, 2007), pp. 75–140. 30. W. Cosmo Monkhouse, The Works of John Henry Foley, R.A., Sculptor, With Critical and Illustrative Notes (London, 1875), p. 51; and T.G. Fraser, ‘The Graham Family,’ p. xv. 31. During his 1903 visit to Lisburn, Lord Roberts assumed that the figure depicted was Nicholson, and commented that

the memorial is somewhat at fault. General Nicholson had got a considerable distance inside the city when he fell. It was going towards the Lahore gate Notes 249

that he was shot in the side. Some of his troops got there, and were beaten back, and General Nicholson, who could not brook the idea of his men being repulsed, rushed to the front and was shot. He got them over the Cashmir bastion, and was two or three hours inside the city when he was mortally wounded.

Lisburn Standard, 12 September 1903. 32. Monkhouse, John Henry Foley, p. 51. 33. Trotter, John Nicholson, p. 362; and W.P. Carmody, Lisburn Cathedral and Its Past Rectors (Belfast, 1926), p. 142. 34. Downpatrick Recorder, 9 July 1864. 35. ‘Scheme Framed under the Educational Endowments (Ireland) Act, 1885, for the future government and management of ...the Nicholson Memorial School,’ 8 February 1888 and ‘Objections to the Amended Scheme, signed August 8, 1888, petition and memorial in favor thereof, and observations of the Commissioner thereon.’ Werge Collection, MSS Eur. F 171/15, OIOC. 36. Concise History of Lisburn, p. 57. 37. Illustrated London News, 10 May 1862. 38. Monkhouse, John Henry Foley,p.50. 39. According to Jennifer Ridden,

British imperial identity within the empire was not fostered by a centralized state and unified elite in any straightforward manner, and then transmitted outwards into the empire and downwards to the popular level. Instead, it was contested, it was highly politicized, and it was adapted in response to changing circumstances and pragmatic political strategies.

Ridden, ‘Britishness,’ p. 104. 40. As a boy, John Lawrence was nicknamed ‘Paddy’ when he was a student at Col- lege Green in Bristol, and ‘English John’ when he later attended Foyle College in County Derry. Lee, Brothers in the Raj, p. 27. 41. Peter Gray, ‘Introduction: Victoria’s Ireland? Irishness and Britishness, 1837– 1901,’ in Gray, ed., Victoria’s Ireland?, p. 13. Keith Jeffery observes that many Anglo-Irish imperial servants ‘could regard themselves as Irish, British and even “English” simultaneously. Born in Ireland, frequently educated in England, and serving the British Empire, these men carried a bewildering range of cultural national baggage with them throughout their careers.’ Jeffery, ‘The Irish Mili- tary Tradition and the British Empire,’ p. 107. For an example of an imperial servant who epitomized this blend of multiple identities, see Keith Jeffery, Field Marshall Sir Henry Wilson: A Political Soldier (Oxford, 2006). 42. Trotter, John Nicholson, p. 20. 43. Irish Times, 7 March 1922. 44. Irish Times, 6 March 1909. 45. Flynn reported that stories of Nicholson’s power over the ‘natives’ resonated with these soldiers as well. Repeating the story of Nicholson’s encounter with Punjabi chieftain Mehtab Singh, Flynn added, ‘especially when we heard how he had made a Rajah take off his shoes when speaking to him, telling him he would have to obey him even if he were only a corporal.’ Belfast Telegraph,18 January 1922. 46. Trotter, John Nicholson, p. 72. 250 Notes

47. ‘John Nicholson,’ The Spectator 80 (2 April 1898), p. 482. 48. The article was reprinted in the New York Times, 10 September 1876. 49. H.C. Gregg, ‘John Nicholson of Delhi,’ Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine 163 (1898), p. 208. 50. Times, 17 March 1913. 51. McEwan Lawson, Faces (London, 1924), p. 15; Wood, When Nicholson Kept the Border, p. 265. 52. Abdullah and Pakenham, Dreamers of Empire, pp. 168–69. 53. Cleary, ‘Amongst Empires,’ pp. 19–20. 54. Great Irishmen: Short Lives Written for Young Children (London, 1900). 55. Great Irishmen, pp. 149, 150. 56. Fitzpatrick, ‘Ireland and the Empire,’ p. 511. 57. Irish Times, 8 August 1902. 58. Ian McBride, ‘Ulster and the British Problem,’ in Richard English and Graham Walker, eds, Unionism in Modern Ireland: New Perspectives on Politics and Culture (London, 1996), pp. 1, 7–10. 59. Graham Walker, ‘Empire, Religion and Nationality in Scotland and Ulster Before the First World War,’ in Ian S. Wood, ed., Scotland and Ulster (Edinburgh, 1994), pp. 97–115. 60. Jackson, ‘Irish Unionists and the Empire,’ pp. 131–36. 61. Thompson, The Empire Strikes Back?, pp. 198–99, 200. 62. According to Jennifer Todd, the various and diverse strands of unionist polit- ical thought encompassed a ‘settler emphasis on threat, covenant, and public banding,’ ‘Reformation tendencies’ such as an emphasis on religious liberty, Protestant identity and individual consciousness, and diverse economic and social class interests. Jennifer Todd, ‘Unionist Political Thought, 1920–72,’ in D. George Boyce, Robert Eccleshall, and Vincent Geoghegan, eds, Political Thought in Ireland Since the Seventeenth Century (London and New York, 1993), pp. 190–211. 63. Todd, ‘Unionist Political Thought,’ pp. 191–93. 64. Ibid., pp. 193–4. 65. Gillian V. McIntosh, The Force of Culture: Unionist Identities in Twentieth Century Ireland (Cork, 1999), pp. 8–9. 66. James Loughlin, Ulster Unionism and British National Identity since 1885 (London and New York, 1995), p. 101. 67. David H. Hume, ‘Empire Day in Ireland 1896–1932,’ in Jeffery, ed., ‘An Irish Empire?,’ pp. 149–68; and Jackson, ‘Irish Unionists and the Empire,’ pp. 138, 142. 68. Jackson, ‘Ireland, the Union, and the Empire,’ pp. 145–46. 69. Neil Jarman observes that the phrase ‘The secret of England’s greatness,’ is

reproduced on a number of banners that depict a painting of Queen Victoria handing a Bible to a kneeling Indian prince. The authority of the monarch comes from a Protestant faith; but it is a monarch’s duty to defend and spread that faith wherever possible, to proselytize the heathen; spreading the faith in turn provides the basis for consolidating secular authority.

Neil Jarman, Material Conflicts: Parades and Visual Displays in Northern Ireland (Oxford and New York, 1997), p. 180. The image is based on the 1863 allegorical painting by Thomas Jones Barker in the National Portrait Gallery, London. Notes 251

70. Lisburn Herald, 7 April 1923. 71. Fitzpatrick writes, ‘For Unionists, nationalists and republicans alike, soldiery was an ideal to be extolled rather than a menace to be confronted .... Militarism was one of the few Irish stereotypes which evoked almost universal approbation in a bellicose era.’ David Fitzpatrick, ‘Militarism in Ireland, 1900–1922,’ in Thomas Bartlett and Keith Jeffery, eds, A Military History of Ireland (Cambridge, 1996), p. 379. 72. Thomas Bartlett and Keith Jeffery, ‘An Irish Military Tradition?’ in Bartlett and Jeffery, eds, Military History,p.8. 73. David Officer, ‘Raising the Ulsterman: Blood and Battlefields in the Creation of an Ethno-Religious Subject,’ PhD diss. Queen’s University, Belfast, 1997. 74. Catherine Switzer, Unionists and Great War Commemoration in the North of Ireland 1914–1918 (Dublin, 2007), pp. 151–54. 75. Mackey, Lisburn, pp. 15–16. 76. Cited in Ibid., p. 17. Swanzy’s murder, which sparked the violence, was in retaliation for the death of Thomas MacCurtain, Lord Mayor of Cork and IRA commander. MacCurtain’s murder was likely carried out by Royal Irish Constab- ulary forces in response for an earlier shooting of an unarmed police constable in Cork, although Swanzy’s involvement is not clear. See Peter Hart, The I.R.A. and Its Enemies: Violence and Community in Cork 1916–1923 (Oxford, 1998), pp. 78–79. 77. Belfast Telegraph, 19 January 1922. 78. See Chapter 3. 79. The following is based on the lengthy account of Roberts’ visit in the Lisburn Standard, 12 September1903. Virtually identical coverage was featured in the Lisburn Herald, 12 September 1903. 80. Lisburn Standard, 12 September 1903. 81. Lisburn Herald, 7 January 1922; and Lisburn Standard, 20 January 1922. 82. In December 1920, a deputation from the Council went to London to persuade South Antrim M.P. C.C. Craig to lobby the government to take up £130,000 worth of the Council’s loans. To The Members of the Lisburn Urban Council, from Deputation, 6 December 1920, Lisburn Urban District Council, Minutes of Monthly Meetings, LA48/2CA/4, PRONI. 83. Lisburn Urban District Council, Minutes of Monthly Meetings, LA48/2CA/4; and Lisburn Urban District Council, Minutes of Committees and Special Meetings, LA48/4AA/9, August 1921 to February 1922, PRONI. 84. Lisburn Standard, 20 January 1922. 85. Wilson was mistaken in identifying Henry Pottinger as one of the Ulster heroes of 1857. Although Pottinger was an East India Company officer from Ulster who had a distinguished career of imperial service, including holding the first governorship of Hong Kong, he died in 1856. 86. Lisburn Herald, 21 January 1922. 87. Belfast Telegraph, 18 January 1922. 88. Lisburn Herald, 21 January 1922; and Lisburn Standard, 20 January 1922. The comparison of Nicholson to Wolfe was also made frequently in the nineteenth century. One appreciation of Nicholson argued that there was

good reason for calling John Nicholson the Nineteenth-century Wolfe—the comparison is inevitable. Wolfe inspired our Empire in North America and Nicholson our Empire in India. Nicholson fell in the moment of victory at 252 Notes

Delhi a century – ninety-eight years almost to a day — after Wolfe had fallen in the moment of victory at Quebec.

Douglas Sladen, ‘The Hero of the Indian Mutiny. Part I,’ The Idler XI (1897), p. 243. 89. Lisburn Herald, 21 January 1922. 90. Lisburn Herald, 21 January 1922. The Lisburn Standard, however, identified Wilson as a ‘County Antrim man.’ 91. For the circumstance of Wilson’s murder, see Peter Hart, ‘Michael Collins and the Assassination of Sir Henry Wilson,’ in his The I.R.A. at War 1916–1923 (Oxford, 2003), pp. 194–220. 92. Lisburn Standard, 15 December 1922. 93. Lisburn Herald, 14 April 1923. 94. R.L.M., [Rev. R.L. Marshall] ‘Thirteen Years Ago,’ R.S.D. Being the School Mag- azine of the Royal School Dungannon 1: 1 (December 1917), pp. 6–7. Marshall, of Maghera, Co. Derry, later served as treasurer of the school’s War Memorial Committee. 95. J.H. Strahan, ‘A Famous Old Boy of R.S.D,’ R.S.D. Being the School Magazine of the Royal School Dungannon 1: 1 (December 1917), pp. 15–16. 96. Marshall expressed these ideas not only in his prose and poetical writings, but in a series of talks for the BBC entitled ‘Ulster Speaks.’ W.F. Marshall, Livin’ in Drumlister: The Collected Ballads and Verses of W. F. Marshall (Belfast, 1983), pp. ix–xii. 97. R. S. D. Being the School Magazine of the Royal School Dungannon, 1: 2 (1918), p. 8. A slightly different version of the poem appears in Livin’ in Drumlister, in which the author urges Dungannon students to ‘sing with all your might and main:/ Lift it now, boys, lift it till he hears it—Niculsayn/Who learned the holy Latin in Dungannon.’ Marshall, Livin’ in Drumlister, pp. 58–9. 98. ‘School History.’ http://www.rsdfpa.org.uk/school_history.htm. Accessed 7 February 2009. 99. ‘Goordaspoore: A Ballad of General John Nicholson,’ in Marshall, Livin’ in Drum- lister, pp. 11–12. During the Great War, a speaker at the prize presentation ceremonies at Foyle College, under the impression that Nicholson too had attended the school, spoke of Nicholson, ‘whom years after his death Indian troops were found to be worshipping as a god,’ and the Lawrence brothers as examples of ‘how Foyle College, in the stress of the Indian Mutiny, saved India to England.’ Irish Times, 19 December. 1914. 100. James Logan, ‘The Ulster Folk,’ in his Verses: Grave and Gladsome (London, 1924), pp. 78–9. It is true, as Alvin Jackson notes, that only two of the approximately fifty poems in Logan’s collection concern the British Empire. Empire is however clearly incorporated into the above-referenced poem which seeks to define an Ulster identity. Jackson, ‘Irish Unionists and Empire,’ p. 144. 101. Lisburn Standard, 26 March 1937, http://www.lisburn.com/history/history_ lisburn/radio_provincial_journey.htm. Viewed 12 August 2005. 102. McIntosh, Force of Culture, pp. 69–102; and Heather Clark, ‘Regional Roots: The BBC and Poetry in Northern Ireland, 1945–55,’ Éire-Ireland 38: 1/2 (2003), pp. 87–105. 103. Cited in Clark, ‘Regional Roots,’ p. 93. 104. Radio Times, 106: 1369 (6 January 1950), p. 11; and Pass board for ‘ “Nikal Seyn”: A Story of the Indian Mutiny. The Hero of Delhi.’ BBC Written Archives Centre, Notes 253

Caversham, Reading, England. Neither the BBC Written Archives Centre nor the BBC Northern Ireland Archive holds a copy of the script. 105. New York Times, 11 May 1957. 106. Malcolm MacDonald, High Commissioner, to Harold Macmillan, 1 October 1957, DO 35/9042, NA UK. 107. Ibid. 108. New York Times, 11 May 1957. 109. Times, 16 July 1957. 110. Report of the State Committee Appointed to Examine the Question of the Retention in Public Places of Statues of the British Period and Other Relics (Bombay, 1961). The committee, which met beginning in 1958, found that no statues in Bom- bay were ‘offensive to Indian sentiment,’ but recommended their replacement by patriotic monuments and their removal to ‘some suitable open-air museum which Government should establish.’ 111. ‘Removal of Statues in India and Pakistan,’ June 1963, I.C.S. (Retired) Association Collection, MSS Eur. F 173/171, OIOC. 112. W.A.W. Clark, Deputy High Commissioner, to J.P. Gibson, Commonwealth Relations Office [CRO], 21 May 1957, DO 35/9041, NA UK. 113. Both men were associated with not only with the Mutiny but with the siege of Delhi. Taylor, an engineer, had carried out reconnaissance missions to determine where charges should be laid under sepoy lines and had been instrumental in the British victory. 114. Taylor’s statue had in fact already been removed from its site at the time that the telegram was sent. Telegram, W.A.W. Clark, Deputy High Commissioner, New Delhi, to J.P. Gibson, CRO, 7 June 1957, DO 35/9041, NA UK. For Taylor’s career, see A. Cameron Taylor, General Sir Alex Taylor. In July 1960, the statue was re-installed at Shoreditch Training College, Cooper’s Hill, Surrey (formerly the Indian Engineering College), where Taylor had served as president for six- teen years. ‘Removal of Statues in India and Pakistan,’ June 1963, I.C.S. (Retired) Association Collection, MSS Eur. F 173/171, OIOC. 115. Telegram, High Commissioner, New Delhi, to CRO, 19 June 1957, DO 35/9041, NA UK. 116. See the correspondence in MSS Eur. F. 173/171, OIOC. 117. A. de G. Gaudin, headmaster, The Royal School, Dungannon, to Minister of Education, Northern Ireland, 4 February 1957, DO 35/9041, NA UK. 118. Belfast Newsletter, 4 June 1959. 119. Belfast Telegraph, 7 October 1958. 120. Dr. J. Kincade, headmaster of the Dungannon School, to E.W. Trotman, Sec., ICS (Retired) Assoc., 27 October 1961, MSS Eur. F 173/173, OIOC. 121. ‘Since the announcement was made that the statue of John Nicholson had actu- ally reached Dungannon, interest has been raised again.’ W.S. Ferguson, Foyle College Old Boys Association, 18 October 1958, to J.P. Gibson, CRO, 18 October 1958, DO 35/9043, NA UK. 122. T. Jones, CRO, to W.S. Ferguson, Foyle College Old Boys Association, 23 May 1960, DO 35/9043, NA UK. 123. Dungannon Observer, 16 April 1960. 124. Crookshank wrote,

It is really impossible to define who is Irish. No attempt was made to form a committee as it seemed wholly impossible to get unanimity on such a 254 Notes

nebulous point as nationality. It is reassuring that no owner has disputed our view as to the Irishness of the subject whose portrait we wished to borrow.

Great Irishmen: An Exhibition of Portraits of Great Irish Men and Women (Belfast, 1965), p. 5. 125. Great Irishmen, p. 59. Pamela Hinkson, a devotee of Nicholson’s heroic nature, wrote that

He had that rare experience of being a hero in his own time to men who were his peers. One understands that and everything else about him when one looks at the picture of the man. This is how I saw John Nicholson for the first time, when he was just a name to me out of Indian history.

Hinkson, Indian Harvest, pp. 123–24. 126. Louis Coxe, Nikal Seyn. Decoration Day. A Poem and a Play (Nashville, TN, 1966). Coxe also composed a shorter poem, ‘General John Nicholson,’ Hudson Review 8: 2 (1955), pp. 231–32. 127. Anthony Manousos, ‘Louis (Osborne) Coxe,’ in Donald J. Greiner, ed., American Poets Since World War II: Dictionary of Literary Biography Vol. 5 (Detroit: Gale Research, 1980). Literature Resource Center. Gale. Clemson University. Accessed 1 August 2008, http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=LitRC&u=clemson_itweb. 128. Coxe, Nikal Seyn,p.5. 129. Ibid., p. 4. 130. Ibid., pp. 4, 27. 131. Ibid., p. 7. 132. Ibid., pp. 4, 7, 8, 10, 13. 133. Ibid., p. 7. 134. Ibid., p. 16.

5 ‘The Remains of Ireland’s Loneliest Martyr’: The Commemoration of the Connaught Rangers Mutiny

1. Telegrams, Viceroy, Army Dept., to Sec. of State, 2 July 1920, L/MIL/7/13314, OIOC. 2. H.F.N. Jourdain and Edward Fraser, The Connaught Rangers (London, 1924), I: 571. 3. On the mutiny, see Anthony Babington, The Devil to Pay: The Mutiny of the Connaught Rangers, India, July 1920 (London, 1991); Thomas Bartlett, ‘The Con- naught Rangers Mutiny. India, July 1920,’ History Ireland 6: 1 (1998), pp. 5–7; Brian Hanley, ‘The Strange Story of Stephen Lally: Connaught Rangers Muti- neer,’ Irish Sword XXII: 89 (2001), pp. 337–41; Jourdain and Fraser, The Connaught Rangers; T.P. Kilfeather, The Connaught Rangers (Tralee, 1969); Patrick McCarthy, ‘The Mutiny of the Connaught Rangers – The Literature,’ Irish Sword XXII: 89 (2001), pp. 342–43; and Sam Pollock, Mutiny for the Cause (London, 1969). 4. Notably Kilfeather, Connaught Rangers, and Pollock, Mutiny for the Cause. 5. For a criticism of Babington’s interpretation of the mutiny, see Brian Hanley, ‘Stephen Lally.’ Notes 255

6. Hart, I.R.A. and Its Enemies, pp. 81–83. The Black and Tans were, in reality, by and large not, as republicans alleged, men with criminal backgrounds but fairly typi- cal British working-class men whose violence was in large part a product of their experiences in Ireland. David Leeson, ‘The “Scum of London’s Underworld”? British Recruits for the Royal Irish Constabulary, 1920–21,’ Contemporary British History 17: 1 (2003), pp. 1–38. 7. ‘Mutiny at Solon,’ broadcast on RTÉ radio on 1 November 1970, and an episode about Joseph Hawes in the documentary series ‘Black Sheep,’ broadcast on 23 April 2006 on RTÉ 1. 8. Sunday Independent, 27 November 1955. 9. Minutes of meeting with deputation of the Connaught Rangers, 4 June 1925, DFA 2000/6/11, NAI. 10. Babington, Devil to Pay, pp. 79–81. 11. See the records of the Courts Martial Proceedings at Solon and Jullundur, DFA 2000/6/11, NAI. 12. See, for example, the Bureau of Military History Witness Statement by John Flannery, p. 1, WS 287, NAI. 13. See David Fitzpatrick, Politics and Irish Life: Provincial Experience of War and Rev- olution, 1913–1921 (Dublin, 1977); and Hart, I.R.A. and its Enemies, especially pp. 273–315. 14. Lawrence James, Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India (New York, 1997), p. 477. 15. Babington, Devil to Pay, pp. 86–89. 16. William Gould to Dallas Gill, 13 October 1965, Jesse Short Collection, Misc 220, Item 3152, IWM. 17. Solon. Summary of Evidence, p. 35 DFA 2000/6/11, NAI. 18. Private M.M. McCormack received a note addressed to ‘Maccormic Trator’ [sic] from ‘True Irishmen in the name of the Irish Republic,’ warning him that ‘Death is near.’ Corporal M. Murphy later saw one of the mutineers force a sergeant to take shelter in the Sergeants’ Mess, shouting ‘In you bastard or you will die.’ Solon. Summary of Evidence, pp. 27–28, 38, DFA 2000/6/11, NAI. 19. Solon. Summary of Evidence, p. 35. DFA 2000/6/11, NAI. 20. Telegram, Viceroy to Sec. of State, 9 July 1920, Chelmsford Papers, MSS Eur. E 264/13, OIOIC. 21. Times, 5 July 1920. 22. Telegram from Viceroy, Army Dept., 21 July 1920, L/MIL/7/13314, OIOC. 23. Irish Independent, 15 February 1925. 24. Solon. Summary of Evidence, pp. 30, 37, DFA 2000/6/11, NAI. 25. Solon. Summary of Evidence, pp. 4, 15, DFA 2000/6/11, NAI; and ‘Connaught Rangers’ Case,’ 9 December 1920, L/MIL/7/13314, OIOC. 26. Telegram, Viceroy, Army Dept., to Sec. of State, 4 July 1920, L/MIL/7/13314, OIOC. 27. Telegram, Viceroy, Army Dept., 15 July 1920; and Director of Military Intel- ligence, WO, to Undersecretary of State, Military Dept., IO, 9 July 1920, L/MIL/7/13314, OIOC. 28. Jourdain and Fraser, Connaught Rangers, I: 570–71. 29. Solon. Summary of Evidence, p. 4, DFA 2000/6/11, NAI. 30. Father B. Baker, ‘Connaught Rangers’ Mutiny of 1920,’ [nd] DFA 98/2/15, NAI. Baker’s memoir is undated but was written sometime after 1928, since he refers to himself as ‘Chaplain of Solan from ’12 to ’28.’ 256 Notes

31. William Gould to Douglas Gill, 13 October 1965, Jesse Short Collection, 2/8, IWM. 32. Ian McBride, ‘Memory and National Identity in Modern Ireland,’ in McBride, ed., History and Memory in Modern Ireland (Cambridge, 2001), pp. 4–6. Other important recent studies of commemoration and historical memory in modern Ireland include Eberhard Bort, ed., Commemorating Ireland: History, Politics, Cul- ture (Dublin, 2004); Mary E. Daly and Margaret O’Callaghan, eds, 1916 in 1966: Commemorating the Easter Rising (Dublin, 2007); Anne Dolan, ‘An Army of Our Fenian Dead: Republicanism, Monuments and Commemoration,’ in Fearghal McGarry, ed., Republicanism in Modern Ireland (Dublin, 2003), pp. 132–44; Anne Dolan, Commemorating the Irish Civil War: History and Memory, 1923–2000 (Cam- bridge, 2003); Keith Jeffery, Ireland and the Great War (Cambridge, 2000); Mark McCarthy, ed., Ireland’s Heritages: Critical Perspectives on Memory and Identity (Aldershot and Burlington, VT, 2005); and Brian Walker, Dancing to History’s Tune: History, Myth and Politics in Ireland (Belfast, 1996). 33. Babington, Devil to Pay, pp. 40–41. Two exceptions were The Freeman’s Journal and the Cork Examiner. 34. The Freeman’s Journal, 5 July 1920. 35. The Freeman’s Journal, 6 July 1920. 36. The Freeman’s Journal, 6 July 1920. See also the issues of 7, 12 and 14 July. 37. Irish Press, 31 July 1920. 38. ‘Mutiny at Solon,’ RTÉ radio programme, broadcast 1 November 1970; and Westmeath Examiner, 29 October 1921. 39. Emphasis in original. Winston Churchill to David Lloyd George, 30 January 1922, F/10/2/40, David Lloyd George Papers, Parliamentary Archive, London. 40. W.T. Cosgrave to Andrew Bonar Law, 16 December 1922, 114/1/10, Andrew Bonar Law Papers, Parliamentary Archive, London. Concerns about the impact of the Connaughts’ sentencing and release on the Indian Army will be discussed in Chapter 6. 41. Babington, Devil to Pay, pp. 127–131 (quotation on p. 131). 42. Irish Independent, 8 January 1923, clipping in Dept. of the Taoiseach, S 5374A, NAI. For the ‘splendid reception’ given to three Connaught Rangers in Clare- morris, Co. Mayo, see Mayo News, 20 January 1923. 43. Patrick Shea, Voices and the Sound of Drums: An Irish Autobiography (Belfast, 1981), p. 75. 44. Terence Denman observes that following the Anglo-Boer War, ‘The anti- recruitment campaign now had a permanent place on the nationalist agenda.’ Terence Denman, ‘ “The Red Livery of Shame”: The Campaign against Army Recruitment in Ireland, 1899–1914,’ Irish Historical Studies 29: 114 (1994), pp. 208–33 (quotation on p. 219). 45. Jeffery, ‘The Irish Military Tradition,’ p. 113. 46. Westmeath Examiner, 31 July 1920. 47. As Adrian Gregory and Senia Pasetaˇ write of Irish Great War veterans, ‘At best they were frequently discriminated against, at worst they could be murdered.’ Adrian Gregory and Senia Paseta,ˇ ‘Introduction,’ in their Ireland and the Great War: ‘A War to Unite Us All’ (Manchester, 2002), p. 5. For IRA suspicions regarding Barry, see Hart, The I.R.A. and its Enemies, pp. 30–32. 48. Jane Leonard, ‘Getting Them at Last: The I.R.A. and Ex-Servicemen,’ in David Fitzpatrick, ed., Revolution? Ireland 1917–1923 (Dublin, 1990), pp. 118, 120–21, 127–28. As Joanna Burke observes, ex-servicemen in the Irish Free State not only Notes 257

faced ‘considerable institutional hurdles,’ they were also in ‘a more vulnerable psychological position.’ Joanna Burke, ‘Shell-shock, Psychiatry and the Irish Sol- dier during the First World War,’ in Gregory and Paseta,ˇ eds, Ireland and the Great War, p. 166. 49. Even the Antarctic explorer Tom Crean, who enjoyed great local popularity in Annascaul, Co. Kerry, as ‘Tom the Pole,’ said little about his days in Antarctica. His biographer, Michael Smith, concludes,

it was not the appropriate time for Crean to be publicizing his exploits on three major British-led Polar expeditions, even if there was no political links between the two .... There seems little doubt the political tensions of the era prompted him to maintain a discreet silence about his remarkable feats. In that sense, Crean, too, was a victim of Ireland’s Troubles.

Michael Smith, An Unsung Hero: Tom Crean – Antarctic Survivor (Doughcloyne and Cork, 2000), p. 312. 50. ‘Mutiny in 1st Battalion Connaught Rangers, 1920,’ WO 141/84, NA UK. 51. Stephen Gwynn to Prime Minister, 31 October 1922, WO 141/92, NA UK. 52. Roscommon Herald, 18 March 1922. 53. ‘A schedule in some of the men’s own handwriting.’ Enclosure to letter from John Flannery to W.T. Cosgrave, 22 July 1924, Dept. of the Taoiseach, S 5374A, NAI. 54. See the report of the Deportation Hearing, New York, 29 August 1940 and related correspondence in DFA 2001/14/442, NAI. 55. 26 September 1922, Note from D.P.S. to A.G. The one exception was Patrick Manion, who asked to be released because his wife was destitute. WO 141/90, NA UK. 56. ‘Mutiny in 1st Battalion Connaught Rangers, 1920,’ WO 141/84, NA UK. 57. Petitions of Thomas Devine, 29 August 1922; Joseph Hawes, 30 August 1922; and Michael Kearney, 28 July 1922. WO 141/90, NA UK. 58. Patrick McCarthy, ‘The Twilight Years: The Irish Regiments, 1919–1922,’ Irish Sword XXI: 85 (1999), p. 334. 59. John McGowan served in both. 60. ‘Ex-Connaught Rangers 1920 Mutiny at India,’ [1925], DFA 2000/6/11, NAI. 61. Diarmaid Ferriter, The Transformation of Ireland 1900–2000 (London, 2004), pp. 312–24. 62. Irish Times, 10 January 1924. 63. Memo to W.T. Cosgrave from P.L. Banim, 23 November 1928, Dept. of the Taoiseach, S 7670, NAI. 64. ‘Ex-Connaught Rangers 1920 Mutiny at India,’ [1925], DFA 2000/6/11, NAI. 65. ‘Mutiny in 1st Battalion Connaught Rangers, 1920,’ WO 141/84, NA UK; and Irish Times, 29 October 1925. 66. ‘List of Names and Addresses’ [1933], DFA 2001/14/442, NAI. 67. Emphasis in original. Maude Gonne MacBride to Mr. Grogan, 18 May 1939, Maude Gonne Collection, MSS 771, Manuscript, Archives and Rare Book Library, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia. 68. For more detail on the campaign for pensions, see Babington, Devil to Pay, pp. 134–65. 69. Irish Times, 19 March 1928. 258 Notes

70. David Fitzpatrick, ‘Commemoration in the Irish Free State: A Chronicle of Embarrassment,’ in McBride, ed., History and Memory, p. 186. 71. Dolan, Irish Civil War, pp. 1–56. 72. Jeffery, Ireland and the Great War, pp. 123–24. 73. Memo of 21 October 1924, Dept. of the Taoiseach, S 4374A, NAI. 74. ‘Mutiny in 1st Battalion Connaught Rangers, 1920,’ WO 141/84, NA UK. 75. Irish Independent, 15 February, 22 February, 1 March, 14 March, 22 March, 29 March, 5 April and 12 April 1925. For the identity of Flannery as ‘One Who Knows,’ see Babington, Devil to Pay, p. 144. 76. Copy of resolution passed at meeting, Foster Place, 3 July 1924, Dept. of the Taoiseach, S 5374A, NAI. 77. Letter from John Flannery, 6 February 1925, Dept. of the Taoiseach, S 7670, NAI. 78. Irish Times, 15 February 1928. 79. Babington, Devil to Pay, p. 156. 80. Delaney was not shy about self-promotion, so it is likely that he played a role in publicizing his role in the mutiny. Upon his return to Ireland, Delaney had provided newspaper reporters in his home county of Mayo with accounts of the mutiny that inflated his status as one of the leaders and the suffering of the mutineers. See Babington, Devil to Pay, p. 131. 81. New York Times, 15 March 1937. 82. Irish Press, 20 January 1949, cited in Babington, Devil to Pay, pp. 166–67. 83. Dáil Éireann Debates, Vol. 92, 23 February 1944. 84. See the website of the NGA: http://www.nga.ie/. Accessed 5 March 2009. As Anne Dolan observes, ‘The National Graves Association may have had masses said regularly for “all who died for Irish freedom,” but on “such solemn occasions continued fealty to the same cause for which our dead patriots had endured martyrdom” was strictly affirmed.’ Dolan, Irish Civil War, pp. 137–38. 85. The NGA observed that ‘It has always been a source of regret and frustration that, without the rights’ to the Republican Plot,

it had no control over which persons were entitled to be buried alongside Ireland’s Republican heroes. It was the unwritten policy of succeeding N.G.A. Committees that no memorials be erected on this plot until the country was united but in latter years this policy was frustrated simply because they have never had the final say in those matters.

The Last Post (2nd ed., Dublin, 1976), pp. 13–17 (quotation on p. 16). 86. Stuart Barr, ‘Charles Kerrigan and the Mutiny of the Connaught Rangers at Solon, 1920,’ Cathair na Mart: Journal of the Westport Historical Society 10: 1 (1990), pp. 84–93. For the radicalizing impact of the 1918 Taranto Mutiny on the West Indian soldiers involved, see Richard Smith, Jamaican Volunteers in the First World War: Race, Masculinity and the Development of National Consciousness (Manchester, 2004), pp. 122–51. 87. Sam Pollock, Script for ‘In Search of a Mutiny’ (1963), p. 4, 6312–219, NAM. The information about Hawes’ brother being a member of the IRA was edited from the program broadcast on the BBC in 1963. 88. Irish Press (Philadelphia), 26 November 1921. Notes 259

89. Dáil Éireann Debates, Vol. 36 10 December 1930. Davis’ escape was also noted in a 1925 government report, ‘Ex Connaught Rangers 1920 Mutiny at India,’ DFA 2000/6/11, NAI. 90. Babington, Devil to Pay, p. 4; and Witness Statement of Joseph Hawes (1949), pp. 1–2, WS 262, NAI. 91. ‘Mutiny in 1st Battalion Connaught Rangers, 1920,’ WO 141/84, NA UK. 92. Petition of Stephen Lally, 29 August 1922, WO 141/90, NA UK. 93. Margaret Lally to Eamon De Valera, 3 May 1940, Dept. of the Taoiseach, S 11829, NAI. 94. Hanley, ‘Stephen Lally,’ p. 338. 95. Margaret Lally to Eamon De Valera, 3 May 1940; and Stephen Lally, to Com- mandant, Detention Barracks, Curragh, 1 May 1940, Dept. of the Taoiseach, S 11829, NAI. 96. Hanley, ‘Stephen Lally,’ p. 341; and Ambassador, London, to Sec., Dept. of External Affairs, 14 January 1953, DFA 2001/14/442, NAI. 97. Brendan Behan, Confessions of an Irish Rebel (London, 1965), p. 104. 98. These were: Michael Kearns, Patrick J. Kelly, James Oliver, John Lynott, William Shallow, Francis Owen Davis and Joseph Walshe. Irish Press, 27 June 1949. While some Connaught Rangers later contended that John Miranda died because of ‘hardship’ or ‘bad conditions’ at Dagshai Jail, as Babington notes, his death seems to have been an isolated incident of typhoid. Babington, Devil to Pay, p. 69. 99. Irish Press, 27 June 1949. 100. Irish Independent, 27 June 1949. 101. Irish Press, 27 June 1949. 102. Irish Press, 27 June 1949 and Irish Independent, 27 June 1949. For the prominence of the Last Post and the firing of volleys of shots as ele- ments adopted from British military traditions, see Dolan, Irish Civil War, pp. 154–55. 103. Pauric Travers, ‘ “Our Fenian Dead”: Glasnevin Cemetery and the Genesis of the Republican Funeral,’ in James Kelly and Uaitear MacGearailt, eds, Dublin and Dubliners: Essays in the History and Literature of Dublin City (Dublin, 1990), pp. 52– 72 and Gary Owens, ‘Constructing the Martyrs: the Manchester Executions and the Nationalist Imagination,’ in Lawrence W. McBride, ed., Images, Icons and the Irish Nationalist Imagination (Dublin, 1999), pp. 18–36. 104. Owen, ‘Constructing the Martyrs,’ p. 25. 105. Sean Farrell Moran, ‘Patrick Pearse and Patriotic Soteriology: The Irish Repub- lican Tradition and the Sanctification of Political Self-immolation,’ in Yonah Alexander and Alan O’Day, eds, The Irish Terrorism Experience (Brookfield, VT and Aldershot, 1991), pp. 9–10, 18–19. 106. Walker, Dancing to History’s Tune, pp. 87–89. 107. John S. Ellis, ‘The Degenerate and the Martyr: Nationalist Propaganda and the Contestation of Irishness, 1914–1918,’ Éire-Ireland 35: 3–4 (2000–1), pp. 7–33; John Newsinger, ‘ “I Bring Not Peace but a Sword”: The Religious Motif in the Irish War of Independence,’ Journal of Contemporary History 13: 3 (1978), pp. 609– 28; Daniel J. O’Neill, ‘The Cult of Self-Sacrifice: The Irish Experience,’ Éire-Ireland 24: 4 (1989), pp. 89–105; and George Sweeney, ‘Irish Hunger Strikes and the Cult of Self-Sacrifice,’ Journal of Contemporary History 28 (1993), pp. 421–37. 108. Dolan, Irish Civil War, p. 151. For the public funerals given to prominent sup- porters of the Irish Free State, see Dermot Keogh and Gabriel Doherty, ‘ “Sorrow 260 Notes

but no Despair – the Road is Marked”: The Politics of Funerals in Post-1916 Ire- land,’ in Gabriel Doherty and Dermot Keogh, eds, Michael Collins and the Making of the Irish Free State (Dublin, 1998), pp. 186–201. For the ‘funerary culture’ of Ireland, see Nina Witoszek, ‘Ireland: A Funerary Culture?’ Studies 17: 1 (1987), pp. 206–15. 109. ‘A Tribute to the Connaught Rangers,’ Roscommon Herald, 20 January 1923. 110. New York Times, 15 March 1937. 111. Dominic Behan, Ireland Sings: An Anthology of Irish Songs and Ballads (London, 1973), p. 36. 112. Dáil Éireann Debates, Vol. 221, 24 February 1966. 113. Kilfeather, Connaught Rangers, pp. 2–3. 114. The image is reproduced in Pollock, between pp. 48, 49. For Daly’s service in the Great War, see Babington, Devil to Pay, p. 95. 115. Daly’s older brother William also served in the Connaught Rangers, and had been one of the leaders of the protest at Jullundur, but withdrew. According to his sister, he became ‘convinced that the course of action they proposed would be useless,’ but afterward refused to discuss the mutiny. Malcolm Hay, ‘The Indian Mutiny That Made an Irish Martyr,’ Observer Magazine,2December 1979, pp. 103–4. 116. Pollock, ‘In Search of a Mutiny,’ pp. 17–18, 6312–219, NAM. 117. Babington, Devil to Pay, p. 20. The only prior disciplinary incident recorded for Daly was one instance of not complying with an order. See ‘Statement as to Character and Particulars of Service of Accused,’ WO 71/1030, NA UK. 118. Solon. Summary of Evidence, p. 4, DFA 2000/6/11, NAI. 119. WO 71/1030, NA UK. 120. Solon. Summary of Evidence, p. 9, DFA 2000/6/11, NAI. 121. Westmeath Examiner, 11 December 1920, p. 5. 122. Westmeath Examiner, 19 February 1921, p. 8. 123. Westmeath Examiner, 11 December 1920, p. 5. 124. For example, Kilfeather, Connaught Rangers, pp. 3–4; and Pollock, Mutiny for the Cause, p. 85. 125. For republicans, Barry embodied ‘the noble ideal of heroism and self-sacrifice’; British authorities also attempted to utilize Barry’s execution for propaganda purposes. M.A. Doherty, ‘Kevin Barry and the Anglo-Irish Propaganda War,’ Irish Historical Studies 32: 126 (2000), pp. 217–31. Jay Winter, Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning: The Great War in European Cultural History (Cambridge, 1995), p. 51. 126. Keith Jeffery has noted that in spite of historians’ focus on the ‘public and polit- ical dimension of Great War commemoration’ in Ireland ‘many people – who knows, perhaps most’ attended memorial ceremonies there ‘for private reasons.’ Jeffery, Great War, pp. 126–27. 127. Hay, ‘Indian Mutiny,’ pp. 103–4. 128. The ‘sack of Balbriggan’ took place on 20 September 1920, so Daly could conceiv- ably have learned about the events there prior to his execution, but not before the Connaught Rangers’ mutiny. A letter from mutineer Joseph Walsh, printed in the News Letter of the Friends of Irish Freedom on 30 July 1921 also stated that ‘Revenge for Balbriggan’ was Daly’s favorite expression. 129. Fitzpatrick, who placed his date of arrival in India as January 1921, claimed to have received his information from the priest present at Daly’s execution. Westmeath Examiner, 29 October 1921. 130. J.C. Keane, ‘The Martyr of Jallandor,’ Westmeath Examiner, 29 October 1921. Notes 261

131. See the correspondence in Dept. of the Taoiseach, S 7670, NAI. The govern- ment was, however, far from generous in its dealing with Mrs. Daly. When Daly received a check for £10 in August 1926, she also received a note stating that ‘the small fund at the President’s disposal is now exhausted and it is therefore regretted that this is the last payment that can be made to you.’ 132. Westmeath Examiner, 11 April 1925, clipping in Dept. of the Taoiseach, S 7670, NAI. 133. Cited in Babington, Devil to Pay, p. 162. 134. Dorothy Macardle, The Irish Republic (1st American ed.; New York, 1965), p. 364. As Anne Dolan observes, ‘Failure was an integral part of Irish martyrdom – the more inevitable the failure, the more precious the martyr.’ Dolan, Irish Civil War, p. 152. 135. Although the refusal of the Connaught Rangers to perform military duties had begun on the morning of 28 June 1920, Joseph Hawes observed in his memoir that the mutiny ‘actually ...all began the night previous’ when Hawes and four other soldiers met in the canteen at Jullundur barracks to discuss Hawes’ news of British Army brutalities in Ireland. Witness Statement of Joseph Hawes (1949), p. 1, WS 262, NAI. 136. Dáil Éireann Debates, Vol. 92, 23 February 1944. 137. Irish Press, 11 November 1955, clipping in DFA 2000/14/442. 138. Irish Press, 7 November 1960. 139. Irish Independent, 6 November 1961. 140. Travers, ‘ “Our Fenian Dead,” ’ pp. 57–60. 141. Kevin Grant, ‘Bones of Contention: The Repatriation of the Remains of Roger Casement,’ Journal of British Studies 41 (2002), pp. 337–38. 142. Irish Press, 17 October 1954, clipping in DFA 2000/14/442, NAI. 143. The Last Post, pp. 13–17. 144. Ibid., pp. 23–24, 96. 145. Irish Independent, 23 October 1924, cited in Babington, Devil to Pay, pp. 142–43. 146. Stephen Lally to High Commissioner for Ireland, 27 December 1952, DFA 2001/14/442, NAI. 147. Irish Press, 11 November and 28 November 1955, clippings in DFA 2000/ 14/442, NAI. 148. Irish Press, 22 November 1955, clipping in DFA 2000/14/442, NAI. 149. Offaly Independent, 19 June 1954, clipping in DFA 2000/14/442, NAI. 150. Secretary, Offaly County Council, to Sec., DEA, 15 September 1954, DFA 2001/14/442, NAI. 151. Offaly Independent, 21 August 1954. 152. Secretary, Offaly County Council, to Sec., DEA, 15 September 1954; County Sec., Limerick Co. Council, to Sec., DEA, 16 October 1954; and K.J. Brangan, Wicklow Co. Sec., to Sec., Executive Council, Dublin, 25 October 1954,. DFA 2001/14/ 442, NAI. 153. Edward Walshe, Town Clerk, Birr Urban District Council, to Sec., DEA, 25 September 1954 DFA 2001/14/442, NAI. 154. Sean McGuinness to Minister of External Affairs, 17 May 1955, DFA 2001/14/442, NAI. 155. Note by S.K., 27 May 1955, DFA 2001/14/443, NAI. 156. Note by MacDonagh, 8 February 1956, DFA 2001/12/443, NAI. 157. J.W. Dulanty, High Commissioner, London, to Sec., DEA, 5 June 1937, DFA 2001/14/442, NAI. 262 Notes

158. G. Kimble, British Embassy, Dublin, to G.W. St. John Chadwick, CRO, 3 November 1959, DO 35/8035, NA UK. 159. Note by J.A.B., 16 February 1956, DFA 2001/14/443, NAI. 160. Note by S.O’R., 8 February 1961, DFA 2001/14/443, NAI. 161. Casement’s remains were reinterred in the Republican Plot in Glasnevin Ceme- tery on 27 February 1965, following a state funeral. The remains of Dunne and O’Sullivan were reinterred in the Republican Plot in Deansgrange Cemetery, Blackrock, Co. Dublin, on 5 July 1967. 162. See Grant, ‘Bones of Contention,’ pp. 329–53; and Deidre McMahon, ‘Roger Casement: An Account from the Archives of His Reinterment in Ireland,’ Irish Archives 3 (1996), pp. 3–12. 163. Grant, ‘Bones of Contention,’ p. 353. 164. Róisín Nic Aongus to E. Sweeney, 7 February 1966, DFA 2001/14/442, NAI. 165. Note by Brennan, 4 January 1966, DFA 2001/14/443, NAI. 166. Teresa Maher, to Eugene Sweeney, Hon. Sec., Federation of IRA. 1916–1921, 15 November 1965, DFA 2001/14/442, NAI. 167. Teresa Maher to Brendan Crinion, TD, 29 June 1967, DFA 2001/14/442, NAI. 168. Major E. Solomon to Mrs. H. Phillips, UK High Commissioner’s Office, 30 July 1956; Extract from the Minutes of the Meeting of the North India Cemeter- ies Board, 14 and 21 August 1956; and Solomon to Philips, 27 February 1957, R/4/408, OIOC. 169. Note of 12 January 1967, DFA 2001/14/443, NAI. 170. Valentin Iremonger, Ambassador, New Delhi, to Secretary, DEA, 24 January 1969, DFA 98/2/15, NAI. 171. Kilfeather, Connaught Rangers. The quotation appears on the inside back cover of the paperback edition. 172. Note by S.G. Ronan, 18 February 1969, DFA 98/2/15, NAI. 173. Note by S.G. Ronan, 1 April 1969, DFA 98/2/15, NAI. 174. ‘Minutes of Meeting with representatives of the National Graves Association on repatriation of the remains of Pvt. James Joseph Daly,’ 26 February 1970, DFA 98/2/15, NAI. 175. ‘Repatriation of Remains of Connaught Rangers,’ 3 July 1970, DFA 98/2/15, NAI. 176. Note by Drury, Secretary, Irish Embassy, New Delhi, 8 October 1968, DFA 98/2/15, NAI. 177. Charge d’Affaires, Irish Embassy, New Delhi, to Secretary, DEA, 25 August 1970, DFA 98/2/15, NAI. At a meeting in July 1970, the NGA made a last attempt to have the remains of Miranda transferred to Ireland and buried at state expense, but the DEA representatives remained ‘quite adamant that this was out of the question.’ ‘Minutes of Meeting with representatives of the National Graves Asso- ciation on the repatriation of the remains of Privates Daly, Smyth and Sears,’ 7 July 1970, DFA 98/2/15, NAI. 178. ‘Minutes of Meeting with representatives of the National Graves Association on repatriation of the remains of Pvt. James Joseph Daly,’ 26 February 1970, DFA 98/2/15, NAI. 179. This stance was in contrast to other prominent cases of the repatriation of the remains of prominent nationalists over the previous hundred years. For example, the wishes of Roger Casement for a burial site in Co. Antrim, North- ern Ireland, were disregarded as politically impolitic. See Grant, ‘Bones of Contention.’ 180. Westmeath Examiner, 5 September 1970. Notes 263

181. Peter Harbison, ‘Unmistakably Imogen: A Personal Tribute to Imogen Stuart’s Work,’ in Brian Fallon, Imogen Stuart: Sculptor (Dublin, 2002), p. 64. As Harbison notes, children form a recurring subject in Stuart’s work. 182. Westmeath-Offaly Independent, 4 September 1970. 183. Westmeath Examiner, 7 November 1970. 184. Westmeath-Offaly Independent, 6 November 1970. 185. Ibid. 186. Westmeath Examiner, 7 November 1970. 187. Irish Times, 2 November 1970. 188. Irish Press, 27 June 1949. 189. The Last Post, p. 69. 190. ‘Repatriation of remains of Connaught Rangers,’ 11 June 1970, DFA 98/2/ 15, NAI. 191. Westmeath-Offaly Independent, 6 November 1970. 192. Irish Times, 9 August 1971. A photo of the memorial appears in Kathleen Hegarty Thorne, They Put the Flag a-Flyin’: The Roscommon Volunteers 1916–1923 (Eugene, OR, 2005), p. 39. 193. Irish Independent, 8 February 1971 and Irish Times, 7 May 1971. 194. Grave of Charles Kerrigan (text transcribed by E. Hewitt May 2000), BASCA Collection, MSS Eur. F 370/483, OIOC. 195. The Observer, 11 November 1979. 196. http://www.glynjones.net/plays.aspx?id=18. Accessed 14 May 2008; and Finan- cial Times, 9 November 1979. 197. Tourist Guide to Tyrrellspass (Tyrrellspass, nd). 198. Stephen Lally stated that the mutineers had erected a memorial stone at Daly’s gravesite, but this could not be located. Photographs show a simple gravestone erected by the British Army which reads, ‘Pte Daly/1st Connaught Rangers/Died 2-11-20/Age 22 Years.’ Irish Independent, 5 March 1970, clipping in DFA 98/2/15, NAI. 199. A transcription and translation is in the BASCA collection: MSS Eur. F 370/483, OIOC. 200. Irish Times, 5 November 1973. 201. An Phoblacht/Republican News, 16 November 1995. http://www.fh-trier.de/∼ hammm/wbp/16brie.html. Viewed 2 February 2005. 202. Saoirse/Irish Freedom, November 2007, p. 8.

6 ‘Enemies of the Empire’? The Imperial Context of the Connaught Rangers Mutiny

1. Brian Padraic O’Shasnain, ‘Shane O’Neill Discovers India,’ Independent Hindustan 1: 3 (November 1920), pp. 55–58, 70. 2. See Chapter 1. 3. Derek Sayer, ‘British Reaction to the Amritsar Massacre 1919–1920,’ Past and Present 131 (1991), pp. 130–64 (quotation on p. 153). 4. ‘Irish Revolt in India,’ Independent Hindustan 1: 1 (September 1920), p. 1. 5. See E.M. Spiers, ‘Army Organization and Society in the Nineteenth Century,’ in Bartlett and Jeffery, eds, A Military History of Ireland, pp. 335–57; and Peter Karsten, ‘Irish Soldiers in the British Army, 1792–1922: Suborned or Subordinate,’ Journal of Social History 17: 1 (1983), pp. 31–64. 264 Notes

6. Denman, ‘Ethnic Soldiers,’ p. 254. David Murphy also observes that ‘the Con- naught Rangers was perhaps one of the best-known of the Irish regiments in the British Army.’ David Murphy, The Irish Brigades, 1685–2006: A Gazetteer of Irish Military Service, Past and Present (Dublin, 2007), p. 184. 7. Babington, Devil to Pay, p. 1. For a synopsis of the regiment’s history, see Murphy, The Irish Brigades, pp. 184–91. 8. Murphy, The Irish Brigades, p. 188. 9. Cited in Stephen Gwynn, ‘The Irish Regiments,’ in Felix Lavery, comp., Great Irishmen in War and Politics (London, 1920), p. 162. 10. Cited in Jourdain and Fraser, Connaught Rangers, I: 43. 11. Ibid., III: 561–62. 12. Cited in Ibid., I: 423. 13. ‘Rise Up Noble Britons,’ L.C.Fol.178.A.2 (109), National Library of Scotland. http://www.nls.uk/broadsides/broadside.cfm/id/14873/transcript/1. Viewed 6 July 2008. 14. Spiers, ‘Army Organization and Society,’ in Bartlett and Jeffery, eds, A Mili- tary History of Ireland, pp. 339. Under the Cardwell reforms, the Connaught Rangers regiment was re-designated as the 1st Battalion, Connaught Rangers, while the 94th Regiment of Foot, which historically had been a predom- inantly Scottish regiment, became the 2nd Battalion of the Connaught Rangers. 15. The regimental history adds that ‘This went on for many years, but one Com- manding Officer, who did not hail from the Emerald Isle, gave orders that this was not to be allowed. However, the custom was revived after he left, and was carried on until the disbandment.’ Jourdain and Fraser, Connaught Rangers, III: 563, 564. 16. Jourdain and Fraser, Connaught Rangers, III: 564. 17. Kilfeather, Connaught Rangers, p. 139. 18. The 94th regiment of foot, which became the 2nd battalion of the Con- naught Rangers in 1881, fought in the campaign against Tipu Sultan, and thus ‘Seringapatam’ was one of the regiment’s battle honors. 19. Jourdain and Fraser, Connaught Rangers, I: 201. 20. The Connaught Rangers were stationed in India from 1857 to 1870, from 1880 to 1891 and from 1908 until the outbreak of the First World War. When the 1st battalion arrived at Jullundur in November 1919, it was the third time that the regiment had been stationed there. Ibid., I: 234, 569. 21. Denman adds, ‘Increasingly, the real racial divisions now became those between the white troops of the metropolitan army, the native troops that assisted them, and the subject population they held down.’ Denman, ‘Ethnic Soldiers,’ pp. 263, 264. 22. Martin J. Wiener, An Empire on Trial: Race, Murder, and Justice under British Rule, 1870–1935 (Cambridge, 2009), p. 139. For the strategies by which the colonial state managed inter-racial violence, see Jordanna Bailkin, ‘The Boot and the Spleen: When Was Murder Possible in British India?’ Comparative Studies in Society and History 48: 2 (2006), pp. 462–93. For the conflicts such violence engendered, and how the legal framework of the Raj dealt with inter-racial violence, see Wiener, An Empire on Trial, pp. 128–192. 23. I owe this point to Professor Harish Trivedi. 24. Cited in Horne, End of Empires, p. 69. Notes 265

25. Frank Richards, Old Soldier Sahib (1936; 2nd ed. London, 1965), pp. 142–43. 26. Fred Williams to his sister, Louisa, 26 December 1912, F. Williams Collection, 80/23/1, IWM. 27. William Crutchlow, Tale of an Old Soldier (London, 1937), pp. 61–69, 81. 28. The Wolfe Tones, ‘Connaught Rangers,’ Belt of the Celts [sound recording] (Shanachie Entertainment, 1993). The song’s chorus does refer to the ‘Dagshai heat,’ which a listener familiar with the story of the mutiny would know was the place in India where Daly was executed. 29. Gallagher, ‘Crisis of Empire,’ p. 355. 30. Over 20,000 Irishmen enlisted in the reorganized British Army from 1919 to 1921, and the Irish proportion of the army at the end of that period was almost as large as it had been in 1913. David Fitzpatrick, ‘Militarism in Ireland, 1900– 1922,’ p. 399. 31. The Freeman’s Journal, 7 July 1920. 32. See Chapter 3. 33. Tan Tai Yong, The Garrison State: The Military, Government and Society in Colonial Punjab, 1849–1947 (New Delhi, Thousands Oaks, CA, and London, 2005), p. 188. 34. Sumit Sarkar, Modern India 1885–1947 (Delhi, 1983), p. 189. For case studies of the Rowlatt satyagraha in different parts of India, see Ravinder Kumar, ed., Essays on Gandhian Politics: The Rowlatt Satyagraha of 1919 (Oxford, 1971). 35. Sarkar, Modern India, p. 190. 36. Ibid., p. 196. 37. Source Material for a History of the Freedom Movement in India. Vol. III. Mahatma Gandhi. Part I: 1915–1922 (Bombay, 1965), pp. 298–99 (Quotation on p. 299). 38. J.S. Grewal, The Sikhs of the Punjab (Rev. ed., Cambridge, 1990), pp. 157–80. 39. Cited in Nigel Collett, The Butcher of Amritsar: General Reginald Dyer (London, 2005), p. 292. 40. Tan Tai Yong, Garrison State, p. 189. 41. Jourdain and Fraser, Connaught Rangers, I: 570. 42. Ibid. 43. David Omissi, The Sepoy and the Raj: The Indian Army, 1860–1940 (London, 1994), pp. 113–52. 44. Amitav Ghosh, ‘Mutinies: India, Ireland and Imperialism,’ p. 122. 45. Telegram from Commander-in-Chief, India to War Office, 29 October 1920, L/MIL/7/13314; and Chelmsford to Montagu, 19 October 1920, Chelmsford Collection, MSS Eur. E 264/6, OIOC. 46. Telegram, Sec.of State to Viceroy, 28 October 1920, Chelmsford Collection, MSS Eur. E 264/13, OIOC. 47. Viceroy to Sec. of State, 31 October 1920, Chelmsford Collection, MSS Eur. E 264/13, OIOC. 48. Thomas Bartlett writes, ‘Why was James Daly shot? The short answer to this is that, in the eyes of the authorities, Daly had to die, not for Ireland, but for India.’ Bartlett, ‘The Connaught Rangers Mutiny,’ p. 6. 49. Memorandum by the Secretary of State for War, ‘Sentences on Men of the Con- naught Rangers Convicted of Mutiny,’ 4 February 1922, 114/1/2, Andrew Bonar Law Papers, Parliamentary Archive, London. 50. Memo by John Anderson (to Mister Loughnane), 27 December 1922, HO 144/3724, NA UK. 51. Enclosure to Stephen Gwynn to Prime Minister, 20 December 1922, Andrew Bonar Law Papers, 114/1/13, Parliamentary Archive, London. 266 Notes

52. Cited in Campbell, Maharajah’s Box, p. 235. 53. H.L. Salkeld, Anushilan Samiti Dacca. Part II (1909), in TIB II: 115 54. English translation of Ghadr, 26 July 1916, MSS Eur. E 288/3, OIOC. 55. Anthony Babington notes that two Indian papers published accounts of the mutiny, but does not analyze Indian nationalist reactions or place this in the context of contemporary Indian–Irish nationalist relationships. Babington, Devil to Pay,p.86. 56. See Chapter 5. 57. Irish Independent, 14 March 1925. 58. Viceroy (Army Dept.) to Sec. of State, 4 July 1920, L/MIL/7/13314, OIOC. 59. Tribune (Lahore), 4 July and 15 July 1920. 60. Fateh, 8 July 1920, in Special Bureau of Information, Weekly Report No. 23 for the Week Ending the 24 July 1920, L/P&S/10/887, OIOC. 61. Fateh, 8 July 1920, in Special Bureau of Information, Weekly Report No. 23 for the Week Ending the 24 July 1920, L/P&S/10/887, OIOC. A similar argument was made in the Prakash newspaper of 7 July 1920. See Report on Newspapers Published in the Bombay Presidency [Bombay Newspapers], Week Ending 17 July 1920, L/R/5/178, OIOC. 62. Kesari, 6 July 1920, in Bombay Newspapers, Week Ending 10 July 1920, L/R/5/178, OIOC. 63. Andrapatrika, 3 July 1920, in Report on English Papers Examined by the Criminal Investigation Department, Madras, and on Vernacular Papers Examined by the Trans- lators to the Government of Madras [Madras Newspapers], Week Ending 10 July 1920, L/R/5/128, OIOC. 64. Source Material for a History of the Freedom Movement in India. Vol. III. Part I, p. 320. 65. Desabhaktan, 29 July 1920, in Madras Newspapers, Week Ending 7 August 1920, L/R/5/128, OIOC. 66. Bangavasi, 10 July 1920, in Reports of the Native Press in Bengal, Week Ending 17 July 1920, p. 437; WBSA. 67. Qaumi Report, 4 July 1920, in Madras Newspapers, Week Ending 17 July 1920, L/R/5/128, OIOC. 68. The Tribune, for example, reported on the sentencing of the mutineers and the execution of ‘one private,’ but did not comment beyond reporting the sen- tences from the Government of India. Tribune, 24 November 1920. There are no references to the Connaught Rangers in any of the provincial press abstracts for November 1920. 69. Davis, ‘The Influence of the Irish Revolution,’ p. 58. 70. Tribune, 24 December 1920, in Punjab Press Abstract, 25 December 1920, L/R/5/202, OIOC. 71. Grant, ‘Hunger Strikes and Political Fasts,’ p. 255. 72. ‘Ever since all the 68 Sinn Feiners, elected to the British Parliament ...Ireland has been a hotbed of dacoities, murders, incindiarism and anarchism and many vowed to est. democracy. Mr. MacSweney [sic] was one of such persons and he had given up his life in this cause. It is no exaggeration to say that there are several ready to follow him. How are the British Ministers going to get out of such a situation?’ Swadesamitran, 27 October 1920 in Madras Newspapers, Week Ending 6 November 1920, L/R/5/128, OIOC. For the influence of MacSwiney’s hunger strike on Indian revolutionaries in the 1920s, see Grant, ‘Hunger Strikes and Poltical Fasts,’ pp. 256–57. Notes 267

73. Al Bureed (Cawnpore), 1 November 1920 and Aj (Benares), 4 November 1920 in Selections from Newspapers Published in the United Provinces, Week Ending 6 November 1920, L/R/5/95, OIOC. 74. ‘Irish Revolt in India,’ Independent Hindustan, 1: 1 (September 1920), p. 1. 75. Independent Hindustan, 1: 6 (February 1921), p. 136; and Irish Press (Philadephia), 5 February 1921, p. 8. 76. Independent Hindustan, 1: 6 (February 1921), pp. 136, 142; and Irish Press (Philadelphia), 5 February 1921. 77. See Chapters 1 and 2. 78. K.F. Nariman, What Next? (Bombay, 1934), pp. 186–88. Nariman also con- tended that the mutiny demonstrated that resignations in Ireland from police and government positions were not due to intimidation and threats, but rather patriotism, ‘because such threats could not have reached the Connaught Rangers in the distant Punjab where they were quite secure and safe in Indian barracks.’ 79. Charge d’Affaires, Embassy of Ireland, New Delhi, to Sec., Dept. of External Affairs, 25 August 1970, DFA 98/2/15, NAI. 80. Extract from Mr. Sykes’ Tour Note of the 15 July 1954, R/4/408, OIOC. Sykes expressed skepticism about the claim that Daly’s grave was a pilgrimage site, however. 81. Indian Express, 14 September 2003. 82. Buettner, ‘Cemeteries,’ pp. 21–23. 83. J.C. Morgan, A Time to Remember: A History of the Redemptorists in India and Sri Lanka, 1938–1972 (Bangalore, 1992), p. 71. 84. The day after the Irish vice-provincial from Delhi, Father Matt Hickey, arrived in Dagshai on a visit in August 1950, he and another Redemp- torist father made a pilgrimage to Daly’s grave. Morgan, A Time to Remember, pp. 74–75. 85. ‘Report on Visit to Dagsahi & Kasauli,’ 8 November 1966, DFA 2000/14/442, NAI. 86. Secretary of the Embassy to Ambassador, New Delhi, 8 October 1968, DFA 98/2/15, NAI. 87. Indian Express, 14 September 2003. 88. General Staff Communiqué, 8 July 1920, GOI Home (Pol) No. 294, July 1920, NA India. 89. Anthony Babington concludes that he was ‘among the most culpable of all the Jullundur mutineers.’ ‘Mutiny in 1st Battalion Connaught Rangers, 1920,’ WO 141/84, NA; and Babington, The Devil to Pay, p. 52. 90. Sam Pollock, Script for ‘In Search of a Mutiny,’ p. 20, 6312-219, NAM. Geraghty’s remarks, and the discussion of soldiers’ memories of 1857, were included in the script but deleted from the broadcast program. 91. Sunday Independent, 22 February 1925. 92. Sunday Independent, 22 March 1925. See also Kilfeather, Connaught Rangers, p. 175. 93. Album of Drawings by Connaught Rangers, 1920–21, MS 19089, National Library of Ireland. 94. John Flannery Witness Statement, WS 287, pp. 23–24. NAI. 95. John Flannery Witness Statement, WS 287, pp. 15–16, 17–18. NAI. 96. John Flannery Witness Statement, WS 287, p. 18. NAI. 268 Notes

97. See the account of the meeting in the undated document in DFA 2000/14/ 442, NAI. 98. Sunday Independent, 27 November 1955. 99. Solon. Summary of Evidence, p. 26, DFA 2000/6/11, NAI. 100. Joseph Hawes Witness Statement, pp. 17, 20–23, WS 262, NAI; and ‘In Search of A Mutiny Script,’ p. 31. Hawes’ remarks regarding this episode were included in the script but not included in the broadcast. 101. Joseph Hawes Witness Statement, p. 25, WS 262, NAI. 102. Joseph Hawes Witness Statement, p. 28A, WS 262, NAI. 103. ‘Mutiny at Solon.’ Produced and presented by Donncha O’Dulaing, 1 November 1970. RTÉ. 104. Westmeath-Offaly Independent, 6 November 1970. Hawes expressed similar senti- ments in the RTÉ radio programme ‘Mutiny at Solon.’ 105. Hanley, ‘Stephen Lally,’ p. 338. There is no such telegram, nor any reference to the Connaught Rangers mutiny, in the volume of The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi covering the period from July to November 1920. 106. Dáil Debates, Vol. 36, 3 December 1930. In the same debate, another TD also argued for the increased importance of the mutiny, given that it took place in India. ‘These men, who served in the British Army, who knew that on the slight- est sign of mutiny they were doomed in India to death or imprisonment, were prepared to die and do.’ 107. Dáil Debates, Vol. 36, 3 December 1930. 108. ‘Bose’s Message to Irish Republicans,’ 12 February 1943, DO 35/2059, NA UK. 109. O’Malley, Ireland, India and Empire, p. 112. 110. Irish Press, 27 June 1949. 111. Cited in Davis, ‘The Influence of the Irish Revolution,’ p. 61. 112. Vincent Corrigan, 1916: The Creation of the First Nation State in the 20th Century (New York, 2001), pp. 241, 242, 244. 113. Lennon, Irish Orientalism. 114. ‘Reflections on Partition,’ in the booklet accompanying the Second Run DVD edition of Partition (2007). 115. Michael O’Leary, of Co. Cork, was one of the most famous Irish soldiers of the First World War, who won the Victoria Cross while a lance corporal in the Irish Guards in 1915. O’Leary was given a commission in the 1st Connaught Rangers, and became a Captain prior to the end of the First World War. Jean and Desmond Bowen, Heroic Option: The Irish in the British Army (Barnsley, England, 2005), p. 224. 116. Prompt copy of The 88, Theatre Museum, Covent Garden, London. 117. Jones’ play makes reference to a number of events discussed by Hawes in his statement to the Bureau of Military History. 118. Prompt copy of The 88; and Sunday Telegraph, 11 November 1979, Clip- ping in Materials Relating to The 88, Theatre Museum, Covent Garden, London. 119. John Kavanagh, No Comet Seen, Irish Playography Web site, http://www. irishplayography.com/index.html. 120. John Morrissey, ‘A Lost Heritage: The Connaught Rangers and Multivocal Irishness,’ in McCarthy, ed., Ireland’s Heritages, p. 71. 121. Jane Leonard, ‘Facing “the Finger of Scorn”: Veterans’ Memories of Ireland after the Great War,’ in Martin Evans and Keith Lunn, eds, War and Memory in the Twentieth Century (Oxford and New York, 1997), p. 65. Notes 269

122. The cemetery was established after the Second World War to receive Common- wealth war dead. See the information on the Commonwealth War Graves Com- mission Website: http://www.cwgc.org/search/casualty_details.aspx?casualty= 1498907. Viewed 6 July 2008. 123. Gordon Cox, ‘Songs and Ballads of the Wet Canteen: Recollections of a British Soldier in India,’ Lore and Language 3: 7 (1982), pp. 53–67; and Roy Palmer, ‘What a Lovely War’ British Soldiers’ Songs from the Boer War to the Present Day (London, 1990), pp. 63–66. Both authors identify songs of mutiny and punishment as popular genres for soldiers’ singing sessions in ‘wet canteens’ (canteens where beer was sold) at army cantonments in India during this period. 124. Harper recalled that ‘The incident, I was told, took place in India, some time during the 1880’s. McCaffery was a gunner, and according to my informant, the ballad was written by the condemned man himself, just before his execution.’ S.H. Harper, ‘ “McCaffery”: A Ballad,’ Notes and Queries 190: 10 (18 May 1946), pp. 217–18. 125. Brendan Behan, Confessions of an Irish Rebel, pp. 103–104; and Dominic Behan, Ireland Sings, p. 36. 126. Conor Reilly, ‘Conor Francis O’Brien, Connaught Ranger (1895–1969),’ Irish Sword 22: 89 (2001), p. 334. 127. Irish Times, 29 May 1939. 128. Irish Times, 5 August 1927. 129. Irish Times, 8 June 1931. 130. Reilly, ‘Conor Francis O’Brien,’ p. 335. 131. Irish Times, 12 November 1927. 132. Irish Times, 15 February and 16 February 1934; and Dáil Éireann Debates, Vol. 50. 21 February 1934. 133. Michael Browne, Cathedral of Our Lady Assumed into Heaven and Saint Nicholas, Galway: A History and Description (Galway, 1967), p. 9. 134. The remaining funds were to be used for ‘the relief of distress among old Rangers and their families in Ireland.’ ‘The Ranger Memorial Window,’ The Ranger (July 1967), p. 29. 135. Browne, Cathedral, p. 35; The Ranger (July 1965), p. 3; and ‘Galway’s New Cathedral,’ The Ranger (July 1966), p. 25. 136. Sunday Independent, 18 October 1964. In response, William P. Greene of Dublin commented that Mac Aonghusa’s ‘hostile comments’ were ‘in very bad taste,’ noting that the Connaught Rangers, ‘remembered for their bravery in battle, and their practical Christianity in times of peace,’ built and endowed chapels both at Renmore Barracks in Galway, and in India. Sunday Independent, 1 November 1964. Clippings in DFA 2000/14/442, NAI. 137. Plans for the creation of a larger window also dedicated to the Connaughts within the cathedral did not materialize. The Ranger (July 1966), p. 3; and The Ranger (July 1967), p. 3. 138. ‘Galway Cathedral,’ The Ranger (July, 1968), p. 36; and Reilly, ‘Conor Francis O’Brien,’ p. 336. 139. Galway Cathedral: A Visitor’s Guide (Galway, 2002). 140. The CRA newsletter (April 1972), P. 635/12, British Library.

Conclusion

1. Coughlan earned the VC as part of the 75th Regiment, and subsequently served in the Connaught Rangers. The Mayo News reported that he was ‘a good 270 Notes

Catholic ...of a kind and affable disposition,’ who ‘won the respect and esteem of the people of the town.’ Donal Buckley, ‘Sergeant-Major Coughlan VC: Obituary from the Mayo News,’ Cathair na Mart: Journal of the Westport Historical Society 23 (2003), pp. 60–63. 2. Irish Times, 9 August 2004. 3. Irish Independent, 9 August 2004. 4. Sunday Independent, 15 August 2004; Sunday Business Post, 29 August 2004; and Sunday Business Post, 29 August 2004. 5. Mayo News, 4 May 2006. 6. Kenny, ‘The Irish in the Empire,’ p. 93. 7. See Chapter Two and O’Malley, Ireland, India and Empire, pp. 90–117, 156–78. 8. See the correspondence in the De Valera Papers, P 150/1053, University College Dublin Archives. 9. Telegram of 17 September 1964, DFA 2002/19/84, NAI. 10. For Radhakrishnan’s visit, see Dept. of the Taoiseach, S 17563/95, NAI. 11. See Dept. of the Taoiseach 99/1/569, NAI. 12. Deirdre McMahon observes that ‘Ireland loomed large in the minds of British offi- cials.’ Deidre McMahon, ‘A Larger and Noisier Southern Ireland: Ireland and the Evolution of Dominion Status in India, Burma and the Commonwealth, 1942–9,’ in Michael Kennedy and Joseph Morrison Skelly, eds, Irish Foreign Policy, 1919–66 (Dublin, 2000), pp. 155–91 (quotation on p. 169). 13. Bose had studied the writings of Patrick Pearse while a political prisoner in Burma in the 1920s, but at the time had been unconvinced by Pearse’s empha- sis on martyrdom and self-sacrifice. David A. Campion, ‘War, Patriotism, and the Romanticism of Patrick Pearse and Subhas Chandra Bose,’ unpublished paper. I am grateful to David Campion for sharing his unpublished work on Pearse and Bose with me. 14. Irish Times, 24 March 2007. 15. See Stephen Heathorn, ‘ “The Long Retreat of the Stone Generals”: Imperial Mem- ory, Decolonization and the Repatriation of Monuments from Sudan, 1956–60,’ Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism 4 (2005), pp. 43–61; and Bill Schwarz, ‘Reveries of Race: The Closing of the Imperial Moment,’ in Becky Conekin, Frank Mort and Chris Waters, eds, Moments of Modernity: Reconstructing Britain 1945–1964 (London and New York, 1999), pp. 189–207. 16. Alvin Jackson, ‘Irish Unionists and the Empire,’ p. 145; and ‘Ireland, the Union and the Empire, 1800–1960,’ p. 149. 17. Hiram Morgan, ‘An Unwelcome Heritage: Ireland’s Role in British Empire- Building,’ History of European Ideas 19: 4–6 (1994), pp. 619–25 (quotation on p. 623). 18. The description of Nicholson’s statue as an ‘Orange totem’ is in Allen, Soldier Sahibs, pp. 20–21. 19. No one in a recent class of 200 students at the National University Galway could identify the Connaught Rangers as a former British Army regiment; most thought that they were a sports team of some type. Morrissey, ‘A Lost Heritage,’ p. 71. 20. The barracks were originally the town home of the Kings, one of the most pow- erful Irish Ascendancy families. From 1795, when the British Army purchased the residence, until the establishment of the Irish Free State in 1922, King House served as a barracks for the Connaught Rangers. Jack Fallon, ‘Boyle Military Bar- racks – Formerly the King House,’ in Boyle: The Origins, the Buildings, the Times (Boyle, 1988), pp. 47–56. Notes 271

21. Irish Times, 15 July 1995. 22. ‘The Mutiny of the Connaught Rangers,’ The New Ranger 3: 1 (2006), p. 19. The journal is available online at http://www.connaughtrangersassoc.com/ 23. Morgan, ‘An Unwelcome Heritage,’ p. 622. 24. Dept. of the Taoiseach, S 16307 B/95, NAI. For the damage to and the sale of the Gough statue, see also Whelan, Reinventing Modern Dublin, pp. 207–12. 25. Ronan Sheehan, Foley’s Asia (Dublin, 1999); and ‘John Henry Foley: Ghost of the Empire,’ dir. Sé Merry Doyle (2008). Sheehan refers to Foley’s imperial sculptures as embodying ‘the double vision of the colonized artist ...a mode of duality rather than a contradiction in terms.’ Foley’s Asia, pp. 4–5. 26. Stephanie Barczewski, Antarctic Destinies: Scott, Shackleton and the Changing Face of Heroism (London, 2007), pp. 296–300. For recent biographies, see Smith, An Unsung Hero, and Jonathan Shackleton and John MacKenna, Shackleton: An Irishman in Antarctica (Dublin, 2002). Bibliography

Archival sources, United Kingdom

BBC Written Archives Center, Caversham, Reading Pass board for ‘ “Nikal Seyn”: A Story of the Indian Mutiny. The Hero of Delhi.’ Oriental and India Office Collections, British Library, London Political and Secret Department Records Indian Political Intelligence Collection Public & Judicial Papers India Office Records Military Records Translations of Ghadr, MSS Eur. E 288 Montagu Collection, MSS Eur. 523 Proscribed Literature Collection, IOR MIC 11599 Holman Papers, MSS Eur. D 884 Indian Police Collection, MSS Eur. F 161 Anderson Collection, MSS Eur. F 207 Reid Collection, MSS Eur. E 278 Templewood Collection, MSS Eur. E 240 Werge Collection, MSS Eur. F 171 Edwardes Collection, MSS Eur. B 252 and E 211 Chelmsford Papers, MSS Eur. E 264/13 I.C.S. (Retired) Association Collection, MSS Eur. F 173 BASCA Collection, MSS Eur. F 370/483 Typescript address of Frederick Sleigh Roberts, MSS Eur. D 905 Morley Collection, MSS Eur. D 573 Imperial War Museum, London Jesse Short Collection F. Williams Collection National Archives, Kew, London Colonial Office Dominions Office Home Office War Office Centre of South Asian Studies Archive, Cambridge University Tegart Papers Public Record Office of Northern Ireland Dufferin Collection Lisburn Urban District Council Minutes Parliamentary Archive, London David Lloyd George Papers Andrew Bonar Law Papers National Army Museum, London Sam Pollock, Script for ‘In Search of a Mutiny’ (1963), 6312–219

272 Bibliography 273

Theatre Museum, Covent Garden, London Prompt Copy and Materials Relating to The 88 British Library Connaught Rangers Association Newsletters Republic of Ireland

National Archives of Ireland, Dublin Department of Foreign Affairs Department of the Taoiseach Department of Justice Bureau of Military History Witness Statements (Joseph Hawes and John Flannery) University College Dublin Archives De Valera Papers, P 150 National Library of Ireland Album of Drawings by Connaught Rangers, 1920–21, MS 19,089 Anti-Treaty Leaflets, ILB 300 Irish Playography http://www.irishplayography.com/index.html John Kavanagh, No Comet Seen India

National Archives of India, New Delhi Home (Public) files Home (Political) files Home (Police) files West Bengal State Archives, Calcutta Intelligence Branch files Home (Political) Confidential files Netaji Research Bureau, Calcutta Subhas Chandra Bose Papers Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, New Delhi Surendra Mohan Ghose, Oral History Transcript Bhupati Mazumdar, Oral History Transcript United States

New York Public Library Frank P. Walsh Papers Lala Lajpat Rai, ‘Recollections of his life and work for an independent India while living in the United States and Japan 1914–1917’ (1919) (microfilm) Bancroft Library, University of California at Berkeley Friends of Freedom for India Collection (microfilm) American Irish Historical Society, New York Irish Organizations Collection Friends of Irish Freedom Collection New York State Archives, Albany Lusk Committee, Investigation Subject Files, 1919–1920 (microfilm) Manuscript, Archives and Rare Book Library, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia Maude Gonne Collection, MSS 771 274 Bibliography

Newspapers

An Phoblacht Belfast News-letter Belfast Telegraph Ballymena Observer Downpatrick Recorder Dungannon Observer Financial Times Freeman’s Journal Gaelic American The Hindu Hindustan Times Illustrated London News Indian Express Irish Press (Dublin) Irish Press (Philadelphia) Irish World and Industrial Liberator Irish Times Lisburn Herald Lisburn Standard Mayo News Mid-Ulster Observer New York Times Northern Whig The Observer Offaly Independent Roscommon Herald Sunday Independent Telegraph (Calcutta) The Times The Tribune (Lahore) Westmeath Examiner Westmeath-Offaly Independent

Selected journals

Independent Hindustan The New Ranger The Ranger United States of India

Parliamentary and official publications

Dáil Éireann Debates

Printed primary sources

Achmed Abdullah and T. Compton Pakenham, Dreamers of Empire (1928; New York, 1929). Bibliography 275

Robert Baden-Powell, Scouting for Boys: The Original 1908 Edition, Elleke Boehmer, ed. (Oxford, 2004). S.O. Beeton, Our Soldiers and the Victoria Cross (London, 1867). Brendan Behan, Confessions of an Irish Rebel (London, 1965). Dominic Behan, Ireland Sings: An Anthology of Irish Songs and Ballads (London, 1973). Dan Breen, My Fight for Irish Freedom (1924; Rev. ed. Dublin, 1964). Robert Briscoe with Alden Hatch, For the Life of Me (Boston and Toronto, 1958). John Buchan, The Three Hostages (Boston, 1924). Nirad C. Chaudhuri, The Autobiography of an Unknown Indian (London, 1951), Nirad C. Chaudhuri, Thy Hand Great Anarch! India 1921–1952 (London, 1987). Valentine Chirol, Indian Unrest (London, 1910). R.E. Cholmeley, John Nicholson: ‘The Lion of the Panjaub’ (London, 1908). The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi (New Delhi, 1965), XVIII: 219. Conference on Missions Held in 1860 at Liverpool (London, 1860). A Concise History of Lisburn and Neighbourhood: Comprising the Social, Industrial, Religious, and Education Life of the People (Belfast, 1906). Louis Coxe, Nikal Seyn. Decoration Day: A Poem and a Play (Nashville, TN, 1966). William Crutchlow, Tale of an Old Soldier (London, 1937). George William De Rhé-Philipe and Miles Irving, Soldiers of the Raj (1910, 1912; London, 1989). Eamon De Valera, India and Ireland (New York, 1920). Arthur Conan Doyle, ‘The Green Flag,’ in The Green Flag and Other Stories (New York, 1900). Kalpana Dutt, Chittagong Armoury Raiders: Reminiscences (Rev. ed. Delhi, 1979). Herbert B. Edwardes, Memorials of the Life of Major-General Sir Herbert B. Edwardes (London, 1886). W.H. Fitchett, The Tale of the Great Mutiny (London, 1901). Patrick Ford, The Criminal History of the British Empire (New York, 1915). G.W. Forrest, Sepoy Generals: Wellington to Roberts (London, 1901). George MacDonald Fraser, Flashman in the Great Game (1975; London, 2006). Ed Gammons, The Tragedy of India (San Francisco, 1919). V.V. Giri, My Life and Times (Delhi, 1976). Ernest Gray, Nikkal Seyn: A Tale of John Nicholson, Hero of Delhi, Saviour of India (London and Glasgow, 1947). Great Irishmen: An Exhibition of Portraits of Great Irish Men and Women (Belfast, 1965). Great Irishmen: Short Lives Written for Young Children (London, 1900). Kenneth Griffith, The Discovery of Nehru: An Experience of India (London, 1989). Stephen Gwynn, ‘The Irish Regiments,’ in Felix Lavery, comp., Great Irishmen in War and Politics (London, 1920). H.W. Hale, Terrorism in India, 1917–1936 (1937; New Delhi, 1974). S.H. Harper, ‘ “McCaffery”: A Ballad,’ Notes and Queries 190: 10 (18 May 1946), pp. 217–18. A.L. Haydon, The Book of the V.C. (London, 1906). Robert A. Hill, ed., The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers. Volume III (Berkeley and London, 1984). Pamela Hinkson, Indian Harvest (London: Collins, 1941). Ethel M. Hogg, Quinton Hogg: A Biography (1904; London, 1906). Theodore C. Hope, Memoirs of the Fultons of Lisburn (privately printed, 1903). John Hunt, Life is Meeting (London, 1978). 276 Bibliography

P.R. Innes, The History of the Bengal European Regiment, Now the Munster Fusiliers, and How It Helped to Win India (London, 1885). John Murray, A Handbook for Travellers in India and Ceylon (London, 1891). H.F.N. Jourdain and Edward Fraser, The Connaught Rangers (3 vols. London, 1924–28). Thomas Henry Kavanagh, Guilty or Not Guilty of Conduct Unbecoming an Officer and a Gentleman (Lucknow, 1876). Thomas Henry Kavanagh, How I Won the Victoria Cross (London, 1860). John William Kaye, Lives of Indian Officers, Illustrative of the History of the Civil and Military Service of India (London, 1869). Charles Arthur Kelly, Delhi and Other Poems (London and Calcutta, 1864). Rudyard Kipling, Kim, ed. Zohreh T. Sullivan (New York and London, 2002). Rudyard Kipling, ‘The Mutiny of the Mavericks,’ in Life’s Handicap (1891; Oxford and New York, 1987), pp. 159–77. McEwan Lawson, Faces (London, 1924). Marie-Louise Legg, ed., Alfred Webb: The Autobiography of a Quaker Nationalist (Cork, 1999). John Lendrum, ‘Nicholson the Hero,’ The Nineteenth Century and After XCIII: 551 (1923), pp. 107–13. Mary E. Leslie, Sorrows, Aspirations, and Legends (London, 1858). James Logan, Verses: Grave and Gladsome (London, 1924). Dudley Field Malone, ‘Unaccustomed as I am—’ Miscellaneous Speeches by Dudley Field Malone (New York, 1929). W.F. Marshall, Livin’ in Drumlister: The Collected Ballads and Verses of W. F. Marshall (Belfast, 1983). John Masters, Nightrunners of Bengal (London, 1951). Aubrey Menen, Dead Man in the Silver Market (New York, 1953). W. Cosmo Monkhouse, The Works of John Henry Foley, R.A., Sculptor, With Critical and Illustrative Notes (London, 1875). K.F. Nariman, What Next? (Bombay, 1934). Henry Newbolt, Admirals All and Other Verses (1897; 5th ed. London, 1898). Sean T. O’Ceallaigh, India and Ireland (New York, 1925). Hesketh Pearson, The Hero of Delhi: A Life of John Nicholson, Saviour of India, and a History of his Wars (London, 1939). Charles Raikes, Notes on the Revolt in the North-western Provinces of India (London, 1858). Robert Reid, Years of Change in Bengal and Assam (London, 1966). Report of the State Committee Appointed to Examine the Question of the Retention in Public Places of Statues of the British Period and Other Relics (Government of Bombay, 1961). Frank Richards, Old Soldier Sahib (1936; 2nd ed. London, 1965). Frederick Sleigh Roberts, Forty-One Years in India (London, 1897). David Ross, The Land of the Five Rivers and Sidh: Sketches Historical and Descriptive (London, 1883). John Edward Whorton Rotton, Chaplain’s Narrative of the Siege of Delhi from the Outbreak at Meerut to the Capture of Delhi (London, 1858). S.A., Arts and Industries in Ireland: I. John Henry Foley, R.A.: A Sketch of the Life and Works of the Sculptor of the O’Connell Monument (Dublin, 1882). A.K. Samanta, ed., Terrorism in Bengal: A Collection of Documents (6 vols. Calcutta, 1995). Douglas Sladen, ‘The Hero of the Indian Mutiny. Part I,’ The Idler XI (1897), pp. 243–49. Bibliography 277

Source Material for a History of the Freedom Movement in India. Vol. III. Mahatma Gandhi. Part I: 1915–1922 (Bombay, 1965). Flora Annie Steel, On the Face of the Waters (1896; London, 1903). A. Cameron Taylor, General Sir Alex Taylor G.C.B.: His Times, His Friends, and His Work (London, 1913). Edward Thompson, The Other Side of the Medal (1926; Reprint Westport, CT, 1974). Tourist Guide to Tyrrellspass (Tyrrellspass, Ireland, nd). Lionel Trotter, The Life of John Nicholson, Soldier and Administrator (London, Edinburgh and Dublin, 1897). H.J. Twynham and R.E.A. Ray, Enquiry into Temporary Establishments of the Central and District Intelligence Branches of the Bengal Police (Alipore, 1936). Reginald G. Wilberforce, An Unrecorded Chapter of the Indian Mutiny: Being the Personal Reminiscences of Reginald G. Wilberforce, Late 52nd Light Infantry (2nd ed. London, 1894). Philip A. Wilkins, The History of the Victoria Cross (London, 1904). Monier Williams, Indian Wisdom, or Examples of the Religious, Philosophical, and Ethical Doctrines of the Hindus (3rd ed. London, 1876). J. Claverdon Wood, When Nicholson Kept the Border (London, 1920).

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Robert Aldrich, Colonialism and Homosexuality (London and New York, 2003). Charles Allen, Soldier Sahibs: The Men Who Made the North-West Frontier (London, 2000). Olive Anderson, ‘The Growth of Christian Militarism in Mid-Victorian Britain,’ English Historical Review 86: 338 (1971), pp. 46–72. Anthony Babington, The Devil to Pay: The Mutiny of the Connaught Rangers, India, July 1920 (London, 1991). Peter Bailey, ‘Irishmen in the East India Company Army,’ Irish Family History 17 (2001), pp. 84–92. Jordanna Bailkin, ‘The Boot and the Spleen: When Was Murder Possible in British India?’ Comparative Studies in Society and History 48: 2 (2006), pp. 462–93. Vivek Bald, ‘Overlapping Diasporas, Multiracial Lives: South Asian Muslims in U.S. Communities of Color, 1880–1950,’ Souls 8: 4 (2006), pp. 3–18. Tony Ballantyne, ‘The Sinews of Empire: Ireland, India and the Construction of British Colonial Knowledge,’ in Terence McDonough, ed., Was Ireland a Colony? Economics, Politics and Culture in Nineteenth-Century Ireland (Dublin, 2005), pp. 145–61. Stephanie Barczewski, Antarctic Destinies: Scott, Shackleton and the Changing Face of Heroism (London, 2007). Jonathan Bardon, A History of Ulster (New ed. Belfast, 2005). Stuart Barr, ‘Charles Kerrigan and the Mutiny of the Connaught Rangers at Solon, 1920,’ Cathair na Mart: Journal of the Westport Historical Society 10: 1 (1990), pp. 84–93. Thomas Bartlett, ‘The Irish Soldier in India, 1750–1947,’ in Holmes and Holmes, eds, Ireland and India, pp. 12–28. Thomas Bartlett, ‘The Connaught Rangers Mutiny. India, July 1920,’ History Ireland 6: 1 (1998), pp. 5–7 Thomas Bartlett and Keith Jeffery, eds, A Military History pf Ireland (Cambridge, 1996). C.A. Bayly, ‘Ireland, India and the Empire: 1780–1914,’ Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 10 (2001), pp. 377–97. 278 Bibliography

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Abdullah, Achmed, 123 Bangavasi, 189 Aberdeen, Earl of, 127 Baraktullah, Maulvia Mohammed, 24, 25 Akali movement, 183 Barbour, H.A.M., 133 Albert memorial, London, 118 Bardon, Jonathan, 114 Aldrich, Robert, 108 Barrow, G. de C., 140 Alexander, W.N.S., 159, 201 Barry, Kevin, 161, 175, 203 Ali, Tariq, 199, 200 Barry, Tom, 147 American Association for the Bartlett, Thomas, 80 Recognition of the Irish Republic, Bayly, C.A., 18 35, 36, 40, 41, 42 BBC, 193 American Commission on Irish BBC Northern Ireland, 133 Independence, 30, 38 Beeton, S.O., 2 American Federation of Labor, 23 Behan, Brendan, 156, 203 Amrita Bazar Patrika, 24, 57 Behan, Dominic, 158 Amritsar Massacre, 35–6, 48, 57, 145, Beiner, Guy, 10 170, 177, 182, 188–9, 190, 195, Belfast, 57, 129, 136, 174 200, 201 Belfast Daily Mercury, 117 see also Dyer, Reginald; Friends of Irish Belfast News-letter, 115, 116, 117–18 Freedom (FOIF); Hunter Belfast Telegraph, 130, 136 Commission Bengal Criminal Law Amendment Act Ananda Bazar Patrika, 73 (1930), 62, 71 anarchism, 18, 22, 53, 56 Bengal Fusiliers, 76, 122–3 Anderson, Sir John, 61, 67, 68, 70–3, Bengal, Government of, 60, 61 74–5, 186 Ireland as model for colonial policies, Andrews, C.F., 99 68–70, 71–2 opinion of John Nicholson, proscription of ‘seditious’ Irish 104–5, 106 materials, 60, 66 Anglo-Boer War, 19, 20, 125, 126, see also Anderson, Sir John 127, 147 Bennett, Josephine, 40 Anglo-Sikh Wars, 78, 84, 87, 94, 119 Besant, Annie, 51 Anglo-Zulu War, 17, 20 bhadralok, 54, 55, 59 An Phoblacht, 42, 49, 65 Birr Urban District Council, 166 Anushilan Samiti, 29, 54, 55 ‘Black Hole of Calcutta’, 98, 105 Armagh, County Museum of, 137, 212 Black and Tans, 36, 70, 72, 73 Armstrong, Harry Gloster, 33, 42 Connaught Rangers Mutiny and, Asian Exclusion League, 23 140–2, 144, 152, 162, 163, 166, Australia, 5, 8, 16, 32, 126 170, 173, 174, 181, 189, 213 Auxiliary Division, 68–9, 70, 147 recruitment to India, 69 Body, John, 133 Babington, Anthony, 140, 178 Boer War, see Anglo-Boer War Baden-Powell, Lord Robert, 93 Boland, Harry, 31, 32, 39 Baker, Benjamin Thomas Edward, Bolsheviks, see Russia 143–4, 202 Bombay, 8, 17, 30, 33, 51, 73, 134, Bal, Lokenath, 63 179, 191

288 Index 289

Bose, Noni, 36 Civil War, Irish, 41, 50, 69, 144, 147, Bose, Subhas Chandra, 30, 50, 55, 58, 61, 149, 151, 157, 171 74, 198, 210 Clan na Gael, 13, 19, 24, 25, 27, 41, 44 experience in Ireland, 58–9, 60–1 Clarke, James, 154 inspired by Easter Rising, 211 Clark, W.A.W., 135 Boyd, John, 133 Clayton, Pamela, 7 Breen, Dan, 11, 52–3, 60, 74 Cleary, Joe, 8, 124 My Fight For Irish Freedom as model for Clive, Robert, 98, 105 Bengali revolutionaries, 61–2, 63, Cohalan, Daniel F., 13, 14, 33, 40 64–5, 66–7 collaboration with Indian nationalists, British Association for Cemeteries in 41, 42, 43, 44 South Asia, 109 see also Friends of Freedom for India British High Commission, New Delhi, (FOFI); Ghose, Sailendranath 109, 110, 134, 135, 167, 168–9, 192 Colley, Linda, 80 Brock, Sir Thomas, 101 Collins, Jerome C., 19 Bryce, James, 25 Collins, Michael, 47, 52, 58, 60, 148–9 Buchan, John, 6 Colson, J.H., 58 Buettner, Elizabeth, 108, 109 Colum, Padraic, 32 Bulfin, Eamon, 52 Coman, William, 146 Bulfin, Maria, 52 Commonwealth Relations Office, 135 Byrne, John, 214 Connaught Rangers history of, 178–80 Calcutta, 8, 28, 53, 54, 58, 61, 63, 65, 66, Imperial service of, 179–81 67, 68, 71, 72, 73, 78, 176, 177, 179 Irish traditions of, 179 Cama, Vikaj Rustomji, 24 relations with Indians, 180–1 Campbell, Sir Colin, 1, 82, 89, 97, 179 Connaught Rangers Association, 203–7, Canning, Lord, 118 212–13 Carey, James, 56 regimental memorial in Galway Carney, Jack, 43 Cathedral, 205–6 Casement, Roger, 45, 157 Connaught Rangers Museum, see King return of body to Ireland, 165, House, Boyle, Ireland 167–8, 169 Connaught Rangers mutiny, 11–12, Casey, James, 149–50 139–40 Cawnpore massacre, 1, 3, 7, 81–2, 89, causes, 140–4 193–4 cenotaph in Glasnevin Cemetery, 153, Cawnpore Memorial Gardens, 99 156–7, 164, 167, 170, 173, 199 Cell, John, 86 commemoration of, 153, 156–9, Chakravarti, Narayan, 66 163–4, 173–4 Chakravarty, Gautam, 90 Connaught Rangers Memorial Chandra, Ram, 25, 26 Committee, 164 Chattopadhyay, Viren (‘Chatto’), 26 Connaught Rangers Mutineers’ Chaudhuri, Nirad C., 58, 61 Association, 153 Chelmsford, Lord, 184, 185 Indian reactions to, 176–7, 186–9, Chinese Exclusion Act (1882), 23 190–2 Chirol, Valentine, 56 Irish reactions to, 144–7, 209 Chittagong Armory Raid, 11, 45, 46–7, literary depictions, 174, 176–7, 55, 62–3, 64–5, 210 199–202 Churchill, Winston, 68, 146, 182 mutineers’ attitudes towards Indians, civil disobedience campaign, 44, 46, 48, 193–8 55, 62 pensions awarded to mutineers, 150–3 290 Index

Connaught Rangers as republican hero, 161–2, 172, 174–5, mutiny – continued 209 republican beliefs of mutineers, 154–6 role in Connaught Rangers mutiny, see also Black and Tans; Daly, James 143, 153, 159–60, 194, 196 Joseph; Easter Rising; Gadar Party; see also Sinn Féin Irish Free State; Irish Republican Das, C.R., 55 Army (IRA); Sinn Féin Das, Hemchandra, 22 Connolly, James, 51, 172 Das, Jatindranath, 61, 65–6 Constitutional Society of India, 17 Das, Taraknath, 24, 28, 29, 30, 33, 42 Correigh, A.M., 160 Davis, James, 154 Corrigan, Vincent, 199 Davis, Thomas, 16 Cosgrave, William T., 146, 148, 150, Davitt, Michael, 16, 17 151, 152 Dawson, Graham, 82 Coughlan, Cornelius, 208–9 Dayal, Har, 23 Cousins, James, 51, 52, 199 de Lacey, Larry, 27 Cousins, Margaret, 52 Delaney, Valentine, 153, 158 Coxe, Louis, 137–8 Delhi, 11, 49, 76, 77, 79, 84–5, 91, 92, Craig, Sir James, 129, 130, 131 107, 211 Crean, Tom, 214 British commemoration of ‘Mutiny’ Crinion, Brendan, 168 in, 85–6, 98–102, 103–4, 209 Cromwell, Oliver, 43 centenary celebrations of Indian Crookshank, Anne, 137 Rebellion in, 133–4 Crutchlow, William, 181 opposition to statue of John Cumann na mBan, 28, 156 Nicholson, 106 Cumann na nGaedheal, 152, 163 removal of British statues from, 134–5 Curtis, Lionel, 70 siege of, 79–80, 83, 84–5, 88, 89, 92 see also Nicholson, John; Nicholson Curzon, Lord, 98, 105, 106, 108 Cemetery, Delhi Delhi Cemeteries Committee, 110 Daghsai Cemetery, 161, 168–9, 170, 174, Denman, Terence, 7, 178, 180 192–3 Derby, Lord, 131 Dagshai Prison, 139, 144, 156, 161, Derry, siege of, 114 170, 194 de Valera, Eamon, 6, 9, 13, 14, 31, 32, Daily Mail, 58 39, 40, 42, 43, 44, 45, 67, 74, 149, Daily Telegraph, 109 151, 152, 157, 200 Dalrymple, William, 107, 111 Gadar Party and, 36, 177, 210 Daly, James Joseph, 12, 155, 156, popularity in Bengal, 50, 59, 60 159, 213 speech on ‘Ireland and India’, 36–7, ballads about, 162, 172, 202–3 65, 211 commemoration, of, 160–2, 163, see also Friends of Irish Freedom 164, 165, 167, 171, 173, 174–5, (FOIF); Gadar Party 198, 202 Devers, James J., 141, 150, 165, 195–6 enlistment in British Army, 159 Devine, Thomas, 149 execution of, 12, 139, 205, 209 Devoy, John, 13, 19, 24, 27, 33, 40 gravesites of, 168–9, 174, 191–2, 193 Dhingra, Madan Lal, 22 impact of execution in India, 184–5, Dicksee, J.R., 137 189, 197 Dillon, Luke, 66 literary depictions of, 199, 201–2 Dobbs, William, 115 and Northern Ireland conflict, 174–5 Dolan, Anne, 151, 157 repatriation of body of, 158–9, 163–72 Donnelly, James, 24 Index 291

Donoghue, Patrick, 173 Fenians, 6, 48, 157, 164, 176 Douglas, H.W., 100, 101 anti-imperialism of, 20, 51 Downpatrick Recorder, 120–1 British perceptions of, 19, 21 Doyle, Arthur Conan, 6 influence in India, 18, 56, 63, 66 Dublin, 10, 30, 47, 52, 58, 77, 80, Fianna Fáil, 44, 49, 50, 59, 60, 74, 151, 113, 118, 119, 123, 140, 146, 152, 157 150, 151, 152, 153, 164, 165, 167, Fitchett, W.H., 7 171, 186, 201, 204, 205, 209, Fitzpatrick, David, 32, 124, 126, 151 213, 214 Fitzpatrick, John, 161–2 Dublin Castle, 35, 58, 70 Flannery, John, 141, 150, 154 Dublin Museum, 2 distrusted as an informer by DuBois, Louis, 66–7 mutineers, 151 Dufferin Memorial, Belfast, 129 leads Ex-Connaught Rangers Dulanty, J.W., 8, 9, 167 Committee, 151–2, 163 Dungannon, see Royal School memoir of Connaught Rangers Dungannon mutiny, 142, 187, 194–5 Dunne, Reginald, 165, 167, 168, 170 Flynn, John, 123 Dutt, Kalpana, 62, 63–4 Foley, John Henry, 118–19 Dyer, Reginald, 36, 48, 57, 177, 183, memorial to John Nicholson, Lisburn 188–9 Cathedral, 119–20, 121–2, 127, 128 Easter Rising, 9, 28, 34, 48, 126, 151, statue of Lord Gough, Dublin, 101, 210, 211 138, 213–14 Connaught Rangers mutineers and, Ford, Patrick, 19, 20, 37 143, 157, 158 Forward, 60 Government of India’s concerns Foster, R.F., 4 regarding, 51, 65 Fox, Richard G., 92 Indian nationalist commentary on, 27, Francis, Philip, 28 35, 186–7 Fraser, George MacDonald, 4, 107 inspiration for Chittagong Armory Fraser, T.G., 5, 81 Raid, 11, 45, 46–7, 62–4 Free Hindustan, 24, 25, 29 East India Company, 1, 3, 8, 11, 76, 78, Freeman, George, 24, 29 81, 86, 91, 116, 117 Freeman’s Journal, 17, 19, 145, 182 Irish military service in, 80–1, 115, Friends of Freedom for India (FOFI), 5, 117, 122–3, 137–8 28, 29, 39, 40, 42, 211 Edwardes, Herbert, 78, 79, 83, 86, 87, 91, collaboration with Irish nationalists, 94, 107, 119–20, 188 13–14, 28, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, Edwardes, Michael, 108 36–7, 38, 39, 40, 42 Egan, Eugene, 173 criticism of Gandhi, 29–30, 40 Egypt, 22, 31, 32, 35, 37, 39, 49–50, public meetings in support of Gandhi, 51–2, 57, 60, 182, 190 41, 44 The 88, 174, 200–1 see also Friends of Irish Freedom (FOIF) Emmet, Robert, 27, 164, 175 Friends of Irish Freedom (FOIF), 13, 34, Empire Day, 125 38–9, 40, 41, 65 Ex-Connaught Rangers Committee, 151, commentary on Amritsar massacre, 36 163 support for Indian nationalism, 32, 33, see also Flannery, John 35, 38, 42 tensions with Friends of Freedom for Fahey, Frank, 211 India, 38, 40–1 Fahy, Frank, 197 Froude, J.A., 82 292 Index

Fulton, George William Wright, 115 Giri, V.V., 9, 210 Fulton, Robert Bell, 115 Gladstone, William, 20 Glasnevin Cemetery, Dublin, 140, 154, Gadar Party, 23, 25–7, 29, 42–3, 44, 182, 156, 157, 164, 167, 168, 170, 173, 200 198 collaboration with Irish nationalists, Gogarty, Patrick, 154, 156 10–11, 15, 24–5, 26–7, 28, 37, 43 Golden, Peter, 34–5 commentary on Ireland, 43, 177, Goldman, Emma, 22 186–7 Gordon, General Charles George, 90, 98 criticism by Lala Lajpat Rai, 27–8 Gorman, James, 173 meeting with Eamon De Valera, 36, Gough, Lord Hugh, 118–19, 138, 213–14 210 Government of India, 15, 33, 35, 44, 46, support for Connaught Rangers 51, 58, 64, 69, 70, 71, 168 mutineers, 190–1 celebration of Indian Rebellion Gaelic American, 23, 24, 25, 27, 34, 38, centenary, 133–4, 135 43, 65 concerns regarding Irish influence in ‘Gaelic Club’, 51 India, 51–2 Gallagher, John, 182 Connaught Rangers mutiny and, 139, Galway Cathedral, see Connaught 142, 143, 165, 166, 185, 187, 189 Rangers Association Intelligence Bureau of, 46–7, 51 Gammons, Ed, 36 Irish Free State legislation examined Gandhi, Mohandas K., 9, 46, 48, 49, 53, by, 69 55, 105–6, 182–3, 187, 196, 200, 209 proscription of ‘seditious’ Irish celebration in Ireland of birth materials by, 25, 37, 49, 61, 65–7 centenary, 210–11 renovation of Nicholson Cemetery, comparisons with Eamon De Valera, 109, 110 50, 60 Government of India Act (1935), 55 see also Friends of Freedom for India Graham, James, 117 (FOFI) Graham, William S., 117 Gannon, Thomas, 28 Grant, Kevin, 189 Garvey, Marcus, 32 Green Front, The, 198 Geraghty, Frank, 159, 193–4 Griffith, Arthur, 148 Ghadr, 23, 25, 27, 186–7 Group 4 Securicor, 109, 110 Ghadr Party, see Gadar Party Gupta, Narayani, 110 Ghose, Aurobindo, 18 Gwynn, Stephen, 147–8, 186 Ghose, Barindra Kumar, 56 Ghose, Sailendranath Hackett, Francis, 32 collaboration with Irish nationalists, Hancock, W.K., 50 29–30, 33, 35, 38, 39, 41, 42, 44 Hardiker, N.S., 34 formation of Friends of Freedom for Hardinge, Lord, 118, 181 India, 29 Harper, S.H., 203 opposition to non-violence of Indian Hart, Peter, 141 National Congress, 29–30, 40 Havelock, Henry, 76, 82–3, 89, 97 revolutionary activity in Bengal, 28–9 Hawes, Joseph, 149, 156, 164, 165, 172, see also Cohalan, Daniel F., Friends of 173 Freedom for India (FOFI) literary depiction of, 200–1 Ghose, Surendra Mohan, 55, 60 sympathy for Indian nationalism, Ghosh, Amitav, 10, 184 196–7 Ghosh, Ganesh, 63 Herbert, Christopher, 89 Gibbons, S.A., 196 Hibbert, Christopher, 108 Index 293

Hindi Bangavasi, 57 India Office, 10, 21, 33, 67, 77, 139, Hindu Association of the Pacific Coast, 145, 187 see Gadar Party and recruitment of Royal Irish ‘Hindu Conspiracy Case’, 26 Constabulary for India, 68–9 Hindustan Ghadr, 39, 43, 45 and Sinn Féin influence in India, 51–2 Hindustan Socialist Republican Intelligence Bureau, see Government of Association, 54, 59 India see also Singh, Bhagat Irish Democrat, 156 Hinkson, Pamela, 103, 137 Irish Embassy, New Delhi, 169, 191, Hirschfeld, David, 41 192, 193 Hoare, Sir Samuel, 72 Irish Free State, 6, 8, 39, 41, 43, 50, 59, Hogan, Myles, 122–3 149, 154, 185 Hogan, Patrick, 198 commemoration in, 151, 157 Hogg, James Weir, 78, 117 Connaught Rangers mutiny and, 141, Hogg, Quinton, 99 145–6, 148–50, 151–2, 153, 154, Howe, Stephen, 114 155, 212 Hunter Commission, 177 Public Safety Legislation of, 68, 69–70 Irish Independent, 142, 151, 165, 187, 194 Irish National War Memorial, Dublin, Illustrated London News, 121 151, 204 Independent Hindustan, 177, 190 Irish Parliamentary Party, 17, 48 India House, 22, 24 Irish Press (Dublin), 61, 153, 165 Indian emigration to North America, Irish Press (Philadelphia), 30, 35, 20–1, 22–3 145, 191 Indian-Irish Independence League, 30, Irish Progressive League, 34–5 49, 58, 59, 74, 195 Irish Race Convention, 28, 30 Indian Mutiny, see Indian Rebellion Irish Republican Army (IRA), 9, 41, 49, Indian National Army, 198, 211 52, 68, 74, 131, 138, 147, 154, Indian National Congress, 11, 15, 17, 18, 157, 174 27, 29, 30, 40, 44, 46, 48, 49, 53, 183 and Connaught Rangers mutiny, 144, in Bengal, 55 152, 154, 155–6, 164, 165–6, 168, British Committee of, 21 171, 172, 199, 206 in the United States, 29–30, 40, 44 influence in Bengal, 60, 61, 63, 66 Indian National Trust for Art and Irish Republican Brotherhood, see Cultural Heritage, 109, 110 Fenians Indian Political Intelligence (IPI), 51, Irish Self-Determination League, 146 59, 73 Irish Times, 8, 112, 122, 124, Indian Rebellion, 68, 81–2, 89 150, 204 centenary commemoration in India, Irish World, 13, 14, 19 133–4 see also Ford, Patrick Irish views of, 7–8, 16–17, 116–18, 120, 208–9 Jackson, Alvin, 10 ‘Mutiny’ heroes, 82–3, 89 Jeffery, Keith, 151 ‘Mutiny’ tourism, 99–100 Jensen, Joan M., 22 renovation of ‘Mutiny’ sites in Delhi, Jones, Glyn, 174, 200 109–10 see also The 88 Victorian novels and, 76, 90 Jones, Max, 77 see also Cawnpore massacre; Delhi; Jordain, H.F.N., 203, 206 Nicholson, John see also Connaught Rangers Indian Sociologist, 22 Association 294 Index

Joshi, Samuel Lucas, 24 Lawrence, John, 10, 79, 82, 86, 91, 117, Jugantar, 29, 55, 62, 63, 186 123, 124, 130, 132 controversy surrounding statue of, 105–6, 136 Kanpur, see Cawnpore massacre Lawrence, T.E., 108 Kavanagh, John, 201 League Against Imperialism, 49 see also No Comet Seen League of Oppressed Peoples, 32 Kavanagh, Thomas Henry, 1–4, 7 Lemass, Sean, 59, 157, 158 Kaye, John William, 77, 89, 94, 103 Leonard, Jane, 147 Keane, J.C., 162, 172 Leslie, Mary E., 89 Kearney, Denis, 23 Limerick Men’s Benevolent and Social Kearney, Michael Francis, 149, 156, 157, Association, 34 198–9 Lisburn, 11, 113, 137 Keenan, William, see Geraghty, Frank Imperial service of local families, 115, Kelly, Charles Arthur, 88 133 Kelly, Gertrude, 28, 40, 42 John Nicholson and, 115–16, 117, Kelly, Sir Patrick, 8, 73–4 118, 122 Kenny, Kevin, 19, 23, 209 memorial to John Nicholson in Kenny, Michael, 202 Lisburn Cathedral, 86, 118, 119–20, 121–2 Kerrigan, Charles, 154, 173–4, 202 Nicholson Memorial School, 120–1 Khan, Chaudery Lall, 30 Orange Order in, 126 Khilafat movement, 183, 188 sectarian riots in, 127 Kilfeather, T.P., 140, 169, 171, 179 statue of John Nicholson in, 129–31, King House, Boyle, Ireland, 212–13 133, 138, 211, 212 Kipling, Rudyard, 4, 6, 93 support for Unionism in, 126–7 Kirkee 1914–1918 Memorial, 202 Urban District Council of, 129, Kitchener, Lord, 101, 108 130, 131 Krishnavarma, Shyamji, 21, 24 visit of Lord Roberts to, 127–8 Lisburn Cathedral, see Lisburn Lisburn Herald, 126, 129, 130 Labor Swaraj Party, 64 Lisburn Standard, 127, 128, 129, 130 Lajpat Rai, Lala, 15, 27, 28, 29, 32, Lloyd George, David, 146, 182 33–4, 180 Logan, James, 133 Lal, Kunoujee, 1–2 Lothian, Marquis of, 70 Lally, Margaret (née Daly), 155 Lucknow, siege of, 1–2, 81–3 Lally, Stephen, 154–6, 164, 202 Lusk Committee, 28, 35 campaign for repatriation of James Lynch, John, 210 Daly, 165–6, 170 IRA membership, 155 MacAonghusa, Proinsias, 205 sympathy for Indian nationalism, 196, Macardle, Dorothy, 67–8, 164 197 McBride, Ian, 124, 144 see also Hawes, Joseph MacBride, Maude Gonne, 59, 150, Lalor, James Fintan, 63 195, 197 Land War, 6, 18 McCartan, Patrick, 32 Larkin, James Jr, 43 MacDermott, John M., 51 Law, Andrew Bonar, 148, 186 MacDonald, Malcolm, 134 Lawrence, George, 78 MacDonald, Robert H., 90 Lawrence, Henry, 10, 82, 83, 89, 97, 107, MacEntee, Sean, 205 115, 117, 122, 123, 124, 130, 137 McGarrity, Joseph, 30, 32, 145, 191 Index 295

McGowan, John, 147–8, 149 Mountbatten, Lord Louis, 113, 136, 174 McGuinness, Sean, 166 Mukherjee, Rudrangshu, 107, 111 MacKenzie, John M., 82 Mulcahy, Richard, 149 McMahon, Deidre, 50 Musgrave, Henry, 129 MacManus, Terence Bellew, 157, 164–5 My Fight for Irish Freedom, see Breen, Dan Macmillan, Harold, 134 Macmullen, Ken, 199–200 Naidu, Sarojini, 34 see also Partition Nandy, Ashis, 48 Macmullen, Sir Norman, 72 Naoroji, Dadabhai, 17 Macmunn, George, 103 Nariman, K.F., 191 Macready, Nevil, 70 The Nation, 16, 17 MacSwiney, Mary, 59 National Graves Association (NGA), MacSwiney, Terence, 32, 34, 39, 175 153–4, 156, 166, 202 impact of hunger strike in India, 48, role in repatriation of Connaught 61, 189–90 Rangers mutineers, 165, 170, 172, Madras, 17, 52, 60, 89, 106, 179 173 Madras Fusiliers, 89, 106 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 29, 40, 48, 107, 134, Magennis, Peter E., 34 135, 167, 210, 211 Maher, Teresa, 168, 174 Neill, James George, 89, 97, 106 Malik, Salahuddin, 16 Newbolt, Henry, 93–4 Malone, Dudley Field, 28 New Delhi, see Delhi Malone, Thomas, 171, 172 New India, 51 ‘Manchester Martyrs’, 157 New York Times, 13, 41, 134 ‘manliness’, see masculinity Manto, Hasan Sadaat, 199 Ní Bheacháin, Caoilfhionn, 49 Margalla Pass, 87 Nic Aongus, Roísín, 168 Markievicz, Countess, 66 Nicholson, Alexander, 78, 120, 122 Marshall, William Forbes, 132 Nicholson Cemetery, Delhi, 85, 108–22 see also Royal School Dungannon Nicholson, Charles, 86, 117–18, 120 ‘martial races’, 86, 90–1, 92–3, 96, 182 Nicholson, Clara, 77, 78, 118, 119, 121 see also Nicholson, John; Sikhs Nicholson, John, 77–80 masculinity, 54, 66, 82, 90–1 brutality towards Indians, 79, 89, Masih, James, 191–2 107–8 Masters, John, 6 burial and commemoration in India, Mazumdar, Bhupati, 63 84–8, 103–4 Mellows, Liam, 31, 32, 35 ‘conversion’ to Sikhism of, 183 Menen, Aubrey, 9 heroic reputation contested, 104–8 MI5, 44 Irish identity of, 122–4 Michael, Sir Arthur, 110 Lisburn Cathedral memorial to, Minto, Lord, 101–2, 106 119–20, 121–2, 127, 128 Miranda, John, 139, 156, 164, 170, 191, literary depictions, 88, 93–4, 103, 192, 193, 197 104–5, 123–4, 137–8 Mitchel, John, 16, 66 ‘martial races’ and, 91–2, 93–4 Monkhouse, W. Cosmo, 119, 122 as ‘Mutiny’ hero, 77, 89–96 Montagu, Edwin, 57, 184–5 Punjab and, 79, 86, 87, 91–2, 93, 94, Monteith, Robert, 45, 157 97, 101, 102, 108, 114, 120, 131 Moran, Tommy, 146–7 renovation of grave in Delhi, 108–22 Morgan, Hiram, 211–12, 213 sexual orientation, 107–8 Morris, Jan, 107 statue in Delhi of, 100–2, 133–6 Morrissey, John, 202 as Ulster hero, 114–18, 129–33 296 Index

Nicholson, John – continued Pakenham, T. Compton, 123 worship of ‘Nikkal Seyn’, 94–6, 98, Pan-Aryan Association, 24 103, 119 Parnell, Charles Stewart, 17, 18, 30, see also Foley, John Henry; Lisburn; 60, 164 Nicholson Cemetery, Delhi; Partition, 199–200 Lisburn; Royal School Pasha, Zaghul, 60 Dungannon; Ulster Patel, Vitalbhai, 30, 74 Nicholson Memorial School, see Lisburn Pearse, Margaret, 157 Nicholson, Mike, 111 Pearse, Patrick, 45, 51, 60, 61, 74, 137, Nicholson, William, 120, 122 157, 172, 211 ‘Nikkal Seyn’, see Nicholson, John Pearson, Hesketh, 103 Nivedita, Sister, 53 Peel, Robert, 67 Noble, Margaret, see Nivedita, Sister Peers, Douglas M., 86 No Comet Seen, 201–2 Plowman, Matthew Erin, 27 non-cooperation movement, 48, 55, 65, Pollock, Sam, 140, 193 183, 193 Pomeroy, F.W., 129 Northern Ireland, 137, 156, 168, 171, Pottinger, Henry, 130 174, 206 proscription, see Bengal, Government of; attitudes toward empire in, 10, 11, 12, Government of India 113, 125–6, 129–30, 133, 136, Punjab, 87, 100, 106, 139, 145, 180, 211–12 182, 184 see also BBC Northern Ireland; Ulster anti-colonial movements in, 182–3, Northern Whig, 116, 117, 125 191 Duleep Singh and, 51, 186 Gadar Party and, 25–6, 182 Ó’Brádaigh, Ruari, 174, 175 Indian Army recruitment and, 91, O’Brien, Art, 52 92–3, 182, 183 O’Brien, F.W., 167 Indian Rebellion and, 79 O’Ceallaigh, Sean T., 5, 52 Khilafat movement and, 183 O’Cearnaigh, M.P., 150 migration to North America from, 20 O’Connell, Daniel, 60, 118, 123, see also Amritsar Massacre; Nicholson, 124, 164 John O’Donnell, Frank Hugh, 17, 18 ‘Punjab School’, 86 O’Dwyer, Michael, 57, 182 Offaly County Council, 166 race Offaly-Westmeath Old IRA Memorial and Irish and Indian nationalists, 31, Committee, 166 37, 56–7 Ó Gadhra, Nollaig, 209 racism among Irish emigrants, 23, O’Kelly, Sean T., see O’Ceallaigh, Sean T 38–9 O’Leary, Michael, 158 racism in colonial India, 54, 104, 180 O’Malley, Kate, 59 racism in the United States, 22–3, Orange Order, 116, 126, 212 39–40 O’Reilly, John Boyle, 43 see also ‘martial races’ The Oriental Press, 44 Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli, 9, 210 Orwell, George, 64 Raikes, Charles, 94 O’Shasnain, Brian Padraic, 177 Ray, Rajat Kanta, 59 O’Sullivan, Alfred E., 73 Ray, R.E.A., 69, 71 O’Sullivan, Joseph, 165, 167, 168 Regan, Jennifer M., 17 O’Sullivan, Patrick, 172 Reid, R.N., 71–2 Outram, James, 2, 76, 82, 83, 97, 118 Repeal Movement, 123 Index 297

Restoration of Order in Ireland Act Shaw, P.W., 163 (1920), 70, 71 Sheehy Skeffington, Hannah, 42, 59 Richardson, Frank M., 108 Shukla, Sandhya, 16 Rivaz, Sir Charles, 100 Sikhs, 3 Roberts, Lord Frederick Sleigh, 91, 96–8, Akali movement, 183 100–1, 127–8 Gadar Party and, 25, 182 Rodgers, Peter, 174–5 as a ‘martial race’, 86, 90–1, 92, Ronaldshay, Lord, see Zetland, Lord 96, 182 Roney, Frank, 23 migration to North America, 20, 39 Rorke, George Gordon, 33 support for Irish nationalism by, 191 Roscommon Herald, 148, 158 ‘worship’ of John Nicholson by, Rossa, Jeremiah O’Donovan, 20 94–5, 183 Rowlatt Act, 35, 182 see also Anglo-Sikh Wars Rowlatta satyagraha, 182 Singh, Bhagat, 49, 54, 65 Royal Dublin Fusiliers, 51, 145, 161 Singh, Bhagwan, 25 Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC), 68, 70, Singh, Duleep, 51, 186 127, 141, 147, 162 Singh, Golab, 179 recruitment for service in India, 68–9 Singh, Gopal, 36 Royal Irish Fusiliers, 213 Singh, Jagat, 36 Royal Irish Rifles, 127 Sinha, Pernandu N., 34 Royal Munster Fusiliers, 80, 122–3, 159 Sinn Féin, 13, 22, 39, 42, 52, 210 Royal School Dungannon, 113, 131–2 attitude of Mohandas Gandhi statue of John Nicholson installed at, toward, 48 129, 131–2, 135–6 commemoration of execution of James Roy, Basanta Kumar, 39, 44 Daly, 174–5 Roy, M.N., 29 Connaught Rangers mutiny and, Russia, 29 142–3, 150, 151, 154, 177, 188, influence in India, 18, 22, 51, 52, 193, 213 53, 56 India Office concerns regarding, 51–2 Irish republican relationships with, influence in India of, 28, 30, 46, 58, 31, 52 60, 64–5, 66, 189 Russo-Japanese War, 54 Smedley, Agnes, 29, 32, 36 Smith, R.V., 109 St. George, George, 130 Smythe, Patrick, 156, 170, 171, St. James’ Church, Delhi, 85, 111, 119 173, 192 St. Patrick’s Day, 8, 13–14, 16, 29, 45, Somme, Battle of the, 125 145, 153, 158, 161, 179, 210 Sons of Irish Freedom, 33 Safranski, Nicolas, 22 Statesman, 101 Said, Edward, 4 Steel, Flora Annie, 76, 90 Sayer, Derek, 177 Stephens, James, 199 Schneer, Jonathan, 22 Stephenson, H.S., 67–8 Sears, Peter, 156, 164, 170, 171, 173, 192 Stokes, Eric, 82 Sehanabis, Chinmohan, 62 Strahan, J.H., 131 Sen Gupta, J.M., 66 Stuart, Imogen, 171 Sen Gupta, Niranjan, 62 Swadeshi movement, 24, 55 Sen, Surya, 55, 62, 63, 72 Swanzy, Oswald Ross, 127 Sepoy Mutiny, see Indian Rebellion Swaraj Party, 55 Seton, Sir Malcolm, 52, 68, 69 Shackleton, Sir Ernest, 137, 214 Tagore, Rabindranath, 44 Sharar, Abdul Majid, 188 Tan, Tai Yong, 183 298 Index

Taylor, Sir Alexander, 87–8 Vermont, University of, 29 statue in Delhi of, 135 Vickery, Sir Philip, 59, 73 Tegart, Sir Charles, 8, 73–4, 75 Victoria Cross, 2–3, 80, 96, 208 Telegraph (Calcutta), 110 Vivekananda, Swami, 53 Thind, Bhagat Singh, 39–40 Thomas, Norman, 35 Walsh, Domenic, 153 Thompson, Andrew, 114 Walsh, Frank P., 30–1, 35, 38, 40, 44 Thompson, Edward John, 104, 105 Walsh, J.C., 42 Thuggee and Dacoity Department, 51 Walsh, Joseph, 154, 165 Tiernan, Charles, 41 Walsh, Manus, 205 Tilak, Bal Ganghadar, 21, 188 Washington, University of, 29 The Times, 2, 56, 101, 106, 109, 110, Webb, Alfred, 17 123, 134, 142 Wellington, Duke of, 137, 178 Todd, Jennifer, 125 Westmeath Examiner, 160, 161–2, 172 Townend, Paul A., 10, 17 Westmeath-Offaly Independent, 171 Townshend, Charles, 74 Whelehan, Niall, 20 Tribune (Lahore), 105, 106, 187, 189 Wiener, Martin J., 180 Trotter, Lionel, 95, 105, 123 Wilberforce, Reginald, 90, 95 Williams, D.P., 108 Ulster Williams, Fred, 181 attitudes towards empire in, 7, 11, Wilson, Sir Henry, 129, 130–1, 170, 172 114–16, 123, 124–6, 129–30, Wilson, T.M., 128 132–3, 136, 211–12 Winter, Jay, 161 commemoration of John Nicholson Wolfe Tones, The, 181 in, 113–22, 127–33, 135–6 Women’s Prisoners Defense League, 195 East India Company and, 80, 81 Wyllie, William Curzon, 22 ‘Great Irishmen’ exhibit at Ulster Museum, 136–7 Indian Rebellion and, 116–18, 129–30 Yeats, William Butler, 176, 199 Ulster Protestant identity, 116, 124, Younghusband, John William, 91 126, 129, 132–3 Young India, 48, 106 Ulster Unionist support for General Young India (New York), 28, 34 Dyer, 177 Young Ireland, 16, 66, 176 see also Lisburn; Northern Ireland United Socialist Republican Party, 58 Zetland, Lord, 50, 57–8 United States of India, 39, 43 Zulu War, see Anglo-Zulu War