A Short History of the U.S. Department of State, 1781-1981

Bulletin Reprint A Short History of the U.S. Department of State, 1781—1981

United States Department of State Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2016 with funding from University of Florida, George A. Smathers Libraries

https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofusOOwash A Short History of the U.S. Department of State, 1781-1981

Contents

1 The Early Years, 1781-1823 Early Responsibilities, Accomplishments

9 The Expansionist Years, 1823-1867 Domestic Concerns, Amateur Diplomacy

15 The Rise to World Power, 1867-1913 Department Reforms, War with Spain, Colonial Responsibilities

23 The Test of Total War, 1 913-1947

World War I, Challenges to the Department, The

Rogers Act, World War II

31 The Age of Global Leadership,

1 947-Present Foreign Policy Revolution, Containment, New Functions, Equal Employment

Tables

35 Diplomatic and Consular Posts, 1781-1980

37 Department Expenditures, 1781-1980

42 Department Personnel, 1781-1980

Annexes

43 Secretaries for Foreign Affairs

43 Secretaries of State

50 Milestones of American Diplomacy

United States Department of State Publication 9166 • Washington, D.C., January 1981

• Bureau of Public Affairs • Office of Public Communication • John C. Kimball, Chief of Editorial Division

The Early Years, 1781-1823

by David F. Trask The United States Department of The need for diplomacy was ap- with the assistance of State traces its origin to the “Depart- parent from the start. Given the over- David M. Baehler ment of Foreign Affairs” created by whelming military strength of Great and Evan M. Duncan Congress on January 10, 1781. Six Britain, the United States could hope years had passed since the 13 seaboard to gain independence only if it Reprinted from the Department of Colonies—now formed into the United attracted support of other countries, State Bulletin of January 1981. States—had begun their rebellion especially France and Spain. In 1775 against the authority of Great Britain. Congress established the Committee Congress believed that they had earned of Secret Correspondence to com- themselves “a place among the rising municate with prospective supporters potentates of Europe” and felt the abroad and sent emissaries to other need to cultivate “a friendly cor- governments. Benjamin Franklin respondence and connection with foreign countries.”

This unfinished sketch by Benjamin West of the signing of the Preliminary Articles of Peace between the United States and Great Britain on November 30, 1782, in Paris ending the American Revolution shows (left to right) John Jay, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Henry Laurens, and W. Temple Franklin (grandson of Benjamin Franklin and Secretary of the American Commission). The British Commissioner and his secretary never appeared at West’s studio. This sketch now hangs in the John Quincy Admas State Drawing Room at the Department of State. (Department of State photo)

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The Livingston Brothers 13 South Sixth Street, Philadelphia

Robert R. Livingston (Department of State photo) Edward Livingston (Department of State photo) Copyright by Robert Sivard 1980.

Robert R. Livingston was born in Representative from New York and Soon after taking office as Secretary New York City in 1746. He served on as Mayor of New York City, Living- for Foreign Affairs, Robert R. Liv- several committees of the Continental ston moved to New Orleans in 1804. ingston set up his offices in a small, Congress, including the one that He was a Representative from plain, brick house at 13 South Sixth drafted the Declaration of Independ- Louisiana (1823-29) and a Senator Street in Philadelphia. This building ence. He was the first Secretary for (1829-31) before serving as Secretary was the first home of an office of Foreign Affairs, serving from 1781 to of State under President Andrew foreign affairs as an entity separate 1783. In 1789 he administered the oath Jackson (1831-33). He then served from Congress. of office to President George Washing- as Minister to France (1833-35). The building had been erected in ton. As Minister to France (1801-04), His chief concern was with the French 1773. It consisted of three stories and he helped arrange the Louisiana spoliation claims, involving compensa- an attic, with two rooms to each story Purchase. tion for damages to American ship- it had a gable roof which sloped to Edward Livingston, Robert’s ping during the wars of the French front and rear. A room on the second brother, was born in 1764 at “Cler- Revolution. floor overlooking the street served as mont,” New York. After serving as a Livingston’s office. Various “great personages” of the time “frequently clambered up the dark and narrow winding stairs” to transact business served briefly as chairman of the in the hands of one person, he wrote: with the Secretary. Livingston’s staff committee, which in 1777 was renamed “I wish they would do the same with consisted of two Under Secretaries, a the Committee for Foreign Affairs. their [foreign] correspondence, by translator of French, and a clerk. The Unfortunately, this committee’s appointing a single secretary for two Under Secretaries shared a back scope was strictly limited. As one foreign affairs.” The first constitution room on the second floor and the of its most active members, James of the new nation, the Articles of translator and the clerk occupied the floor. Lovell said : “There is really no such Confederation, permitted Congress to ground thing as a Committee for Foreign select “such committees and civil The building ceased to be the Affairs existing—no secretary or officers as may be necessary for home of the Department of Foreign in clerk further than I presume to be one managing the general affairs of the Affairs after Livingston resigned and the other. The books and papers of United States.” 1783. A succession of tenants then that distinguished body lay yet on the Shortly after the congressional occupied it, using it at different times table of Congress, or rather are locked resolution of January 10, 1781, as a residence, a shop, and a boarding up in the Secretary’s [Secretary of Congress selected Robert R. house. Congress] private box.” Franklin, Livingston, a delegate from New York, sent to France as a representative of as the first Secretary for Foreign the United States, recognized the need Affairs. He took office on October 20, for improved administration of 1781, and served until June 4, 1783. foreign policy. Noting that Congress Livingston experienced considerable had placed the finances of the country frustration in office. One historian notes that his duties were not “clearly defined and he was never

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given a free hand.” Later he served development; he insisted that “the as Minister to France and in 1803 President is the only channel of com- negotiated the Louisiana Purchase. munication between this country and Domestic Duties of John Jay, another New Yorker, foreign nations, and it is from him the Department of State who had helped Franklin negotiate the alone that foreign nations or their Treaty of Paris (1783) that ended the agents are to learn what is or has been On September 15, 1789, Congress Revolutionary War, was appointed the will of the nation.” He concluded passed “An Act to provide for the safe Secretary for Foreign Affairs on May that other countries should not be keeping of the Acts, Records, and Seal 7, 1784, and he remained at this post given an opportunity to play off the of the United States, and for other until 1790. Jay became a severe critic executive against any other branch. purposes.” This legislation changed of his own organization, whose powers Ever since the earliest days of the the name of the Department of For- were ill defined and whose leader was Constitution, Presidents and Secre- eign Affairs to the Department of never granted sufficient freedom of taries of State have adopted this view, State because certain domestic duties action. During the national debate on although they have recognized the were assigned to the agency. Among whether to adopt the new constitution important role of Congress in the these duties were: drafted in 1787, Jay cogently sum- foreign policy process. • Receipt, publication, distribu- marized his critique of congressional On May 19, 1789, James Madison tion, and preservation of the laws of foreign policy under the Articles of of Virginia, then sitting in the House the United States Confederation of Representatives, began the process • Preparation, that redefined the functions of the sealing, and re- They may make war, but are not cording of commissions Department of Foreign Affairs under given to empowered to raise men or money to Presidential appointees. the Constitution. proposed the carry it on. They may make peace, but new He • Preparation and authentication are without power to see the terms of it creation of “an Executive Department of copies of records and authentica- imposed. . . . They may make alliances, to be denominated the Department of tion of copies under the Department’s but [are] without ability to comply with Foreign Affairs.” At its head would be seal the stipulations on their part. They may “an officer, to be called the Secretary • Custody of the Great Seal of the enter into treaties of commerce, but to the Department of Foreign Affairs.” [are] without power to enforce United States and them at On July 27 Washington signed legisla- ; home or abroad. • Custody of books, records, and tion to this effect. Soon, however, a papers of the former Secretary of the In short, Jay concluded, Members new law passed Congress giving cer- Continental Congress, except those of Congress “may consult, and deliber- tain domestic responsibilities to the of the Treasury and Departments. ate, and recommend, and make requi- new Department as well as foreign War sitions, and they who please may duties. On September 15, President Many comparable functions were regard them,” that is, obey. He Washington approved this substitute, added at various times since 1789, thought that few would do so. which set up a Department of State among them issuance of patents on The Constitution put into effect in with a Secretary of State at its head. inventions, publication of the census 1789 obviated much of Jay’s criticism. The President immediately appointed returns, management of the mint, Article II, section 2 makes the Presi- Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, then controls of copyrights, and regulation dent “Commander in Chief of the Minister to France, to be the first of immigration. Army and Navy of the United States” Cabinet member under the Constitu- Most domestic functions have and also gives the Chief Executive the tion to hold the position of Secretary been transferred to other agencies. power, “by and with the Advice and of State. The author of the Declara- Among the few that remain in the Consent of the Senate, to make tion of Independence took up his new Department are: storage and use of Treaties, provided two thirds of the duties on March 22, 1790. the Great Seal, performance of pro- Senators present concur.” Finally, the The small executive Department tocol functions at the White House, President “shall nominate, and by and did not grow rapidly during its early drafting of certain Presidential proc- with the Advice and Consent of the years. Jefferson’s initial staff con- lamations, and replies to public in- Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, sisted of a chief clerk, three other quiries. other public Ministers and Con- clerks, a translator, and a messenger. .” suls. . . These provisions placed the (The title “clerk” refers to officers conduct of foreign affairs principally charged with the composition of mes- in the hands of the executive branch, sages to overseas missions and other but certain powers conferred upon the correspondents.) The Department’s chief clerk, five other clerks, and some legislative branch—especially to domestic budget for 1790, not count- part-time help, along with a few declare war, appropriate funds, and ing expenses of employees overseas, retainers. The Secretary of State’s advise and consent on treaties and amounted to a mere $7,961 —the cost salary had been raised to $5,000 per appointments—gave Congress signifi- of salaries, rent, and supplies such as year. In 1818 a Presidential order cant ability to influence foreign policy. firewood and stationery. The Secre- authorized a staff that included a chief The Constitution did not specify tary of State’s salary was $3,500. Total clerk, seven other clerks, and a few an exact division of responsibilities expenditures in 1791, both domestic others. In 1820 expenditures for between the President and Congress and foreign, were $56,600. In 1807 the domestic operations reached $87,300 ; for the direction of foreign relations, Department’s staff included only a overseas operations totaled $253,400. but early precedents confirmed execu- The early overseas service of the tive predominance. Thomas Jefferson United States was as unpretentious as clearly delineated the reasons for this

3 the domestic establishment. Jefferson immediately drew a troublesome distinction between a diplomatic service, First American Consul assigned the task of conducting political relations with foreign countries, and a consular service, which dealt primarily with commercial matters and the needs of American citizens abroad. Benjamin Franklin had become the first American Minister to serve overseas when, on March 23, 1779, he presented his credentials to King Louis XVI of France. Other leading statesmen served as envoys during the 1780s—among them John Adams in the Netherlands, John Jay in Spain, and Thomas Jefferson in France. By 1791 diplomatic missions had been established in five European countries —England, Spain, France, Holland, Thomas Jefferson, the first Secretary of Portugal. State, began the distinction between the and Ministers concentrated Diplomatic and Consular Services. He estab- mostly on two important responsi- lished the policy of neutrality in European bilities; they reported on significant conflicts. When he took office in 1790, the activities in their countries of resi- William Palfrey (Department of State photo) Department included 8 domestic employees, dence and executed formal diplomatic 2 diplomatic missions, and 10 posts. consular instructions transmitted to them from William Palfrey of Massachusetts was (Department of State photo) the Department of State. not only the first American consular Thomas Barclay of Pennsylvania officer but was also the first member of was the first American actually to the diplomatic service to lose his life take up consular duties. He was ap- in the line of duty. A lieutenant pointed consul in France on October 2, colonel in the Continental Army and Treasury Department 1781, replacing William Palfrey who former Paymaster-General, Palfrey Building, Washington, D.C. was lost at sea on his way to France. was appointed consul to France on By 1792, 16 consulates had been November 4, 1780. He was lost at sea created, most of them in Europe. In en route to his post. His name is the 1790 Secretary Jefferson asked consuls first on the plaque in the lobby of the to provide “such political and com- Department of State listing the mercial intelligence as you may think martyrs of the foreign service. interesting to the United States.” He Thomas Barclay of Pennsylvania, mentioned particularly news of Ameri- a merchant residing in France, was The first home of the Department of can ships and also “information of all the first American consular officer to State in Washington, D.C., was in the military preparations and other indi- serve abroad. He was commissioned “Treasury Department Building” cations of war which may take place in “vice consul in France” on July 10, which was shared with other govern- your ports.” 1781, and was commissioned as consul ment offices. It was located to the east A congressional act of April 14, on October 5 to replace Palfrey. In of the White House, about where the 1792, first provided legislative pre- addition to his consular duties, Barclay center wing of the present Treasury scriptions for the Consular Service. served as commissioner to settle for- Department building stands. Although this law made no specific eign debts of the United States in Completed in June 1800, the build- mention of commercial reporting, con- Europe and negotiated a treaty of ing was a plain two-story structure of suls provided commercial information amity and commerce with Morocco in brick on a free-stone foundation, with and met the needs of American citizens 1786. He was appointed consul in a basement and a dormer-windowed within their jurisdictions. Consuls Morocco in 1791 but died in Lisbon in attic. There were 14 rooms on the first were expected to maintain themselves 1793 before he reached his post. floor, 14 on the second floor, and 8 in largely by charging fees for their the attic. After approximately 3 services, not always a bountiful source months in the overcrowded Treasury of income. Unlike their counterparts Department building, the Department of today, they did not receive salaries of State moved into one of a block of or allowances for expenses. Because of houses on the north side of Pennsyl- the uncertainty of adequate compensa- vania Avenue between 21st and 22nd tion, consuls frequently served for Streets Northwest. —

many years in only one location, and they were often inactive. In 1807 a First American Diplomat consul in La Guaira, Venezuela, was relieved of his duties because “not a single communication” had been received from him since his appointment in 1800. Besides working through the regular foreign services, Presidents asked special agents to carry on particularly important negotiations. The first such agent was Gouverneur Morris of New York, who made an unsuccessful attempt in 1790 to arrange British compliance with certain provisions in r the Paris Peace Treaty of 1783. I he use of special executive agents gave the executive branch options that otherwise might not have existed, given the small size of the Diplomatic Service. Representatives of the United States traditionally wore unpretentious clothing and adopted simple manners, a departure from the osten- tatious practice at European courts. (For a notable exception, see box on “Consular Uniforms.”) Americans deemed this policy appropriate for emissaries of a young republic that Benjamin Franklin, dressed in “the simple costume of an American agriculturalist,” monarchical tyranny. captivated Parisian society and laid the groundwork for French recognition of American had repudiated hospitable independence. (Department of State photo) Thomas Jefferson, the most of men, was particularly opposed to and rigid protocol. Benjamin Franklin was no stranger to France to recognize American inde- undue ceremony recognize formal social diplomacy when he was appointed on pendence and to conclude treaties of He refused to at dinners held in the September 26, 1776, to a three-man alliance and commerce in 1778. distinctions his Presidency, commission charged with the critical Franklin was appointed Minister White House during of precedence task of gaining French support for to France on'September 14, 1778, and especially the order This practice greatly American independence. He had al- presented his credentials on March 23, seating by rank. diplomatic corps. ready served in Great Britain as an 1779, becoming the first American annoyed the foreign ideology of agent for Pennsylvania between 1757 Minister to be received by a foreign Even if the democratic imposed repub- and 1762 and again from 1764 to government. His home in Passy be- the new nation had not salaries 1775. His scientific and literary en- came the center of American diplo- lican simplicity, the meager would deavors had made him the most matic activity in Europe. Franklin paid to American ministers In 1817 distinguished American of the age. then served with John Adams and have produced the same effect. former French aristocrats and intellec- John Jay on the Plenipotentiary President James Monroe, a of tuals saw Franklin as the Enlighten- Commission that negotiated the peace Minister to France and Secretary congressional ment personified. His picture soon treaty with Great Britain. State, complained to a appeared on medallions, rings, watches, When Thomas Jefferson succeeded committee about the nation’s failure and allow- and snuffboxes, while fashionable Franklin in 1785, the French Foreign to provide sufficient salaries ances for members of the Diplomatic ladies adopted the coiffure a la Minister, Vergennes, said : “It is you, an American Franklin in imitation of the fur cap Sir, who replace Dr. Franklin?” Service. He insisted that duties which he wore instead of a wig. His Jefferson replied, “No one can replace diplomat could accomplish his to the most popularity prepared the way for him, Sir; I am only his successor.” only by gaining access important social circles. “By taking the proper [social] ground ... he will become acquainted with all that passes and from the highest and most of authentic sources. . . . Deprive him the necessary means to sustain this ground, separate him from the circle to which he belongs and he is reduced to a cipher.” Congress did not respond ministers ap- to such importunings ;

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Service. These circumstances limited flexibility and interfered with the Diplomatic Dress development of professionalism; the Consular Uniforms basis for a professional career in the The United States took exception to foreign service was not built until the The early 19th century American the prevailing custom that obliged 20th century. This situation reflected consul was a dashing fellow in gold- diplomats to wear elaborate costumes. the general suspicion of all things for- trimmed uniform with cocked hat and Secretary of State William L. Marcy eign that characterized the early a sword. This was on ceremonial of New York, who served during the history of the United States. It also occasions when, it is just possible, he Administration of President Franklin mirrored the declining importance liked to forget that he received no Pierce, issued a dress circular order- attributed to foreign affairs after the allowances for “house or office rent, ing American dipolmats to wear “the War of 1812. Thereafter most Ameri- books, stationery, or other ordinary simple dress of an American citizen.” cans concentrated on the domestic expenses of office.” This term meant a full-dress suit. The activities of their government rather A 42-page booklet, General difficulty was that American repre- than on foreign operations. Instructions to the Consuls and Com- sentatives could easily be confused The early Department of State and mercial Agents cf the United States, with entertainers, undertakers, or its foreign missions were chronically 1838 notes that: “The Consular uni- servants. James Buchanan, Minister overworked, and so was the Secretary form (as prescribed by the circular to Great Britain, avoided this problem of State. John Quincy Adams, one of from this department, dated August 8, by requesting that the Department the most conscientious of men, com- 1815, hereto annexed) must be worn allow him to wear “a very plain and plained of excessive responsibilities on all visits of ceremony to the author- black-hilted dress sword” when he shortly after assuming his duties as ities of the place, and on all proper appeared at coui't. Secretary in 1817. “Business crowds occasions.” During the Civil War, Charles upon me from day to day requiring The uniform was described as Francis Adams reverted to a costume instantaneous attention,” he wrote to follows that included breeches, buckles, and his wife Louisa, “in such variety that “Single breast coat of blue cloth, silk stockings. Queen Victoria is said unless everything is disposed of just with standing cape or collar, and ten it it the in button on to have remarked, “I am thankful we as occurs, escapes from navy buttons front ; one runs into the account of each side of the cape four on each shall have no more American fu- memory and ; nerals.” In 1937 President Franklin D. arrears.” Despite the great prestige of cuff; four under each pocket flap; and the Secretary of State in the early on each hip and in the folds two Roosevelt issued an Executive order one ; that provided: “No person in the days of the nation, Congress remained on each side in the centre; and one on diplomatic service shall wear any uni- extraordinarily penurious when allo- each side of the same, at the lower form or official costume not previously cating funds to conduct foreign rela- extremity of the skirts. authorized by Congress.” tions, a condition that endured “The font, (from the cape down throughout the 19th century. to the lower extremity of the skirts,) Only the most strenuous exertions cuffs, cape, and pocket flaps, to em- of those who served in the Department broidered in gold, representing a vine or in the overseas missions insured composed of olive leaves, and the pointed to the most important posts, proper attention to the business at button-holes to be worked with gold such as those in London and Paris, The unusual abilities of the early the button-holes to correspond hand. thread ; were regularly forced to draw upon Secretaries of State helped to counter with the width of the embroidery, private means. This circumstance financial stress and to reinforce the which is not to exceed two inches in sometimes had the unfortunate effect prestige of the Department. John any part. of foreclosing diplomatic service to Quincy Adams summarized this cir- “Vest and small clothes of white, people without personal fortunes. cumstance. Because of “the superior and navy buttons the former to have ; At the very beginning of the real and inherent importance of the ten in front, and four under each Department’s history, certain person- Department of State in the organiza- pocket flap. With this dress, a cocked nel practices were adopted that tion of this Government, and . . . the hat, small sword, and shoes and adversely affected American foreign successive transfer of two Secretaries buckles are to be worn. The hat to be relations for many years. Little or no of State to the Presidency [Madison furnished with gold loop, gold tassels, interchange took place between those and Monroe], a general impression has and black cockade, with gold eagle in serving at home and those in overseas pervaded the Union of a higher con- the centre added to which, it is to be ; posts. Moreover, no provision was made sideration due to that Department, understood that the mountings of the to encourage transfers between the and that in the practice of the Gov- sword, and shoe and knee buckles, are Diplomatic Service and the Consular ernment it is the natural introduction to be gold otherwise gilt.” ; to the head of the Executive.” Despite important constraints on the Department of State, the United States achieved a remarkable number of triumphs in foreignaffairs during the early years. During the 1790s the Jay treaty (1794) and the Pinckney treaty (1795) regularized relations

ft Burning of Washington, 1814

The home of the Department of State after 1801 was known merely as “the public building west of the President’s house” and stood on the present site of the Old Executive Office Building at 17th Street and Pennsylvania Ave- nue, N.W. When British forces invaded Washington on August 24, 1814, this building was burned, along with the Capitol and the White House. While the Department’s library was lost, Chief Clerk John Graham had already seen to the removal of many important records, including the originals of the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. They were stored in a deserted gristmill on the Virginia side of the Potomac River, 2 miles above Georgetown, and were later moved to Leesburg, Virginia, until after the emergency.

John Quincy Adams became the youngest American Chief of Mission when he was appointed Minister to the Netherlands in 1794, at the age of 27. As Secretary of State (1817— 25), he negotiated a boundary settlement with Great Britain, acquired Florida from Spain, and helped formulate the Monroe Doctrine. (Library of Congress photo) When James Monroe and Robert R. Livingston negotiated the purchase of the Louisiana territory from France in 1803, they made the greatest real estate bargain of all time and set a precedent for the acquisition of land. For $15 million, the United States gained 828,000 square miles, thus doubling its size. (Library of Congress photo)

7 with England and Spain. The purchase as we are now at liberty to do it.” ciple in 1823. He was the real author of Louisiana in 1803 during President Thomas Jefferson, although of very of the Monroe Doctrine, which stated Jefferson’s first Administration guar- different political views from Wash- simply : “We could not view any inter- anteed eventual control of the North ington, confirmed the national con- position for oppressing [the nations American Continent between Canada sensus on the virtues of isolation and of Latin America], or controlling in and Mexico. Extreme dangers to the neutrality, restating the principle any other manner their destiny, by nation materialized during the War of cogently in his First Inaugural Ad- any European power in any other light 1812, but they were surmounted dur- “. dress (1801) : . . peace, commerce than as the manifestation of an un- ing the Administration of President and honest friendship with all nations, friendly disposition toward the United Madison. And finally President entangling alliances with none.” States.” Although the young country Monroe’s Administration arranged the If it was appropriate for the lacked the means to enforce the Adams-Onis treaty with Spain (1819), United States to avoid intervention in Monroe Doctrine, and other powers which added Florida to the national European affairs, it seemed equally did not fully accept it for many years domain and settled the boundary with logical that Europe should desist from to come, its presentation in 1823 Mexico on most advantageous terms. further interference in the affairs of marked the completion of the project However impressive, these accom- the Americas. Secretary of State John that had begun in 1775—the inde- plishments were not equal in impor- Quincy Adams enunciated this prin- pendence of the United States. tance to the formation of a general foreign policy for the United States that was to endure for over a hundred years : the idea that the United States should observe political isolation from European powers during time of peace and maintain strict neutrality during periods of warfare in Europe. Franklin anticipated this posture when he observed that “a virgin state should preserve its virgin character and not go suitoring for alliances, but wait with decent dignity for the application of others.” In 1796 President Washington expressed this general outlook in classic form, arguing in his Farewell

Address : “The great rule of conduct for us in regard to foreign nations is

. . . to have with them as little political Tas distinct from commercial] connection as possible.” Europe, he continued, had its own set of interests, and these interests were very different from those of the United States. Fortu- nately, the state of international relations tended to confer freedom of action upon the nation. “Why forego The Monroe Doctrine extended the principles of neutrality and independence from European the advantages of so peculiar a situa- conflicts to the entire Western Hemisphere. (Library of Congress photo) tion? Why, by interweaving our destiny with that of any part of Europe, entangle our peace and prosperity in the toils of European ambition, rival- ship, interest, humor, or caprice?” Therefore, concluded Washington, “it is our true policy to steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world, so far, I mean,

8 The Expansionist Years, 1823-1867

During the 44 years between the birth These sentiments prevailed in the of the Monroe Doctrine (1823) and United States throughout the 19th the purchase of Alaska from Russia century. In 1850, for example, Presi-

( the Americans devoted their dent Millard Fillmore restated 1867) , the national energies to extending their fundamental premise of liberal nation- dominion across North America and to alism when he insisted that the building a diversified economy. They United States must grant to others were permitted to concentrate on these what it deemed imperative for itself— endeavors because no serious external the right to establish “that form of threats arose except during the Civil government which it may deem most War (1861-65). A stable balance of conducive to the happiness and pros- power materialized in Europe after the perity of its own citizens.” This prin- conclusion of the Napoleonic wars, the ciple meant that “it becomes an im- maintenance of which deterred possi- perative duty not to interfere in the ble aggressors from interventions in government or internal policy of other the New World. Any nation that at- nations.” Although Americans might tempted to interfere in the affairs of “sympathize with the unfortunate or the Americas would have exposed itself the oppressed everywhere in their fight to considerable difficulty on the eastern for freedom, our principles forbid us side of the Atlantic. Therefore, the from taking any part in such foreign United States enjoyed a long period of contests.” “free security,” that is, an extended The shift toward domestic con- moratorium on serious external chal- cerns and the practice of liberal lenges like those that had menaced it nationalism slowed the growth of the before 1815. Department of State throughout the It was now possible for the am- 19th century. Secretaries of State bitious republic to practice a liberal after 1823 dedicated themselves more form of nationalism, one that stressed to preserving than expanding the good will toward other nations and influence of the Department. Presi- emphasized internal development dents paid more attention to the rather than active foreign policies. Treasury or the War Department than John Quincy Adams set the tone for to the guardians of foreign relations. nearly a century of foreign policy on The low priority attached to for- July 4, 1821, when, speaking of his eign relations resulted in a tendency beloved country, he said : “Wherever to depreciate diplomacy and its practi- the standard of freedom has been or tioner's. Secretary of State Edward shall be unfurled, there will her heart, Livingston sorrowfully summarized her benedictions, and her prayers be. this attitude as early as 1833. Ameri- But she does not go abroad in search cans thought of their ministers as of monsters to destroy.” The republic privileged characters “selected to en- would influence the world by offering joy the pleasures of foreign travel at

an example rather than by exercising the expense of the people ; their places force. Americans would be “well- as sinecures; and their residence wishers to the freedom and independ- abroad as a continued scene of luxuri- ous enjoyment.” Congress frequently ence of all” ; their government would be “champion and vindicator only of adopted parallel views. In 1844 the her own.” House Committee on Foreign Affairs proposed to assign ministers to a cir- cuit of legations, for example, a minister resident to serve Bolivia, Chile, and Peru. In 1859 Representative Benjamin W. Stanton of Ohio said that he knew of “no area of the public

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HHHHHiHHiHnH The growth of the Department Undiplomatic Diplomat and its overseas missions during the A Most years from 1830 to 1860 roughly insult to his wife, he fought a duel paralleled the increase of the general with the French envoy in Madrid, the population. The Department of State, Marquis de Turgot. A bullet from which moved to the District of Colum- Soule’s weapon lamed the Marquis bia in 1800, was housed from 1819 to for life. 1866 in the Northeast Executive When Spanish authorities seized Building located near the White House an American steamer, the Black on Pennsylvania Avenue. Only four Warrior, in Cuban waters, Soule regular clerks were added to the De- immediately demanded that Spain pay partment between 1818 and 1845 to an indemnity of $300,000 and dismiss cope with an expanded workload. In the responsible officials within 48 1856 the Department consisted of 30 hours. The Spanish Government re- officers and 27 supporting personnel, buffed these demands, choosing to deal and in 1860 the foreign services em- with the ship’s owners rather than ployed only 281 people. Congress did the U.S. Government. not authorize the appointment of an Soule’s most famous diplomatic assistant secretary of state until 1833. enterprise was the drafting of the A second assistant secretary was per- Ostend Manifesto. This document mitted in 1866. The strains of office, stemmed from Soule’s meeting with including domestic political criticism, the American Ministers to Britain imposed great burdens on most Secre- and France in October 1854. Soule’s taries of State. One of them, John despatch to Secretary of State William Clayton of Delaware, who served L. Marcy recommended an attempt to President Zachary Taylor in 1849-50, Pierre Soule of Louisiana, a natural- purchase Cuba from Spain for up to noted the consequences. “The situation ized citizen of French extraction, was $120 million. What if Spain refused I have filled was . . . more difficult, sent to Spain as the American Min- to sell? “Then,” the message stated, more thorny and more liable to mis- ister in 1853. The principal issue in “by every law, human and divine, we representation and calumny than any U.S.-Spanish relations at the time was shall be justified in wresting it from other in the world, as I verily believe.” the future of Cuba. Soule sympathized Spain if we possess the power.” The difficulties of those who con- strongly with those who wished to When this bellicose message was ducted the nation’s foreign relations annex Cuba, a course of action that made public, it aroused great criticism led one of President Jackson’s Secre- would provide territory in which in Europe and the United States. taries of State, Louis McLane of slavery could prosper. Before Soule Opponents of slavery unequivocally Delaware, to undertake the first gen- went to Spain, he made a strong pro- opposed acquiring Cuba under any eral reorganization of the Department annexationist speech in New York, a circumstances. Marcy then rejected since 1789. In 1833 McLane converted serious diplomatic indiscretion that Soule’s message and instructed him to the Chief Clerk into an administrator prejudiced his mission before it had continue negotiations for the purchase with broad responsibilities for the begun. To add insult to injury, upon of Cuba. Soule, correctly assuming everyday direction of the Department. his arrival in Spain, he made an that his usefulness in Spain was at an He also set up a bureau system to impertinent speech to the throne. The end, submitted his resignation, bring- permit orderly discharge of business. Spanish Government requested its ing to an end one of the stoimiiest Seven such units were established, of revision before accepting it. diplomatic tours in the annals of the which the two most important were Soule further compromised his Department of State. the Diplomatic Bureau and the Consul- mission when, to avenge an alleged ar Bureau. In the Diplomatic Bureau three clerks managed correspondence with the overseas missions. One took responsibility for England, France, Another service that is more emphatically use- for their performance. . . . More is lost Russia, and the Netherlands. less than the diplomatic service by the long continuance of men in dealt with the rest of Europe, the none in the world.” office than is generally to be gained by Mediterranean, Asia, and Africa. A The practice of the “spoils sys- their experience.” This view helped to third communicated with the Ameri- tem”—the award of government perpetuate amateurism in all aspects cas. The five other bureaus covered appointments in return for political of government. The egalitarian cele- domestic affairs—translation; ar- support—reinforced the proclivity to bration of the common man some- chives, laws, and commissions; par- undervalue the Department of State times worked against efforts to im- dons, remissions, copyrights, and and the foreign services. President prove the quality and status of those library; disbursing; and superin- Andrew Jackson believed that “the who conducted foreign relations. tending. duties of public officers are ... so The number of overseas missions plain and simple that men of intelli- increased from 15 in 1830 to 33 in gence may readily qualify themselves 1860. Most were located in Europe or Latin America, although the begin-

10 The U.S. Passport

passport

Frances G. Knight was Director of the Passport Office from 1955 to 1977, (Department of State photo)

The term “passport” derives from the The earliest surviving U.S. pass- lower section of the passport and French words passer, to enter or leave, port was issued in France by Benja- match it with the upper section. The and port, a port. It literally means a min Franklin, Arthur Lee, and John ship would then be allowed to proceed. permit to leave a country. Issuance of Adams to W. D. Cheevert, David The passport function is the passports and travel documents was Sears, and their servants on Decem- activity of the Department that the first mentioned as a function of the ber 27, 1778, for travel to Holland. general public is most likely to en- Department of Foreign Affairs in During the 1790s many passports counter. There are passport agencies 1782. The Department of State did not were issued collectively to merchant in Washington and 13 other major receive exclusive authority to issue ships and their crews. cities employing 649 persons. During passports until 1856. Prior to that An interesting variation of this fiscal year 1980, 3,045,041 passports date, governors, mayors, and even type was issued in 1796 to ships bound were issued, and over 14.6 million notaries public were known to issue for the Mediterranean. The top por- valid passports are in circulation passports. During the 10th century, tion was detachable in a scalloped today. the U.S. Government only required pattern and was forwarded to Algiers travelers to obtain passports in war- for distribution to Algerian captains. time. They would not be required of If an American ship was stopped, its all travelers until 1914. captain was supposed to produce the

11 Marine Security Guards The Hulsemann-Webster Exchange During the 19th century, the U.S. of the Navy signed a memorandum of Navy was frequently called upon to agreement on December 15, 1948, protect American lives and property which established the present Marine In 1850 the Austrian charge in Wash- in remote parts of the world. Marine Security Guard program. The first ington, the Chevalier Hulsemann, who detachments usually took part in these detachments left for Bangkok and strenuously objected to supposed operations and on occasion were Tangier on January 2, 1949. Today American interference in the domestic expected to protect diplomatic mis- 1,112 Marines are assigned to 119 affairs of Hungary, communicated an sions. The first such instance took Foreign Service posts throughout the insulting message to the Department place in 1835, when four Marines from world. Their mission is the mainten- of State. His Government, he stated, the U.S.S. Brandywine were assigned ance of internal security. In an emer- had “deemed it proper to preserve a to protect the Consulate in Lima, Peru. gency, their basic task is to gain time conciliatory deportment making ample The next year, one Marine was de- for personnel to reach safety and for allowance for the ignorance of the tailed to this task. Legation guard the host government to fulfill its Cabinet of Washington on the subject detachments were stationed at various obligations to protect diplomatic of Hungarian affairs and its disposi- times in Tokyo, Seoul, and Managua. missions. tion to give credence to the mendacious A Marine detachment helped defend Five Marine Security Guards rumors which are propagated by the the Legation in Peking during the have been killed in the line of duty. American press.” Boxer Rebellion, and a Legation Guard The most recent fatality was Corporal To this statement Secretary of remained in China until World War II. Steven Crowley, who lost his life in State Daniel Webster replied in kind: Civilian guards were unable to the attack on the U.S. Embassy in “Nothing will deter either the Govern- maintain adequate security at overseas Islamabad on November 21, 1979. ment or the people of the United missions, and the Department accord- Nine other Marines are among the States from . . . forming and express- ingly turned to the Armed Forces. The hostages in Tehran. ing their own opinions freely and at Secretary of State and the Secretary all times upon the great political events which may transpire among the civilized nations of the earth. Their own institutions stand upon the broadest principles of civil liberty; nings of American interest in the and believing those principles ... to Pacific Ocean and East Asia led to be ... in fact the only principles of modest representation there. Ministers government which meet the demands were sent to China in 1843 and Japan of the present enlightened age—the in 1859, and a resident commission President has perceived with great was stationed in the Hawaiian Islands satisfaction that in the constitution in 1843. recently introduced into the Austrian By 1860, 45 people held appoint- Empire many of these great principles ments in the Diplomatic Service, a are recognized and applied.” remarkably small number for 33 missions. Their maintenance cost the United States about $370,000, an increase from about $200,000 in 1833. Total expenditures overseas rose from always a merchant, can’t live on his $294,000 in 1830 to $1.1 million in fees, nor even pay the necessary ex- 1860. Some ministers supplemented penses of his office; [he] is scolded or their staffs by appointing “unpaid cursed by everybody that has anything attaches,” usually young men of pri- to do with him, and is expected to vate means who performed certain entertain his countrymen, not only duties in return for admission into with hospitality but with a consid- local society and opportunities for erable degree of luxury.” personal study and travel. However trying, Genoa was surely Similar growth occurred in the a more desirable post than the Brazil- Consular Service. The number of posts ian port of Pernambuco, now called increased from 141 in 1830 to 282 in Recife. In 1858 Consul Walter Stapp

Tbwnsend Harris was the first American 1860, reflecting the considerable ex- reported from Pernambuco that one of diplomat to be stationed in Japan. As Consul pansion of foreign trade from 1840 to his predecessors had resigned before General at Shimoda, he negotiated a com- 1860. Consular functions enlarged, but taking up his office because he had mercial treaty opening Japanese ports to hardships bedeviled life in the service. American trade. then served Minister He as The American consul at Genoa during Resident (1859-62). (Library of Congress photo) the 1840s, C. Edwards Lester, sum-

marized the situation : “An American consul is often a foreigner, almost

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Despite the U.S. failure to create professional foreign services, many A 19th Century View were the accomplishments of the expanding nation in foreign affairs, and “Consul, n. In American politics, a the Department of State made signifi- person who having failed to secure an cant contributions in almost every office from the people is given one by instance. One striking achievement of the Administration on condition that the period was the successful resolu- he leave the country.” tion of many disagreements with the one nation—Great Britain—that Ambrose Bierce might have threatened the security of The Devil’s Dictionary the United States. Peaceful settle- ments regularly resolved Anglo- American controversies over boundaries, fisheries, and trade, notably centrated on the most publicized prob- through the so-called friendly conven- lem—-inadequate compensation. It tions of 1817-18, the Webster-Ash- prescribed salaries for ministers that burton treaty of 1842, the Oregon ranged from $17,500 per year for treaty of 1846, and the Clayton- London and Paris to $10,000 per year Bulwer treaty of 1850. Of comparable for most other places. (The ceiling of importance were successful negotia- $17,500 for heads of mission endured tions that furthered the march of the Caleb Cushing, American commissioner to 90 years, until 1946.) In addition, United States across the continent, China, negotiated the Treaty of Wang-hsia in consuls were given regular salaries. especially the treaty of Guadalupe 1844, gaining most-favored-nation commer- Fees collected at consulates were Hidalgo that ended the Mexican war cial privileges and extraterritoriality for henceforth to be sent to the Treasury. with the annexation of New Mexico Americans in China. (Library of Congress photo) Written regulations were developed to and California in 1848 and the pur- improve the performance of the for- chase of Alaska from Russia in 1867. eign services. In all these situations, the United received “such mournful accounts of The act of 1856 represented a States took advantage of favorable this place as to disgust him in advance step forward, but it fell short of bargaining positions. Despite the of his arrival.” Moreover, he continued, providing for truly professional for- handicap of amateur diplomacy, no “four others have left their bones to eign services. Most ministers and bake in these fearfully hot sands, with- consuls gained appointment because of out a slab of stone or a stick of wood personal wealth, political services, or to point the stranger to their graves.” social position. Many lacked qualifica- Beset by difficult climates and low tions—even the most elementary salaries, consuls rarely received much knowledge of diplomatic etiquette. For assistance from their government. In example, John Randolph of Virginia, 1833 Secretary Edward Livingston when presenting his credentials at noted that officials in the domestic St. Petersburg, said to the Czar, service of the nation were “surrounded “Howya, Emperor? And how’s the with the means of obtaining informa- madam?” One of the few talented tion and advice” but that “abroad, an diplomats of the era who made a career officer is entrusted with the most in the foreign service, Henry Wheaton, important function, out of the reach argued in vain for a professional of control or advice, and is left with, service that recognized merit and comparatively speaking, no written granted tenure to the deserving. Those rules for his guidance.” A few consuls with necessary qualifications—linguis- apparently succumbed to temptation. tic skill, awareness of diplomatic An auditor reported in 1861 that the forms, and appropriate experience consul in Liverpool had not reported should, he thought, “be employed expenditures of public money for 3 where they can do most service, while years, “contracting public and private incapable men should be turned out debts, which . . probably exceed partiality. who . without fear or Those $200,000. It is perhaps some consola- have served the country faithfully and tion to know that this plunderer no well ought to be encouraged and trans- Nicholas TVist, Chief Clerk of the Depart- longer disgraces the Government ferred from one court to another, ment of State, followed General Winfield Scott’s army to Mexico City. Ignoring an abroad.” which is the only advancement that order recalling him to the United States, Congress delayed action to im- our system permits of.” Wheaton TVist negotiated the treaty of Guadalupe- prove the situation of American rep- joined others in complaints about in- Hidalgo with Mexico in 1848, extending resentatives abroad until 1856, when adequate compensation. American territory to the southwest from it enacted a reform of the Diplomatic the Nueces River to the Pacific Ocean. and Consular Services. The law con- (Library of Congress photo)

13 serious setbacks marred the nation’s The triumph of the Union in 1865 foreign affairs between 1823 and 1867. prepared the way for still another era Seward’s Abortive The most dangerous challenge to of remarkable national progress, initiative the nation’s security during the 19th finally ending the dispute over the century occurred during the Civil War. relative merits of national supremacy the At the beginning of President Lincoln’s That tragic struggle between and states’ rights. The nation emerged the created the Civil Administration in April 1861, the new Union and Confederacy from War more powerful and Secretary of State, William H. Seward of excellent opportunities for European secure than at any time in its history; New York, proposed to end domestic nations to meddle in the Western it would continue to enjoy virtual Hemisphere either by violating the immunity from international political strife over the all-consuming — dangers question of slavery by pursuing an active Monroe Doctrine or by extending aid “free security”—for another 50 foreign policy, one that might lead to dec- to the rebellious South. In this in- years. larations of war against France or Spain, stance the remarkably effective collab- thus uniting domestic factions against a oration between President Abraham foreign threat. Seward even volunteered Lincoln and his Secretary of State, himself as the principal prosecutor of William H. Seward of New York, such a policy. The President tactfully re- proved equal to the situation. The buffed this extraordinary proposal. Secretary’s success ii fending off Thereafter, Seward, whom Henry Adams serious trouble during the Civil War described as having “a head like a wise proved that great achievements in macaw; a beaked nose; shaggy eyebrows; foreign relations almost always de- unorderly hair and clothes; hoarse voice; pended on close relations between the off-hand manner-free talk; and perpetual President and the Department of cigar,” subordinated himself to the Presi- State. The American Minister in dent and served him loyally and effec- London, Charles Francis Adams, third tively. in a line of distinguished statesmen from Massachusetts, established himself among the most successful diplomats of his time, preserving the neutrality of Great Britain until the Union Army finally prevailed over its opponents. If the Confederacy had received significant assistance from European nations, especially Great Britain, the war might have had a much different outcome.

14 The Rise to World Power, 1867-1913

The purchase of Alaska from Russia on March 30, 1867, gave the United States its first noncontiguous territory. (Library of Congress photo)

The 30 years after the Civil War are phobic Americans regularly con- justly considered the least active in demned their representatives abroad the history of American foreign rela- as subversive. In 1885, for example, tions. Free security, that fortunate Senator William E. Robinson of New byproduct of the generally stable in- York insisted that “this diplomatic ternational balance of power, lingered service is working our ruin by creat- on, permitting Americans to devote ing a desire for foreign customs and themselves to their prime preoccupa- foreign follies. The disease is im- tion— internal development. During ported by our returning diplomats and these years, the westward movement by the foreign ambassadors sent here was completed, and the nation experi- by monarchs and despots to corrupt enced extensive industrialization and and destroy ^our American ideals.” The urbanization. Senator’s solution was to quarantine The absence of foreign threats to entering diplomats “as we quarantine national security and the continuing foreign rags through fear of cholera.” national stress on domestic concerns Another familiar pattern endured during the latter years of the 19th beyond the Civil War—meddlesome century explain why the conduct of political interference with the Depart- foreign relations did not deviate much ment of State. In 1869, for example. from earlier practice. As late as 1894, President Ulysses S. Grant made an observer noted that the public was Elihu B. Washburne, a friend from “less familiar with the duties of our Galena, Illinois, the Secretary of State diplomatic and consular agents than for a mere 12 days so that he could any other branch of the public serv- enjoy the prestige of having held that ice,” a logical outcome because mem- position when he took up his respon- bers of the foreign services lived abroad and could not be observed at work. As before the Civil War, xeno-

15 :

sibilities as Minister to France. Fortu- il nately Washburne’s successor, Hamil- Alvey A. Adee ton Fish of New York, established close relations with President Grant Alvey A. began his diplomatic and managed to minimize unwise Adee career as a private secretary at the appointments and policies. Legation in Spain in 1869. He became Like previous Secretaries, Fish clerk in the Department in 1876 recognized that he could not adminis- a and Chief of the Diplomatic Bureau ter the Department efficiently without years later. Appointed Third Assist- the President’s strong support. When 2 ant Secretary of State in 1882 and General Orville Babcock, another one Second Assistant Secretary in 1886, of Grant’s friends, attempted to inter- he became First Assistant Secretary fere in the affairs of the Department, of State just before his death in 1924. Fish bluntly informed the President Adee approved or drafted almost that he could not tolerate such activi- all outgoing correspondence and was ties. If the President showed lack of a stickler for correct style and usage. confidence in him, he wrote, “or when In times of crisis he would install a the influence of the head of the Depart- cot in his office. Deaf, reclusive, and ment in the administration of its unmarried, he dedicated his life to the affairs, or the formation of its policy, operation of the Department, advising is overshadowed by others, a sensible Presidents and Secretaries of both or sensitive man will appreciate that parties and briefing diplomatic and the time for his retirement has consular officers. A longtime resident arrived.” of Washington is said to have re- Political appointments remained marked as Adee bicycled past him the order of the day despite growing “There goes our State Department public concern, manifested in support now.” for creation of the Civil Service (1883), which did not cover the foreign services. In 1885, when the Demo- cratic Party gained control of the executive branch for the first time in President Benjamin Harrison (1889- years, 24 Congressman Jonathan 93). Two men who developed impres- Chace of Rhode Island contrasted sive reputations as regional specialists, American and British practice on such Henry White (Europe) and William occasions. “Whenever a change of ad- W. Roc-khill (East Asia), extended ministration occurs in Great Britain their activity well into the 20th . . . members of the diplomatic service century. know that no change will take place in Abuses in the Consular Service regard to their positions, but all over persisted into the late 19th century the world today every man in the dip- despite strenuous efforts to correct lomatic and consular seiwice of the them. In 1872 a representative of the United States is packing his trunk and Treasury, DeB. Randolph Keim, re- engaging his passage preparatory to ported the results of an extensive returning home.” investigation of the Consular Service. Nevertheless, certain membei's of He uncovered many irregularities, the foreign seiwices developed special among them collection of illegal fees, competence and pursued careei’s in improper exercise of judicial powers, diplomatic and consular assignments. fraudulent accounting, faulty admin- Prominent among them was Eugene istration of estates left by Americans Schuyler, who first sei'ved as consul at who died abroad, issuance of illegal Moscow in 1867 and later held other passports, and sale of the American Elihu B. Washburne had the shortest term in befoi'e his posts Europe ending flag. Keim thought that the most im- of office of any Secretary of State— seiwice as the American representative portant feature of his investigation March 5-16, 1869. As Minister to France in Caii’o in 1889. Another was William was the “ingenuity displayed by con- (1869-77), he witnessed the Franco-Prussian Lindsay Scruggs, who began his career sular officers, since the Act of 1856 War, the Paris Commune, and the fall of an as Minister to Colombia in 1873 and particularly, in defrauding the Gov- empire and the birth of a republic. moved on to several other positions, ernment and grasping gains from (Department of State photo) including seiwice as Minister to Vene- various outside sources besides.” zuela during the Administration of Few changes in basic foreign policies can be detected during the generation after the Civil War; the

16 Frederick Douglass “The Yankee King of Spain” Sickles was appointed Minister to Spain as a reward for his early support of Grant’s campaign for the Presidency. He was instructed to offer help to Cuba in purchasing independence from Spain, opening the way to eventual annexation. Spanish opinion was outraged, and General Prim, the Spanish Prime Minister, was assassinated before he could

reconsider. After King Amadeo I declined the offer of purchase, Sickles plotted with Spanish republicans in the vain hope that they would be more willing to sell after they came to power. Sickles lived lavishly in Madrid, renting a box at the opera and having his secretary, Alvey A. Adee, order fine wines and luxury goods for him from London and Paris. Sickles frequently traveled to Paris, where he had an affair with Isabella II, formerly the Queen of Spain. Isabella herself was Frederick Douglass was born into notorious for her affairs, and there slavery in Maryland. After escaping had been much speculation about the bondage, he became a leading aboli- The appointment of Daniel E. Sickles paternity of her children. Parisian tionist. Following the Civil War he as Minister to Spain in 1869 was the society promptly dubbed Sickles “the received two diplomatic assignments. culmination of a flamboyant public Yankee king of Spain.” Sickles also In 1871 he served as secretary of a career. As Secretary of the Legation married Caroline de Creagh, lady-in- commission sent to Santo Domingo to in London (1853-55), Sickles had waiting to the former Queen. explore the possibility of annexing helped to arrange the conference of On October 21, 1873, the Spanish that island. More important, in 1889 ministers that produced the Ostend warships captured the steamer he became Minister to Haiti and Manifesto. He also had his mistress Virginius, as it carried arms to in- charge d’affaires to Santo Domingo. presented to Queen Victoria. As a surgents in Cuba. After Spanish au- In this capacity he became involved Democratic,Congressman from New thorities executed the captain and in an unsuccessful attempt to acquire York, Sickles gained notoriety for most of the crew, many of whom were the Mole St. Nicolas in Haiti as a shooting his wife’s lover in Lafayette American citizens, the United States coaling station. In 1891 Douglass re- Square, being acquitted of murder, demanded the release of the ship and signed his office after critics alleged and then forgiving his wife. the remaining prisoners. Sickles was that he showed undue regard for the At the outbreak of the Civil War, instructed to close the Legation and Haitian point of view. Sickles raised a brigade of volunteers return home if the Spanish Govern- in New York City and maintained ment did not accept these demands them at his own expense until they within 12 days. Sickles, however, was were taken into the Army. He led the ready to close the Legation after “Excelsior Brigade” into battle and 5 days. The ^crisis was averted when rose to the rank of Major General and the Spanish Government offered to to the command of the Third Corps of negotiate in Washington rather than the Army of the Potomac. At Gettys- Madrid, and Sickles then resigned. burg, he moved his corps to an exposed Sickles left for Paris on March 27. position and lost most of his troops 1874, and lived there for 5 years. and his right leg. (The bones of his After his return to the United States, leg are on display in the Army Medical he devoted the rest of his life to the Museum.) In the spring of 1865, preservation of the Gettysburg battle- Sickles conducted a diplomatic mission field and to defending his conduct to Colombia to arrange the passage during the battle. of American troops through Panama.

Ebenezer Don Carlos Bassett, America’s first black diplomat, was Minister Resident and Consul General in Haiti from 1869 to 1877. (Department of State photo)

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The limited importance assigned to foreign relations after the Civil War was reflected in the modest growth of the Department of State and the foreign services. In 1880 the Department had only 80 employees compared with 42 in 1860, and the total declined to 76 in 1890. The number of diplomatic missions increased to only 41 in 1890, up from 33 in 1860, while the number of consular posts grew during the same period from 282 to 323. Diplomats numbered 45 in 1860 and 63 in 1890. The Consular Service expanded much more, employing 1,042 people in 1890 compared with 236 in 1860. Expenditures on domestic and foreign operations rose from $1.3 million in 1860 to only $1.8 million in 1890. These were limited increments, indeed, when compared with the increase of the general population, which approximately doubled between 1860 and 1890. In 1870 the Department under- went a significant reorganization at James Russell Lowell, Minister to Spain (1877-80) and to Great Britain (1880-85), was one of the initiative of Secretary Fish. The many distinguished American authors who held diplomatic or consular posts. principal change was a further elab- (Library of Congress photo) oration of the bureau system that Secretary McLane had inaugurated in 1833. To cope with the growth in over- overarching principles of isolation and seas missions and consulates, Fish neutrality remained firmly entrenched. established two diplomatic bureaus In 1894 Secretary of State Walter Q. and two consular bureaus with geo- Gresham of Illinois reaffirmed Wash- graphic responsibilities. The First ington’s “great rule of conduct” in Diplomatic Bureau and the First Con- commenting on what he deemed a ques- sular Bureau dealt with Europe, tionable departure from the policy of China, and Japan. The second pair of “no entangling alliances”—an agree- bureaus managed communications ment with Germany and Great Britain with the rest of the world—Latin to share control of the Samoan Islands. America, the Mediterranean region, “Every nation, and especially every Russia, Hawaii, and Liberia. Five strong nation, must sometimes be con- other bureaus were created—the Chief scious of an impulse to rush into diffi- Clerk’s Bureau, the Law Bureau, the culties that do not concern it, except in Bureau of Accounts, the Statistical a highly imaginary way,” he noted. To Bureau, and the Passport Bureau. The contain this tendency Gresham offered reorganization of 1870 endured for 39 a traditional remedy: “To restrain the years, undergoing only minor adjust- indulgence of such a propensity is not ments during that period. only the part of wisdom, but a duty we In 1888 the Department of State owe to the world as an example of the moved into an imposing new home strength, the moderation, and the the State, War, and Navy Building George H. Butler, nephew of a prominent beneficence of popular government.” located at 17th Street and Pennsyl- Massachusetts Congressman, was appointed Perhaps the most notable develop- vania Avenue, N.W., and in 1893 the Consul General in Alexandria, Egypt, in ment in foreign policy was the eleva- United States finally upgraded envoys 1870. He dismissed all consular agents, tion of the Monroe Doctrine into an accredited to the most important for- auctioned off their commissions, and pur- unquestioned article of faith as the eign powers to the rank of ambassador. chased dancing girls. Shortly before his re- nation gave increasing attention to Previously all missions had been lega- call in 1872, he was involved in a brawl with Latin America. Secretary of State tions headed by ministers. Embassies three former Confederate officers. James G. Blaine of Maine responded to were established in Great Britain, (Library of Congress photo) this development; he inaugurated the modern Pan American movement in 1889, although it did not prosper until the early years of the 20th century.

18 France, Germany, and Italy after those nations conferred ambassadorial rank on their representatives in Washington. These changes did not mean that the Department and the foreign services had altered their traditional practices. One historian described the Department of 1898 as “an antiquated feeble organization, enslaved by precedents and routine inherited from another century, remote from the pub-

lic gaze and indifferent to it. The typewriter was viewed as a necessary evil and the telephone was an instrument of last resort.” Most of the old problems endured into the 20th century. The Department and the foreign

services were shorthanded ; employees at home and abroad were seriously underpaid. Appointments were still In 1869 Congress recognized that the area of about 10 acres and contains subject to the spoils system, Congress building housing the Department of nearly l-% miles of corridors 12 feet having failed to legislate a system of State (the Washington City Orphan wide. These are paved with black slate selection and promotion by merit and Asylum) was inadequate because of and white marble. The eight spiral job protection through the award of the high rent, shortage of space, and stairways with steps of gray granite tenure to the deserving. the severe fire hazard. Consequently a are unsupported by either beams or Suddenly, the general circum- commission was appointed to recom- arches. There is very little woodwork stances that had influenced the Depart- mend a site and submit plans for a new in the entire building, the most note- ment of State since 1815 were vastly executive office building to house the worthy being the doors. altered as the result of a short but Department of State. By February The south wing had been planned important war. In 1898 the United 1870, it was agreed to construct a and built for the exclusive use of the States became involved in a struggle building on a site west of the White Department of State. The Secretary with Spain that stemmed from popular House, a site which was then partially had his office on the second floor at the support for the independence of Cuba. occupied by the buildings of the War southwest corner and the diplomatic The decision to free Cuba was a star- and Navy Departments. reception room—the scene of the tling departure from the practice of The construction was to be done signing of many historic documents— traditional liberal nationalism, but as in stages beginning with the south adjoined theSecretary’s office. a surprise it did not compare with the wing in order to avoid interfering Because of the pressure of space, results of the war. The Treaty of Paris with the business of the War and the Department of State was forced to (1898) provided for Cuban independ- Navy Departments. This would allow move some of its office out of this ence and also for the cession of impor- these two departments to remain in building and into rented quarters in tant Spanish possessions to the United their buildings until later when those other parts of the city. In 1918 the States—notably the island of Puerto buildings would have to be razed to Navy Department moved to new Rico in the Caribbean Sea, the entire make way for the other wings. Just quarters and all State Department Philippine archipelago in the western before the south wing was completed offices were reunited in this building Pacific Ocean, and the small island of in June 1875, the Department of State where they remained until 1936. Guam in the central Pacific Ocean. began moving in. The War and Navy In 1930, following the departure of This assumption of colonial re- Departments moved into the east wing most of the War Department, the sponsibilities overseas in two widely immediately after it was ready for name of the building was changed to separated regions, a stunning aberra- occupancy in April 1879. The north the Department of State Building. tion from liberal nationalism, reflected wing was completed in late 1882 and Again, however, the structure grew not only the temporary enthusiasms of the War Department moved into it in overcrowded and another exodus to 1898 but a basic change in the inter- February 1883. The west and center outlying buildings became necessary. national posture of the United States. wings were occupied in early 1888. In 1947 the Department of State The old foreign policies reflected the Upon completion it was reputed to moved to a new location at 320 21st circumstances of the earlier 19th cen- be the largest and finest office building Street, Northwest. The old State, War, tury, but by the 1890s the situation in the world. Exclusive of basement and Navy Building now houses the had changed greatly. The nation had and sub-basement, it has a total floor executive offices of the President. acquired almost all the attributes of a great power it stood ahead or nearly ; ahead of almost all other countries in the critical measures of power, such as population, geographic size and location, economic resources, and military potential.

19 This striking rise in international lished foreign policy. “We shall now cern that certain European nations status portended comparable shifts in and henceforth be looked upon as hav- might be able to penetrate Latin foreign policy. President William ing cast aside our traditional attitude America by the device of collecting McKinley drew attention to the new of isolation.” debts that certain nations had repu- situation in the instructions he gave During the 16 years between the diated, asserted a policy in 1904 that to the delegation of American states- brief war with Spain in 1898 and the became known as the Roosevelt Corol- men who negotiated the Treaty of outbreak of the First World War in lary to the Monroe Doctrine. No Latin Paris with Spain. “We cannot be 1914, the United States greatly en- American nation that adhered to unmindful that without any desire or larged its role in world politics. The acceptable international standards of design on our part the war has nation measurably altered its posture behavior, he said, need fear interven- brought us new duties and responsi- toward the areas that it had pene- tion by the United States. But what bilities which we must meet and dis- trated in 1898—the Caribbean-Latin about less scrupulous countries? charge as becomes a great nation on American and Pacific-East Asian re- “Chronic wrongdoing, or an impotence whose growth and career from the gions—and thereby added significantly which results in a general loosening of beginning the Ruler of Nations has to the burdens of the Department of the ties of civilized society, may in plainly written the high command and State. America, as elsewhere, require inter- pledge of civilization.” Another con- Latin American policy involved an vention by some civilized nation.” temporary observer, George L. Rives, imposing revision of the Monroe Doc- Moreover, he continued, “in the west- extended this interpretation. “Whether trine. Throughout the 19th century the ern hemisphere the adherence of the we like it or not,” he wrote, “it is plain Monroe Doctrine was aimed primarily United States to the Monroe Doctrine that the country is now entering into at European powers, which were may force the United States, however a period in its history in which it will warned to avoid further colonization reluctantly, in flagrant cases of such necessarily be brought into far closer in the New World. It did not imply wrongdoing or impotence, to the exer- and more complex relations with all the right to intervene in the affairs of cise of an international police power.” the other great Powers of the world,” Latin American nations. President This pronouncement led to a series of an outcome that would outmode estab- Theodore Roosevelt, reacting to con- interventions in the Caribbean-Latin

Olney’s Fiat

In 1895 Secretary of State Richard Olney addressed a diplomatic despatch to London for communication to the British Government concerning a boundary dispute between Great Britain and Venezuela. This message gave early indication, even before the war with Spain in 1898, that the United States was moving toward a new assertiveness in international politics on the basis of its rise to great- power status. Olney’s note offered a stirring defense of the Monroe Doc- trine. “Today the United States is practically sovereign on this continent, and its fiat is law upon the subjects to which it confines its interposition. Why? It is not because of the pure friendship or good will felt for it. It is not simply by reason of its high character as a civilized state, nor because wisdom and justice and equity are the invariable characteristics of the deal- ings of the United States. It is be- Spanish and American delegates sign the TYeaty of Paris on December 10, 1898. The Spanish cause, in addition to all other grounds, Empire in the New World came to an end, and the United States acquired an overseas empire its infinite resources combined with and took its place among the great powers. (Library of Congress photo) its isolated position render it master of the situation and practically in- vulnerable as against any or all other powers.”

20 American region that greatly enlarged 1898 to 1.6 million in 1916. This three- the U.S. presence there and added to fold jump reflected an expansion in the the workload of the Department of nation’s foreign trade from $1.8 billion “Father of the State. to $3 billion during the same period. Foreign Service” Meanwhile, the acquisition of the The growing responsibilities of Philippines triggered the development the Department of State forced a thor- of a new American policy for East ough reorganization in 1909. The re- Asia. As the United States gained a former, Assistant Secretary of State foothold in the region, European Francis M. Huntington Wilson, suc- incursions in China threatened to cut ceeded in enlarging the number of off access to that vast country, just leadership positions so that thereafter when Americans hoped to create a the Department had three Assistant great trade in Chinese markets. Ac- Secretaries of State, a Counselor to cordingly, Secretary of State John undertake special assignments, and a Hay of Ohio proposed in 1899 that Director to administer the Consular nations interested in China should Service. Lines of authority were clari- “enjoy perfect equality of treatment fied, permitting senior managers to for navigation,’’ that is, maintain the make better use of personnel. Most principle of free trade—the “open important, however, was the creation door.” In 1900 Hay extended the open- of bureaus to deal with four distinct door policy to include respect for the geographic regions—Western Europe, territorial and administrative integ- the Near East, the Far East, and rity of China. This commitment to the Latin America—a move that fostered open-door policy led the United States improved communication between the by degrees into much expanded par- Department and the overseas missions. ticipation in the activities of East Several other bureaus and divisions Asia, another source of additional were created to deal with various new responsibilities for the Department of responsibilities, notably a Bureau of Wilbur J. Carr (1870-1942) was born State. Trade Relations and a Division of in Ohio and entered the Department These extraordinary additions to Information. A number of talented of State as a clerk in 1892. He became the international political commit- foreign service officers were brought Chief of the Consular Bureau in 1902, ments of the United States ineluctably to Washington to staff the new geo- Chief Clerk in 1907, and served as fostered many internal changes in the graphic bureaus, adding a much- Director of the Consular Service from Department of State and its overseas needed leaven of experience. 1909 to 1924. A believer in scientific establishments. The foreign policy Although the expansion and reor- management and administrative effi- community grew at a rapid rate. The ganization of the Department consti- ciency, Carr took pride in having Department was thoroughly reorga- tuted striking departures, the most brought Consular Service operations nized to meet its new responsibilities, distinctive feature of the early 20th “as near to perfection as possible.” and important steps were taken century was a strong movement He strove to extend professionalism toward the development of profes- toward fully professionalized and and merit to all aspects of the Depart- sional, democratic foreign services. democratic foreign services. The ment, working for passage of the 1906 The Department of State ex- transformation in American foreign Consular Reorganization Act and panded considerably during the years relations that began at the end of the helping to draft the Rogers Act. between the war with Spain and the 19th century forced the nation to rec- Carr served as Assistant Secre- First World War. When Hay became ognize that it paid dearly for amateur- tary of State from 1924 to 1937. His Secretary of State in 1898 the Depart- ism in the conduct of foreign policy. duties included those of Chairman of ment met a domestic payroll of 82 One critic summed up the need for the Board of Foreign Service Per- people; by 1905, when Elihu Root of expertise in an article published in sonnel and Budget Officer of the

New York succeeded Hay, the number 1897 : “As we would not put a ship Department, a combination which had risen only to 119, but at the end into the hands of a commander igno- allowed him to administer the transi- of 1910, during the Secretaryship of rant of navigation, an army under the tion from separate Diplomatic and Philander C. Knox of Pennsylvania, control of a general without military Consular Services to a unified profes- the payroll had advanced to 234. The training, a suit at law into the hands sional Foreign Service. His last Diplomatic Service grew modestly of a counsel who never opened a law assignment was Ambassador to from 93 people in 1900 to 121 in 1910. book ... so we should not put the for- Czechoslovakia from 1937 until the Expansion required a considerable eign affairs of our government into German occupation in 1939. “The increase in the annual budget. The the hands of men without knowledge Father of the Foreign Service” then expenditures of the Department at of the various subjects which go to retired from the Department, having home and overseas increased from make up the diplomatic science.” Given served for 45 years under 17 Secre- $3.4 million in 1900 to $4.9 million in the changed circumstances, President taries of State. 1910. The Consular Service experi- Theodore Roosevelt emphasized the enced a particularly significant addi- necessity to upgrade performance: tion to its workload. The annual total “The trouble with our ambassadors in of fees collected rose from $533,000 in stations of real importance,” he told a

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friend, “is that they totally fail to give This sequence of events vastly us real help and real information, and encouraged the proponents of technical seem to think that the life work of an competence in the Diplomatic and ambassador is a kind of glorified pink Consular Services, although more re- tea party.” mained to be done. The movement Various means of insuring profes- owed something to the earlier agita- sional and democratic foreign services tion for the creation of a civil service were available to the Department. but even more to the spirit of progres- Among them were abandonment of the sivism that swept the nation during spoils system in favor of guaranteed the first two decades of the 20th tenure, adoption of the merit system century. The Progressives emphasized as the basis for award of pay increases administrative measures designed to and promotions, selection of foreign enhance efficiency and minimize the service officers by competitive exami- baneful influence of excessive parti- nation, and adequate pay and allow- sanship, especially in the form of ances. All of these practices had been political appointments. They opposed widely publicized earlier as part of the undue favoritism to the wealthy and campaign that culminated in the pas- privileged. President Roosevelt told a sage of the Civil Service Act in 1883, friend in 1908: “I am anxious to have applicable only to domestic servants of it understood that it is not necessary the government. They were equally to be a multimillionaire in order to appropriate for the Diplomatic and reach the highest positions in the President Grover Cleveland signed an Consular Services, and all of them re- American diplomatic services.” Executive order on September 20, 1895, that ceived attention the first This concern stimulated passage instituted examinations for consular appoin- during years of the Lowden Act (1911) it was the tees, a significant step toward professionali- of the 20th century. ; zation of the Consular Service. President Grover Cleveland antic- first legislation to provide for the pur- (Department of State photo) ipated the reform movement in 1895, chase of buildings to house overseas when he issued an Executive order establishments. The author of this that made entrance into the Consular measure, Representative Frank O. Service contingent upon competitive Lowden of Illinois, hoped to open the examination, but the most important way to the most important diplomatic steps occurred during the Administra- positions for deserving members of the tions of Presidents Theodore Roosevelt foreign services regardless of their and William Howard Taft. economic circumstances. “It ought to In November 1905, President be possible,” he said, “for the lowest Roosevelt established the merit system man in the foreign service to feel that for all diplomatic and consular posi- it is within his power, if his service tions, except those of minister and justifies it, to reach the highest posts.” ambassador, along with competitive This sentiment faithfully reflected the entrance examinations. In 1906 Secre- Progressive conviction that compe- tary Root shepherded a law through tence should be the only basis for Congress that created a grade classifi- advancement in the public service. cation system for consular positions The new assertiveness of the and also to conduct annual inspections United States in world politics not of consular establishments. However, only reflected the nation’s rise to this statute did not mention President world power; it also stemmed from Roosevelt’s examination system or basic changes in the pattern of inter- merit promotion President Roose- national relations. The stable inter- ; velt remedied these omissions by national balance of power that had means of another Executive order endured since the downfall of Napo- issued in June 1906. A few years later, leon in 1815—the source of so much Joining the Diplomatic Service in 1906, in 1909, President Taft set up a board national advantage in the form of free Joseph C. Grew served as Minister to Den- of examiners to administer both oral security during the 19th century mark (1920), Sw itzerland (1921-24), and as and written examinations to prospec- showed definite signs of collapse dur- Ambassador to Tlirkey (1927-32) and to tive diplomats. ing the first years of the 20th century. Japan 1932—41). He concluded his career as In 1915 Congress passed the Its final dissolution in 1914 precipi- Under Secretary of State (1944—15). Stone-Flood Act, tated the first European general war (Department of State photo) which permitted appointment of certain diplomatic and in a hundred years. Notable expansion consular officers to functional posi- and impi-ovement in the Department of tions, rather than to specific posts in State after 1898 helped to prepare it the field. This step permitted reassign- for the unprecedented challenges that ment by administrative transfer it encountered during the First World rather than Presidential appointment. War of 1914-18 and after.

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The Test of Total War, 1913-1947

The First World War marked one of Nevertheless America’s entrance the great turning points in modern into the First World War in April history. It signaled an end to the 1917 as an associate of the Allies re- century of general international flected the vision of President Wood- stability and extensive economic, row Wilson more than the outcome of social, and political progress that had the controversy over submarine war- underwritten the security of the fare. By 1917 the conflict had been United States during its rise from a transformed into a quasi-global con- small and struggling country to an flict that verged on total war. Wilson honored place among the great powers. came to believe that only the United The conflict of 1914-18 inaugurated States could shape an effective peace an age of international disequilibrium settlement, given the political and that endured to the latter decades of moral debility of the contending bellig- the 20th century, generating political erent coalitions. The fundamental rea- turbulence and organized violence on son he decided on the intervention of an hitherto unimaginable scale. 1917 was to insure that the United The First World War vastly af- States would play a decisive part in the fected the position of the United States outcome of the war. Only by this in the international community be- course could he hope to dominate the cause it destroyed the general stability postwar peace conference. that had nurtured Washington’s The President’s plan for the “great rule of conduct” during more future, outlined in the 14 points of than 100 years of extraordinary na- January 1918 and augmented by later tional accomplishment. It drew the pronouncements prior to the end of the nation into any number of interna- war in November 1918, envisioned tional entanglements that would have restoration of a stable, equitable, and seemed inconceivable a few scant enduring international balance years earlier. Political isolation, how- through the workings of a beneficent ever appropriate during the 19th arrangement to provide collective century, no longer served the national security—the League of Nations interest. based on a consensus of the great When general warfare began in powers. Wilson’s attempt to banish 1914 between the Allied Powers warfare forever culminated the con- (Great Britain, France, Russia, version of the United States from Japan, and later Italy) and the Central isolation to engagement in a mere Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, generation. and Turkey), the United States an- The many changes that accom- nounced strict neutrality in keeping panied World War I posed great chal- with tradition, but this course ulti- lenges for the Department of State. As mately proved untenable. During the the executive agency charged with period of neutrality (1914-17) two principal responsibility for the conduct prewar trends came rapidly to a tragic of foreign relations, it was forced to conclusion. As the Americans experi- assume duties undreamed of in earlier mented with their newfound power in years. Even before the United States world affairs after the war with Spain, entered the war, the Department’s they decided that their national in- workload spurted di*amatically. Both terests and aspirations had become the Diplomatic and Consular Services complementary with those of the expanded their reporting functions to ancient enemy. Great Britain, and com- provide desperately needed informa- petitive with those of Germany, tion. They also augmented their sup- another rising power. Developments port activity abroad. American citi- after 1914, which led to an ungovern- zens made demands for help, and able conflict with Germany over the legality of unrestricted submarine warfare against neutral shipping, simply accelerated a political process that had begun some years earlier.

23 “None Is Swifter Than These”

The earliest American diplomatic named Nat Crane, who left Savannah ment in 1934, while attending the courier was Peter Parker, master of for London on May 24, 1819. London economic conference. The sys- the brig Dispatch, who was commis- The Embassies in London and Paris tem was still based in Paris and had sioned by the Continental Congress on became the first American diplomatic three regular couriers. By 1941 July 10, 1776, to deliver messages to posts to hire full-time couriers in established service had been instituted J.H. and Samuel Delap in Bordeaux. December 1914. At the end of the First to China, Japan, and the Americas. The letters, relating to obtaining mili- World War, the American Commission A regular system of worldwide sched- tary supplies from France, were to Negotiate Peace asked Major Amos ules came into being after World weighted so that they could be thrown J. Peaslee, who had organized a War II. overboard in the event of capture. courier system for the Army, to per- The Diplomatic Courier Service The Department did not begin to form a similar service for the Depart- reached its peak strength of 100 after hire couriers on a regular basis until ment. The Diplomatic Courier Service World War II. There are presently 74 World War I. Outgoing despatches began operations in Paris on Decem- couriers. Despite the hazards of wars, would be entrusted to shipmasters, ber 2, 1918, using military personnel. revolutions, shipwrecks, and plane junior naval officers, or private citizens It was disbanded the next year when crashes, only five couriers have lost as necessary. “Bearers of despatches” the Peace Commission concluded its their lives in the line of duty. No were entitled to $6 per diem plus a activities, but 11 Marines and one pouch or letter has ever been stolen travel allowance, payable by the De- civilian were then designated as from a diplomatic courier. The emblem partment upon completion of their couriers. of the Diplomatic Courier Service is a mission. They also carried a special The Courier Service was dis- golden eagle in flight. Its motto, “none passport to certify their official char- banded again on July 30, 1933, as an is swifter than these,” is taken from acter. One of the first such special economy measure. President Franklin Herodotus’ description of Persian couriers was a Post Office employee D. Roosevelt ordered its reestablish- couriers.

American missions located in bellig- erent countries often acted as care- takers for enemy interests in these countries. For example, the American Embassy in Berlin represented Brit- ish, Japanese, and Italian interests in Germany until the United States abandoned neutrality. The burgeoning responsibilities of the foreign services caused an increase in personnel and expenditures. Many temporary employees were assigned to duties at home and overseas. Resignations and retirements were minimized to retain experienced officers. Congress authorized a significant number of new permanent positions, including 27 in the Diplomatic Service, a jump from 70 to 97. The domestic payroll grew from 234 people in 1910 to 708 in 1920. Expenditures jumped from $4.9 million in 1910 to $13.6 million in 1920. For the first time since the earliest years of the nation, the American The TVeaty of Versailles was signed on June 28, 1919. At the close of World War I, the United people gave sustained attention to States briefly abandoned isolation and attempted to establish not only a lasting peace but a foreign affairs. The Department ac- new international order. (Library of Congress photo) cordingly attracted considerable attention and even praise, a welcome change from the general apathy or distrust that characterized the heyday of isola-

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And yet, despite its enlarged operational responsibilities and re- A Man Behind the Throne spectability, the Department of State lost much of its influence on the mak- For a time Edward M. House of Texas ing of foreign policy. Almost all the exercised much more influence on significant decisions of the conflict President Woodrow Wilson’s foreign to pursue strict neutrality in 1914, to policies than the Secretary of State, intervene on behalf of the Allies in Robert Lansing of New York. He came 1917, to champion the League of to Wilson’s attention during the cam- Nations in 1918, and to negotiate a paign of 1912 and soon became the peace treaty on American terms in President’s most intimate friend. A 1919—emanated from the White quiet, self-effacing man, but one of House without decisive contributions large ambition, House established close from the Secretary of State and his relations with important European subordinates. leaders, particularly in Great Britain. Several factors helped displace The President sent him to Europe the Department of State as the prin- twice during the period of neutrality cipal source of advice concerning the (1914-17) to explore the possibility most crucial questions of war and of mediating the European conflict. peace. One important reason was that House later served as a special execu- President Wilson and his several Sec- tive agent during the period of Ameri- retaries of State did not establish Lucile Atcherson passed the examination for can belligerency (1917-18) represent- close and confidential relations with the diplomatic service in 1922 and became ing the United States at an important each other, almost always a precondi- the first woman Foreign Service officer. in Paris tion for influential leadership from inter-Allied conference held (Photo taken in 1978) (Department of State photoj during November 1917 and at the the Department of State. Wilson re- prearmistice negotiations in October- lied primarily on others for advice, November 1918. During the war notably an intimate friend, Edward M. categories of reform were required House also headed a group of experts House of Texas. A less obvious but to revivify the Department. The for- known as the “Inquiry” who prepared equally significant reason was that the eign services must be fully profes- information to be used by the Ameri- Department was poorly organized to sionalized and democratized; the can delegation to the postwar peace meet the requirements of wartime. It structure of the Department must be conference. tended to act slowly, and it lacked ex- modernized to deal effectively with a President Wilson made House one pertise in treating military issues. whole new range of policy matters in of the American peace commissioners Moreover, the exigencies of the na- a transformed environment; and rela- in 1919, and the Texan played a sig- tional emergency dictated the partici- tions between the Department and nificant role in the negotiations that pation of many agencies in decisions other participants in the foreign policy took place in Paris. Unfortunately for about foreign relations—notably the process must be clarified and con- him, he betrayed a tendency to com- War Department, the Navy Depart- ducted in a new institutional context. promise some of Wilson’s positions, ment, the Treasury, and temporary Measurable improvement occurred probably the reason for a rapid cooling organizations such as the War Indus- in the first of these dimensions after of their friendship. When House re- tries Board—but the Department of the First World War, when Congress turned from Europe he was no longer State was not prepared to take a lead- completed the prewar movement to- welcome at the White House. ing role in coordinating this activity. ward a fully professional and demo- Finally, modern communications cratic foreign service. Representative rendered the President less dependent Rogers, who led the congressional on the Department for information campaign, stated his objective in 1923: than in earlier periods. “Let us strive for a foreign service tion. The rise of the “new diplomacy” The experience of modern war- which will be flexible and democratic a term used to describe statecraft — fare revealed that the Department of which will attract and retain the best responsive to the desires of popular will offer reason- State would have to undergo major men we have ; which majorities brought international — changes. In January 1920, Secretary able pay, reasonable prospects for pro- politics and its practitioners fully into of State Robert Lansing of New York motion, reasonable provision against the consciousness of people who had put his finger squarely on the reason, want when old age comes to a faithful never before concerned themselves writing to a sympathetic Congress- servant.” Hugh Gibson, a respected with foreign relations. man, John Jacob Rogers of Massa- diplomat interested in reform, sup- chusetts: “The machinery of govern- ported Rogers, arguing that improvement provided for dealing with our ments in the Diplomatic and Consular foreign relations is in need of complete repair and reorganization. As adequate as it may have been when the old order prevailed and the affairs of the world were free from the present perplexities it has ceased to be responsive to present needs.” Three

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Services would attract the most quali- to suspension of promotion, a reduc- fied candidates so that “we can choose tion of 15% in salaries, abolition of our men by the only good method Foreign Relations representational and living allowances, that is, by keen competition.” He of the United States elimination of paid home leaves, and hoped for creation of “a real diplo- suspension of recruiting for 4 years. matic career, which is open to any In 1861 Secretary of State William H. The result was a 10% reduction in the American citizen who has the neces- Seward decided to publish his im- size of the service between July 1932 sary qualifications.” portant diplomatic despatches. This and December 1934. The Rogers Act, which became decision established the policy of The Department of State did not law on May 24, 1924, codified the re- publishing the record of American undergo a thorough structural reorga- form of the foreign services. It estab- diplomacy. The documentary publi- nization after the First World War. lished a career organization based on cation entitled Foreign Relations of In 1924 the Secretary, who had final competitive examination and merit the United States is the oldest and responsibility for policy and adminis- promotion. To eliminate invidious most extensive enterprise of its kind. tration, had relatively few senior of- distinctions between the Consular and The editors of the Foreign ficials to help him. The Under Secre- Diplomatic Services, the two groups Relations series include in volumes tary provided support on policies of were amalgamated into a unified orga- “all documents needed to give a special import. Three Assistant Secre- nization whose members were made comprehensive record of the major taries helped with certain matters available for both types of activities. foreign policy decisions within the the First Assistant Secretary with Henceforth, members of what was range of the Department of State’s economic and financial questions, the now called the “Foreign Service of the responsibilities, together with ap- Second Assistant Secretary with inter- United States of America” would be propriate materials concerning the national law and related questions, and commissioned in a given class with facts which contributed to the formu- the Third Assistant Secretary with specified salaries rather than to over- lation of policies.” The editors are administration. The Chief Clerk su- seas missions or posts. Salaries would enjoined to honor “the principles of pervised the Department’s clerks and range from $3,000 for the lowest level, historical objectivity.” They may not looked after its property. The Director Class 9, to $9,000 for Class 1. Officers omit information “for the purpose of of the Consular Service served as would be placed in positions for 3 concealing or glossing over what might budget officer for the Department as years with the presumption of regular be regarded by some as a defect of well as the principal consular official. rotation to other assignments. The policy.” The Solicitor handled legal business, Rogers Act granted regular home In addition to annual volumes for and the Economic Adviser made leave and set up a good retirement every year except 1869, certain special recommendations concerning interna- system. It also authorized representa- sets have been prepared, covering tional trade and finance. Five geo- tional expenses, although these allow- important topics such as the Paris graphic bureaus maintained communi- ances were not granted until 1931. A Peace Conference of 1919 and the cations between Washington and special reinstatement provision per- summit meetings of the Second World missions abroad. Various other orga- mitted career officers who became War. To date 283 volumes have been nizations, such as the Division of chiefs of mission to remain in the published. Volumes covering the 1950s Passport Control and the Bureau of Foreign Service after completing their are now beginning to appear. Accounts, provided various types of tours of duty. Earlier they had been support. required to resign without assurance From time to time modifications of a future Presidential appointment were made in the basic structure cre- to other responsible duties, a sure way ated in 1909. New divisions or bureaus of discarding the most experienced and Certain defects of the Rogers Act were created on occasion to manage competent officers at the height of became apparent after a few years, new functions or to improve estab- their abilities. especially inequities in the promotion lished ones. For example, a Division Related actions helped support of people serving in consular assign- of Publications was established in the fundamental objectives of the ments, and Congress moved to correct 1921 to centralize work on informa- Rogers Act. In 1925 the Foreign Serv- them in 1931. The Moses-Linthicum tional projects such as the documen-

ice School was founded to’ provide Act reorganized the Board of Foreign tary series Foreign Relations of the specialized training in languages and Service Personnel to insure impartial United States. In 1929 a Division of other necessary skills—recognition promotion practices. Other sections International Conferences and Pro- that modern complexities of function of the law improved salaries, author- tocol was formed to cope with a con- required educational updating at all ized paid annual leave and sick leave, siderable increase in the number of stages of a career in the Foreign Serv- set up an improved retirement system, multilateral negotiations that oc- ice. In 1926 Congress passed the For- and conferred career status on clerks curred during the postwar decade and eign Service Buildings Act, an im- in the Foreign Service. Unfortunately after. In 1938 a Division of Cultural provement of the Lowden Act. It many of these gains proved transient. Relations appeared that dealt with a permitted purchase or construction Economies in government that ac- new form of activity—cultural diplo- of buildings overseas for the use of companied the Great Depression led macy—and also a Division of Inter- missions and consulates. This measure national Communications that pro- further lessened the need to possess vided modern telecommunications. independent means in order to rise to the highest levels of the Foreign Service.

26 In the absence of an overall reorganization, these changes, however helpful in themselves, did not make sufficient impact. The failure to modernize the Department of State reflected the general decline in the nation’s commitment to an energetic foreign policy after the Senate repudiated the Treaty of Versailles. President Wilson was the first Ameri- can leader to develop an international vision that cast the United States in the role of global leader, but the nation was not yet prepared to accept permanent international responsibilities commensurate with its power. Charles G. Dawes, who served as Ambassador to Great Britain during the Adminis- tration of President Herbert Hoover (1929-33) could say only half hu- , morously that being an ambassador was hard on the feet and easy on the brain. During the 1920s Americans stoutly resisted international com- mitments of a truly binding character. Largely because of leadership from Secretary of State Charles Evans Despite rejection of the Versailles TVeaty and the League of Nations, the United States Hughes, the Administration of Presi- hosted the Washington Naval Disarmament Conference in 1921-22. Representatives of nine dent Warren G. Harding sponsored nations reached agreements to limit naval construction and to respect each other’s interests the Washington Naval Disarmament in the Far East. (Library of Congress photo) Conference of 1921-22, and Secretary of State Frank Kellogg, who served President Calvin Coolidge, played a of Tennessee, strongly supported ef- leading role in the creation of the forts to reduce barriers to interna- Paris Peace Pact (1928), a multi- tional trade, but this enterprise was lateral instrument that outlawed of- not by itself sufficient to combat the fensive warfare. But these accomplish- Depression or deter German aggres- ments did not alter the strongly iso- sion in Europe and Japanese expan- lationist cast of American foreign sion in East Asia. policy—a reversion that stemmed not The Department of State grew only from disillusionment after the slowly during the interwar years. First World War but from the absence Between 1920 and 1930, the domestic of apparent challenges to national work force increased from 708 to only security. Clear and present dangers 714, the Foreign Service from 514 to materialized after 1929 during the 633, and annual expenditures from Great Depression. These massive eco- $13.6 million to $14 million. The func- nomic shocks reinforced the country’s tions of the Foreign Service did not isolationist inclinations during the rise change materially. Its members de- of totalitarianism. voted themselves to representation, The consequence of these develop- negotiation, reporting, protection of ments for the Department of State and American citizens and their interests, the Foreign Service was a tendency to trade promotion, and consular tasks. accept the relatively low priority at- One historian has described the gen- tached to international affairs during erally backward state of the organiza- the “long armistice” from 1919 to tion when Secretary Hull assumed Charles Evans Hughes served as Secretary 1939. In the 1920s the Department of control. “In 1933 the Department was of State from 1921 to 1925. His opening Commerce rather than the small, placid, to Department comfortably adjusted speech to the Washington conference on the of State provided leadership in spon- the lethargic diplomacy of the pre- limitation of armaments proposed naval soring expanded international trade ceding decade, and suffused with restrictions that "sank” more ships in 15 and investment. During the early minutes “than all the admirals of the world years of President Franklin D. have sunk in a cycle of centuries.” He later Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. Roosevelt’s New Deal in the 1930s, became (Department of State photo) the Secretary of State, Cordell Hull

27 William C. Bullitt served as the first Ameri- can Ambassador to the Soviet Union (1933— 36); he was also Ambassador to France (1936—40). (Department of State photo)

habits of thought that reached back to a still earlier day.” Overseas missions were in a comparable state. Cartoonist Clifford K. Berryman views recognition of the Soviet Union. (Library of Congress photo) “The Foreign Service—genteel, slow- moving, and complacent—also cher- ished its ties with the past.” Although many highly qualified people served at home and abroad, their presence did not in itself insure effective institutional performance; “Individual competence is seldom proof against out- moded procedures and relaxed standards of accomplishment.” The United States still lacked an apparatus for the conduct of foreign relations appropriate to the modern era. The neglect of foreign relations that characterized the interwar years dissipated rapidly with the onset of the Second World War; the undeniable menace of Hitler’s Germany and its partners, Italy and Japan, forced the U.S. Government, to increasingly inter- ventionist policy, particularly given the Axis victories of 1939-41, when the nation again adopted neutrality. President Franklin Roosevelt took the initiative: He launched rearmament, authorized the sale of destroyers to Great Britain in return for leases on certain bases in the western Atlantic, and eventually provided wholesale economic assistance to the anti-

A perennial problem in American foreign policy. (Library of Congress photo)

28 vide efficient international communications, a vital aspect of waging global war. Another Man To perform its tasks, the foreign Behind the Throne policy community grew at an un- equalled rate. In 1940 the Department Harry Hopkins spent his earlier career had 1,128 domestic employees, and it as a social worker. He came to Wash- survived on total expenditures of ington in 1933 as one of the New $24 million, of which less than $3 Dealers. His first assignment was to million was spent at home. By 1945 the administer employment relief he ; staff had grown to 3,767 people, and headed the Work Projects Administra- the budget for all operations had risen tion. In 1938 he became President to about $50 million. Recruiting for Roosevelt’s Secretary of Commerce. the career Foreign Service was sus- As World War II approached. pended during the war, but a Foreign President Roosevelt turned increas- Service Auxiliary was created to pro- ingly to Hopkins for crucial assign- vide additional assistance. It sought ments. He first served as the adminis- experienced elders with necessary trator of the Lend-Lease Act in 194 1 qualifications and young people with and then moved to the White House as abilities comparable to those of a special assistant. In this capacity he successful prewar candidates for the was sent on secret missions to serve as Ruth Bryan Owen, daughter of William Foreign Service. By January 1946, the President’s eyes and ears. In July Jennings Bryan, was America’s first woman the Auxiliary included people. Chief of Mission. She served as Minister to 976 1941 he went to Moscow to work out Denmark from 1933 to 1936. To manage international tasks cooperation with Stalin after Germany (Department of State photo) that would not be taken on by the attacked the Soviet Union. He attended Department, a number of wartime all of the great wartime summit con- agencies came into existence. Among ferences such as Casablanca (1943) them were the Board of Economic and Yalta (1945) held to coordinate German coalition of Great Britain and Warfare, the Office of War Informa- the strategy and policy of the “grand the Soviet Union by means of the tion, the Office of Strategic Services, alliance’’—the United States, Great Lend-Lease Act (1941). Nevertheless, the Lend-Lease Administration, and Britain, and the Soviet Union. Closely the United States did not enter the the Office of the Coordinator of Inter- attuned to the needs and desires of war until the Japanese air raid American Affairs. the President, he also gained the con- against Pearl Harbor on December 7, And yet, as during the First fidence of Prime Minister Winston 1941. World War, the President largely Churchill and Premier Joseph Stalin. The American intervention of ignored the Secretary’s advice on His last public service, after the death 1941, like that of 1917, committed the policy; the Department of State con- of President Roosevelt, was to visit United States to another period of fined itself mostly to day-to-day opera- Moscow in a successful effort to obtain intense international activity, an tions. Secretary Hull proved influential Russian cooperation in creating the outcome that added greatly to the only in one area—preparation of plans United Nations. tasks of the Department of State. It for postwar international organiza- accepted responsibility for evacuating tion. This situation stemmed from the Americans from combat zones, repre- Department’s failure to organize for senting the interests of belligerents fully effective performance in war- the Department from a reasonable in enemy countries, assisting prisoner- time. Wartime decisions required part in many major decisions. It is of-war exchanges, maintaining liaison coordination of political ends and not surprising that Secretary Hull with the International Red Cross, and military means, but the Department should have commented bitterly to- dealing with refugees. of State lacked the means—expertise ward the efid of his service: “When During the war the most notable and institutions—to exert dominant I accepted this office, I knew that I increase in business within the De- influence on the shaping of grand would be misrepresented, lied about, partment occurred in the economic strategy. Like President Wilson before let down, and that there would be field. Officials of the Department him, President Roosevelt turned to a humiliations that no man in private helped coordinate the activities of coterie of trusted advisers, among life could accept and keep his self- various wartime agencies set up to them Harry Hopkins, Vice President respect. But I made up my mind in mobilize the nation for total war and Henry A. Wallace, General George C. advance that I would accept all these to assist in the reconstruction of Marshall, Under Secretary of State things and just do my job.” liberated territories. The Department Sumner Welles, and Secretary of the In 1943 Edward R. Stettinius, Jr. also created a complex system to pro- Treasury Henry Morgenthau, Jr. of Virginia became Linder Secretary Although Secretary Hull was usually of State and immediately began to informed of important decisions, he plan a major reorganization of the rarely participated in the great war- Department of State, an enterprise time conferences at which the leaders that stemmed directly from wartime of the grand alliance forged the victory of 1945. His inability to gain the President’s full confidence kept

29 embarrassments. One journalist sum- innovations minimized fragmentation Service, and to maintain the principle marized the situation aptly: “Not- of jurisdiction that so frequently im- of competitive entrance it set up a withstanding the personal prestige of mobilized the Department when quick Board of Examiners. It also provided the Secretary of State [Hull], the decisions were required in a crisis. for improvements in assignments organization he heads has only to be Certain other steps that continued policy, promotion procedures, allow- mentioned in almost any circle, Amer- the modernization of the Department ances and benefits, home leave, and ican or foreign, to arouse either were taken during the service of the retirement system. Recognizing doubt, despair, or derision.” Stettinius’ Secretary of State James F. Byrnes the growing importance of expertise reorganization marked the dividing of South Carolina, who succeeded in certain critical areas, it created the line between the old Department of Stettinius in July 1945, shortly after Foreign Service Reserve for people State and the present agency. He Harry S. Truman became President. needed in specialist categories such as began the process of making adjust- The most important activity was to lawyers, doctors, economists, and ments to insure that the Department gather several temporary wartime intelligence analysts. Finally the act would participate effectively in shap- organizations into the permanent converted the Foreign Service School ing the nation’s foreign relations structure of the Department, espe- into the modern Foreign Service during the difficult postwar era that cially those that dealt with interna- Institute to offer advanced training lay ahead. tional economic affairs. In August for Foreign Service officers in subjects Stettinius concentrated on certain 1946 the Department created an Under of particular importance to the key deficiencies of the Department, Secretary for Economic Affairs. This Department. particularly unsound division of re- official teamed with an existing Assist- The new Department of State sponsibility for certain important ant Secretary for Economic Affairs to emerged from World War II better functions, inadequate means of ob- supervise economic activities and to prepared to play a leading role in the taining and disseminating informa- establish effective relations with foreign policy process and fully aware tion, and ineffective long-range certain international institutions such that the tasks ahead loomed more planning. On December 20, 1944, as the International Bank for Recon- difficult than any encountered in shortly after Stettinius succeeded struction and Development, the Inter- earlier years. In July 1945, Secretary Hull as Secretary of State, he issued national Monetary Fund, and the Food Byrnes recognized the extent of the Department Order 1301, which con- and Agriculture Organization. postwar challenge. “Today there is no centrated similar functions in the To modernize personnel practices, doubt that the people of this war- same office and related offices under Congress passed the Foreign Service ravaged Earth want to live in a free a senior official, either the Under Sec- Act of 1946, which became law on and peaceful world. The supreme task retary or one of six Assistant August 13, 1946. It was intended to of statesmanship in the world over is Secretaries. “improve, strengthen, and expand the to help them understand that they

To coordinate the work of the Foreign Service . . . and to consolidate can have peace and freedom only if Department, insure follow-through, and revise the laws relating to its they tolerate and respect the rights and conduct long-range planning, administration.” To improve the ad- of others to opinions, feelings, and Order 1301 created several new orga- ministration of the Foreign Service, way of life which they do not and nizations. A Staff Committee consist- the act of 1946 established a Director cannot share.” ing of the Secretary and his principal General and a Board of the Foreign subordinates became the chief managerial group. The task of making initial investigations of policy matters and controlling interoffice projects was given to a Coordinating Committee. A Joint Secretariat was charged with monitoring Department activity to insure efficient action on decisions. Finally a Policy Committee and a Committee on Postwar Problems were created to undertake long-range planning. Secretary Stettinius also recognized the need to improve the management of functions that overlapped the jurisdictions of the traditional geographic bureaus. New bureaus were set up to deal with trade relations, cultural diplomacy, and public information. Another important functional organization came into being in September 1945—the Interim Re- search and Intelligence Service, the forerunner of the present-day Bureau As President Harry S. TYuman watches, Secretary of State Edward R. Stettinius, Jr., signs of Intelligence and Research. These the United Nat ions Charter in San Francisco on June 26, 1945. (Department of State photo)

30 The Age off Global Leadership, 1 947-Present

In April 1947 the Department of State occupied new quarters located in a section of Washington, D.C., known as Foggy Bottom. This move coincided with one of the most striking departures in the history of American foreign relations. The United States and the Soviet Union, allies during the Second World War, had emerged from that conflict as the sole world powers. By 1947 efforts to maintain cooperation had broken down. President Harry S. Truman, working closely with two Secretaries of State, George C. Marshall of Pennsylvania and Dean G. Acheson of Maryland, took decisive steps to preclude Soviet aggression against regions in which the United States had vital interests. A leading expert on Soviet affairs in the Department of State, George Secretary of State George C. Marshall F. Kennan (soon to become head of (1947—19) proposed the European recovery the Policy Planning Staff), developed program, better known as the Marshall plan. (Department of State photo) the intellectual basis for what became known as the policy of “containment.” Kennan concluded that “the main element of any United States policy of the United States was not directed toward the Soviet Union must be “against any country or doctrine but that of a long-term patient but firm against hunger, poverty, desperation, and vigilant containment of Russian and chaos. Its purpose should be the expansive tendencies.” This concept revival of a working economy in inspired a series of successful ini- the world so as to permit the tiatives undertaken from 1947 to existence of political and social con- 1950 in which the Department of ditions in which free institutions State played a leading role. can exist.” Congress later authorized The first step was the “Truman the European Recovery Program, Doctrine” of March 1947. Reacting better known as the Marshall plan. to fear that Greece and Turkey might An investment of about $13 billion fall victim to subversion for lack of in Europe cjuring the next few years support from friendly nations, resulted in an extraordinarily rapid President Truman asked Congress to and durable reconstruction of authorize $400 million in emergency Western Europe. assistance to the two nations. To It soon became apparent that

justify this course he stated : “I there must be a political-military believe we must assist free peoples dimension to the policy of contain- to work out their destinies in their ment. In June 1948, Senator Arthur own way.” The key to preventing H. Vandenberg of Michigan, a strong overthrow of free nations was to proponent of bipartisan foreign attack the conditions of “misery and policy, sponsored a resolution in the want” that nurtured totalitarianism. Senate that set the nation’s course. Very soon this general idea was It called for “progressive develop- applied to Western Europe. In June ment of regional and other collective 1947, Secretary Marshall proposed arrangements for individual and the extension of massive economic assistance to the devastated nations of Europe, saying that the policy

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collective self-defense in accordance During the Presidency of Dwight The creation of the NSC did not with the purposes, principles, and D. Eisenhower (1953-61), the United displace the Secretary of State as provisions of the [United Nations] States ratified a number of bilateral the President’s senior adviser on Charter.” President Truman had and multilateral treaties designed to international questions; it simply already applied this concept to Latin extend the wall of containment around insured that all concerned agencies America. The Rio pact, signed in the Soviet Union and its allies. would make cooperative contributions September 1947, provided that “an Among these arrangements were the to the decisionmaking process in armed attack by any State shall be Central Treaty Organization appropriate measure. The principal considered as an attack against all (CENTO) the Southeast Asia Treaty participants in the NSC, acting at ; the American States and, conse- Organization (SEATO) and bilateral the direction of the President, are ; quently, each one of the said Con- treaties with Japan, South Korea, the the Vice President and representatives tracting Parties undertakes to assist Republic of China, and the Philip- of the Department of State, the De- in meeting the attack.” Collective pine Republic. partment of Defense, the Joint Chiefs security was invoked once again in At times the United States was of Staff, the Central Intelligence the North Atlantic Treaty. Signed in forced to counter unexpected probes Agency, and, on occasion, interde- Washington in April 1949, it created along the dividing line between the partmental groups ranging in nature the North Atlantic Treaty Organi- free nations and their rivals. In 1948 from small informal committees to zation (NATO). The Rio pact and the the United States and its European large, highly organized councils. NATO pact ended the policy of no allies fended off a dangerous threat Proliferation of interagency organi- entangling alliances. Economic assist- to the western zones of occupied zations reflected the fact that few ance to endangered regions and Berlin. When the Soviet Union national-security issues could be dealt collective defense agreements with interdicted land access, the city with by only one agency. likeminded nations became the prin- received supplies by means of a The NSC structure for making cipal means of insuring containment massive airlift. Eventually the Rus- national security decisions provided of the Soviet bloc. sians were forced to lift the blockade. an institutional vehicle through which When North Korea invaded South the Department of State could exert Korea in 1950, the United States a continuing influence on the nation’s sponsored a “police action” under the “grand strategy,” that is, the sys- auspices of the United Nations to tematic design for insuring national curb the aggressor. After a long security that pulls together the basic struggle the United Nations Com- means of exercising national power mand preserved the independence political, economic, psychological, and of South Korea. In 1954 the United military measures—something that States took a strong stand in favor the Department had found difficult to of Taiwan when the Chinese People’s accomplish during the troubled years Republic bombarded certain islands between 1914 and 1945. off the Chinese mainland. In 1955 Nevertheless, the Department of assistance began to flow to the new State realizes its full potential in the nation of South Vietnam, created new institutional context only if the after the withdrawal of France from Secretary of State gains the confi- Indochina. dence of the President. The Depart- The evolution of containment had ment’s signal contributions to the remarkable effects on the agencies containment policy stemmed from most concerned with American foreign close associations between President relations. Soon after the Second Truman and Secretaries Marshall and World War, Congress created a new Acheson. Truman was always anxious institutional structure to reach sound action important ques- Dean Acheson was the architect of postwar to complete on decisions relating to national security tions he wanted to make his de- collective security. While he was Secretary ; of State (1949-53), the United States negoti- and to put those decisions into effect. cision as soon as he had a sound basis. ated the North Atlantic TVeaty, signed The National Security Act of 1947 Secretary Acheson, notes his biog- treaties of peace and mutual defense with recognized that the President must rapher, “could always provide an Japan, and committed its forces armed to have the ability to control national adequate basis, or its appearance, the defense of South Korea. security policy and that to achieve before any rival body. ... In the (Photo by Fabian Bachrach) this object there must be “a single, race with time, which was the key top-ranking body to form and cor- to influence over the President, relate national policy.” The institution Acheson was unbeatable.” Secretary founded to perform this function was of State John Foster Dulles estab- the National Security Council (NSC). lished effective communication with President Eisenhower after 1953, thereby insuring that the Department of State continued to receive a hearing at the White House.

32 The revolution in American Extensive international activity foreign policy that occurred after the after the Second World War led to Second World War greatly affected great changes in the Department of the position of the Secretary of State. State. Members of the Foreign Serv- Before 1941 domestic political con- ice performed duties that went far siderations rather than the need for beyond the traditional missions of expertise in foreign affairs usually political representation, negotiation, guided the President in his choice of and reporting. Knowledge of varied the senior foreign policy adviser, but scientific, economic, cultural, and after 1945 most of the Secretaries social issues became essential. In were selected because they possessed 1970 a Department publication,

broad experience and technical skills Diplomacy for the 70’ s, drew attention deemed essential to effective per- to this development. It noted that the formance. Before 1941 Secretaries agency now had to conduct “critically usually remained in Washington, important programs for promoting depending on ambassadors or execu- our commercial exports, for con- tive agents to conduct negotiations cessional sales of agricultural com- overseas, but after 1945 Secretaries modities, for narcotics control, for traveled extensively. Before 1941 military and development aid, for the Secretaries did not usually concen- inspection and licensing of airline trate on the management of the routes, for cooperation in the peaceful Department of State, but after 1945 applications of atomic energy, for John Foster Dulles extended American al- they had to give large amounts of scientific and technological exchange, liances to Southeast Asia and the Middle time to administration. The burdens for coordinating international mone- East. As Secretary of State (1953-59), he of office have greatly increased, but tary policy, and for communicating traveled half a million miles and visited 60 there has been a significant com- directly with people of other countries countries. He coined such colorful de- scriptions of his policies as "liberation,” pensation. Secretaries have gained in through the media of press, radio, "going to the brink,” “agonizing reap- prestige, a consequence of the high and television.” praisal," and "massive retaliation.” priority accorded to foreign relations To provide an adequate institu- (Department of State photo) in recent years. tional framework for its varied responsibilities, many of which could not be accommodated in the existing geographic bureaus, the Department established many new functional Department of State Building organizations. As of 1980 there were 14 such units, each headed by an Assistant Secretary of State or an official of comparable rank, as against five geographic bureaus. Functional bureaus created since the Second World War cover such diverse concerns as Intelligence and Reseai'ch, Congressional Relations, Politico- Military Affairs, Oceans and Inter- national Environmental and Scientific Affairs, and Human Rights and Humanitarian Affairs. Certaifl other functions earlier housed in the Department of State are now the responsibility of other organizations. The U.S. International Communication Agency (USICA) manages international informational The present home of the Department building was completed in 1961. activities and cultural relations. of State is at 2200 C Street, North- This structure covers four square Foreign economic assistance is now west. On January 5, 1957, President blocks and has seven floors of office in the hands of the Agency for Eisenhower joined with Secretary space. An eighth floor is used for International Development (AID). Dulles in laying- the cornerstone. The official functions such as diplomatic Another vital enterprise—arms con- President used the same trowel that dinners and receptions. These rooms trol negotiations—is the principal was used by George Washington to lay are furnished largely with a growing task of the Arms Control and Dis- the cornerstone of the U.S. Capitol in collection of antiques and art treasures armament Agency (ACDA). 1793. A sealed metal box containing a provided by the American people on selection of historic documents was loan or as gifts. deposited in the cornerstone. The

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To assist the Secretary of State 1940 it jumped to a high of 7,710 ment are concerting to deliver us to the Department now has a large team in 1950. The total number in all disaster? This must be the product of central managers. The Deputy categories of the Foreign Service in of a great conspiracy on a scale so Secretary of State serves when neces- 1980 was 5,861. The budget of the immense as to dwarf any previous sary as the Acting Secretary and, Department also rose spectacularly, venture in the history of man.” He with the Counselor of the Department, even if inflation is taken into account. announced that— he had a list of 205 is available for special assignments. In 1940 the total expenditure was subversives “a list of names that Four Under Secretaries of State $24 million but by 1950 it reached were made known to the Secretary oversee important functional areas $350.9 million. After a decline to of State as being members of the political affairs; economic affairs; $246.6 million in 1960, expenditures Communist Party and who never- management; and security assistance, climbed to $447.8 million in 1970 theless are still working and shaping science, and technology. Special sup- and to $2,354,139,275.69 in 1980. policy in the State Department.” port for the Secretary comes from Even so the Department of State has Senator McCarthy never made public the Executive Secretariat, a unit set the lowest budget of all Cabinet such a list. A number of the most up to control information flow and to departments. experienced Foreign Service officers follow up decisions, and from the After the accomplishments of notably the Department’s corps of Policy Planning Staff. the immediate postwar years, the Far Eastern experts—were forced out Administrative problems also Department of State suffered a of the Department or their reputations materialized overseas when many crippling blow when it became the were otherwise seriously damaged. agencies of the U.S. Government prime target of Senator Joseph Senator McCarthy never proved any entered the foreign field. This influx McCarthy’s search for subversives of his irresponsible allegations. ultimately caused jurisdictional dis- in the U.S. Government. In February McCarthy’s allegations had a putes, disorderly management, and 1950, shortly after the Soviet Union lasting effect on those who remained widespread inefficiency. To restore acquired nuclear weapons and Mao in the Department. John W. Ford, a order President Eisenhower issued a Zedong seized power in China, the security officer at the time, has since series of Executive orders that Wisconsin Senator launched his anti- noted that “few people who lived established the Ambassador as the Communist crusade with a speech in through the McCarthy era in the supervisor for all operations within Wheeling, West Virginia. Depicting Department of State can ever forget his country. The chief of mission the international position of the the fear, intimidation, and sense of became the leader of a “country team” United States in the most dire terms, outrage which permeated Foggy that included representatives of all he insisted: “How can we account Bottom.” In 1978 the Under Secretary organizations with operational re- for our present situation unless we of State for Political Affairs, David sponsibilities, for example, the De- believe that men high in the govern- D. Newsom, said: “I can recall the partment of Defense, the U.S. Information Service (the precedessor agency of USICA) the Department of , Agriculture, and the Peace Corps. Further improvement occurred in 1966 when President Lyndon B. Johnson and Secretary of State Dean Rusk arranged for “country directors” in the geographic bureaus, who supported chiefs of mission; they communicated policy guidance and mobilized operational and administrative support for the country team. The revolution in foreign policy produced much greater growth in the Department of State than in any previous period. A few statistics graphically illustrate this pattern. The domestic work force enlarged from 1,128 in 1940 to a postwar high of 8,609 in 1950. The total declined to 6,983 in 1970, but rose to 8,433 in 1980, still below the level of 1950. The Foreign Service expanded at a similar rate. From a mei'e 840 in

Loy W. Henderson began his diplomatic career as Vice Consul in Dublin in 1922. His 39 years of service included assignments as Minister to Iraq (1943-45), Ambassador to India (1948—51) and to Iran (1951-54), and Deputy Under Secretary for Administration (1955). The Department’s international conference room was dedicated to him in 1976.

(Department of State photo)

34 shock of the taunts and suspicions historian described as “inertia, inflex- 1960s posed new difficulties. The leveled at the State Department and ibility, and loss of efficiency in the innovative concept of containment those who served in it. It must be use of personnel.” Stanton Griffis, a began to lose some of its utility as satisfying, but not full recompense, businessman who served as Ambas- a rough balance of power was estab- for those who suffered in that period sador to several countries, later lished in Europe and East Asia. As to have our nation now realize that satirized the confused situation. East-West tensions subsided some- they were substantially right.” Overseas missions constituted “a what, new strains developed along a The notion that the Department fantastic network of men, women, and North-South axis. After the Second

served the nation’s enemies lingered typewriters, who report [on] . . . World War, which completed the on for many years. Senator Henry political, economic, labor, and agri- destruction of the great European M. Jackson of Washington put his cultural conditions.” These reports colonial powers, ancient peoples finger on one reason for the tendency then went to Washington, where they everywhere in Africa and Asia to level unjustified criticism at the were immediately filed away. Then recaptured their sovereignty. A Department. ‘‘We know that the State “the home team, having properly “revolution in rising expectations” Department has been a target for all disposed of the information from the throughout the Third World spawned of the problems of the cold war field, proceeds to write its own endless new international issues that greatly because it is called the State De- reports to go forward to the same complicated the task of statecraft. partment— it is the Foreign Office. It ultimate fate in the embassies The need to make significant is a very popular target—and does not throughout the world.” changes in the foreign policy of the have any constituents.” The relative The personnel problems of the De- United States became fully apparent absence of powerful and assertive partment of State attracted the during the war in South Vietnam. support from organized interest attention of a commission, headed by The modest intervention that began groups, especially in comparison with former President Hoover, created to in 1955 after the departure of France most other major agencies, renders investigate all aspects of government from Indochina turned into a major the Department of State vulnerable to organization after World War II. enterprise during President Johnson’s irresponsible charges, especially in In 1949 the commission called for Administration (1963-69). In 1968, periods of international stress. It reforms to eliminate one important after 3 years of warfare that led to usually can be attacked without fear source of difficulty—invidious distinc- the introduction of over 500,000 of serious retaliation. tions between the Foreign Service and American troops into South Vietnam, While the Department struggled the civil servants who staffed the President Johnson decided to dis- with McCarthyism, it also sought to Department’s headquarters in engage from a struggle that had lost modernize its personnel practices. Washington. popular support at home. Postwar growth produced what one Several years later, in 1954, Secre- The election of President Richard tary of State John Foster Dulles M. Nixon in 1968 led to important asked Henry M. Wriston, the changes in direction. In February President of Brown University, to 1970, acting on the advice of Henry A. undertake a study of the Department’s Kissinger, the Assistant to the Diplomatic and personnel practices. Dulles drew President for National Security Consular Posts attention to a number of concerns, Affairs, President Nixon presented 1781—1980 among them poor morale because of a report to Congress entitled managerial shortcomings, low intake U.S. Foreign Policy for the 1970s, into the Foreign Service, and inequi- in which he described certain basic Diplomatic Consular ties that stemmed from differences in changes that had taken place in the treatment of different categories the world since 1945. The world, he 1781 4 3 of employees. After examining these believed, had largely recovered from 1790 2 10 matters, President Wriston called for the damage of the Second World War; 1800 6 52 integration of many Civil Service many new nations had come into 1810 4 60 employees into the Foreign Service. existence in- Africa and Asia; the 1820 7 83 There followed several years of monolithic structure of international 1830 15 141 “Wristonization” by the end of communism had been fractured 1840 20 152 ; 1957 the Foreign Service had because of developments in China and 1850 27 197 more Eastern Europe; the United States 1860 33 282 than doubled in size to 3,436 officers. no 1870 36 318 By August 1959, 1,523 Foreign Service longer possessed a monopoly of 1880 35 303 officers held positions in the Depart- nuclear weapons; and a significant 1890 41 323 ment, a device intended to improve moderation had occurred in inter- 1900 41 318 communications between Washington national ideological conflict. Given 1910 48 324 and the missions overseas and to fulfill these developments, President Nixon 1920 45 368 the legal requirement that Foreign continued, the United States in the 1930 57 299 Service officers spend a portion of future should rely more heavily on 1940 58 264 their partnership with likeminded peoples; 1950 74 179 careers at home. 1960 99 166 Although the reforms of the it should maintain sufficient military 1970 117 122 early postwar years served the De- 1980 133 100 partment well, the march of events during the 1950s and especially the

35 s

Improvements in relations with Growing concern about the effi- President Carter the Soviet Union and the Chinese Peo- ciency of the Department of State ple’s Republic, signaling a possible end during the late 1960s ultimately led and Hyman Rights to the cold war, did not lead to general to a major self-study conducted in President Carter made human rights improvement in the international 1970. Thirteen task forces of Foreign one of the cornerstones of his foreign climate. The international economy Service and Department employees policy. In his Inaugural Address, experienced considerable instability, thoroughly investigated all activities delivered on January 20, 1977, he set leading to a significant modification and produced the report, Diplomacy the tone for his later activity in this of the international financial system for the 70’ s, that made many respect. that had been set up at the end of recommendations. The task forces “To be true to ourselves, we must World War II. A keystone of that traced the difficulties of the Depart- be true to others. We will not behave system was a stable U.S. dollar, to ment to “weakness in the area of in foreign places so as to violate our which other nations pegged their management capability.” The agency rules and standards here at home, for currencies. The dollar eventually still lacked the modern managerial we know that the trust which our came under severe attack, especially know-how required for efficient nation earns is essential to our after adverse developments in the operations in the complex environment strength. international balance of payments. of the modern world. “Because of the “The world itself is now domi- In 1971 the dollar was devalued, a diversity and complexity of our nated by a new spirit. Peoples more decision that inaugurated a period of overseas activities, effective coordi- numerous and more politically aware unstable currency exchange rates. nation calls for a wide range of are craving, and now demanding, their Two years later the international management skills and management place in the sun—not just for the economy suffered another blow when, tools. The traditional reliance of benefit of their own physical condition after Israel and Egypt fought a Foreign Service officers on experience but for basic human rights. fourth war, the Arab oil-producing and tradition is no longer good “The passion for freedom is on nations instituted a boycott of oil enough.” What was required? “The the rise. Tapping this new spirit, there shipments to important consumers, diplomacy of the seventies calls for a can be no nobler nor more ambitious particularly in Europe and East Asia. new breed of diplomat-manager, just task for America to undertake on this Henry A. Kissinger, appointed Sec- as able as the best of the old school, day of a new beginning than to help retary of State in October 1973, but equipped with up-to-date tech- shape a just and peaceful world that became deeply involved in efforts to niques and backed by a Department is truly humane.” resolve the longstanding dispute organized on modern management between Israel and its Arab neighbors. principles.” After President Jimmy Carter Members of the Foreign Service took office in 1977, he and his Secre- had been bombarded ever since the strength to support its foreign policy taries of State, Cyrus R. Vance of Second World War with call after call while at the same time seeking arms New York and Edmund S. Muskie for change in their professional control and disarmament; and it of Maine, continued the search for attitudes and activities. For example, should constantly manifest “willing- further arms control agreements with Senator J. William Fulbright of ness to negotiate,” abandoning the the Soviet Union and for restoration Arkansas, the Chairman of the postwar tendency to reject the likeli- of political stability in the turbulent Senate’s Committee on Foreign hood of successful diplomatic contacts Middle East. President Carter’s most Relations, noted in 1964 that a with Communist nations. distinctive modification of general contemporary Foreign Service officer President Nixon, acting on these foreign policy was his energetic pro- “must not only know how to use the principles, pursued two important motion of international human rights. traditional tools of diplomacy, but . . . enterprises that culminated in 1972. As the nation passed through the must also be expert in the new In February he visited Peking, setting 1970s the Department of State came instruments of foreign policy such as in motion a long-term movement to grips with certain new challenges economic aid and cultural exchanges.” toward normalization of relations as it made adjustments to the To maintain professional proficiency with the Chinese People’s Republic. changing pattern of world politics. the modern diplomat must constantly In May he traveled to the Soviet Among these challenges four deserve acquire additional education. “If Union and signed agreements that special mention. Continuing attempts there is a continuous process of contained the results of the first have been made to achieve effective improvement in the people involved in Strategic Arms Limitation Talks managerial and personnel arrange- implementing foreign policy, the ments. (SALT I) . New negotiations were The Congress has asserted procedures and techniques employed begun to extend arms control and considerable influence in the foreign will be improved as a natural by- disarmament measures (SALT II). policy process, a significant departure product.” These developments inaugurated a from prior practice. Efforts have Diplomacy for the 70’ called for period of “detente” that accorded been undertaken to meet the require- “a new spirit in the Department.” with a general tendency among the ments of equal employment oppor- One of the task forces insisted that American people to favor a lowered tunity. Finally, an outburst of inter- the times required “a tremendous profile in world affairs after the national terrorism has exposed the effort ... to shake off old habits, chastening experience in Vietnam Foreign Service to great danger in old ways of doing things, old ways of that ended in 1975 with the last many parts of the world. dealing with each other. What we withdrawal of American personnel. are proposing is a change of outlook

36 ;

and method.” The report concluded: liaison with Capitol Hill. Bipartisan “The traditional mode of reflection approaches to foreign affairs mini- and detachment cultivated by diplo- Expenditures mized executive-legislative tensions mats trained in the old school must 1781-1980 during the earlier postwar years, but be reinforced by a more dynamic and burgeoning public opposition to the aggressive style if the Department war in Vietnam during the 1960s 1781 $57,309 * is to play the role which the President caused Congress to question executive 1800 294,894.31 expects of it.” behavior and even to sponsor inter- 1810 118,782.07 Not everyone welcomed such national activities on its own. 1820 340.698.03 historian that significant initiative views. One notes some 1830 432,200.69 The most Foreign Service officers opposed 1840 890,273.22 of Congress has been in the field of radical change, considering them- 1850 716.521.03 international human rights. Seeking selves “an embattled and misunder- 1860 1,264,946.22 to stimulate more active support of stood elite who functioned as political 1870 1,681,174.53 oppressed people, Congress enacted reporters and policy planners.” 1880 1,343,241.80 a series of statutes during the 1970s 1890 1,773,066.75 Rather than retooling for changing that placed legislative constraints on 1900 3,356,173.87 responsibilities, these officers some- various types of economic and military 1910 4,909,557.77 times argued through their profes- 1920 13,590,288.51 assistance to governments that sional organization, the American 1930 13,986,172.82 consistently violated internationally Foreign Service Association, that the 1940 24,003,329.49 accepted human rights. Differences Foreign Service should be given 1950 350,855,773.75 of view between the legislative and increased political responsibility by 1960 246,625,626.92 executive branches narrowed when 1970 placing career officers in high-level 447,753,719.37 President Jimmy Carter expressed 1980 2,354,139,275.69 positions at home and abroad. strong support for an active human The conflict between those who rights policy. defended the older model and those * “Exclusive of Contingencies.” In other respects, however. who wanted to modernize the Foreign President Carter encountered con- Service found expression in a long- gressional resistance. The Senate standing dispute over whether manifested considerable reluctance Foreign Service officers should be to accept a treaty providing for the generalists or specialists. Those be members of the Civil Service. return of the Panama Canal Zone to opposed to change argued that the When the act is put into effect, it will Panama before finally giving its diplomat should continue to rely produce a Foreign Service of 6,850 consent. Even greater Senatorial primarily on general experience and people and a domestic work force of doubts about the SALT II Treaty, intuition. Those interested in reform 3,800 people, a total of approximately reinforced by the Soviet invasion of claimed that the future belonged to 10,650 employees. The act seeks to Afghanistan in December 1979, specialists with advanced training. encourage qualities in the Foreign caused the President to postpone Henry Wriston called for balance. Service that are essential to the further consideration of the Specialized skills were essential in modern practice of diplomacy. Under agreement. the modern era, but it seemed evident Secretary of State David D. Newsom During the 1960s the activities of that specialists tended “to become so summarized these qualities in 1978: the civil rights movement in the narrow as to lose perspective; then “An understanding of our own nation United States led to the passage of each specialism conceives of its own a balanced sensitivity to other societies legislation designed to insure equal bailiwick as ‘most vital.’” Wriston and peoples; a firm grasp of the sub- employment opportunity in the concluded that “no rule of thumb can ject matter of international relations; Federal Government, and the Depart- establish the proper balance” between and the skill to bring this knowledge ment of State undertook to meet its general and special skills. He believed together in advancing both the responsibilities in this respect. Much that the best specialists would “broad- interests of our country and the needed to be done. Although women en rather than narrow their interests establishment of working under- and members of minorities had long with experience and on becoming standings with others.” formed part of the Department of senior officers [would] prove to be The principle of executive State, they were seriously under- good generalists.” predominance in the conduct of represented, particularly in the higher This outlook is reflected in the foreign relations was not seriously ranks. most recent attempt to resolve the challenged until recent times, but the The Department of State first personnel problems of the Department need to finance economic assistance appointed women to full-time positions of State—the Foreign Service Act and other important aspects of an in 1874, but they were deemed unquali- of 1980. Its principal provisions active foreign policy has upgraded the fied for other than clerical duties. represent a turn away from the role of Congress in the foreign policy In 1905, for example. Assistant Secre- effort to establish an integrated process. Recognizing this develop- tary Frederick Van Dyne said: “The Foreign Service; henceforth em- ment, the Department of State desig- greatest obstacle to the employ ment of ployees of the Department of State nated an A sistant Secretary for Con- women as diplomatic agents is their who are not liable for overseas service, gressional Relations in 1949 to improve well known inability to keep a secret.” including specialists formerly placed The first woman to achieve superin the Foreign Service Reserve, will visory rank was Margaret Hanna, who

37 entered the Department as a clerk in The first women given political 1895 and became Chief of the Corre- appointments to high-level diplomatic spondence Bureau in 1918. A few other positions occurred during the 1930s. women rose to managerial positions In 1933 President Roosevelt named during the 1920s, including Ruth Ruth Bryan Owen, the daughter of Shipley, who assumed the leadership former Secretary of State William of the Passport Division in 1921. Jennings Bryan, as Minister to Den- The first woman to enter the mark, and in 1937 Florence Jaffray Foreign Service, Lucile Atcherson, Harriman was appointed Minister to was not appointed until 1922, after the Norway. Career women did not attain First World War. The first entrant ambassadorial rank until after the after the passage of the Rogers Act Second World War. The third woman was Pattie H. Field in 1925. Con- to enter the Foreign Service, Frances tinuing doubts about the ability of E. Willis, was made Ambassador to women to endure the trials of duty Switzerland ( 1953-57) . She later overseas worked against acceptance served in Norway and Ceylon. The first of women in the Foreign Service. woman career diplomat to become an After Atcherson and Field were Assistant Secretary of State was appointed, a senior diplomat suggested Ambassador Carol C. Laise, who be- that “it would be a wise thing to came head of the Bureau of Public refrain from taking any more women Affairs in 1973. She later served as until we can form an idea of their Director General of the Foreign Frances E. Willis was the first woman For- usefulness from observation of those Service. eign Service officer to be appointed a U.S. we have already in.” Blacks were similarly undertaken To exclude Ambassador (Switzerland, 1953-57), the first women who scored high on written represented in the work force of the to attain the rank of Career Minister, and examinations, another official observed Department. As in the case of women, the only one to be named Career Ambas- that examining boards might award blacks sometimes served in the lower sador. She served as Ambassador to Norway failing grades on oral examinations. ranks but rarely became supervisors. (1957-61) and to Ceylon (1961-64). (Department of State photo) The first black appointed to the rank of Minister was Ebenezer D. Bassett, who went to Haiti in 1869. James Milton Turner was made Minister to Liberia in 1871. The best known black abolitionist, Frederick Douglass, became Minister to Haiti and Charge d’Affaires to Santo Domingo in 1889. It became common practice to assign blacks to these countries, but few were sent elsewhere. The first black to enter the For- eign Service was Clifford R. Wharton

( 1925 ) , and he was also the first career diplomat of his race to serve as chief of mission, becoming Minister to Romania in 1958 and Ambassador to Norway in 1961. Like the women who entered the Foreign Service during the 1920s, Wharton experienced discrimination. When he decided to take the competitive examination for the Foreign Service, he discovered that his prospective associates Eugenie M. Anderson was the first woman “couldn’t care less they didn’t want Ambassador (Denmark, 1949-53) and the ; Clifton R. Wharton was a clerk in the Con- me in the Department of State.” first woman to sign a treaty on behalf of the sular Commercial Office when he took the His early diplomatic career was spent United States. (Department of State photo) first Foreign Service examination (1925). He mostly in posts traditionally reserved became Third Secretary at the U.S. Embassy for blacks, especially Liberia. Wharton in Liberia and later was Minister to remembers having commented smil- Romania (1958) and Ambassador to Norway ingly to a personnel officer after (1961). He was the first black Foreign Ser- receiving an undesirable assignment vice officer and the first to serve as Chief of Mission to a European country. in 1946: “You’re not only discrimi- (Department of State photo) nating against us [with] in the Service, but you’re exporting dis- .” crimination abroad. . .

38 recent years to insure equal oppor- panics make up more than 5% of the tunity through the workings of population, but they are a minuscule energetic affirmative action programs. 1.5% of the Foreign Service. During the 1970s Secretaries of State No development of recent years William P. Rogers, Henry A. has been more troubling than the rise Kissinger, and Cyrus R. Vance all of terrorism as a political weapon devoted considerable attention to aimed at Americans representing their this effort. country abroad. Numerous attacks on One of Secretary Vance’s earliest American posts overseas and frequent acts was to issue a statement to the kidnappings and killings of Americans Department in which he announced have occurred in recent years, adding his intention to “exercise personal a tragically large number of names to leadership in prohibiting discrimi- the list of those who have given their nation because of race, color, religion, lives in the line of duty. In August sex, national origin, age, or handi- 1968, Ambassador John Gordon Mein

cap . . . [and] in carrying out a con- was assassinated in Guatemala, the tinuing affirmative action program first chief of mission to be murdered designed to promote equal opportunity in the line of duty. Since then other all all Carl T. Rowan, with his family, signs his for applicants and employees.” Ambassadors have been killed in commission as Ambassador to Finland in True to his pledge, Secretary Sudan, Cyprus, Lebanon, and Afghani- 1963. He also served as Deputy Assistant Vance appointed an executive-level stan. Kidnappings have occurred in Secretary of State for Public Affairs (1961- task force to spur affirmative action, places as widely separated as Zaire, 63) and Director of the U.S. Information but much remains to be accomplished Brazil, and Jordan. Agency (1964—65). (Department of State photo) before the Department achieves the The most serious of all such goals established by recent Secre- episodes was the seizure of the Ameri- taries. Presumably there should be a can Embassy in Tehran on Novem- the Hispanics have served in reasonable relationship between the ber 4, 1979, and the subsequent deten- Department of State since 1820, when incidence of racial and ethnic groups tion of more than 50 hostages. This Joseph M. Espada of New York be- in the general population and their event brought home to the American came a consular agent in Mexico, but representation in the Department of people once again the extreme dangers like women and blacks they have been State. A look at the profile of the that the Foreign Service must face in underrepresented up to the present. Foreign Service reveals great dis- many assignments outside the country. Ramon Leon Sanchez of Florida was parities. Women constitute slightly The steadfast courage of the American made U.S. consul at Cartagena, Co- more than half of the general popula- hostages in Tehran and their families lombia, in 1840. An Hispanic, James tion but only 10.2% of the Foreign at home reflected the best traditions Viosca of California, and his son, Service. About 12% of the population of the Department of State and the James Viosca, Jr., served successively is black, but blacks constitute only other agencies represented among the as consuls at La Paz, Mexico, from 3.5% of the Foreign Service. His- hostages. 1877 to 190G. The first Hispanic chief of mission was Romualdo Pacheco of Cali- fornia, who became Minister to a group of Central American states in 1890. No other Hispanic achieved comparable rank until William E. Gonzales of California became Minister to Cuba in 1913 and to Peru in 1919. Twenty others have since served as chief of mission, four of whom were career Foreign Service officers. Horacio Rivero, Jr., of Cali- fornia was the first Hispanic to be named chief of mission to a European country—Spain in 1972. Mari-Luci Jaramillo was the first Hispanic woman to become chief of mission, going to Honduras as Ambassador in 1977. Patterns of prejudice and discrimination, prevalent elsewhere as well as in the Department of State, finally attracted extensive critical attention during the 1960s, and im- An aerial view of the U.S. Embassy compound in Thhran prior to its seizure and occupation in November 1979. (Department of State photo) portant attempts have been made in

39 A l

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Diplomatic service is not normally con- Victor F. W. Stanwood, murdered, Ambassador Cleo A. Noel, Jr., and sidered a hazardous profession. Madagascar, 1888 George Curtis Moore, murdered Nevertheless over 100 Americans have Maddin Summers, exhaustion, while held hostage, Sudan, 1973 died or been killed while on active duty Moscow, 1918 John S. Patterson, murdered while with the Foreign Service. Some fell Douglass MacKiernan, killed by gun- held by kidnappers, Mexico, 1974 victim to tropical disease, earthquakes, fire, Tibet, 1950 Ambassador Rodger P. Davies, killed or volcanic eruptions many others Barbara A. Robbins, killed in bombing by sniper fire during mob attack on ; died a hero’s death in the midst of of Embassy, Vietnam, 1965 Embassy, Cyprus, 1974 war, while saving lives, or at the hands Ambassador Francis E. Meloy, Jr., of assassins. That plaque, and a second one and Counselor Robert 0. Waring, To honor those who lost their unveiled in 1973, are in the diplomatic murdered en route to an appoint- lives “under heroic or tragic circum- lobby of the Department of State. In ment with the President-elect, stances,” the American Foreign Serv- recent years, the names of those who Lebanon, 1976 ice Association in 1933 dedicated a have died of disease contracted at Ambassador Adolph Dubs, killed while plaque. Among the names . . . tropical posts have not been added. being held hostage, Afghanistan,

Yet the list continues to grow . . . 1979 William Palfrey, lost at sea, 1780 CWO Bryan L. Ellis (U.S. Army) and Abraham Hanson, African fever, Ambassador John Gordon Mein, assas- Cpl. Stephen J. Crowley (USMC), Liberia, 1866 sinated, Guatemala, 1968 killed during an attempted mob John F. Flint, drowned saving life, John Paul Vann, killed in a helicopter takeover of the Embassy, Pakistan, El Salvador, 1875 in a night battle, Vietnam, 1972 1979.

40 terrorism, war, kidnapping, and death. Along with these hazards come the normal demands of day-to-day problemsolving, decisionmaking, and coping with life at home or abroad. All things considered the people of the United States have been well served.

David F. Trask was born in Erie, Pennsylvania, in 1929. He received a B.A. degree from Wesleyan University (1951) and A.M. and Ph.D. degrees from Har- vard in 1952 and 1958. He served in the U.S. Army (1952-54) and from 1955 to 1966 was an instructor or assistant professor at Boston University, Wesleyan University, and the University of Nebraska. Dr. Trask was professor of history at the State University of New York from 1966 until May 1976, when he became Historian of the Department of State. Dr. Trask is a member of the Ameri- can Historical Association, the Organiza- Secretary of State Cyrus R. Vance joins members of the Iran Working Group in the tion of American Historians, the Society Department’s Operations Center following the seizure of the U.S. Embassy in Tbhran. for Historians of American Foreign Rela- (Department of State photo) tions, the National Council on Public His- tory, and Phi Beta Kappa. He is also the Department of State’s representative on After two centuries the Depart- the National Historical Publications and ment of State— its offices and its Records Commission. people—comprise one of the world’s His major publications are The United States in the Supreme War nerve centers of human affairs. During Council: American War Aims and Inter- the earliest days of the Republic, it Allied Strategy, 1917-1918 ( 1961) Gen- indispensable contributions to , made eral Tasker Howard Bliss and the “Ses- the preservation of our independence. sions of the World,” 1919 (1966), Victory Throughout the 19th century, as the Without Peace: American Foreign Rela- United States changed gradually into tions in the 20th Century (1968), World War 1 at Hoyne Captains and a great power, the Department loyally (1970) , supported the foreign policies associ- Cabinets: Anglo-American Naval Rela- tions, 1917-1918 ated with isolation, neutrality, and (1972). He is the co- author of The Ordeal of World Power expansion. Across the 20th century, as (1975) and the coeditor of A Bibliog- Americans came to accept the respon- raphy of United States-Latin American sibilities of leadership, the Depart- Relations Since 1810 (1970). ment, like the nation it serves, has experienced remarkable growth in size, influence, and function. Every era has its agenda of challenge, danger, and opportunity. Entering its third century, the Depart- ment of State must struggle with the problems of nuclear weapons, popula- Charge d’Affaires L. Bruce Laingen (right) tion explosion, depletion of natural presents a valor award for “outstanding per- resources, and the seemingly unman- formance and bravery ... in support of U.S. ageable acceleration of technological, interests and citizens, December 1978 to social, and political change. 1979” February to Foreign Service officer For two centuries the men and Michael Metrinko in July 1979 in Tfchran. women of the Department have chosen Both Laingen and Metrinko are among the this form of public service because 52 Americans held hostage in Iran as of publication date. (Department of State photo) they are deeply committeed to the search for solutions to the problems of tomorrow. Throughout the world they daily face the threat of disease,

41 ;

Note on Authorities

Department Personnel This history depends heavily on certain authorities who have written about 1781-1980 the U.S. Department of State. The two best histories of the Department are Domestic Overseas Total Gaillard Hunt, The Department of State of the United States: Its History 1781 4 10 14 and Functions (New Haven, 1914), 1790 8 20 28 and Graham H. Stuart, The Depart- 1800 10 62 72 ment of State: A History of Its 1810 9 56 65 Organization, Procedure and Personnel 1820 16 95 111 1830 23 153 176 (New York, 1949) . The two best 1840 38 170 208 works on the Foreign Service are 1850 22 218 240 William Barnes and John Heath 1860 42 281 323 Morgan, The Foreign Service of the 1870 65 804 869 United States: Origins, Development, 1880 80 977 1,057 and Functions (Washington, 1961), 1890 76 1,105 1,181 and Warren F. Ilchman, Professional 1900 91 1,137 1,228 Diplomacy in the United States 1910 234 1,043 1,277 1779-1939 : A Study in Administrative 1920 708 514 1,222 History 1930 714 633 1,347 (Chicago, 1961). 1940 1,128 840 1,968 For information about the Secre- 1950 8,609 7,710 16,319 taries of State consult the multi- 1960 7,116 6,178 13,294 volume series edited by Samuel Flagg 1970 6,983 5,865 12,848 Bemis and Robert F. Ferrell, 1980 8,433 5,861 13,962 The American Secretaries of State and Their Diplomacy (New York, 1927- Norman A. Graebner, ed., NOTES: Domestic personnel includes both Civil Service and Foreign Service. ) ; Overseas personnel includes Foreign Service only. An Uncertain Tradition: American Secretaries of State in the Twentieth Century (New York, Alex- 1961) ; ander DeConde, The American Secre- tary of State: An Interpretation

(New York, 1962) . For a useful reference work see John E. Findling, Dictionary of American Diplomatic History (Westport, 1980). For ex- amples of recent specialized scholar- ship see Waldo H. Heinrichs, Jr., “Bureaucracy and Professionalism in the Development of American Career Diplomacy,” in John Braeman et al., Twentieth-Century American Foreign

Policy (Columbus, 1971) ; Richard H. Werking, The Master Architects: Building the United States Foreign Service 1890-1913 (Lexington, 1977) Rachel West, The Department of State on the Eve of the First World War

(Athens, 1978) ; Robert D. Schul- zinger, The Making of the Diplomatic

Mind : The Training, Outlook, and Style of United States Foreign Service Officers, 1908-1931 (Middletown, 1975). Other references published by the Department of State are The Secre- taries of State: Portraits and Bio- graphical Sketches, Homes of the Department of State, 177U-1976, and United States Chiefs of Mission, 1778-1973 and its supplement for 1973-74.

42 Secretaries for Foreign Affairs

Secretaries of State

NOTE: Daniel Webster and James Gillespie Blaine were each appointed to two nonconsecutive terms as Secretary of State. Therefore, they are counted twice in this list.

1. Thomas Jefferson 2. Edmund Randolph 1790-93 1794-95

3. Timothy Pickering 4. John Marshall 5. James Madison 1795-1800 1800-01 1801-09

43 Robert Smith James Monroe 8. John Quincy Adams 1809-11 1811-17 1817-25

9. Henry Clay 10. Martin Van Buren 11. Edward Livingston 1825-29 1829-31 1831-33

12. Louis McLane 13. John Forsyth 14. Daniel Webster 1833-34 1834-41 1841-43

44 15. Abel Parker Upshur 16. • John Caldwell Calhoun 17. Janies Buchanan 1843-44 1844-45 1845-49

18. John Middleton Clayton 19. Daniel Webster 20. Edward Everett 1849-50 1850-52 1852-53

21. William Learned Marcy 22. Lewis Cass 23. Jeremiah Sullivan Black 1853-57 1857-60 1860-61

45 24. William Henry Seward 25. Elihu Benjamin Washburne 26. Hamilton Fish 1861-69 1869 1869-77

27. William Maxwell Evarts 28. James Gillespie Blaine 29. Frederick Theodore 1877-81 1881 Frelinghuysen 1881-85

30. 31. 32.

Thomas Francis Bayard James Gillespie Blaine John Watson Foster 1885-89 1889-92 1892-93 33. Walter Quintin Gresham 34. Richard Olney 35. John Sherman 1893-95 1895-97 1897-98

36. William Rufus Day John Hay 38. Elihu Root 1898 1898-1905 1905-09

39. Robert Bacon 40. Philander Chase Knox 41. William Jennings Bryan 1909 1909-13 1913-15

47 42. Robert Lansing 43. Bainbridge Colby 44. Charles Evans Hughes 1915-20 1920-21 1921-25

48. Edward Reilly Stettinius, Jr. 49. James Francis Byrnes 50. George Catlett Marshall 1944-45 1945-47 1947-49 53. Christian Archibald Herter 1959-61

54. Dean Rusk 55. William Pierce Rogers 56. Henry Alfred Kissinger 1961-69 1969-73 1973-77

57. Cyrus Roberts Vance 58. Edmund Sixtus Muskie 59. Alexander Meigs Haig, Jr. 1977-80 1980-81

49 i^ilestorses of 1778 1842 American Diplomacy Treaty of alliance with France, en- Webster-Ashburton treaty with Great gineered by Benjamin Franklin, enabled Britain delimited northeastern U.S. the fledgling republic to continue its (Maine) boundary. struggle for independence. 1844 1783 Treaty of Wang-hsia, first U.S. -Chinese Treaty of Paris—Great Britain recog- agreement, granted U.S. commercial nized American independence and con- privileges and extraterritorial jurisdic- trol over western lands as far as the tion over Americans. Mississippi. 1846 1783-86 Oregon treaty with Great Britain ex- First U.S. treaties of friendship and tended U.S. sole dominion to the Pacific. commerce—with France, Great Britain, Netherlands, Prussia, and Sweden—es- 1848 tablished U.S. tradition of nondiscrimina- Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, ending tion in foreign trade. 1846-48 war with Mexico, confirmed U.S. claim to Texas and completed U.S. ex- 1795 pansion to Pacific. Jay’s treaty required Great Britain to re- move troops from northwestern frontier; 1858 Pinckney’s treaty with Spain opened Harris treaty first opened Japan to un- mouth of Mississippi River to U.S. navi- supervised foreign commerce. gation. 1867 1800 Alaska purchase ended Russian territo- Treaty of Mortefontaine settled the rial presence and completed U.S. expan- 2-year undeclared naval war with France sion on North American mainland. and put an end to the alliance. 1889 1801 First International American Congress Jefferson, in first inaugural address, initiated system of collaboration among summarized U.S. policy as “peace, com- Western Hemisphere republics. merce, and honest friendship with all nations, entangling alliances with none.” 1898 Treaty of Paris, at end of Spanish- 1803 American War, gave United States Louisiana Purchase removed foreign con- Puerto Rico, Guam, and Philippines, exr trol of Mississippi’s mouth and doubled panding U.S. power into the Pacific. U.S. territory. 1903 1814 Hay-Bunau-Varilla treaty conveyed to Treaty of Ghent ending War of 1812 pro- the U.S. the Panama Canal Zone. vided means to settle remaining territorial disputes with Great Britain. 1918 Allies and Germany accepted Wilson’s 14 1819 points as basis for just and lasting peace Adams-Onis treaty with Spain, transfer- ending World War I. ring Florida, extended the U.S. to present boundaries in southeast. 1920 U.S. Senate rejected Treaty of Versailles 1823 with Germany, thus keeping the U.S. out Monroe Doctrine established U.S. policy of the League of Nations. of opposing European intervention or new colonization in Western Hemisphere.

50 —

1934 1948 1979 Trade Agreements Act launched program NATO, first U.S. alliance concluded in Israel-Egypt peace treaty ended 30 years of reciprocal tariff reduction leading to peacetime, provided integrated force for of conflict between the two countries and world efforts for trade liberalization after defense of Western Europe and North provided possible framework for com- World War II. America. prehensive peace in Middle East.

1941 1950 1979 Atlantic Charter, joint declaration by U.N. General Assembly Uniting for Panama Canal Act returned Canal Zone President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Peace Resolution, presented by the U.S., to Panamanian jurisdiction, leaving canal Churchill 4 months before U.S. entered gave basis for common action against ag- under U.S. operation through 1999. World War II, laid down principles of gressor in Korea. peace later adopted by United Nations 1980 self-determination, economic cooperation, 1963 Consular convention and three economic social progress, and disarmament. Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, first agreements completed process of nor- major-power agreement regulating malizing relations with the People’s Re- 1945 atomic weapons testing, banned explo- public China. U.S. and 50 other countries founded the sions in the atmosphere, in outer space, United Nations. and under water.

1947 1967 U.S. and 22 other nations established the Non-Proliferation Treaty, now signed by General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 110-governments, banned spread of (GATT) and completed first round of talks atomic weapons. reducing world trade barriers. 1972 1947 Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) Truman Doctrine asserted U.S. policy of agreements with U.S.S.R. prescribed containing Soviet expansion through eco- mutual limitations on defensive and of- nomic and military aid to threatened fensive weapons and established SALT as countries. a continuing process.

1947 1972 Inter- American Treaty of Reciprocal As- President Nixon’s February visit to sistance (Rio treaty) committed the U.S. China followed Secretary Kissinger’s ear- and Latin American republics to aid one lier negotiations in Peking, marking first another to resist military aggression. important step in process of normalizing relations with the People’s Republic of 1947 China. Marshall plan of aid to Europe set foundation for economic cooperation among 1973 industrial democracies. Paris agreement provided for withdrawal of U.S. troops from Vietnam. 1948 Ninth International Conference of Amer- 1974-75 ican States created the Organization of Middle East consultations by Secretary of American States (OAS) to intensify U.S. State Kissinger facilitated military disen- and Latin American collaboration in all gagement in Arab-Israeli conflict and fields. prepared ground for peace talks between Israel and Egypt.

1979 U.S. established diplomatic relations with the People’s Republic of China ending 30 years of nonrecognition.

Nigeria

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