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Kenya's Changing Counterterrorism Policy: from the Unsecuritization To

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Kenya's Changing Counterterrorism Policy: from the Unsecuritization To Kenya’s Changing Counterterrorism Policy: From the Unsecuritization to the Securitization of Terrorism Doreen Alusa BA (Hons), MA (IR) This thesis is presented in candidacy for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Murdoch University, 2019 Declaration I declare that this thesis is my own account of my research and contains as its main content work which has not previously been submitted for a degree at any tertiary education institution. ………………………………………………. Doreen Alusa November 11, 2019 ………………………………………….……. Date ~ i ~ Abstract This study investigates why Kenya, unlike other states around the world, did not enact anti- terrorism legislation that would have enabled it to have counterterrorism measures in the aftermath of 9/11 and only did so in 2012. Previous studies argue that concerns about the negative effects of anti-terrorism laws on Kenya’s nascent democratic system and its civil liberties were the main reasons why Kenya’s government could not enact proposed anti- terrorism legislation in 2003 and 2006. However, these studies do not explain why those who had previously opposed anti-terrorism legislation supported the enactment of an anti- terrorism law in 2012 even though their views about the importance of civil liberties and democracy had not changed. Similarly, previous studies which suggest that Kenya enacted anti-terrorism legislation in 2012 because of the detrimental effects of terrorism on the country’s security and economic interests do not explain why these factors did not elicit the same response in 2003 and 2006. Departing from previous studies, this research hypothesises that Kenya’s enactment of counterterrorism measures was dependent on consensus building among the country’s executive and legislative arms of government. To test this hypothesis, this thesis proposed six contextual factors that were used to explain how and why perceptions about the terrorism threat in Kenya developed and changed. Two methods, discourse analysis and process tracing, were used to establish the relationships between the variables in this study. In this regard, discourse analysis provided rich descriptions of the construction and evolution of the terrorist threat in Kenya. The rich descriptions were initially derived from written texts including the Kenya National ~ ii ~ Assembly Hansard, policy documents, court documents and public testimonies. The data was then triangulated with descriptions obtained from spoken texts including semi- structured interviews, archival press conferences and media recordings. The recurring linguistic patterns obtained from these descriptions formed the narratives that explained how Kenya’s government framed terrorism and the impact that this had on the enactment of anti-terrorism legislation. Process tracing supplemented discourse analysis by pinpointing the conditions under which the securitization of terrorism occurred. In addition to unravelling Kenya’s puzzling counterterrorism behaviour, this thesis contributes to knowledge in two ways. First, it identifies and expounds on new variables that explain Kenya’s puzzling counterterrorism behaviour. Second, this thesis extends literature in securitization studies by explaining how contextual factors can be used to understand both unsecuritization and securitization processes. ~ iii ~ Table of Contents Declaration...................................................................................................................................... i Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... ii List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................................. vii Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................................ xi Chapter One .................................................................................................................................. 1 Research Puzzle and Significance of the Study .......................................................................... 1 Literature Review ...................................................................................................................... 11 Civil Liberties and Democracy .............................................................................................. 11 The Role of Kenyan Muslims ................................................................................................. 15 Perceptions about the Terrorist Threat in Kenya .................................................................. 17 Kenya’s Economic Interests .................................................................................................. 21 Anti-American Sentiments ..................................................................................................... 24 Organization of the Thesis ........................................................................................................ 26 Chapter Two ................................................................................................................................ 29 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 29 Alternative Frameworks for Studying Security Policymaking Processes ................................. 29 Securitization Theory and Counterterrorism Policymaking in Kenya ...................................... 31 Hypothesis ................................................................................................................................. 40 Contextual Factors in the Unsecuritization of Terrorism in Kenya ...................................... 43 Contextual Factors in the Securitization of Terrorism in Kenya .......................................... 45 Research Methods ..................................................................................................................... 54 Case Study ............................................................................................................................. 54 Data Collection Methods ....................................................................................................... 56 Data Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 58 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 61 Chapter Three ............................................................................................................................. 63 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 63 The 1980 Norfolk Hotel Bombing ............................................................................................ 64 ~ iv ~ Ethnopolitical Violence in Kenya ............................................................................................. 72 The 1998 US Embassy Bombing in Kenya ............................................................................... 80 The 1998 US Embassy Attack and Implications on Kenya’s Counterterrorism Policy............ 86 The 2002 Kikambala Bombing ................................................................................................. 90 Security Discussions in the Aftermath of the 2002 Kikambala Bombing ................................ 91 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 93 Chapter Four ............................................................................................................................... 95 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 95 The Link between Terrorism and Radicalization ...................................................................... 97 The Collapse of Somalia and the Rise of Al Shabaab, Its Goals and Recruitment Strategies .. 99 Al Shabaab’s Kenyan Recruits ................................................................................................ 108 Why Al Shabaab Views Kenya as a Legitimate Target .......................................................... 133 From Foreign Attackers to Domestic Terrorists ..................................................................... 138 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 159 Chapter Five .............................................................................................................................. 161 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 161 The Role of Security Agencies and Institutions in the Making of an Autocratic State .......... 163 Jomo Kenyatta’s Presidency ............................................................................................... 163 Daniel arap Moi’s Presidency ............................................................................................. 169 New Beginnings, Old Challenges ........................................................................................... 171 The 2010 Constitution and Reforms in
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